Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

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Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bcdf

Incorporation of soluble dietary fiber in comminuted meat products:

Special emphasis on changes in textural properties
Kaiser Younis a, Owais Yousuf a, Ovais Shafiq Qadri b, Kausar Jahan a, Khwaja Osama a, Rayees
Ul Islam c, *
a
Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226026, India
b
Department of Biotechnology, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, 147004, India
c
Department of Post Harvest Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh-202002, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Comminuted meat products represent a diverse class of meat products that are popular for their characteristic
Dietary fiber texture and flavor. Comminuted meat products are incorporated with dietary fibers for various functional and
Meat products nutritional purposes. These fibers are mostly the carbohydrate polymers of different types. The dietary fibers
Texture processed or comminuted meat
have been observed to affect the texture of meat products irrespective of the reason for their incorporation. These
products
fibers have been shown to enhance the functional properties and health benefits of meat products. The effect of
Tenderness
Hardness different fibers on the textural and other quality attributes has not been reported uniformly by the researchers
making it hard to compare these studies. In this review, we have given an overview of the textural properties of
comminuted meat products and summarized the existing researches reported on the textural changes of meat
products due to soluble dietary fiber incorporation.

1. Introduction characteristics in terms of texture, color, taste, and aroma. Any change
in these characteristics may fail the product in the market. The prefer­
Meat is one of the most nutritious foods widely consumed ences may vary from person to person and place to place. Generally, the
throughout the world. Traditionally, meat was obtained from the spent meat and meat products possessing appropriate tenderness, juiciness,
animals, which were not able to perform work in the field. Nowadays, and aroma are considered of high quality (Hoffman & Wiklund, 2006).
young animals are reared to obtain high quality and tender meat. Among the various quality parameters, tenderness is considered one of
Perhaps, this has increased the consumption of meat throughout the the major quality parameters which depend on various factors like
world. Also, the improvement of the purchasing power of people has led species, age, feed, location of meat portions, marbling, connective tissue
to increased consumption of meat (Sans & Combris, 2015). Meat is an content, and slaughtering methods of the animal. Tenderness is evalu­
excellent source of protein and it contains all essential amio acids (Islam, ated using shear force, water content, fat content, microbial spoilage,
Khan, & Islam, 2017). The chemical and biological value of meat pro­ and pH (Taheri-Garavand, Fatahi, Omid, & Makino, 2019).
teins is high, next only to the egg proteins (Parkin & Parkin, 2017). Meat Despite being highly nutritious, meat is deficient in dietary fiber (Das
is a good source of minerals (Miller, 2017) and vitamins and one of the et al., 2020) and contains a high amount of cholesterol (Mafra et al.,
limited sources of vitamin B12 (Jesse & Gregory, 2017). Animal proteins 2018). Recently, the World Health Organization has declared red meat
including meat are also high in potassium especially cattle and organ as a possible cause of colon cancer. After reviewing more than eight
meat (Sussman, Singh, Clegg, Palmer, & Kalantar-Zadeh, 2020). hundred studies about the relationship between colon cancer and red
Meat is processed in multiple ways before consumption. For instance, meat they concluded that the consumption of red meat should be less
the processing may include simple roasting of the meat, but there are than half kg per week and processed red meat should be avoided (WHO,
numerous meat products that involve complex processing operations to 2015). Various theories have been put forth regarding the carcinogenic
develop the final product. The origin of any meat product is associated nature of red meat. Heme iron, fat rancidity, and the use of additives like
with its unique quality parameters. Each product has its unique nitrate have been proposed as potential cancer-causing agents present in

* Corresponding author. Department of Post Harvest Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh-202002, India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.U. Islam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcdf.2021.100288
Received 20 July 2021; Received in revised form 29 October 2021; Accepted 29 October 2021
Available online 2 November 2021
2212-6198/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

meat (Corpet, 2011). tests where the differences are detected, descriptive tests where the
Researchers have been conducting experiments to overcome the differences are measured or characterized, and consumer tests where the
above-discussed shortcoming of meat and meat products by applying consumer preferences are determined (Miller, 2017). Sensory analysis of
multiple approaches. For instance; incorporation of chlorophyll (Sesink, meat relies on cooking as the raw meat cannot be consumed as such.
Termont, Kleibeuker, & Van der Meer, 2001) and calcium supplements Among the various quality attributes, the texture is analyzed by the
or α-tocopherol in red meat comminuted products has nullified the panelists with eyes, ears, fingers, teeth, tongue, palate, and oral pro­
carcinogenic effect in in-vivo conditions (Allam et al., 2011; Corpet, cessing (Lawless & Heymann, 2010). The texture of meat depends on
2011; Pierre, Santarelli, Taché, Guéraud, & Corpet, 2008). Comminuted cooking in addition to pre-cooking factors. Results of sensory analysis of
meat products are the cooked or raw meat products like frankfurters, meat and meat products vary from place to place and person to person
bologna-sausages, salami, patties, nuggets, meatballs, fermented sau­ due to the heterogeneous nature of meat and its composition (Torrico
sages, etc., which have been prepared by cut, shredded, ground, and et al., 2018). The diet of animals has shown an effect on the texture and
minced meat. Such products contain meat and non-meat ingredients like overall acceptability of different species of meat animals (Chail et al.,
binders and spices (Bolger, Brunton, Lyng, & Monahan, 2017). Dietary 2017; Madeira et al., 2013). The effect on the texture of meat depends on
fibers, which are being incorporated in different comminuted meat the species, sex, age, transport, and slaughtering methods of the animal
products for a long time, have also been related to minimizing the (Moore, Mullan, Kim, Trezona, & Dunshea, 2015). The muscle fiber of
carcinogenic effect of meat. Dietary fibers are believed to reduce the old animals is tough and has a high amount of connective tissue. The
residence time of fecal matter in the colon (Burkitt, Walker, & Painter, texture of meat also depends on post-mortem processing like aging, the
1972) thus can reduce the time for a reaction to propagate. Dietary fi­ temperature of aging, wet or dry aging (Colle et al., 2016), marbling
bers also bind the minerals (Macagnan, da Silva, & Hecktheuer, 2016) level (Coombs, Holman, Friend, & Hopkins, 2017), packaging and
thus reducing the activity of heme in the colon. Further, dietary fiber cooking (Ferreira et al., 2016; Gaudette & Pietrasik, 2017).
sources like fruit pomace, peel, vegetable trimmings (Fava et al., 2015), There are two ways to incorporate dietary fiber in meat products viz.,
cereal by-products (Peanparkdee & Iwamoto, 2019) among others formulation of a new product, and enrichment of existing products with
contain bioactive compounds like polyphenols which may help to pre­ minimum changes in their quality attributes. In the former, the
vent fat oxidation of the meat products. Dietary fibers not only make descriptive sensory analysis may be carried with the expert panelists
meat safe, but their functional properties help to improve various followed by consumer testing, representing a target population to pre­
quality parameters of meat products like cooking yield, juiciness, dict the acceptance of the new product. However, the incorporation of
emulsion stability, and shrinkage. Owing to these reasons, the incor­ dietary fibers in the existing comminuted meat products changes the
poration of different types of dietary fibers in meat products has been sensory attributes of the products concerning original products. Here,
researched extensively (Yadav, Malik, Pathera, Islam, & Sharma, 2016; sensory analysis is used as a tool to identify a level of incorporation with
Younis, Ahmad, & Malik, 2021). These dietary fibers may be the pure which the minimum possible changes could be made to the original
components like pectin, gum, glucomannan, carrageenan, alginate, product. Initially discriminative or different tests may be used to
inulin, resistant starch, fructooligosaccharides, polydextrose, carbox­ differentiate the changes followed by consumer testing. The most
ymethyl cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin or in composite forms like powerful tool used for texture analysis is the sensory texture profile
bran, pomace, peel, and vegetable by-products. analysis. In this analysis the panel is selected and trained, then the
The incorporation of dietary fiber in the meat products results in a standard rating is established followed by the formation of the score
change of texture which may be desirable (Younis & Ahmad, 2015) or sheet, and finally, a comparative texture profile analysis ballot is
undesirable (Younis & Ahmad, 2017). Some fibers are believed to in­ developed which enables the identification and quantify of the small
crease the hardness of meat products while others may result in differences in the textural properties (Bourne, 2002c). Most of the re­
increased softness. The composite nature of dietary fiber generally searchers have used acceptability testing which provides information on
added to meat products in the form of peel, pulp and bran is a reason for the magnitude of acceptability (Torrico et al., 2018). The most common
contradicting results on textural changes in meat products. In this re­ form is the hedonic scale which is used to score the products incorpo­
view, we have summarized and analyzed the existing researches related rated with dietary fiber. The score ranges from 1 to 9, where 1 denotes
to the texture of meat products incorporated with dietary fiber. the least preferred, and 9 denotes the highly preferred (Younis &
Ahmad, 2015, 2017, 2018; Yadav et al., 2016; Younis et al., 2019). All
1.1. The texture of meat and meat products the prepared products (control and test samples) are provided to the
panelists at the same time which helps them to compare the products.
The texture of meat and meat products can be measured before and Other sensory tests employed by the various scientists are the duo-trio
after cooking by using a texture analyzer. The texture of the meat can be test, triangle test, paired comparison test, and ranking test which are
modified with the help of cooking and there is a general rule which says known as discriminative or different sensory methods (Miller, 2017). In
‘cooked meat pieces should be easily torn with the help of a fork’. Since a descriptive sensory analysis, the panelists describe and rate the sensory
the textural properties of raw meat plays an important role, therefore in attributes of the products in addition to the recording of any additional
the preparation of meat products fixed processing conditions are used. In remarks (Hjelm, Mielby, Gregersen, Eggers, & Bertram, 2019).
comminuted meat products, the meat fibers are reduced in size thereby
giving a tender texture. So, the adhesive and cohesive interactions be­ 1.1.2. Objective analysis
tween the meat fibers and non-meat ingredients contribute to the final The instrumental analysis of texture is aimed to reduce the variations
texture. The addition of additives including binders, humectants, salts, resulting from the subjective analysis. Besides, objective analysis is cost-
dietary fibers, can produce different effects on the texture of meat effective, reproducible, and less time consuming (Bourne, 2002a). The
products. There are two ways to determine the texture of meat and meat major mechanical textural attributes of meat products are firmness,
products viz. a. subjective or sensory analysis and b. objective analysis. cohesiveness, and juiciness. The instrumental analysis measures the
resistance shown by the meat and meat products against the force acting
1.1.1. Subjective analysis on them. The various texture analyzing methods used for meat and meat
Sensory analysis is one of the quality analyzing procedures to products are bulk analysis, compression testing, back extrusion tech­
determine the acceptability of the meat products by measuring the nique, penetration and puncture test, shear testing, and tension
various quality attributes like color, taste, texture, aroma, overall (Table 1) (Bourne, 2002b). Bulk analysis test is done with Kramer shear
acceptability using the senses of a person (Miller, 2017) The various cell which uses combined shear and compression force to measure the
sensory analysis procedures used by meat scientists are discriminative hardness of meat products. The sample is placed in a stationary metal

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

Table 1
Various texture analyzing methods used for meat and meat products.
Test Method Blade Force Use Replication

Bulk analysis Kramer shear cell Verticle multiple blades Compression, shear, Used to know the hardness of Replicates the bulk analysis
of various shapes and extrusion reconstituted non-homogeneous meat
products
Shear testing Warner-Bratzler Blades in V- notched, Slicing or shearing Used to know the tenderness and Replicates the action of knife, slicer
rounded or straight toughness and front incisor to peel or cut the
edges meat
Penetration and MeullenetOwens Cylindrical probes with Compression, shear Used to know the crispiness Replicates the action of the front
puncture razor shear different shapes of edges incisors when food is introduced into
the mouth
Compression Texture profile Probe with the flat Compression Used to know the hardness, Replicates the action of biting by
testing analysis surface of different size cohesiveness, springiness, chewiness, mouth
and juiciness
Tension Tension test Probes using pneumatic Stretch Used to know the elasticity Replicates the action of fork or
grips canines to tare the meat pieces by
pulling

box and the blades are allowed to get into the box to apply the forces. tension force (Stanley, McKnight, Hines, Usborne, & Deman, 1972). A
The results depend on the size of the sample, fat content, amount of few information is available on the texture measurement by the tension
connective tissue, the direction of the muscle fibers, speed of the blades, test.
and the temperature of the products (Zhang & Mittal, 1994). The meat is The above sensory and instrumental methods used for the texture
an anisotropic food (Damez, Clerjon, Abouelkaram, & Lepetit, 2008) analysis are time-consuming and often destructive respectively (Chen
and the direction of analysis is an important parameter in measuring the et al., 2020). Non-destructive methods of texture analysis like Raman
texture. However, in comminution and mixing of meat fibers are spectroscopy (Chen et al., 2020), ultrasound signaling (Tokunaga et al.,
reduced into particles thus may change them into isotropic substances. 2020), computer vision technique (Taheri-Garavand et al., 2019), and
Warner-Bratzler shearing test is used to measure the force to cut the visible near-infrared spectral with hyper-spectral imaging (Reis et al.,
cooked meat sample of uniform dimensions with blade This method of 2018) has been used for the texture analysis of meat. Non-destructive
measuring the tenderness and toughness is liable to technical variations texture analyses of meat have great potential in saving time and cost.
which are cooking methods, thawing methods, shearing force, and However, more research is needed to optimize these methods for getting
location of the sample within a muscle (Holman, Alvarenga, van de Ven, accurate results.
& Hopkins, 2015). The force-time plot of the shear test of meat sausages
is represented by Fig. 1A. Razorblade or blunt blade is used in the 2. Dietary fiber: properties and incorporation in comminuted
Meullenet Owens razor shear method where the force required to meat products
penetrate the probe through the meat is measured to predict the
tenderness. This method demonstrates the texture layer by layer Dietary fibers are categorized under the umbrella of functional foods.
throughout the cross-section (Morey & Owens, 2017). This method does Dietary fibers represent the portion of food that is not digested by our
not need the sample preparation and specific sample size (Lee, Owens, & bodies. These fibers are classified based on solubility viz. soluble and
Meullenet, 2008). Texture profile analysis is also known as a two-bite insoluble dietary fiber. Soluble dietary fiber is considered as water
test as it mimics the biting action of molar teeth. In this test, the sam­ loving, non-crystalline, non-digestible constituents that are easily
ple is compressed two times with a probe having a flat surface. The wetted by the aqueous fluid of gastrointestinal tract. Upon hydration
sample taken should be smooth and small in size as that of the probe these constituents have ability to produce a viscous colloidal dispersions
surface (Breene, 1975). The force-time plot of texture profile analysis of or gels and are extensively fermented by microflora of the gut. These
meat sausages is represented by Fig. 1B. Elasticity, stretching and stress constituents are extensively used to modify rheological and textural
relaxation can be measured by pulling the meat apart by applying properties in food industries. Colligative properties of food systems are

Fig. 1. (A) Shear force and (B) texture profile analysis of meat products.

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

also affected by the incorporation of soluble dietary fibers, hence pro­ high water solubility (80%), hygroscopic and water retention properties
moted as functional foods thereby improving the market appeal of these which makes it more important as compared to sucrose and sorbitol. Due
food products. Soluble fiber consists of some hemicelluloses, oligosac­ to its low water activity, FOS does not contribute in maillard reactions
charides, mucilages, gums, pectin, inulin, arabinoxylans and β-glucans and therefore prevents the development of off-colors in food products. It
(Ciudad-Mulero, Fernández-Ruiz, Matallana-González, & Morales, has a neutral taste and is considered stable over a wide range of pH
2019). On the other hand, insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water. Its (4.0–7.0) and temperature (140 ◦ C) in meat products (Kumar, Sripada,
consumption softens and increases the bulk of the stool by attracting the & Poornachandra, 2018; &; Câmara, Paglarini, Vidal, dos Santos, &
water passively thus decreasing the colonic passage time. It includes Pollonio, 2020). However, in low pH and at higher temperatures, FOS
high molecular fraction of hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, and modified are said to be less stable compared to other oligosaccharides. This is
cellulose (Yegin, Kopec, Kitts, & Zawistowski, 2020). It ensures the believed to be due to the partial hydrolysis of β-(2-1) glycosidic bond in
normal functioning of the tract and helps in preventing constipation and acidic nature (Kumar & Dubey, 2019). The gel forming capacity of FOS
colonic diverticulosis. It also contains phenolic substances which has decreases with decrease in the degree of polymerization. In addition,
antioxidant properties thus boosts health (Ciudad-Mulero et al., 2019). FOS is considered a viscosity compatible ingredient in the food industry
The various health benefits of dietary fibers and their functional prop­ providing viscosity characteristics of 100 MPa after using as a food
erties are presented in Fig. 2. The effect of different dietary fibers on the ingredient at a 60% concentration (Kumar et al., 2018; & Câmara,
textural properties of comminuted meat products is presented in Table 2. Paglarini, Vidal,; dos Santos, & Pollonio, 2020). FOS have found a wide
The important dietary fibers which have been incorporated in various applications in many food products such as bakery products, meat re­
meat products and their effect on textural properties are briefly outlined. placers, dietetic products, frozen desserts, beef sausages, biscuits,
yoghurt etc., owing to its improved texture, water retention, and
shelf-life (Kumar et al., 2018).
2.1. Oligosaccharides (low molar weight)
2.1.1.1. Effect of fructooligosaccharides on the texture of meat products.
2.1.1. Fructooligosaccharides Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are amply used in meat products as di­
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) is a general name given to the non- etary fibers, effective fat substituent, and efficaciously used in meat
digestible oligosaccharides which are mainly composed of fructose. emulsion foods with promising sensory characteristics. These results are
These oligosaccharides are non-digestible as the enzymes present in due to the FOS properties of a neutral flavor, water retention capacity,
humans such as maltase, saccharase, and α-amylase are unable to digest and reduced losses of cooking (García, Cáceres, & Selgas, 2006; Selgas,
them. In the human gut, FOS travel via the upper gastrointestinal tract Cáceres, & García, 2005).
undigested and unabsorbed followed by its entry into the intestine. It is Cáceres, García, Toro, and Selgas (2004) studied the effect of FOS on
here in the intestine, FOS is selectively utilized by a few acid-producing the sensory properties of cooked sausages. As per the study, an evident
microbes, such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. FOS helps in the variation was observed as the sausages with reduced-fat were softer in
growth of such useful microbes and lessen the quantity of non-desirable comparison to the conventional sausages. It was also reported that the
microbes (Gibson, Beatty, Wang, & Cummings, 1995). Even if, FOS is not hardness diminished with an increase in the concentration of dietary
fully digested, it contains almost 40–50% energy to that of the digestive fiber. The authors also reported that higher springiness was found in the
carbohydrates, resulting in a 1.5 kcal/g energy value. Accordingly, FOS sausages with the reduced-fat than the conventional batches. This
is measured as a remarkable functional food ingredient, largely as a transformation was due to the gel-forming property of FOS which
low-calorie diet source (Flamm, Glinsmann, Kritchevsky, Prosky, & resulted in elastic characteristics of the products. It was also observed in
Roberfroid, 2001). FOS is used for its low energy content and as a fat the study that due to the presence of FOS, the textural properties of the
replacer in various food products which generally include confectionary product remain unchanged during the storage period. In general, the
items, dairy, cereal, and dietetic products (Rodríguez, Jiménez, study revealed, that the overall texture, sensory, and consumer accept­
Fernández-Bolaños, Guillén, & Heredia, 2006). Consumption of FOS has ability of the meat products was enhanced with the presence of FOS.
revealed very effective health-related effects which include lower total Subsequently, with the incorporation of FOS, a product with added
serum and cholesterol in diabetic patients, prevention of coronary dis­ soluble fiber and reduced calorie content is acquired. In a similar study
eases, and its effectiveness against colon cancer (Jenkins, Kendall, & (Salazar, García, & Selgas, 2009), reported that the decreased fat levels
Ransom, 1998; Luo, Yperselle, Rizkalla, Rossi, & Bornet, 2000). FOS has

Fig. 2. Functional properties and health benefits of dietary fiber.

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Effect of different dietary fibers on the textural properties of comminuted meat S. Source Meat Effect on texture Reference
products. No. product
S. Source Meat Effect on texture Reference insignificant
No. product effect
Full-fat soya Goat meat Decreased Das, Anjaneyulu, & Pineapple dietary Beef Hardness, Henning, Tshalibe,
paste patties shrinkage, Kondaiah (2006) fibres sausage chewiness, & Hoffman (2016)
hardness, gumminess and
springiness, springiness
chewiness, and were decreased
shear force by the addition
values of pineapple
Raw and cooked Bolognas Increase in Fernández-Ginés, dietary fiber
albedo sausages hardness Fernández-López, Inulin Breakfast Hardness Keenan, Resconi,
Sayas-Barberá, sausage increased with Kerry, & Hamill
Sendra, & increasing (2014)
Pérez-Álvarez inulin
(2004) concentration.
Textured soy Baked goat Increased Gujral, Kaur,
protein meat patties Gumminess, Singh, & Sodhi
Hardness, (2002) lead to increased hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of sausages. The
Puncture force, integration of FOS with meat resulted in softer sausages and was more
Back extrusion apparent with the lower level of fat. An evident variation in texture was
force.
Decreased
found among the samples incorporated with 4–6% FOS and those
Cohesiveness without it, which was obviously due to the presence of fibers. Results
Adhesiveness were clear that the FOS form stable and soft gels that are responsible for
Chewiness modifying the textural properties and thus leading to the softer sausages
Dietary inulin Low-fat dry Increased Mendoza, Garcı́;a,
and simultaneously mimicking the impressions and mouth feel of fat to
fermented hardness, Casas, & Selgas
sausages gumminess and (2001) the food products. In the case of cohesiveness and springiness, lesser
chewiness and variation was found among all the batches. Fat reduction leads to a
decreased stronger blending among the components of the sausage which favors
springiness, cohesiveness. Adhesiveness increased significantly with the amount of
cohesiveness
and
FOS. The increase in adhesiveness was attributed to the formation of gels
adhesiveness and this effect was more perceived at the FOS concentration of above
Inulin and pectin Frankfurter Shear force, Méndez-Zamora 4%.
sausages hardness, et al. (2015) Felisberto, Galvão, Picone, Cunha, and Pollonio (2015) studied the
fracturability,
effect of Fructooligosaccharides and other dietary fibers on meat prod­
gumminess, and
chewiness were ucts. The results of the textural analysis showed significant changes with
decreased. the decreased levels of fat. Higher penetration and compression forces
Cellulose (CMC) Beef patties Firmness Gibis et al. (2015) were observed in the control in contrast to the sausages with FOS, which
and decreased with was credited to the exceptional gel-forming capability of the FOS. In this
microcrystalline increasing
cellulose (MCC) concentration of
study, the significance of fat in the meat emulsified products was also
CMC. emphasized. It is evident that fat is an essential ingredient for the
Firmness improved texture of the meat products which in turn is responsible for
increased with the sensoria; characteristics like flavor, juiciness, and palatability of
increased
meat products (Tobin, O’Sullivan, Hamill, & Kerry, 2012). Likewise,
concentration of
MCC. Bis-Souza et al. (2020) reported that the incorporation of FOS resulted in
Carboxymethyl Sausages Firmness Schuh et al. (2013) a substantial effect on the textural parameters of the meat products. The
cellulose (CMC) initially characteristics of hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of these meat
and increased upon products amplified considerably over the ripening period. The study also
microcrystalline addition of 0.3
cellulose (MCC) wt % CMC.
reported that cohesiveness and springiness decreased significantly dur­
At higher ing this ripening time. It is observed that the sweetness level of the meat
concentrations is enhanced with the accumulation of FOS in the meat products (Dos
of CMC (0.5, 0.7 Santos, Campagnol, Pacheco, & Pollonio, 2012). Considering these
and 2 wt %)
studies, it is apparent that the textural characteristics of these meat
firmness
decreased. products are predominantly linked to the fat content and the fusion of
Addition of dietary fiber. Fructooligosaccharides has a noteworthy effect on the
MCC increased textural and sensorial properties of these food products.
firmness.
Inulin Model meat Addition of Han & Bertram
2.1.2. Polydextrose
Cellulose product CMC and pectin (2017)
Carboxymethyl decreased the Polydextrose is a low glycemic carbohydrate that possesses low-
cellulose (CMC) hardness. calorie content and is sugar-free. Polydextrose is known to have
Chitosan Addition of several physiological effects that are found to be very effective in
Pectin cellulose and
attaining health benefits. These properties of Polydextrose make it a
chitosan
increased the viable component to be utilized in the production of new functional food
hardness. products. Polydextrose is broadly used in various food items such as
Inulin had bakery products, dairy items, sweets, confectionery, and salads. Poly­
dextrose is also known to be an effective dietary fiber and has potential

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

usage in foods. Polydextrose is ineffective in achieving the textural medium chains such as (1 → 3) or (1 → 4) and (1 → 3) or (1 → 6) bonds
characteristics of the food products owing to its characteristics of high (Bozbulut & Sanlier, 2019). β-glucans derived from cereal grains are
solubility, visible clarity, and sucrose mimicking property. It is comprised of β-(1 → 3) and β-(1 → 4) glycosidic bonds. However, other
immensely efficient in sweet foods, fat-rich foods, and foods devoid of β-glucans obtained from cell walls of yeast and fungi contain β-(1 → 3/1
bulking agents. It helps in sustaining the mouthfeel and texture of the → 6) glycosidic bonds (J. Chen & Raymond, 2008). β-glucan present in
foods which is generally lost during processing. Polydextrose is thus a lichen consists of β-(1 → 3) and β-(1 → 4) as well as β-(1 → 3) and β- (1 →
treasure trove of several properties which makes it a versatile agent in 6) glycosidic bonds. Curdlan is a β-glucan with β-(1 → 3) and cellulose is
the food industry and can be used as a soluble fiber, prebiotic, stabilizer, a β-glucan with β- (1 → 4) glycosidic linkages (Zhu, Du, & Xu, 2016).
thickening agent, and humectant for the development of foods with Macromolecular structures of β-glucans obtained from different
better sensory characteristics (Veena, Nath, & Arora, 2016). sources vary and such differences provide β-glucan with different bio­
logical activities (Du & Xu, 2014). The various physicochemical prop­
2.1.2.1. Effect of polydextrose on the texture of meat products. Poly­ erties like solubility, molecular weight, viscosity, and gelation may
dextrose is used as a dietary fiber and is incorporated in various meat differ which are correlated to the conditions and methods of extraction.
products for enhanced functional and textural quality. It is also used as a Solubility of β-glucan is decreased when the degree of polymerization is
substitute for nutritive sweeteners or polyols in comminuted meat and increased and vice versa (Zeković, Kwiatkowski, Vrvić, Jakovljević, &
fish products. It is observed that Polydextrose with its property of being Moran, 2005). β-glucans with varied viscosity, gelation, the molecular
a cryoprotectant, maintains the functional properties of minced meat weight can be used as a food additive such as texture modifier, thick­
products during long-term chilled or frozen storage (PARK, LANIER, & ening agent, and fat substitute to produce food products of low lipid
PILKINGTON, 1993). Due to its sugar-free property, when added to the profile (Maheshwari, Sowrirajan, & Joseph, 2019).
meat products, the impact on the flavor is of the least significance 2.2.1.1.1. Effect of β-glucans on the texture of meat products. β-glu­
(Tomaniak, Tyszkiewicz, & Komosa, 1998). It is also reported that the cans have been used as thickeners in beverages, and fat substitutes in
Polydextrose is odorless and is highly soluble in water, which leads to dairy and bakery products to reduce calories and cholesterol as well (Bai
the development of viscous solutions and an enhanced texture of food et al., 2019). β-glucan is used as a fat replacer, binding agent, extender,
products by replacing fat (Murphy, 2001; Sajilata, Singhal, & Kulkarni, filler agent in processed meat products. It can also be used to improve
2006). various physicochemical and sensory properties of meat products by
According to Satsuba & Okuma (1995), polydextrose was used in providing a synergistic effect with other nutrients (Talukder, 2015).
chicken nuggets as a moisture binder to bind moisture in the patties. It Regarding meat products, β-glucan affects textural properties to a great
was observed that the loss in the moisture was reduced during cooking. extent and no literature has been compiled related to such studies. In a
It was also observed that the moisture migration to the batter and bread study by Vasquez Mejia et al. (2018), β-glucan with starch and carra­
crumb coating was also reduced. Due to this effect, chicken nuggets geenan was investigated in meat emulsions. The incorporation of
remain juicy and moist; moreover, the coating crispiness was also β-glucan modified the textural properties of meat emulsions. It was
enhanced and remained crispier even after cooking. Likewise, Sadler observed that hardness, springiness, adhesiveness, and cohesiveness
and Swan (1997) examined the effect of polydextrose on the charac­ were greater at higher levels of β-glucan. The increased hardness in meat
teristics of minced beef. Results showed that, with the incorporation of emulsions was owed to the high viscosity of soluble fiber β-glucan. It was
2.6% Polydextrose to the salted mince, the batter strain and stress was suggested that the free water in the emulsion system was immobilized by
enhanced in contrast to the non-additive and salt-only samples. forming a stable matrix with soluble fibers which may have increased
Kovačević, Mastanjević, and Kordić (2011) explored the effects of Pol­ the hardness of the paste. In another study, the beef emulsion was
ydextrose on chicken surimi. Samples of chicken surimi were incorpo­ incorporated with different levels of barley β-glucan, microcrystalline
rated with various mass fractions of Polydextrose (2–10%) with cellulose, and starch (1% and 2% each) and a mixture of β-glucan and
κ-carrageenan (0.5%), polydextrose (2–10%) with sodium chloride microcrystalline cellulose (1.5% each). Texture profile analysis of sam­
(2%), and polydextrose (2–10%). It was reported that the polydextrose ples prepared with starch and microcrystalline cellulose showed no
enrichment resulted in the stabilization of myofibrillar proteins, signi­ change. However, emulsions added with β-glucan presented lower
fying that polydextrose forms a network with the proteins in chicken hardness, gumminess, cohesiveness, and chewiness than microcrystal­
surimi and acts in harmony with cryoprotecting mechanism. Poly­ line cellulose and starch samples. The gelling properties of the fiber are
dextrose, because of its water holding capacity, folding test and gel held responsible for the different textural attributes (Vasquez Mejia, de
strength property, was capable in sustaining better physico-chemical Francisco, & Bohrer, 2019). The effect of β-glucan, inulin, and bread­
characteristics that other sugars and sucrose during frozen storage of crumb was observed on the textural characteristics of low-fat beef bur­
chicken surimi for six months. Polydextrose, besides a low-sweetened gers by Afshari et al. (2015). The hardness of patties was increased as the
sugar, can also be used as a cryoprotectant (Nopianti, Huda, Fazilah, levels of β-glucan, breadcrumb, and inulin increased being lowest in
Ismail, & Easa, 2012). In another study, Felisberto et al. (2015) studied β-glucan samples. Interaction between the corresponding additives
the effect of polydextrose and other dietary fibers on meat products. The showed the opposite effect on the hardness of patties. A similar effect
results presented significant differences in the formulations containing was observed for cohesiveness and gumminess of patties. It was pro­
polydextrose, which can be complimented to the tremendous posed that the incorporation of β-glucan and inulin in low-fat burgers
gel-forming ability of the fibers. Polydextrose is thus, suitable enough in improved its textural characteristics without affecting the sensory
upholding the textural and functional property of the meat products. properties of the patties. Likewise, Vasquez Mejia et al. (2019) observed
the effect of β-glucan in combination with carrageenan and starch in
beef emulsions. The addition of β-glucan provided higher hardness to
2.2. Non-starch polysaccharides (high molar weight) sausages which were attributed to the high viscosity of β-glucan prep­
arations. However, in another study the combined effect of β-glucan and
2.2.1. Soluble dietary fibers resistant starch showed the opposite effect on the textural characteristics
of sausages and developed softer texture. This synergistic effect of
2.2.1.1. β-glucan. β-glucan is an important non-starch polysaccharide β-glucan and resistant starch was probably due to the negative effect of
that is comprised of D-glucose monomers linked through β-glycosidic β-glucan on the gel strength of resistant starch which produced a softer
bonds. It can be found in different sources like cereal grains especially texture in sausages (Amini Sarteshnizi, Hosseini, Bondarianzadeh, Col­
barley and oat, yeast, bacteria, mushrooms (Zhu, Du, Bian, & Xu, 2015). menero, & khaksar, 2015). In another experiment, a lower shear force
Depending on the source, β-glucan may be comprised of short and was observed in oat’s β-glucan added patties which were attributed to

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

the replacement of fat with oat’s fiber which could have produced a powdered form is amply high to make the sausages harder. Conversely,
softer mushy texture to the patties (Piñero et al., 2008). These results with the incorporation of inulin in gel form, it adds its creamy texture to
were confirmed by Troy, Desmond, and Buckley (1999) and Desmond, the sausages and makes them softer. Similarly, Inulin recovered from the
Troy, and Buckley (1998). chicory root, when added as the dietary fiber to the fish sausages,
enhanced gel strength and hardness of the sausages (Cardoso, Mendes, &
2.2.1.2. Inulin. Inulin, a soluble dietary fiber, comprises several poly­ Nunes, 2008).
mer levels of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides (about 60 fructose Flaczyk, Górecka, Kobus, and Szymandera-Buszka (2009) reported in
monomers linked via β-2-1 glycosidic bond) and is often used as a fat their study that inulin gel was used to replace fat in meatballs. Meatballs
substitute in meat products (Selgas et al., 2005). Jerusalem artichoke differed in their basic chemical composition with the incorporation of
and chicory are the chief sources of inulin in nature. Inulin possesses an inulin as a fat substitute in contrast to control. Results showed that the
exclusive quality of forming highly stable particle gels which enhance addition of inulin leads to the drop of both fat contents as well as the
the textural and rheological characteristics of the food products. These energy value of the meatballs. It was also observed that the overall
inulin gels are white creamy fat like assembly which can be incorporated acceptability of 10% added inulin gel was better for aroma, juiciness,
into the food products and can accordingly act as a fat replacer. It is used and taste compared to the other sets of variations. An overall undesir­
in meat products like low-fat sausages as a fat replacer for improved able consequence on the sensory characteristics of the meatballs during
quality of the sausages (Boeckner, Schnepf, & Tungland, 2001). Simi­ storage was also inhibited by the use of inulin. On the contrary, Nowak,
larly, as a fat replacer, it is used in non-meat products like chocolate Von Mueffling, Grotheer, Klein, and Watkinson (2007) stated that the
cakes and milk products providing desirable mouthfeel, flavor incorporation of inulin, in the amount exceeding 6% in the meat prod­
enhancement, and low energy value (Izzo & Franck, 1998). Inulin is, ucts, resulted in the inferior texture. As per the authors, the incorpora­
furthermore, used in some food products to boost the textural and tion of inulin, as the fat replacer, does not show any significant effect on
rheological characteristics and also aid in the foams and emulsions the textural characteristics of these products.
stability. Thus, as a versatile food constituent, works in the food prod­ In the meat products like sausages, adhesiveness and cohesiveness
ucts as a fat replacer, agent for reducing energy, enhancing remain essential factors in determining their acceptability and storage
water-holding capacity and emulsion stability, along with modifying the (Nowak et al., 2007). The incorporation of inulin in the sausages for
properties of viscosity and texture of these food products (Boeckner suitable adhesiveness and cohesiveness is desirable. A decrease in the
et al., 2001). Inulin is also known for its various health assistance. hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness of canned meat
Studies have reported that it helps to control the blood glucose level products was found which was developed with altered amounts of inulin
(Jackson, Taylor, Clohessy, & Williams, 1999); lessen the threat of gel (Cegielka & Tambor, 2012). In another study, Menegas, Pimentel,
arteriosclerosis, avert osteoporosis; regulates the triglycerides and Garcia, and Prudencio (2013) reported that adding inulin in sausages
cholesterol levels in serum; reduces the chances of gastrointestinal dis­ leads to the harder edges but at the same time with better chewiness in
eases; lessens the release of carcinogens; and, regulates the immune the central portion compared to the sausages with lesser content of the
system (García et al., 2006). oil. In contrary to the sausages having normal oil content, the sausages
2.2.1.2.1. Effect of inulin on the texture of meat products. Inulin, as a with inulin were less elastic, harder, and chewier in the central portion
dietary fiber, is incorporated into various meat foods which include but harder at the edges.
minced meat, meatballs, sausages, and restructured meat products. Incorporation of inulin in the low-fat meat products such as sausages
Overall results have acknowledged its quality of a good texturizing agent with less than 20% fat, results in the products with retained textural and
and an effective fat substitute. These properties of inulin may be sensorial properties analogous to the conventional products with better
attributed to the factor that it, being a water-soluble fiber, has the po­ consumer acceptability (Beriain, Gómez, Petri, Insausti, & Sarriés,
tential to bind with water to form soft, stable, and firm gels. Due to this 2011). )Cava, Ladero, Cantero, and Rosario Ramírez (2012studied the
property, inulin incorporated meat products are easily cut and also effect of various dietary fibers on the textural characteristics of the
imitates the perception fat (Huang, Tsai, & Chen, 2011). Furthermore, cooked chicken products. It was reported that the products with inulin
the addition of Inulin up to the concentration of 6% has the least effect have the same hardness as that of the control. It was also reported that
on the structural and sensorial characteristics of meat products. Inulin the inulin incorporated products possess the lowest gumminess. How­
incorporation in the meat products significantly affects the texture of ever, Álvarez and Barbut (2013)worked on the effect of inulin on
products (Felisberto et al., 2015). emulsion stability, color, and textural parameters of meat batters. The
Mendoza, Garcı́a, Casas, and Selgas (2001) studied the effect of results of the study revealed the softer and creamier textured products
inulin on dry fermented sausages. The results showed that the textural are formed with the addition of inulin. Besides, the improved texture
characteristics of the dry fermented sausages were comparable to con­ and sensory characteristics, the addition of inulin lead to the improved
ventional sausages but possess a softer texture, springiness, and adhe­ product quality and color in terms of L, a, b values as well (Kılınççeker &
siveness. In another study, Franck (2002), reported that the addition of Kurt, 2018).
inulin to the meat products provides a creamier mouthfeel without
conceding texture and taste. García et al. (2006) worked on the impli­ 2.2.1.3. Polysaccharide gums or hydrocolloids. Polysaccharide gums
cations of inulin dietary fiber on sensory and textural characteristics of belong to non-starch soluble dietary fiber. Hydrocolloids, or more
the cooked meat product (Mortadella) of Spain. The results of the commonly gums, can be defined as complex nondigestible poly­
textural profile analysis showed that the incorporation of powdered saccharides which dissolve or disperse in water having viscosity build­
inulin in the sausages which were prepared with conventional fat con­ ing or thickening properties (Anderson & Ando, 1988). They play an
tent did not render any significant changes in the cohesiveness and important role in food formulation to improve gelling effect, increasing
springiness of these products. However, an increase in the adhesiveness food consistency, and regulating the texture, microstructure, flavor, and
and the hardness of the product was observed. Consequently, the addi­ shelf life of foods (Gawai, Mudgal, & Prajapati, 2017). Carrageenan,
tion of inulin in the form of the gel had the least impact on the adhe­ alginate, modified starch, pectin, gelatin, gellan, agar, methylcellulose,
siveness or springiness of the control batches. On the other hand, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose are some of the important gums that
hardness and cohesiveness of sausages was altered at the insulin con­ are used in foods (Saha & Bhattacharya, 2010). Intensive hydrogen
centration of 7.5%. Sausages thus formed were considerably softer and bonds are formed when the gums are dissolved in water. As a result of
with less cohesiveness in comparison to the control batch. The results of the configuration and size of the gum molecules, these polysaccharides
the study further indicate that the concentration of inulin at 7.5% in the make the aqueous solutions viscous by thickening or gelling. This is

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

attributed to both intermolecular frictions when shear is applied and the addition of carrageenan as a fat substitute improved textural charac­
formation of hydrogen bonds between the chains of the polymer (Nieto, teristics in low-fat sausages without affecting sensory properties.
2009). The functionalities of gums are determined by their physico­ Low-fat sodium-reduced sausages prepared with κ-carrageenan, po­
chemical properties which in turn are determined by the chemical tato starch, and locust bean gum was developed. The harder structure of
configuration of gums. In addition to their chemical structures, the sausages was observed at higher levels of potato starch and equal
shapes of the gums are also influenced by the aqueous environment in amounts of κ-carrageenan and locust bean gum. However, lower hard­
which the molecules are surrounded like pH, temperature, types of salts ness was observed with no potato starch and equal amounts of
and other solutes, shear, etc. (BeMiller, 2008). The polysaccharide gums κ-carrageenan and locust bean gum. Interaction of locust bean gum
are believed to consist of various sugars, such as D-mannose (Man), κ-carrageenan decreased cohesiveness. Functionally, textural properties
D-galactose (Gal), D-arabinose (Ara), and D-rhamnose, and two acidic (hardness and cohesiveness) were improved by the addition of κ-carra­
sugars, D-Glucuronic acid and D-Galacturonic acid (Elzain & Mariod, geenan whereas sausage structure was distinctly weakened by locust
2018). bean addition. It was proposed that potato starch may be utilized as an
In broader sense plant gums can be divided into two classes i.e. extender in the lowest tested amounts in low-fat cooked sausages only if
exudate and non-exudate gums. The first category of gums is found in κ-carrageenan and locust bean gum are used in similar amounts (Gar­
some plants which can be produced by a process known as gummosis in cía-García & Totosaus, 2008).
response to mechanical injury or defense against the attack of micro­ 2.2.1.3.3. Pectin. Pectin is a carbohydrate polymer of high-
organisms. In contrast, non-exudate gums or mucilage are found in the molecular-weight which is present in the primary cell wall and an
tissues of plants which can be produced by a process of extraction intracellular layer of plant cells and it provides structure to the cell.
(Hamdani, Wani, & Bhat, 2019). The gums can also be classified on the Structurally pectin is regarded as the most complex carbohydrate
basis of their source which include higher plants (guar gum, tara gum, polymer found in nature and constitutes up to 35% of primary cell walls
locust bean gum, etc), algae (agar, alginates, etc.), microorganisms in certain species (Liang & Luo, 2020). Pectin is a linear structure
(gellans, dextrans, xanthans, etc.), and cellulose derivatives (cetyl polymer that consists of a backbone of α-(1 → 4)-D-galacturonic acid
hydroxyethylcellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethylcellulose, etc) monomer units which are substituted by α-(1 → 2) rhamnopyranose
(BeMiller, 2008). residues in some regions which may lead to the side chains of glucose,
Plant gums can be used as food ingredients or additives in various mannose, xylose, and galactose. It is found in many fruits, such as ap­
food preparations because of their various functional properties. The ples, oranges, lemons among others. In citrus fruits, pectin is majorly
various properties which make them useful to the food industries contained in the peel part and comprises about 0.5%–3.5% (Mudgil,
include stabilization and emulsification of non-miscible phases, rheo­ 2017). Pectin is formed from the protopectin which is present in the
logical properties. As a result of such functional properties they possess, middle lamellae of cells. Protopectin is insoluble, however as the fruit
gums are used as a food additive in various foods such as ketchup, sauces ripens or when heated in an acidic medium protopectin is converted into
beverages, meat products (Hamdani et al., 2019; and; Lur­ a soluble form (Smith, 2003).
ueña-Martínez, Vivar-Quintana, & Revilla, 2004). The effect of some Depending on the degree of esterification (DE), the two major classes
important gums on the textural properties of meat products are discusses of pectin are high methoxyl pectins (HMP) and low methoxyl pectins
below. (LMP). HMP is characterized by more than 50% degree of esterification
2.2.1.3.1. Carrageenan. The word carrageenan denotes a group of and LMP with less than 50% degree of esterification (Marić et al., 2018).
sulfated polysaccharides composed of 3,6-anhydrous-D-galactopyr­ HMP can form gels when heated in low pH (2–3.5) acid solutions and
anosyl and/or D-galactopyranosyl units produced by extraction of red sugar with concentrations as much as 55–75%. On the other hand, LMP
seaweeds (Rhodophyta). The main backbone in the structure of carra­ may form a gel in the presence of calcium ions. Gels can be formed with
geenan is sulfate and galactose groups. Also, other residues like glucose, or without the presence of sugar over a wide range of pH (2–6) (Fish­
xylose, uronic acids, methyl ethers, and pyruvate groups are present man, Cooke, Chau, Coffin, & Hotchkiss, 2007).
(Sedayu, Cran, & Bigger, 2019). Traditionally, carrageenan has been 2.2.1.3.4. Effect of pectin on the texture of meat products. The pectin
divided into six types based on their chemical classification and com­ has diverse applications in food industries and can be used as an
mercial production. These include Kappa (j)-, Iota (i)-, Lambda (k)-, Nu emulsifier, stabilizer, gelling agent, and thickener in the manufacturing
(m) - Mu (l)-, and Theta (h)–carrageenan (Campo, Kawano, da Silva jr, & of jams and jellies. Similarly, pectin can also be used in meat and fish
Carvalho, 2009). In general, κ-carrageenan possess the strongest gelling products as a texture modifier, fat replacer, and cryo-protectant (Kim,
power which contains ester sulfate groups of about 25–30% and 28–35% Miller, Lee, & Kim, 2016).
of 3,6-anhydro-D-galactopyranosyl units. І-carrageenan contains ester Kim et al. (2016) incorporated soy hull pectin and insoluble fiber in
sulfate groups of about 28–30% and 25–30% of 3,6-anhy­ fresh and frozen/thawed beef patties. Results showed that pectin
dro-D-galactopyranosyl units and λ-carrageenan has ester sulfate groups incorporation resulted in lower hardness in fresh and frozen/thawed
ranging from 32 to 39% with 0% of 3, 6- anhydro-D-galactopyranosyl beef patties compared to control. However, a non-significant difference
(Barbeyron, Michel, Potin, Henrissat, & Kloareg, 2000). 3,6-anhydroga­ was observed for other textural properties like springiness, gumminess,
lactosyl units are generally involved in gelation and the degree of sul­ and chewiness of beef patties. These authors attributed the decrease in
fation is directly related to solubility, gel texture, and protein reactivity hardness due to improved moisture retention by the addition of fiber.
properties. Further, the differences in hardness between fresh and frozen/thawed
2.2.1.3.2. Effect of carrageenan on the texture of meat products. beef patties may be eliminated as similar hardness was noted for fresh
Carrageenan can be used as a fat substitute in meat products which can and frozen/thawed beef patties. Hardness and shear stress were signif­
modify the textural properties of meat products without interfering in icantly affected by pectin type in surimi prepared from silver carp
organoleptic properties. Atashkar, Hojjatoleslamy, and Boroujeni (Barrera, Ramírez, González-Cabriales, & Vázquez, 2002). Pectins with
(2018) incorporated κ-carrageenan in low-fat sausages as a fat substi­ varying degrees of esterification were analyzed. Hardness and shear
tute. It was suggested that the addition of κ-carrageenan can be added as stress of surimi gels were improved by amidated low methoxyl pectin
a partial fat substitute without affecting the textural properties of however, these properties were not improved by anyone of the high
low-fat sausage. Similarly, the incorporation of carrageenan as a fat methoxyl pectins and, non-amidated low methoxyl pectin. Pectin and
substitute and its effects on textural properties of low-fat frankfurters inulin were used as fat substitutes in the formulation of frankfurter
was observed by Cierach, Modzelewska-Kapituła, and Szaciło (2009). It sausages. It was observed that hardness, shear force, gumminess, frac­
was noticed that hardness, gumminess, and chewiness values were turability, and chewiness were lower as compared to the control. These
increased as a result of carrageenan addition. It was suggested that the authors suggested that these ingredients could be employed as fat

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

substitutes to produce functional meat products (Méndez-Zamora et al., stimulate satiety which in turn may result in weight loss (Witkamp,
2015). A new clove essential oil enriched pectin-based edible coating 2010).
was developed to preserve bream fillets during refrigerated storage The most prominent characteristic of konjac glucomannan is gelation
(Nisar et al., 2019). A significant difference was observed between performance. It is also characterized by good film-forming ability,
treated and untreated samples for all textural properties except cohe­ biodegradability, and biocompatibility (Yang et al., 2017). Konjac glu­
siveness and resilience. It was suggested that the applied coating comannan is used and sold most often in the form of konjac flour. A
reduced the loss of texture in treated samples during cold storage. In an heat-stable gel is produced when it is dissolved in calcium hydroxide,
in-silico study, the interaction of pectin with actin, myosin and collagen sodium, or potassium carbonate alkaline coagulant. This strong gel
showed good compatibility by forming total number of hydrogen bonds mimics the fat and may thus reduce calorie content as well.
of 8, 12 and 6 respectively as shown in Fig. 3 (Ahmad, Khalid, & Younis, 2.2.1.3.6. Effect of glucomannan on the texture of meat products.
2020). Konjac glucomannan fiber has been used in meat preparation as a fat
2.2.1.3.5. Glucomannan. Glucomannans are believed to be neutral substitute, water binder, etc. (McArdle & Hamill, 2011). Konjac gluco­
polysaccharides that may be utilized as a soluble dietary fiber. They mannan affects the textural properties of meat products as well. Low-fat
have extremely high viscosity characteristics as compared to other sol­ dry fermented sausages were developed by substituting pork back fat
uble fibers. Glucomannans is derived from Amorphophallus konjac roots with an equal amount of konjac gel. The hardness and chewiness of
known as konjac glucomannan. It can also be obtained from di­ sausages were increased by increasing the konjac gel level and
cotyledons and certain microorganisms for example bacteria, yeasts, and decreasing fat content. The higher hardness was attributed to the per­
fungal cell walls. These polysaccharides consist of a primary sugar centage weight loss of sausage. Cohesiveness decreased and springiness
mannose and secondary sugar glucose along with some galactose side showed no clear trend by partial replacement of pork back fat with
chains and acetylated residues (Tester & Al-Ghazzewi, 2017). Konjac konjac gel, these results were attributed to the reduction of fat and
glucomannan is a heteropolysaccharide that consists of sugar monomers addition of konjac gel (Ruiz-Capillas, Triki, Herrero, Rodriguez-Salas, &
D-glucose and D-mannose which are joined by β-(1–4) glycosidic linkages Jiménez-Colmenero, 2012). These results were confirmed by Lorenzo,
having a mannose to glucose molar ratio of 1.6:1. The typical acetylation Munekata, Pateiro, Campagnol, and Domínguez (2016) in which hard­
of the polymer accounts for 5–10%, although the acetylation degree may ness, chewiness, and gumminess of Spanish salchichón significantly
vary with diverse types of glucomannan (dos Santos & Grenha, 2015). increased by decreasing animal fat and increasing konjac gel pro­
Konjac glucomannan is a highly viscous, fermentable, and water- portions. However, no effect on cohesiveness and springiness was
soluble fiber. However, it requires continuous stirring to dissolve it to observed in treated samples which were attributed to the constant
a complete degree in the water at room temperature. Also, it is not protein content in treated and control samples. In contrast,
effective to dissolve it using hot water (Cui, Wu, & Ding, 2013). Glu­ Jiménez-Colmenero, Triki, Herrero, Rodríguez-Salas, and Ruiz-Capillas
comannan preparations are believed to reduce fat absorption and (2013) reported a decrease in hardness and an increase in the

Fig. 3. (A) Interaction of pectin docked with the actin protein. Pectin has been shown in ‘green stick’ representation. (B) Interaction of pectin docked with the
collagen protein. Pectin has been shown in ‘green stick’ representation. (C) Interaction of pectin docked with the myosin protein. Pectin has been shown in ‘green
stick’ representation. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

cohesiveness of dry fermented sausages by partial replacement of animal destabilization of batter upon cooking and hence it was not able to
fat with konjac gel. This evident difference in the findings was attributed convert into a proper protein matrix. Similar results were observed for
to the higher moisture content of sausages as compared to those reported cohesiveness and springiness of low-fat sausages which might be due to
by other authors mentioned above. It was suggested that different con­ the ability of gum to bind and hold water molecules in the gum matrix
ditions were applied in both studies to complete the process of ripening which must have reduced the cohesiveness in the gum incorporated
to obtain different characteristics of the products. The completion of the samples. Similar results were reported by Rather et al. (2015) where
ripening process of sausages was determined by weight loss level in this hardness was decreased in a xanthan gum added restructured meat
study, which resulted in sausages with higher moisture and protein ratio products. However, a non-significant effect was observed for cohesive­
that explains the lower hardness of sausages. ness, gumminess, and chewiness whereas an increase in springiness was
Fernández-Martín, López-López, Cofrades, and Colmenero (2009) noted in restructured meat products added with xanthan gum. These
observed that hardness and springiness of pork meat batter made with results were further confirmed by (Rather et al., 2016) in mutton
konjac gel, measured by texture analyzer, decreased non-significantly goshtaba enriched with guar gum as a fat replacer. In another study, a
with konjac gel addition. Cohesiveness and chewiness of meat batter combined effect of locust bean and xanthan gum was assessed on the
significantly decreased reduced with the addition of konjac gel. It was textural properties of low-fat frankfurters (Lurueña-Martínez et al.,
believed that the reduction in hardness with konjac gel addition may be 2004). These authors found no significant change in all textural prop­
attributed to the formation of a weak three-dimensional network on erties of frankfurters by the addition of locust bean and xanthan gum as
subsequent gelation since the raw protein matrix was used as a disper­ compared to control. Feng et al. (2013) investigated the effect of a
sion medium for konjac gel in the process of batter preparation. mixture of Mesona Blumes gum, an ionic gum extracted from an herb,
2.2.1.3.7. Carboxymethyl cellulose. Carboxymethyl cellulose is a and rice starch gels as a fat replacement in Chinese sausages. Mesona
biopolymer obtained from cellulose. It is obtained by copolymerization Blumes gum/rice starch gel added sausages showed a non-significant
of β-D- glucose and β-D-glucopyranose 2-O-(carboxymethyl)-monoso­ effect on hardness, chewiness, and shear force as compared to sau­
dium salt joined together by β-1, 4 glycoside bonds (Muppalla, Kanatt, sages contained high fat. However, higher hardness, chewiness, and
Chawla, & Sharma, 2014). It is chemically modified cellulose. One way shear force was observed in Mesona Blumes gum/rice starch gel added
to obtain carboxymethyl cellulose is heating cellulose with alkali and sausages than sausages with low fat. In a study conducted by Som­
later with chloroacetic acid, which leads to the etherification of hy­ boonpanyakul, Barbut, Jantawat, and Chinprahast (2007), the effect of
droxyl groups with methyl carboxyl groups (Gibis, Schuh, & Weiss, Malva nut gum, extracted from the seed of Scaphium scaphigerum, was
2015; Schuh et al., 2013). assessed in chicken Frankfurters. Hardness, springiness, and chewiness
CMC is a cellulose derivative polymer which is an anionic and water- were increased by increasing the Malva nut gum proportion. This in­
soluble. CMC is soluble in both hot and cold water owing to its nega­ crease is attributed to the strength of the gel formed by the interactions
tively charged carboxyl groups. Water solubility of CMC relies largely on of Malva nut gum with meat particles. However, no effect was observed
the degree of polymerization, degree of substitution as well as unifor­ on the cohesiveness of frankfurters by the addition of Malva nut gum.
mity of the substitution distribution. As the degree of polymerization is
decreased and carboxymethyl substitution and substitution uniformity 2.3. Resistant starch
is increased, water solubility of CMC is increased. However, increasing
concentration and degree of polymerization increases the viscosity of Resistant starch is a non-digestible starch as it escapes the enzymatic
solution and decreases as the temperature is increased. CMC is usually degradation in the small intestine, and acts as a soluble fiber with fair
used in beverage drinks and beverage dry mixes providing rich mouth­ palatability and mouthfeel. Resistant starch has an immense application
feel because of its high degree of solubility and solution clarity (Ergun, in the food system and is categorized into four elementary types. Type 1
Guo, & Huebner-Keese, 2016; Holtzapple, 2003). The physicochemical (RS1) is composed of granules of starch bounded by a non-digestible
properties of carboxymethyl cellulose like meat binding capabilities plant matrix which makes it isolated and stable to heat. Type 2 (RS2)
(Arancibia, Costell, & Bayarri, 2011), water holding capacity, and gel­ is found in its usual form such as in the raw potato and maize with high
ling properties (Gibis et al., 2015) have grabbed the attention of the amylose content. Its structure is compact and resistant to enzyme hy­
meat industry for its use in meat products. The carboxymethyl cellulose drolysis. Type 3 (RS3) is an extremely resistant form of crystallized
has been used as a fat replacer in meat patties. starch that is prepared by a distinct cooking procedure. Lastly, Type 4
2.2.1.3.8. Effect of carboxymethyl cellulose on the texture of meat (RS4) is the starch with a modified structure and comprises of the
products. The incorporation of carboxymethyl cellulose in lamb patties various structural bonds in place of α-(1,4) and α-(1,6) bonds. Chemical
has shown a decrease in hardness springiness, gumminess, cohesiveness, alteration in this starch is prompted by the processes of crosslinking,
and chewiness (Guedes-Oliveira et al., 2019). Similar results were found esterification, or transglycosylation which makes it liable for the
by Schuh et al. (2013) in the Lyoner-style sausages incorporated with the restricted digestibility in humans (Haub, Hubach, Al-Tamimi, Ornelas,
carboxymethyl cellulose and they reported that the concentration of & Seib, 2010). Resistant starch as a dietary fiber is observed to have
carboxymethyl cellulose more than 0.7% destabilized the textural and numerous health benefits when complemented in the diets. It holds
rheological properties of the meat product which further destabilized possible influence on the energy intake and diabetes; serves as the
the meat network after heating. In this support, research showed the fermentable starch for colonic microbes; and delivers short-chain fatty
inclusion of carboxymethyl cellulose levels of more than 2% has weak­ acids that are beneficial to the colon and also own other physiological
ened the protein network between the protein and fat particles thus, functions (Bird, Lopez-Rubio, Shrestha, & Gidley, 2009).
destabilizes the texture (Gibis et al., 2015). This weakened protein
network between the fat and meat particles has been shown to decrease 2.3.1. Effect of resistant starch on the texture of meat products
from 6.13 N/g (control) to 2.75 N/g (3 wt% CMC) in fried beef patties Resistant starch due to its micro particulate structure can be easily
(Gibis et al., 2015). added and mixed into food products as it does not alter the form of the
2.2.1.3.9. Other gums. Various studies have been carried out to final product (Sajilata et al., 2006). Nevertheless, there seems to be a
analyze the effects of gums in meat and meat products. Textural prop­ limited number of studies on the application and implication of resistant
erties of low-fat sausages can be improved by the application of gum starch as dietary fibers, and its potential usage is thus not adequately
tragacanth (Abbasi et al., 2019). These authors studied the effects of studied. In one of the rare studies, Amini Sarteshnizi et al. (2015)
gum tragacanth on textural properties of sausages and reported that the studied the effect of resistant starch on the texture of meat sausages. The
hardness was decreased by increasing gum tragacanth proportion. The results of the study indicate an increased hardness of the sausages with
decrease in hardness of sausages has been attributed to the the incorporation of resistant starch. This increased hardness was

10
K. Younis et al. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre 27 (2022) 100288

ascribed to the presence of amylose in the resistant starch. On heating, Allam, O., Bahuaud, D., Taché, S., Naud, N., Corpet, D. E., & Pierre, F. H. F. (2011).
Calcium carbonate suppresses haem toxicity markers without calcium phosphate
amylose leaks out of the starch granules leading to the retrogradation of
side effects on colon carcinogenesis. British Journal of Nutrition, 105(3), 384–392.
the amylose which in turn results in an increased hardness of the sau­ https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114510003624
sages. Additionally, amylose contributes to the firmness and gel strength Álvarez, D., & Barbut, S. (2013). Effect of inulin, β-Glucan and their mixtures on
and thus decreases the stickiness of starch gels. It was also found that the emulsion stability, color and textural parameters of cooked meat batters. Meat
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Declaration of competing interest 0/50008-5.
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Food texture and viscosity (2nd ed., pp. 189–233). Academic Press. https://doi.org/
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 10.1016/B978-012119062-0/50005-X.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Bourne, M. C. (2002c). Sensory methods of texture and viscosity measurement. In
M. C. Bourne (Ed.), Food texture and viscosity (2nd ed., pp. 257–291). Academic
the work reported in this paper. Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012119062-0/50007-3.
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