International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 234 (2023) 123715

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijbiomac

Review

A comprehensive review on polylactic acid (PLA) – Synthesis, processing

and application in food packaging
T. Angelin Swetha a, Abhispa Bora a, K. Mohanrasu a, P. Balaji b, Rathinam Raja c,
Kumar Ponnuchamy d, Govarthanan Muthusamy e, f, A. Arun a, *
a
Bioenergy and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu 630003, India
b
PG and Research Centre in Biotechnology, MGR College, Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India
c
Research and Development Wing, Sree Balaji Medical College and Hospital (SBMCH), Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research (BIHER), Chennai 600044,
India
d
Department of Animal Health and Management, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu 630003, India
e
Department of Environmental Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 41566 Daegu, Republic of Korea
f
Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai 600 077, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Plastics play an essential role in food packaging; their primary function is to preserve the nature of the food,
Food packaging ensure adequate shelf life and ensure food safety. Plastics are being produced on a global scale in excess of 320
Biopolymers million tonnes annually, with demand rising to reflect the material in wide range of applications. Nowadays, the
Polylactic acid (PLA)
packaging industry is a significant consumer of synthetic plastic made from fossil fuels. Petrochemical-based
Processing PLA
plastics are regarded as the preferred material for packaging. Nonetheless, using these plastics in large quanti­
ties results in a long-standing environment. Environmental pollution and the depletion of fossil fuels have
prompted researchers and manufacturers to develop eco-friendly biodegradable polymers to replace
petrochemical-based polymers. As a result, the production of eco-friendly food packaging material has sparked
increased interest as a viable alternative to petrochemical-based polymers. Polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the
compostable thermoplastic biopolymers that is biodegradable and renewable in nature. High-molecular-weight
PLA can be used to produce fibres, flexible, non-wovens, hard and durable materials (100,000 Da or even
higher).The chapter focuses on food packaging techniques, food industry waste, biopolymers, their classification,
PLA synthesis, the importance of PLA properties for food packaging, and technologies used to process PLA in food
packaging.

1. Introduction information tags. The external impacts in which the packaging preserves
the food are classified as (a) physical, (b) chemical, and (c) biological.
Plastics are frequently utilized materials, especially in packaging. The food item can be protected from physical damage if the packaging
The widespread use of plastics derived from fossil fuels has resulted in provides adequate protection by giving a padding effect [3]. Paper
ongoing waste generation problems that pollute the environment [1]. In boards are commonly utilized in wrapping fruits and eggs because they
2015, the global plastic market reached 322 million tonnes, with about give a mechanical shield to the stored food. Chemical protection pre­
49 million tonnes of plastics used for packaging. Global plastics pro­ vents changes in food composition caused by environmental factors such
duction is currently around 320 million tonnes per year, with rising as light, moisture, oxygen, and heat. In the case of biological protection,
demand reflecting its wide range of applications [2]. In 2010, 4.8–12.7 packaging helps to prevent food spoilage caused by microorganisms.
million tonnes of plastics ended up in the ocean due to improper disposal Furthermore, the biological protection provided by the packaging ma­
and non-biodegradability of these petroleum plastics. More than 30 % of terial acts as a controlling agent, regulating the ripening, aging of fruit
plastic waste is disposed of in landfills every year. Packaging can provide and vegetables [4,5].
a positive consumer experience with good visuals and component The recycling process is a well-known method for reducing plastic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Arun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123715
Received 29 November 2022; Received in revised form 8 February 2023; Accepted 12 February 2023
Available online 16 February 2023
0141-8130/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T.A. Swetha et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 234 (2023) 123715

waste in our environment. Furthermore, the recycling process is inef­ classified as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the United States
fective for food packaging systems due to the extreme contamination of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has been found to be safe for
organic materials found on food packaging plastic materials [6]. all food packaging applications [18,19]. The primary purpose of this
Therefore, food packaging manufacturers must discover how to protect chapter is to focus on food packaging, techniques used for food pack­
the efficacy of food quality and minimize the environmental impact of aging; waste generated from the food industry; biopolymers and their
packaging material when it is disposed of [7,8]. Similarly, the removal classification; polylactic acid and its synthesis; the importance of PLA
of traditional polymers emits greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4) into the at­ properties for technologies used for processing PLA in food packaging.
mosphere, which is harmfull for the environment [9]. The use of fossil-
based plastics is limited due to their non-recyclable and non- 2. Food packaging
biodegradable nature. As a result, adapting to alternative raw mate­
rials for plastic production is critical [10]. The preceding concept leads Packaging is used in many industries, including food, electronic
to the development of effective eco-friendly natural sources and it can devices, medical and pharmaceutical field. The package is prepared by
also be used to implement a sustainable friendly replacement for syn­ using a wide range of materials. Food packaging and associated tech­
thetic sources [11]. nologies play a crucial role in the food industry because they protect and
Plastics derived from renewable resources are not always biode­ preserve food products [20]. The critical aim of food packaging is to
gradable or compostable. Biodegradation is the decay of a polymer in safeguard the quality of food, devoid of affecting its smell, taste, and
environmental conditions, which involves structural changes, deterio­ nutritional content; it also contains information about the ingredients
ration of structural component properties that results in formation of for the consumers. Because the consumer has the right to know about
specific compounds such as water, minerals, carbon dioxide, interme­ each product, the information about each product should be printed on
diate products (humic substances and biomass). The biodegradation rate the package. When a product is competing for a potential buyer's
is influenced by environmental factors such as pH, oxygen availability, attention, there is a growing interest in developing marketing solutions
temperature and humidity [12]. Biopolymers are primarily made from to improve the effectiveness of product packaging. Even though con­
natural resources. There are four types of biopolymers they are (a) sumer demand increases production, companies will also face new
derived directly from natural resources such as proteins - casein, gelatin challenges as they face increased concern about potential risks to the
and silk; polysaccharides -starch and cellulose; (b) Chemically synthe­ quality of a product. According to Jacob [21], the three primary func­
sized from bio-based resources as monomers such as polylactic acid tions of packaging are protection, preservation, and presentation.
(PLA); (c) Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), poly hydroxybutyrate (PHB), Although understanding these package functions is simple and
hydroxyl-valerate (PHV), exopolysaccharrides (EPS) - xanthan, bacterial straightforward, it ignores other factors.
cellulose, and pullan are generated using microorganisms or genetically According to Robertson [22] a package should be feasible, which
modified bacteria; (d) Aliphatic and aromatic polyesters, polyvinyl means it should be easy to unseal, handle, carry and recycle [22].
alcohol, modified polyolefins, which are reactive to light and tempera­ Petroleum-based plastics were found to have good flexibility and ri­
ture is produced from crude oil [13,14]. Exopolysaccharides (EPS) are gidity, tensile properties, and are inexpensive. It is widely used in the
complex biopolymers (microbial metabolites) generated by a wide range food packaging industry because it acts as an effective barrier against
of microbial species, including bacteria. The primary components of the water vapor, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Such kinds of plastic are
microbial metabolites produced during biological treatment, known as categorized into thermoplastic or thermoset. These thermosets can be
soluble microbial products (SMP) and extracellular polymeric sub­ processed and reprocessed using heat. This type of plastic is recyclable
stances (EPS), include humic materials, proteins, and carbohydrates. based on its ability to be reprocessed, so they are ideally used for food
According to Sepehri & Sarrafzadeh [15] research, nitrifier-enriched packaging due to their ability to be easily transformed into different
activated sludge (NAS) produced much less organic metabolites (EPS shapes. Thermoplastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene
and SMP) than conventional activated sludge (CAS) throughout the (PS), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), low-density
wastewater treatment process. Sepehri & Sarrafzadeh [16] also reported polyethylene (LDPE), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are used as
that during the disinfection phases of a waste water treatment system, food packaging materials [23,24]. The main disadvantage of these
one of the biggest problems with EPS and SMP occurs. Trihalomethanes thermosets is that they cannot be reclaimed by heat once formed, and
are one of the byproducts produced when chlorine combines with EPS they are not recyclable [25,26]. The increase in the global population is
and SMP in effluents. Based on the findings of this investigation, expected to demand a 50 % elevated global food supply by 2050 [27].
Chlorella vulgaris-NAS cultures might be used to avoid the development Food packaging materials are in high demand as food demand rises.
of hazardous chemicals since very little EPS and SMP were formed in the Packaging must be tailored to maintain food quality while meeting
bioreactors. emerging legislative requirements and the needs of consumers and
Polylactic acid is a popular polymer for packaging because it is made producers. These demands are now very dynamic, ranging from requests
from renewable resources and the monomer is produced through for better food quality to food delivered in environmentally friendly
fermentation. The bio-based form PLA's will help reduce environmental packaging that has a lower impact on consumer health and the
problems related to the widespread usage of synthetic polymers ob­ environment.
tained from non-renewable resources. In 1932 Carothers discovered
polylactic acid (or) polylactide. PLA is a well-known biopolymer with 3. Food packaging material and its negative impacts
competitive mechanical properties compared to petroleum-based poly­
mers. The production of PLA has multiple benefits over other Half of all plastics used in food packaging come from non-renewable
biopolymer production processes, including; (a) Lactide monomer is sources [24]. Once the food is being wasted, the packaging material is
produced from lactic acid, which is obtained from the fermentation of wrapped in is also discarded. Fossil fuel-derived plastics persist in the
renewable resources like maize, sugarcane, potato, and corn, (b) it saves surroundings and take a decade to degrade. These plastics degrade into
energy, (c) it reduces the volume of landfills (d) it can create compost­ microplastics, which can quickly enter the animal's food web and lead to
able hybrid paper-plastic packaging, (e) It has a significant potential for bioaccumulation. Environmental concerns have increased the attention
optimizing physical properties through material modifications [17]. towards packaging, a continuous extensive source of plastic waste,
With an annual output rate of approximately 140,000 t, PLA is the most requiring abroad research into alternative energy [28–30]. The Euro­
widely used biopolymer in the food packaging industry. It is expected to pean Union (EU) waste framework directive 2008/98/EC defined a five-
rise by 30 % in the next two years as a result of its requirement and step waste management order: prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery,
widespread use of PLA in the food industry for packaging. PLA has been and disposal, as shown in Fig. 1. This hierarchy ranks waste treatment

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Fig. 1. Waste management hierarchy of European Union (EU).

Fig. 2. Biopolymer degradation.

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based on its potential to preserve resources and prevent and reduce determining the long-term effects of petro-plastic pollution [43,44].
waste in the future, with waste disposal being avoided at all costs. Waste Industries are involved in research and development to reduce car­
management is the most effective way in developing countries to reduce bon emissions to be environmentally responsible and satisfy customers.
plastic waste in the environment [31]. Green packaging usage is A biopolymer like poly (lactic acid) (PLA) is rapidly becoming indus­
essential nowadays, and the three types of green packaging are [32], trialized and developing in the food packaging industry [24].

• Reusable packages (e.g., Glass packages) 5. Polylactic acid (PLA)

• Recyclable containers (e.g., paper boxes)
• Biodegradable packages (e.g., Cotton sacks and biodegradable plas­ Over the last 20 years, environmental factors such as the depletion of
tic packages). fossil fuels have played an important part in driving polymer research
into sustainable resources, with PLA as one of the most emerging suit­
4. Biopolymers as an alternative source and their classification able alternatives. PLA is renewable aliphatic polyester resultant from the
lactic acid monomer unit (LA). Lactide is a high purity monomer that is
There are three types of biopolymers: natural polymers, microbially used in the generation of PLA. It is produced in two steps: lactic acid (LA)
fermented polymers, and synthetic polymers. They are categorized oligomerization followed by ring formation. L-lactic acid and D-lactic
based on naturally occurring monomers [33–35]. The bio-based poly­ acid are the two lactic acid optical monomers. In both optical monomers,
mer or biodegradable is a type of biopolymer derived from animals, the oligomer of lactic acid can be manufactured into three different
plants, and microorganisms with similarity to a petroleum-derived stereo forms of lactide. Lactide has three stereo forms: LL-lactide (LLA),
polymer [36]. Biopolymer degradation occurs naturally by breaking DD-lactide (DLA), and DL-lactide (meso-lactic acid (MLA)) [46]. LA is a
down polymer components into simpler compounds via enzymatic re­ 2-hydroxy-propionic acid, and it is an essential building element in the
action through microorganisms, without any adverse effect on the synthesis of PLA. It exists in two chiral stereoisomers: L (− ) and D (+).
environment, as shown in Fig. 2. Biodegradability is not restricted to Lactic acid is produced in two methods – chemical and microbial
bio-based polymers alone. Poly (caprolactone) (PCL) is one such eco- fermentation method. LA is a biocompatible and extensively water-
friendly example associated with traditional petroleum products soluble compound. PLA is primarily developed from renewable a
[35,37]. The biodegradability of a polymer is an essential factor due to resource (starch and sugar), a rigid thermoplastic polymer related to the
its nature, structural composition, and the nutrients present in it. Bio­ aliphatic polyester family. PLA is made up of poly (DL-lactide) (PDLLA),
plastics are degraded and decomposed by microorganisms (bacteria and poly (D-lactide) (PDLA), poly (L-lactide) (PLLA), poly (meso-lactide), and
fungi) found in waste disposal areas. The degradation temperature copolymers [47]. Polymerization of D-lactide and L-lactide resulted in
ranges from 20 to 60 ◦ C, which is ideal for these microbes to work on poly (L-lactide), poly (D-lactide), respectively. PLA can be amorphous or
biopolymers; but, disposal sites must have sufficient mineral nutrients, semi-crystalline, depending on the stereochemistry of the polymer
pH (either acidic or neutral), and oxygen [38,39]. Polymer biodegra­ chain. PDLA and PLLA are semi-crystalline, whereas PDLLA and poly
dation occurs in two steps [40]. The primary step in biodegradation is (meso-lactide) are amorphous [48–50]. PLA is one of the most favorable
enzymatic cleavage, which breaks the polymeric chains that hold the bio polyesters for packaging and medical uses as a result of its low-cost
macromolecules, followed by secondary stage enzymatic dissimilation, accessibility [51–54]. PLA's versatility and availability fabricated it as a
which breaks down the individual macromolecule. Because the broken viable substitute to traditional plastics for packaging usages such as
downed molecules are in a simple form, bacteria and fungi present can trays, bottles, and cups. PLA is used to replace polycarbonate (PC) in
readily transform them [41]. Biopolymers are broadly classified into five electrical casings and electronics. In the future, PLA has the potential to
types based on their origin, as shown in Table 1. Poly (trimethylene exceed other biodegradable polymers like polycaprolactone (PCL) and
terephthalate) (PTT) has recently emerged as the fifth class of bio­ Poly (Butylene Succinate) (PBS) [55].
polymers. It contains monomers derived from both petrochemical and
renewable sources. Petroleum-based plastics are utilized in various 5.1. Polylactic acid synthesis by microbial fermentative method
technical applications, including textile and clothing packaging. In the
food packaging industry, the primary function of a biopolymer is to PLA synthesis starts with the production of LA, the formation of
provide good coverage, prevent spoilage and maintain food consistency lactides, and the polymerization of LA [56]. The synthesis of PLA takes
[42]. Under the current industrial situation, biopolymers should have place in three steps:
good mechanical and thermal properties similar to petroleum-based
plastics. A biopolymer for food packaging is still in its initial stages as • Lactic acid via microbial fermentation
they currently account for only 1 % usage in the packaging sector. It is • Polycondensation of lactic acid
expected to increase by 25 % within the next two years. Using envi­ • Ring-Opening Polymerization (ROP) [57]
ronmentally friendly biopolymers for packaging is a step forward in

Table 1 5.1.1. Lactic acid via microbial fermentation

Classification of biopolymers and their origin. Lactic acid (2-hydroxy propionic acid), the primary monomer of PLA,
is generated through fermentation or chemical synthesis. It exists in two
Name of the resources Examples
enantiomers, L- and D-lactic acid, which behave differently under
Biopolymers Class 1: Agricultural Cellulose, Starch polarised light [58]. It is the best monomer for chemical processes,
Renewable waste
resources Animal Chitosan, Chitin
whereas it possesses both a carboxylic and a hydroxyl group [59]. In
Protein Zein, Wheat chemical synthesis, the hydrolysis of lactonitrile by strong acid forms a
Class 2: Microbial resources Polyhydroxyalkonates racemic mixture of L (+) and D (− ) lactic acid. Fermentative lactic acid
(PHAs) production has received much attention because of its low environ­
Class 3: Monomers produced by Polylactic acid (PLA)
mental impact, formation of optically pure L- or D-lactic acid, lower CO2
microbial fermentation through
renewable resources. emissions, low production costs from sugarcane fermentation, high
Class 4: Petrochemical resources Poly caprolactone (PCL) product specificity and a significant reduction in reliance on fossil-based
Class 5: Monomers obtained from Poly(trimethylene feedstock [60,61]. The majority of lactic acid produced in the world is
both petrochemical and renewable terephthalate) (PTT) generated through microbial fermentation, and the rest is synthetically
resources.
generated through the hydrolysis of lactonitrile. The petrochemical

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method of monomer synthesis was widely used until 1990. But, later on, Table 2
a more cost-effective fermentation technology was discovered [58,61]. Properties of PLA needed for food packaging.
Fermentation is classified as heterofermentative or homofermentative S. Properties needed for Properties of PLA
based on the bacteria used. Hexose, carbon dioxide, ethanol, lactic acid, no food packaging
and acetic acid are generated in the heterofermentative process, but in 1. Transparency It has good transparency.
the homofermentative process, only lactic acid is generated via hexose 2. Permeability The permeability of CO2 to oxygen is greater
metabolic catabolic pathways by lactic acid bacteria. In industries, the than conventional fossil fuel-based polymers,
homofermentative method is often used for higher lactic acid yields and which is one of the significant applications in
food packaging where it needs high oxygen
low by-products [53,62,63]. Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus amy­ barrier.
lophilus, Lactobacillus leichmanii, and Lactobacillus delbrueckii are the 3. Oxygen barrier capacity When compared with polystyrene, PLA has
most commonly employed strains for producing optically pure lactic good oxygen barrier capacity.
acid with an ideal temperature of 38–42 ◦ C with low oxygen supply from 4. Water-resistance capacity It has a better water resistance capacity and
mechanical properties.
pH 5.4–6.4. PLA is typically synthesized using optically pure L-lactic
5. Resistance against oils It has a good resistance capacity against oils
acid [64]. and fats and fats.
6. Thermal processability Compared with other bioplastics, PLA has good
5.1.2. Polycondensation of lactic acid thermal processability due to the low melting
Polycondensation is often known as condensation polymerization. It temperature and the low glass transition
temperature.
is an inexpensive polymerization technique that includes melt and so­ 7. Resistant to UV radiation PLA films are more resistant to UV radiation
lution polycondensation [53]. Catalysts and solvents are mainly used at than low-density polyethylene films (LDPE).
high temperatures and pressure to eliminate the water produced by 8. Biodegradability PLA is biodegradable and can also be burned or
condensation in direct polycondensation [58]. According to Achmad recycled. PLA is hydrolyzed to lactic acid using
boiling water or steaming, resulting in the
et al. [65], the production of PLA by direct polymerization technique
molecular recycling of packaging material
devoid of initiators, solvents, or catalysts at temperatures ranging from [77].
150 to 250 ◦ C and pressures varying from atmospheric pressure to
vacuum for 96 h was done. Polycondensation results in average mo­
lecular weight oligomers, followed by trans-esterification, which results migration of LA from PLA packing containers to food is negligible. In
in ring structures such as lactide. Trans-esterification has a negative addition, PLA has several beneficial properties which make it appro­
impact on the final polymer produced. Although some by-products priate use in contact with food packaging materials (Table 2)
cannot be avoided, they can be controlled by using functionalization [70,72,75–78].
agents and alternative catalysts and changing the polymerization con­
ditions [56,64]. Direct condensation of lactic acid occurs in three steps: 7. Processing of PLA in food packaging
elimination of free water, polycondensation of the oligomer, and melt
condensation of high molecular weight PLA. Water removal occurs in Biopolymer production methods are all well-established methods;
the initial and last phases of polycondensation. The second step is also yet, their management and application must be changed to deal with few
known as the rate-determining step in which the chemical reaction is agents related to the exploitation of the biopolymer benefits. The
dependent on the catalyst employed [56]. In large-scale production, developed routes are fundamentally similar, with the significant
direct polycondensation of lactic acid is not utilized because of lactide changes depending on either the thermoplastic or thermoset biopolymer
formation and the simultaneous occurrence of the degradation process is to be treated [80]. PLA resins are available in two forms: amorphous
[66]. and crystalline pellets. PLA resins are transparent due to their amor­
phous nature, whereas semi-crystalline PLA resin pellets are opaque.
5.1.3. Ring-opening polymerization (ROP) The technologies used to develop various packaging applications using
Ring-opening polymerization (ROP) is mainly used to synthesize PLA resins are shown in Fig. 3.
high molecular weight PLA [56]. The cyclic dimer of lactic acid (lactide)
is ring-opened with a catalyst. It is a three-step process that includes 8. Types of technologies used in PLA processing
polycondensation, depolymerization, and ring-opening polymerization.
Polymerization of lactide intermediates by catalytic ring-opening leads 8.1. Drying
to PLA production with a precise molecular weight [67]. Furthermore,
by controlling temperatures, time, kind, and catalyst concentration, it is PLA is sensitive to temperature and high relative humidity; there­
likely to manage the sequence and ratio of L-and D-lactic acid polymer fore, it is essential to dry it to less than 0.01%w/w to reduce molecular
produced finally [58]. Lactide ring-opening polymerization occurs in breakdown. PLA is usually packed with less water content of 0.04 % w/
solution or melts polycondensation through anionic, cationic, and w foil, which is resistant to moisture, and it should maintain the mois­
coordination-insertion processes that rely on the catalyst. Several cata­ ture level; hence drying is needed. Conditions used during drying rely on
lysts have been studied for effectiveness, but stannous octoate is time, temperature, dewpoint, and airflow. In order to prevent the pellets
commonly used because it provides a high conversion rate, a fast reac­ of resins from sticking, the amorphous pellets are dried below Tg
tion rate, and large molecular weights with fewer polymerization con­ (43–55 ◦ C), and for crystalline pellets, the suggested time is 4–2 h, and
ditions [64]. the temperature is from 80 to 100 ◦ C [82]. Therefore, the optimum
drying condition of resin is (175 ◦ F) 80 ◦ C for 4 h using an airflow rate of
6. Properties of PLA making ideal for food packaging 0.032 m3/min per kg (0.5 cfm/lb). After drying, PLA resins are hygro­
scopic thermoplastics that rapidly absorb moisture from the atmosphere,
Materials used in food packaging will have direct exposure to food so they must be maintained sealed until ready for use and resealed if not
particles. Approximately 6500 chemicals are utilized to produce food used [82].
contact materials [23]. Chemicals might migrate inside the food and
harm consumers [23,68,69]. The monomer of LA is recognized as a safe 8.2. Extrusion
food preservative by Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which
elevated the interest in PLA, a green polymer with low toxicity [70–74]. Extrusion is one of the primary stages that convert plastic resins into
PLA is advised as a harmless food packaging material because the sheets, containers, films. The pellets of PLA have converted solids to

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Fig. 3. Technologies used for processing of PLA in food packaging.

liquid by using an extruder. It is one of the standard techniques used to molding process. The mold has a cooling system that allows material
melt thermoplastic; other processes like blown film extrusion and cast solidification and regulates cooling. Injection molding is also used to
film extrusion are followed. Screw extruders are commonly employed in make a broad range of items, in addition to food trays, bottle caps, and
the polymer industry. It comprises a metal barrel that can be heated containers, and blow molding preforms [85]. Mold-grade PLA is injec­
electrically, a hopper for resin supply, a motor that helps rotate the tion molded on most conventional apparatus; however, rotation re­
screw, and finally, a die where the polymer resins are melted. The heat strictions may apply if the screw arrangement has high efficiency.
energy provided by the heater, frictional heat produced owing to friction Compression ratios of 2.5–3 need to be sufficient, and the proposed
within the resin and a screw, and the tremendous quantity of heat melting temperature is 200–205 ◦ C. Because PLA has a lower glass
released by the barrel results in resin melting. The ratio of L/D controls transition temperature of 58 ◦ C less than PETor PS, this could take
the residence duration, and shear melts is the proportion of the screw's longer to firm up in the mold. The physical aging of a polymer appears in
flight length towards its external diameter. Screws with a high L/D ratio a non-equilibrium state caused due to molecular relaxations that are
allow for improved mixing, extended melt residence time, and more partial in the tendency of bringing the material closer to stability. It is a
shear heating extruder. Condensation ratio is a screw characteristic that widespread method used in thermoplastic molding that is immediately
compares the supply inlet flight depth to the metering part flight depth. cooled from high temperatures during the molding process, such as the
The larger a screw's compression ratio, the more shear heating it sup­ injection molding process [86]. The features of the amorphous phase in
plies [83]. Extrusion conditions for PLA pellets comprise a particular partially glassy or glassy polymers are crucially affected by physical
screw with smooth barrels, L/D ratios ranging from 24:1–30:1, melt aging. Aging impacts Tg results in a reduction of specific volume, a
temperatures ranging from 200 to 220 ◦ C, and compression ratios decrease in molecular mobility, a decrease in entropy and enthalpy.
ranging from 2.5:1–3:1 [82]. Aging causes a reduction of free volume, which governs the movement
According to Haers et al. [84], PLA's mechanical characteristics were of huge portions of polymer chains and impacts polymer mechanical
improved by regulating the L-LA/D-LA ratio in the polymer. The L-LA/ properties, including stiffness, shrinkage, brittleness, and damping
D-LA (85/15) ratio of PLA produced was successful in producing screws [87,88]. The reduction in volume that occurs with physical aging can be
and fixation plates for use in fracture fixation. The results suggest that related to a change in the reduction of free volume holes. Direct mea­
the plates may be used to fix fractures without the requirement for extra surements of the free volume are especially important and can be used to
support. evaluate the aging processes, since the size and concentration of free
volume holes in amorphous polymers are directly related to the tem­
perature increase.
8.3. Injection molding Because the atmospheric temperature is about 25 ◦ C less than Tg,
injection-molded PLA products are brittle due to fast physical aging. Cai
Injection molding entails melting a thermoplastic via extrusion, et al. [89] used differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to investigate
injecting the polymer into a mold, reducing the component's tempera­ the physical aging rate of PLA at various periods and temperatures.
ture, and lastly, ejecting the product. Several resins can be injection According to the findings, increasing the aging time raises the endo­
molded when they flow easily and load the mold chamber. Nylon, PP, thermic peak at Tg, which is related to a rise in the excess enthalpy of
LDPE, HDPE, PET, PVC, and PS are the most widely used polymers. The relaxation. Physical aging progresses quickly at first, then decreases
screw action of an injection molding machine is equivalent to an with an increase in time. It also revealed that the aging temperature of
extruder. The screw-in extruder constantly revolves, producing a con­ 37 ◦ C had the maximum enthalpy of relaxation and that rising the
stant and linear product (sheet, rod, pipe). temperature over 60 ◦ C significantly lowered the enthalpy of relaxation.
In contrast, in an injection molding machine, the reversing screw not Therefore, the storage environment for injection molded PLA items that
only rotates but also goes forward and backward as per the phases of the

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are primarily meant for the following processing should be closely injection blow molding. It has two modifications: (a) the preform is
monitored. Non-conventional injection molding, also known as shear notably short compared to the bottle, and (b) the preform is stretched in
controlled orientation injection molding (SCORIM), is a method that the axial direction using a stretch rod. The development of plastic or PET
mechanically enhances the properties of a semi-crystalline polymer soft drink bottles in the industry using blow molding is well-known.
while providing higher degrees of freedom than normal injection ISBM is optimized to obtain and preserve biaxial orientation that en­
molding. SCORIM alters the structural progress of solidifying polymer hances transparency, surface gloss, gas barrier characteristics, stiffness,
melt by an in-mold shearing action, therefore changing the structure and and impact strength since all the blow molding techniques use air to
altering the physical characteristics of polymers [90]. Ghosh et al. [91] stretch the parison or preform in some way. To obtain and preserve
examined the influence of SCORIM operational parameters on Poly (L- biaxial orientation, the preform is elongated using a stretch rod; the air
lactic acid) (PLLA). They discovered differences in the energies break­ is blown to stretch where the preform is perpendicular to the preform's
down and highest stress of all SCORIM synthesized PLLA. axis while maintaining a temperature that enables fast expansion and
structural orientation [85]. One of the most popular uses of food pack­
8.4. Blow molding aging technology is PET bottles for carbonated soft drinks.
PLA resins of the ISBM class are readily available and are extensively
Blow molding uses compressed air to blow a hot thermoplastic tube used in bottles for a broad range of foods, including edible oils, fruit
into the shape of a cooled mold and then discharge the completed juices, fresh dairy liquids, and sports drinks. The resins of PLA are
product from the mold. The most often utilized blow molding materials typically used at lower temperatures less than bottle-grade PET, with the
are PET, PVC, PP, LDPE, and HDPE. Blow molding is categorized into following blow molding conditions: stretch rod speed (0.8 to 1.2 m/s),
three types: blow mold temperature (100–120 ◦ C), and preform temperature
(100–120 ◦ C) (80–100 ◦ C). Generally, the preforms are heated crucially
• Extrusion blow molding with high material distribution and clarity for obtaining a container. A
• Injection blow molding two-step process has normal temperatures ranges (80 & 100 ◦ C).
• Injection stretch blow molding Depending on the reheating equipment used, bottle shape, and preform
type, the temperature may be decreased or increased [82].

8.4.1. Extrusion blow molding 8.5. Cast film extrusion

Extruding a polymer melt into a parison is the first step in the
extrusion blow molding process. After closing the cooled mold, the air is It involves molten polymer extrusion by a slit die and pulled between
blown via a blow pin to aerate the parison to adhere to the shape of the two or more refined rollers with high-speed, usually water-cooled and
mold cavity. The mold is opened, and the components are removed once chrome-coated. The water-cooled roller hardens the product by drawing
the plastic has cooled. Extrusion blow molding containers should fulfill it down to the proper thickness is less than one rotation. Deckle devices
the least stiffness criteria to be filled on automated lines. It should are usually avoided when regulating film and sheet edge cutting in order
restrict swelling caused by the weight of its material, whether it is alone to minimize the effect that the degraded molten PLA has on the edge
or even when piled, and it must also resist the usual stresses caused fluctuations. In order to obtain the proper film and sheet dimensions, the
during handling, transportation, and accidental dropping. Even at high gap of the die is adjusted to approximately 10 % greater than the
temperatures, weld lines, container walls, and screw cap locking threads thickness of the film and sheet. PLA films and sheets are produced using
should withstand these pressures. The major polymers used in extrusion horizontal roll stacks since the polymer has a low melt strength. To
blow molding are PP, PVC, and HDPE.; these polymers are coextruded prevent lactide condensation, roller temperatures is maintained be­
with nylon or Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) to improve the gas barrier tween 25 and 50 ◦ C. By using an exhaust system near the die, lactide
[92]. PLA containers are not manufactured using this technique since development can be regulated. It is also suggested to reduce lactide build
resins for this purpose have not been developed due to a lack of me­ up by maintaining proper contact between the web and the rolls. Similar
chanical and physical properties. to PS, PLA may be handled using slitting and web handling. Razor
knives, that could generate hard edges and break the web, are not rec­
8.4.2. Injection blow molding ommended for trimming the edge of PLA web; instead, rotary shear
It is a two-step method used to manufacture plastic containers. A knives are. When oriented between two and ten times longer than it was
preform is a molded parison produced by this process. Manufacturing originally, PLA thermal and impact sheet properties will be enhanced.
small components requires close quality dimensions and high produc­ Excellent optical properties and a high Young's modulus are the features
tion volumes, and this technique is preferred for extrusion blow mold­ of extruded PLA films and sheets, however their toughness and elon­
ing. Injection blow molding is the method of inserting a thermoplastic gation at break are insufficient [81,82]. Cast film extrusion produces a
material into a chamber and through the main rod to form a cylindrical film that is used as a protective film, agricultural for controlling weed, as
test tube-like structure. The mold performed on the main rod is moved to a food wrap in packaging, and as a coating substrate. Polyethylene film's
the blow mold. Around the preform, mold is tightened, and the air is primary role is to enable as a protective barrier for the components from
blown into the shape of the chamber [92,93]. The preform is inserted damage while transportation [83]. Generally, cast films have low crys­
over to a supporting core or pin, creating a neck with threads to the tallinity and an explicit form due to quick cooling by chilled rollers. As a
appropriate size. The final shape of the preform is achieved by blowing it result, cast film extrusion controls uniformity, yield, and a suitable film
against the cavity wall. Preform molding allows for a more concentrated thickness. Good optical qualities is one of the benefits of cast film
form in the neck and threaded regions as extrusion blast molding. extrusion [82]. PLA films have physical characteristics similar to PS,
Though injection blow molding needs less melt strength than extrusion PET, and PP films that can be improved by orientation. PLA is uniaxially
blow molding, its equipment is more expensive [92,93]. Common orientated using traditional machine direction orientation (MDO) rolls.
polymers utilized in this method include HDPE, PVC, PS, PET, PP and PLA films or sheets may be improved in heat resistance by orientation,
LDPE, Linear low-density poly (ethylene) (LLDPE). This method is drawing, and crystallization to the same degree of stiffness and strength
generally constrained to the generation of extremely small bottles, and as orientated polypropylene (OPP) or PET, still retaining their high
pellets of PLA are not often suggested for processing in this way [93]. transparency. PLA films or sheets may be improved in heat resistance by
orientation, drawing, and crystallization to the same degree of stiffness
8.4.3. Injection stretch blow molding and strength as orientated polypropylene (OPP) or PET, still retaining
ISBM (injection stretch blow molding) is a modified extension of their high transparency. An oriented film is made by elongating its

7
T.A. Swetha et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 234 (2023) 123715

original length at (60 to 80 ◦ C) and then hardening it at temperatures Acknowledgments

between the melting point and the stretching temperature. An orien­
tated film can be used in various forms of packaging, dry lamination, Authors acknowledge the Technology Mission Division (Energy,
printing, and heat seal [54]. Water & all Others), Department of Science & Technology, Ministry of
Science & Technology, Government of India (Reference Number: - DST/
TMD/IC-MAP/2K20/02 Project Title: - DST-IIT Hyderabad Integrated
8.6. Thermoforming
Clean Energy Material Acceleration Platform on Bioenergy and
Hydrogen); Department of Science and Technology-Science and Engi­
Thermoforming is a technique that involves pressing or pulling
neering Research Board (DST-SERB-No. SB/YS/LS-47/2013), India;
flexible plastic into a final shape using air or vacuum pressure. Nylon,
Department of Science and Technology-Science and Engineering
PP, PS, PET, LLDPE, HDPE, and LDPE are thermoplastics that can be
Research Board–National Post-Doctoral Fellowship (DST-SERB-NPDF)
thermoformed. The most common application for thermoformed tubs,
(PDF/ 2021/000394), India; Department of Science and Technology-
containers, trays, and cups are used in food packing. Standard thermo­
Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence (DST
forming procedures are shaping, clamping, trimming, heating, and
PURSE) [DST letter No. SR/PURSE phase 2/38 (G), dt.21.02.2017],
chilling [94]. Compressed air and vacuum are used for thermoforming
India; RUSA – Phase 2.0 grant [Letter No. F.24-51/2014-U, Policy (TN
PLA sheets. The radiant heater is kept at extremely low temperatures in
Multi-Gen), Dept. of Edn. Govt. of India, Dt. 09.10.2018]; Scheme for
the PLA thermoforming line. Although preheating is not required, it does
Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC) (No.
have the advantage of uniformly preheating the sheet. The PLA sheet is
SPARC/2018-2019/P485/SL; Dated: 15.03.2019) and University Sci­
very fragile at room temperature and involves particular specific storage
ence Instrumentation Centre (USIC), Alagappa University, Karaikudi,
and handling concerns. Compared to PET or Oriented poly (Styrene)
Tamil Nadu, India.
(OPS), there is a high risk of breaking and cracking during shipping.
When a finished product or sheet is kept at 40 ◦ C and relative humidity
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