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11 th edition

Organizational
Behavior
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page v

11 th edition

Organizational
Behavior John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.
Ohio University

James G. Hunt
Texas Tech University

Richard N. Osborn
Wayne State University

Mary Uhl-Bien
University of Nebraska–Lincoln

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/19/09 9:22 PM Page vi

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JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page vii

about the authors

Dr. John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. is the Charles G. O’Bleness Professor Emeritus of Dr. John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.
Management in the College of Business at Ohio University where he teaches
undergraduate and MBA courses in management, organizational behavior, and
Asian business. He also serves the university as Director of the Center for Southeast
Asian Studies. He earned a Ph.D. in organizational behavior from Northwestern
University, after receiving an M.B.A. (with distinction) in management and interna-
tional business from New York University, and a B.S. in business administration
from the State University of New York at Buffalo.
Dedicated to instructional excellence and serving the needs of practicing man-
agers, Dr. Schermerhorn continually focuses on bridging the gap between the
theory and practice of management in both the classroom and in his textbooks. He
has won awards for teaching excellence at Tulane University, The University of
Vermont, and Ohio University, where he was named a University Professor, the uni-
versity’s leading campus-wide award for undergraduate teaching. He also received
the excellence in leadership award for his service as Chair of the Management
Education and Development Division of the Academy of Management.
Dr. Schermerhorn’s international experience adds a unique global dimen-
sion to his teaching and textbooks. He holds an honorary doctorate from the
University of Pécs in Hungary, awarded for his international scholarly contribu-
tions to management research and education. He has also served as a Visiting
Professor of Management at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, as on-site
Coordinator of the Ohio University MBA and Executive MBA programs in
Malaysia, and as Kohei Miura visiting professor at the Chubu University of Japan.
Presently he is Adjunct Professor at the National University of Ireland at Galway,
a member of the graduate faculty at Bangkok University in Thailand, Permanent
Lecturer in the PhD program at the University of Pécs in Hungary, and advisor
to the Lao-American College in Vientiane, Laos.
An enthusiastic scholar, Dr. Schermerhorn is a member of the Academy of
Management, where he served as chairperson of the Management Education and
Development Division. Educators and students alike know him as author of
Management 10e (Wiley, 2010) and Exploring Management 2e (2010), and senior
co-author of Organizational Behavior 10/e (Wiley, 2009). His many books are
available in Chinese, Dutch, French, Indonesian, Portuguese, Russian, and
Spanish language editions. Dr. Schermerhorn’s published articles are found in
the Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review Academy
of Management Executive, Organizational Dynamics, Journal of Management
Education, and the Journal of Management Development.
Dr. Schermerhorn is a popular guest speaker at colleges and universities. His
recent student and faculty workshop topics include innovations in business edu-
cation, teaching the millennial generation, global perspectives in management
education, and textbook writing and scholarly manuscript development.

vii
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page viii

viii About the Authors

Dr. James G. (Jerry) Hunt The late Dr. James G. ( Jerry) Hunt was the Paul Whitfield Horn Professor of
Management, Professor of Health Organization Management, Former Director,
Institute for Leadership Research, and former department chair of Management,
Texas Tech University. He received his PhD and master’s degrees from the
University of Illinois after completing a BS (with honors) at Michigan Technological
University. Dr. Hunt co-authored an organization theory text and Core Concepts of
Organizational Behavior (Wiley, 2004) and authored or co-authored three leader-
ship monographs. He founded the Leadership Symposia Series and co-edited the
eight volumes based on the series. He was the former editor of the Journal of
Management and The Leadership Quarterly. He presented or published some 200
articles, papers, and book chapters, and among his better-known books are
Leadership: A New Synthesis, published by Sage, and Out-of-the-Box Leadership,
published by JAI. The former was a finalist for the Academy of Management’s 1993
Terry Distinguished Book Award. Dr. Hunt received the Distinguished Service
Award from the Academy of Management, the Sustained Outstanding Service
Award from the Southern Management Association, and the Barnie E. Rushing, Jr.
Distinguished Researcher Award from Texas Tech University for his long-term con-
tributions to management research and scholarship. He also lived and taught in
England, Finland, and Thailand, and taught in China.

Dr. Richard N. Osborn Dr. Richard N. Osborn is a Wayne State University Distinguished Professor,
Professor of Management Emeritus, and former Board of Governors Faculty
Fellow. He has received teaching awards at Southern Illinois University at
Carbondale and Wayne State University, and he has also taught at Arizona State
University, Monash University (Australia), Tulane University, University of Munich,
and the University of Washington. He received a DBA from Kent State University
after earning an MBA at Washington State University and a BS from Indiana
University. With over 200 presentations and publications, he is a charter member of
the Academy of Management Journals Hall of Fame. Dr. Osborn is a leading author-
ity on international alliances in technology-intensive industries and is co-author of
an organization theory text as well as Basic Organizational Behavior ( John Wiley
& Sons, 1995, 1998). He has served as editor of international strategy for the Journal
of World Business and Special Issue Editor for The Academy of Management
Journal. He serves or has served as a member of the editorial boards for The
Academy of Management Journal, The Academy of Management Review, Journal of
High Technology Management, The Journal of Management, Leadership Quarterly,
and Technology Studies, among others. He is very active in the Academy of
Management, having served as divisional program chair and president, as well as
the Academy representative for the International Federation of Scholarly
Associations of Management. Dr. Osborn’s research has been sponsored by the
Department of Defense, Ford Motor Company, National Science Foundation,
Nissan, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, among others. In addition to
teaching, Dr. Osborn spent a number of years in private industry, including a posi-
tion as a senior research scientist with the Battelle Memorial Institute in Seattle,
where he worked on improving the safety of commercial nuclear power.
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 12/2/09 8:27 PM Page ix

About the Authors ix

Dr. Mary Uhl-Bien is the Howard Hawks Chair in Business Ethics and Leadership Dr. Mary Uhl-Bien
and associate Director of the Leadership Institute at the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln. She earned her Ph.D. and MBA in organizational behavior at the
University of Cincinnati after completing an undergraduate degree in International
Business and Spanish. She teaches organizational behavior, leadership, and
ethics courses at the undergraduate and graduate (MBA and doctoral) levels,
and has been heavily involved in executive education, teaching to business
executives and physicians in the United States, China, Europe, and Saudi Arabia
and to the senior executive service of the U.S. government for The Brookings
Institute in Washington, D.C. She has been a visiting professor/scholar at Pablo
de Olavide University in Seville, Spain, the Universidade Nova de Lisboa/Catolica
Portuguesa in Lisbon Portugal, and University Lund in Sweden.
Dr. Uhl-Bien’s research interests are in leadership and followership. In
addition to her conceptual work on complexity and relational leadership, some
of the empirical projects she is currently involved in include investigations of
“Leadership and Adaptability in the Healthcare Industry” (a $300,000 grant from
Booz Allen Hamilton), “Adaptive Leadership and Innovation: A Focus on Idea
Generation and Flow” (at a major financial institution in the U.S.), and “Social
Constructions of Followership and Leading Up.” She has published in such jour-
nals as The Academy of Management Journal, the Journal of Applied Psychology,
The Leadership Quarterly, the Journal of Management, and Human Relations.
She won the Best Paper Award in The Leadership Quarterly in 2001 for her
co-authored article on Complex Leadership. She is on the editorial boards of The
Academy of Management Journal, The Academy of Management Review, The
Leadership Quarterly, Leadership, and The International Journal of Complexity in
Leadership and Management, and is senior editor of the Leadership Horizons
series (Information Age Publishers). Dr. Uhl-Bien has consulted with Disney, the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, British Petroleum, and the General Accounting
Office, and served as the executive consultant for State Farm Insurance Co. from
1998–2004. She trained Russian business people for the American Russian Center
at the University of Alaska Anchorage from 1993–1996, worked on a USAID grant
at the Magadan Pedagogical Institute in Magadan, Russia from 1995–1996, and par-
ticipated in a Fulbright-Hays grant to Mexico during the summer of 2003.
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page x

preface
Global warming, economic turmoil, terrorism, ethnic conflict, poverty, discrimi-
nation, unemployment, illiteracy . . . these are among the many issues and prob-
lems we face as citizens today. But how often do we stop and recognize our
responsibilities for problem solving and positive action in a global context? What
we do today will have a lasting impact on future generations. And whether we
are talking about families, communities, nations, or the organizations in which
we work and volunteer, the core question remains: How can we join together to
have a positive and lasting impact?
Look again at the cover. Think about people working together and collabo-
rating in organizations around the world. Think about not just how grass grows,
but how organizations and their members grow, and how individuals can expand
the positive impact of society’s institutions as their ideas and talents come together
in supportive and nurturing work settings. And, think about the delicate balances
between work and family, between individuals and teams, and between organi-
zations and society that must be mastered in the quest for future prosperity.
Yes, our students do have a lot to consider in the complex and ever-shifting
world of today. But, we believe in them; we believe they are up to the challenge;
and, we believe that courses in organizational behavior have strong roles to play
in building their capabilities to make good judgments and move organizational
performance forward in positive and responsible ways.
That message is a fitting place to begin Organizational Behavior, 11th
Edition. Everyone wants to have a useful and satisfying job and career; everyone
wants all the organizations of society—small and large businesses, hospitals,
schools, governments, nonprofits, and more—to perform well; everyone seeks a
healthy and sustainable environment. In this context the lessons of our discipline
are strong and applicable. Armed with an understanding of organizational behav-
ior, great things are possible as people work, pursue careers, and contribute to
society through positive personal and organizational accomplishments.
Organizational behavior is a discipline rich with insights for career and life
skills. As educators, our job is to bring to the classroom and to students the great
power of knowledge, understanding, and inquiry that characterizes our discipline
and its commitment to understanding human behavior in organizations. What our
students do with their talents will not only shape how organizations of all types
contribute to society, but also fundamentally alter lives around the globe. We must
do our parts as educators to help them gain the understanding and confidence to
become leaders of tomorrow’s organizations.
John R. Schermerhorn Jr.
Ohio University

Richard N. Osborn
Wayne State University

Mary Uhl-Bien
University of Nebraska–Lincoln

x
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xi

about this book

Organizational Behavior, 11th Edition, brings to its readers the solid and com-
plete content core of prior editions, an enriched and exciting “OB Skills
Workbook,” and many revisions, updates, and enhancements that reflect today’s
dynamic times.

Organization
The most significant change that past users will note is a rearrangement and
shortening of the table of contents, as well as enhancement of online modular
supplements. The book still covers the discipline in an orderly progression from
individuals to groups to influence processes and leadership to organizations. But,
it does so in an updated and more succinct fashion. Chapters are still written to
be used out of sequence at the instructor’s prerogative and to easily fit a variety
of course designs.

Content
All chapters are updated to reflect new research findings and current applications
and issues. For this edition, and in response to feedback, we have also
rearranged chapters and adjusted both content and titles to best reflect develop-
ments and directions in the discipline as well as the realities of today’s work-
places and career challenges. The major changes were made to strengthen the
research component, expand and refocus the chapters dealing with individual
behavior and performance, and more fully treat the emerging directions in lead-
ership research and thinking. Look for these and other content changes to the
11th edition: Chapter 2 Individual Differences, Values, and Diversity; Chapter 9
Decision Making and Creativity; Chapter 11 Communication and Collaboration;
Chapter 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change; Chapter 15
Organizational Culture and Innovation; Chapter 17 Strategy, Technology, and
Organizational Design. Note as well that Chapter 9 Decision Making and
Creativity and Chapter 10 Conflict and Negotiation are now part of Part 3 on
Teams and Teamwork. In addition to the text chapters, a module on Research
Methods in OB has been placed online to offer easy ways to further enrich the
course experience.

Ethics Focus
To help students anticipate, understand, and confront the ethical challenges of
work and careers today we have continued our special feature in each chap-
ter—Ethics in OB. This feature presents a situation or issue from an actual case
or news report and asks a question of the student reader that requires personal
reflection on the ethics and ethics implications. Examples include “Managers
lose public trust,” “Workers concerned about ethical workplace,” and “MBA
cheats.”

xi
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xii

xii About This Book

Research Focus
To better communicate the timely research foundations of OB, new content has
been added to the popular Research Insights found in each chapter. Each high-
lights an article from a respected journal such as the Academy of Management
Journal and the Journal of Applied Psychology. Sample topics include interactional
justice, racial bias, social loafing, demographic faultlines, and workplace identi-
ties. For those who want to give research a special focus in their course, we have
provided an online module on Research Methods in Organizational Behavior.

Leadership Focus
To remind students that there are many positive leadership role models from
alternative organizational contexts, the Leaders on Leadership feature offers short
examples of real leaders, their experiences and perspectives. Examples include
Patricia Karter of Dancing Deer Baking, Indra Nooyi of PepsiCo, Sarah Blakely
of Spanx, and Lorraine Moore of the Leadership Academy.

Applications Focus
To help students apply the insights of OB to real situations and problems,
Mastering Management boxes provide insights from real managers and organi-
zations. Examples include “Managing emotions when times are tough,” “Six
points of human capital,” and “How to become a networker.” OB Savvy boxes
are also interspersed to summarize major findings and applications. Examples
include: “Seven steps to positive norms,” “How to create a high-performing
team,” and “Developing your emotional intelligence.”

Pedagogy
As always, our primary goal is to create a textbook that appeals to the student
reader while still offering solid content. Through market research surveys and focus
groups with students and professors, we continue to learn what features worked
best from previous editions, what can be improved, and what can be added to
accomplish this goal both effectively and efficiently. Our response is a pedagogical
frame that combines popular elements from the last edition with new ones.
• Chapter Opening—a Chapter at a Glance section links Study Topics/
Learning Objectives with an end-of-chapter Summary, and a short opening
vignette leads the reader into chapter text.
• Inside the Chapter—a variety of thematic embedded boxes as previously
noted—Leaders on Leadership, Ethics in OB, Research Insight, OB Savvy, and
Mastering Management, highlight relevant, timely, and global themes and
situations that reinforce chapter content. Margin Photo Essays provide further
short examples highlighting events and issues. To assist with chapter study
and test preparation, each chapter has a running Margin Glossary and Margin
List Identifiers.
• End of Chapter—a Study Guide helps students review and test their mastery
of chapter content. Key components are Chapter Summary (keyed to opening
Chapter at a Glance topics). Key Terms, and a Self-Test (with multiple choice,
short response, and essay questions).
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xiii

About This Book xiii

The OB Skills Workbook

The end-of-text OB Skills Workbook has become a hallmark feature of the text-
book, and it has been updated and expanded for the new edition. This edition
features the Learning Style Inventory and Kouzes/Posner Student Leadership
Practices Inventory. Both fit well in an OB course as opportunities for substan-
tial student reflection and course enhancement. The five sections in the new
updated workbook that offer many ways to extend the OB learning experience
in creative and helpful ways are:
• Learning Style Inventory
• Student Leadership Practices Inventory
• Self-Assessment Portfolio
• Team and Experiential Exercises
• Cases for Critical Thinking

New Student and Instructor Support

Organizational Behavior, 11th Edition, is supported by a comprehensive learn-
ing package that assists the instructor in creating a motivating and enthusiastic
environment.

Instructor’s Resource Guide The Instructor’s Resource Guide written by Molly

Pepper, Gonzaga University offers helpful teaching ideas, advice on course devel-
opment, sample assignments, and chapter-by-chapter text highlights, learning objec-
tives, lecture outlines, class exercises, lecture notes, answers to end-of-chapter
material, and tips on using cases.

Test Bank This comprehensive Test Bank written by Patricia Buhler, Goldey-
Beacom College is available on the instructor portion of the Web site and con-
sists of over 200 questions per chapter. Each chapter has true/false, multiple
choice, and short answer questions. The questions are designed to vary in degree
of difficulty to challenge your OB students.
The Computerized Test Bank is for use on a PC running Windows. It con-
tains content from the Test Bank provided within a test-generating program that
allows instructors to customize their exams.

PowerPoint This robust set of lecture/interactive PowerPoints prepared by

Victoria Weise, Lewis University is provided for each chapter to enhance your
students’ overall experience in the OB classroom. The PowerPoint slides can be
accessed on the instructor portion of the Web site and include lecture notes to
accompany each slide.

Web Quizzes This online study guide with online quizzes varies in level of
difficulty and is designed to help your students evaluate their individual progress
through a chapter. Web quizzes are available on the student portion of the Web
site. Here students will have the ability to test themselves with 15–25 questions per
chapter and include true-false and multiple choice questions.
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xiv

xiv About This Book

Pre- and Post-Lecture Quizzes Included in WileyPLUS, the Pre- and Post-
Lecture Quizzes written by Patricia Buhler, Goldey-Beacom College consist of
10–15 questions (multiple choice and true/false) per chapter. Varying in level of
detail and difficulty, they focus on the key terms and concepts within each chap-
ter so that professors can evaluate their students’ progress from before the lec-
ture to after it.

Personal Response System The Personal Response System questions (PRS

or “Clickers”) for each chapter of Organizational Behavior 11th edition is
designed to spark discussion/debate in the OB classroom. For more information
on PRS, please contact your local Wiley sales representative.

Companion Web site The text’s Web site at http://www.wiley.com/college/

schermerhorn contains myriad tools and links to aid both teaching and learning,
including nearly all of the student and instructor resources.

Business Extra Select Online Courseware System http://www.wiley.com/

college/bxs. Wiley has launched this program that provides an instructor with
millions of content resources from an extensive database of cases, journals, peri-
odicals, newspapers, and supplemental readings. This courseware system lends
itself extremely well to the integration of real-world content and allows instruc-
tors to convey the relevance of the course content to their students.

Videos
Lecture Launcher: Short video clips tied to the major topics in organizational
behavior are available. These clips, available in WileyPLUS or on DVD, provide an
excellent starting point for lectures or for general class discussion. Teaching notes
for using the video clips written by Kasey Sheehan Madara are available on the
Instructor’s portion of the Web site.
Art Imitates Life: Using Movies and Music in Organizational Behavior Prepared
by Robert L. Holbrook, Ohio University. Interested in integrating pop culture into
your OB course? Looking for ways of integrating the humanities (movies and
music) into your classroom? Dr. Holbrook provides innovative teaching ideas for
integrating these ideas into your classroom experience. This instructor’s supple-
ment is available exclusively for adopters.
Please contact your local Wiley sales representative for additional informa-
tion on the OB Video Program.

WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS provides an integrated suite of teaching and learning resources, along
with a complete online version of the text, in one easy-to-use Web site.
WileyPLUS will help you create class presentations, create assignments, and
automate the assigning and grading of homework or quizzes, track your students’
progress, and administer your course. Also includes mp3 downloads of the key
chapter topics, providing students with audio module overviews, team evaluation
tools, experiential exercises, student self-assessments, flashcards of key terms, and
more! For more information, go to http://www.wiley.com/college/wileyplus.
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xv

contributors
Cases for Critical Thinking
Barry R. Armandi, State University of New York, David S. Chappell, Ohio
University, Bernardo M. Ferdman, Alliant International University, Placido L.
Gallegos, Southwest Communications Resources, Inc. and the Kaleel Jamison
Consulting Group. Inc., Carol Harvey, Assumption College, Ellen Ernst Kossek,
Michigan State University, Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University, Mary
McGarry, Empire State College, Marc Osborn, R&R Partners Phoenix, AZ, Franklin
Ramsoomair, Wilfrid Laurier University, Hal Babson and John Bowen of
Columbus State Community College.

Experiential Exercises and Self-Assessment Inventories

Barry R. Armandi, State University of New York, Old Westbury, Ariel Fishman, The
Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Barbara K. Goza, University of
California, Santa Cruz, D.T. Hall, Boston University, F.S. Hall, University of New
Hampshire, Lady Hanson, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Conrad
N. Jackson, MPC, Inc., Mary Khalili, Oklahoma City University, Robert Ledman,
Morehouse College, Paul Lyons, Frostburg State University, J. Marcus Maier,
Chapman University, Michael R. Manning, New Mexico State University, Barbara
McCain, Oklahoma City University, Annie McKee, The Wharton School, University
of Pennsylvania, Bonnie McNeely, Murray State University, W. Alan Randolph,
University of Baltimore, Joseph Raelin, Boston College, Paula J. Schmidt, New
Mexico State University, Susan Schor, Pace University, Timothy T. Serey, Northern
Kentucky University, Barbara Walker, Diversity Consultant, Paula S. Weber, New
Mexico Highlands University, Susan Rawson Zacur, University of Baltimore.

xv
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xvi

acknowledgments
Organizational Behavior, 11th Edition, benefits from insights provided by a dedi-
cated group of management educators from around the globe who carefully read
and critiqued draft chapters of this edition. We are pleased to express our appre-
ciation to the following colleagues for their contributions to this new edition.
Richard Vaughn, University of St. Francis
Victoria Weise, Lewis University
Stacy Ball-Elias, Southwest Minnesota State University
Rita Bristol, Midland Lutheran College
Ed Tomlinson, John Carroll University
Larry McDaniel, Alabama A & M University
W. Randy Evans, University of Arkansas, Little Rock
Patricia M. Buhler, Goldey-Beacom College
Uzoamaka P. Anakwe, Pace University
Susan P. Eisner, Ramapo College of New Jersey
Gesilda R. Tolotta, West Chester University

We also thank those reviewers who contributed to the success of previous editions.
Merle Ace Roosevelt Butler Normandie Gaitley
Chi Anyansi-Archibong Ken Butterfield Daniel Ganster
Terry Armstrong Joseph F. Byrnes Joe Garcia
Leanne Atwater Michal Cakrt Virginia Geurin
Forrest Aven Tom Callahan Robert Giambatista
Steve Axley Daniel R. Cillis Manton Gibbs
Abdul Aziz Nina Cole Eugene Gomolka
Richard Babcock Paul Collins Barbara Goodman
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Michael Banutu-Gomez Deborah Crown Frederick Greene
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Richard Barrett Robert Delprino Bengt Gustafsson
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Anna Bavetta Pam Dobies Lady Alice Hanson
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Hrach Bedrosian Dennis Duchon Kristi Harrison
Bonnie Betters-Reed Michael Dumler William Hart
Gerald Biberman Ken Eastman Nell Hartley
Melinda Blackman Norb Elbert Neil J. Humphreys
Lisa Bleich Theresa Feener David Hunt
Mauritz Blonder Janice M. Feldbauer Eugene Hunt
Dale Blount Claudia Ferrante Howard Kahn
G. B. Bohn Mark Fichman Harriet Kandelman
William Bommer Dalmar Fisher Paul N. Keaton
H. Michal Boyd J. Benjamin Forbes Andrew Klein
Pat Buhler Dean Frear Leslie Korb
Gene E. Burton Cynthia V. Fukami Peter Kreiner
xvi
JWCL191_fm_i-xxiii.qxd 11/18/09 10:25 PM Page xvii

Acknowledgments xvii

Eric Lamm Edward B. Parks Shanthi Srinivas

Donald Lantham Robert F. Pearse Paul L. Starkey
Jim Lessner Lawrence Peters Robert Steel
Les Lewchuk Prudence Pollard Ronni Stephens
Kristi M. Lewis Joseph Porac Ron Stone
Robert Liden Samuel Rabinowitz Tom Thompson
Beverly Linnell Franklin Ramsoomair Ed Tomlinson
Kathy Lippert Clint Relyea Sharon Tucker
Michael London Bobby Remington Nicholas Twigg
Michael Lounsbury Charles L. Roegiers Tony Urban
Carol Lucchesi Steven Ross Ted Valvoda
David Luther Joel Rudin Joyce Vincelette
Lorna Martin Michael Rush David Vollrath
Tom Mayes Robert Salitore Andy Wagstaff
Daniel McAllister Terri Scandura W. Fran Waller
Douglas McCabe Mel Schnake Charles Wankel
James McFillen Holly Schroth Edward Ward
Jeanne McNett L. David Schuelke Fred A. Ware, Jr.
Charles Milton Richard J. Sebastian Andrea F. Warfield
Herff L. Moore Anson Seers Harry Waters, Jr.
David Morand William Sharbrough Joseph W. Weiss
David Morean R. Murray Sharp Deborah Wells
Sandra Morgan Ted Shore Robert Whitcomb
Paula Morrow Allen N. Shub Donald White
Richard Mowday Sidney Siegal Bobbie Williams
Christopher Neck Dayle Smith Barry L. Wisdom
Linda Neider Mary Alice Smith Wayne Wormley
Judy C. Nixon Walter W. Smock Barry Wright
Regina O’Neill Pat Sniderman Kimberly Young
Dennis Pappas Ritch L. Sorenson Raymond Zammuto

We are grateful for all the hard work of the supplements authors, who worked to
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passed and you did not return. So I came out from my ambush to
find you, and I came upon your bodyguard, and they recognized me,
and wounded me. I escaped from them, but should have bled to
death had you not dressed my wound. I wished to kill you, and you
have saved my life. Now if I live, and if you wish it, I will serve you
as your most faithful slave, and will bid my sons do the same.
Forgive me!"
The King was very glad to have made peace with his enemy so
easily, and to have gained him for a friend, and he not only forgave
him, but said he would send his servants and his own physician to
attend him, and promised to restore his property.
Having taken leave of the wounded man, the King went out into
the porch and looked around for the hermit. Before going away he
wished once more to beg answer to the question he had put. The
hermit was outside, on his knees, sowing seeds in the beds that had
been dug the day before.
The King approached him, and said:
"For the last-time, I pray you to answer my questions, wise man."
"You have already been answered," said the hermit still crouching
on his thin legs, and looking at the King, who stood before him.
"How answered? What do you mean?" asked the King.
"Do you not see," replied the hermit. "If you had not pitied my
weakness yesterday, and had not dug these beds for me, but had
gone your way, that man would have attacked you, and you would
have repented of not having stayed with me. So the most important
time was when you were digging the beds; and I was the most
important man, and to do me good was your most important
business. Afterwards, when that man ran to us, the most important
time was when you were attending to him, for if you had not bound
up his wounds he would have died without having made peace with
you. So he was the most important man, and what you did for him
was your most important business. Remember then: there is only
one time that is important—Now! It is the most important time
because it is the only time when we have any power. The most
necessary man is he with whom you are, for no man knows whether
he will ever have dealings with any one else: and the most important
affair is, to do him good, because for that purpose alone was man
sent into this life!"
—Count Leo M. Tolstoy.
"Twenty-Three Tales from Tolstoy," translated by L. and
A. Maude (Oxford Press).

A Master and His Servant

Once a rich man was riding on horseback over a desert. He was

going to the palace to be knighted by the king. With him was his
trusty servant, who was to take care of their baggage and their food.
As the master's horse was stronger than the servant's, the master
went very far ahead. At last he came to a lonely tree by the road. He
intended to stop in the shade, but when he got there, he found a
poor trader almost dying of hunger. He had pity on him, so he threw
him a piece of cake, which fell on his breast. Alas! the poor man
could not move his hands to pick it up. The master, however, would
not dismount and help the wretched man, but started on, leaving
him about to die.
Soon the servant came to the same place. His heart was greatly
moved upon seeing the traveler's pitiful appearance. As the servant
was about to drink a few drops of water that still remained in a
bottle, the suffering man looked at him. Therefore, he dismounted
from his horse, and poured the water into the man's mouth. After a
while the man could move his body a little. The servant thought that
with a cup of pure warm water the poor traveler would recover his
strength. But no water could be found in the desert. So he killed his
horse, took the blood from its heart, and gave it to the traveler. The
servant did not leave the traveler until he could get up without help.
At last the servant started on his journey with the baggage on his
head, leaving his dead horse and the traveler in the middle of the
desert. He left to the traveler some bread, clothes, the saddle and
his hat.
It was evening when he arrived at the palace. His master had been
waiting for him impatiently. Without asking a question, the master
began to whip his servant, because he had lost everything except
their baggage. The servant would have suffered more had not the
king chanced to see him. Both were brought before the king, who
asked the servant what the matter was. The poor servant knelt
before the king with his hands crossed over his breast, and then told
the whole story. Seeing that the servant was as respectful, brave,
and kind as a knight ought to be, the king made him a noble instead
of his master.
—Eusebio Ramos.

The Parable of the Beggar and the Givers

"Good people, alms! Alms for the poor!" whined an uncouth beggar
who stood huddled close, to the cold stones of a shop wall, and
there sought shelter from the wind.
Two brothers, well clad and warm, walking homeward together,
turned and looked to see whence the appeal came. The elder
carelessly tossed a silver piece into the out-stretched palm, and
muttered, "Odious beggars!" Then he hastened on. The younger
man, however, stopped and asked how such willing pauperism had
gained ascendancy over pride. The alms-seeker then told a story of
search for employment, of repeated failures, and of the final
surrender of self-esteem. The youth pitied the vagrant, and offered
to furnish him a method of gaining independence. He readily
accepted the help and a new worker began to labor in the vineyards
of the brothers.
Some years later, when the time arrived for the people to send a
new burgher to the capital to represent them, men came from the
city to ask the fruit-gatherers which of their employers should be the
choice for the office. Then the chief of the workmen spoke out, "The
elder will fling you a coin and a curse. The younger will give you
laws and improvements for your city. He will teach you to earn the
coin for yourself."
The next year the giver of charity went to the great council in
Berlin, while the giver of alms superintended the vine-growing and
envied his brother's good fortune.
—Dorothea Knoblock.

III. Allegory
The word allegory is used widely to signify any figurative and
symbolic writing (proverb, parable, metaphor, simile, or allegory
proper); but we are going to use it in its distinctive and academic
sense as a rhetorical and narrative type.
Like the fable and the parable, the allegory teaches
Characteristics
a lesson; like them it is a story, but longer than
either, more detailed than either. Connected with
the actors in it are generally abstract ideas used figuratively, directly
personified as people on adventures or used to form the
atmosphere, the goal of attainment, the place of destination, the
road over which the hero travels. For instance, Youth sets out from
the House of Innocence over the Road of Life and strays into the
Path of Temptation that leads through the Wood of Error. Here he
meets Falsehood and Shame, and overcomes them, for the time at
least, and passes through the clearing of Experience toward the
Castle of Perseverance, grim and dark and uninviting, that stands
hard by, yet beyond, the House of Mirth, etc., etc.
When you write an allegory, you will not be so trite as this
illustrative example, but will get a good idea, a good spiritual lesson,
and will teach it with a unique and original plot in which the
adventures themselves are interesting. The world's greatest prose
allegory, "Pilgrim's Progress," has always been read for the story.
The "Faerie Queene" as a metrical romance and a triple allegory of
religion, Elizabeth's court, and the perfect man, has been a
storehouse for prose narrators as well as for poets for three hundred
years. Practically all the old morality plays were allegories.
"Everyman," the best extant, is very vital indeed when put on the
stage.
Plato's great myth-allegory in the "Republic" was
Plato's "Vision of
Er"
designed by him to teach his people his theory of
the transmigration of souls and how they might
safely pass over the river of Forgetfulness without being defiled and
might hold fast to the heavenly way and follow after Justice and
Virtue always, considering that the soul is immortal and able to
endure every sort of good and every sort of evil. Popularly the story
is known as a vision; but Socrates, Plato's literary character who tells
the story, calls it a tale, a tale of a brave man Er, the Son of
Armenius, who, on the twelfth day, as he was lying on the funeral
pile, returned to life and told what he had seen in the other world.
This device of a vision was widely adopted, doubtless indirectly
from Plato, as a good framework for allegory. We find the medieval
poets dreaming dreams and letting their souls depart from their
bodies pretty generally.
The romance and the allegory were the prime
Modern Allegories
medieval types, and we find them persisting
together or apart in our own English literature from
William Langland's "Piers the Plowman" with its Tower of Truth,
Conscience, Envy, Advice of Hunger, and the like, to Henry Van
Dyke's "Blue Flower" with its crystal river flowing from a mysterious
source. "The Hunter" and the "Artist's Secret" by Olive Schreiner and
"Poems in Prose" by Oscar Wilde are exquisite modern examples.
Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote scarcely anything that is not inlaid with
allegory. The "Great Stone Face" is a fine instance of how concrete
pure allegory can be. It teaches a beautifully spiritual truth by the
portrayal of American customs and everyday human
shortsightedness. A good German prose allegory is "Peter Schlemihl:
or, The Man Who Sold his Shadow." Stevenson's tremendous study,
"The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," is really allegory.
A review of the names of the older but famous allegories will be
perhaps more interesting and suggestive than the perusal from
beginning to end of any one of them would be, for they are for the
most part long and tedious.
In early Anglo-Saxon verse we find appearing the
Some famous
English allegories
favorite device of allegory, the vision. In the "Dream
of the Rood" the author tells of how he saw a
strange Tree, the gallows of shame, now the glorious Tree of the
Savior, and how it told its life-history. "The Address of the Soul to the
Body" is a grim allegorical dialogue. In "The Phoenix," the fabulous
bird represents Christ, as does also the Panther in the other poem,
the sweet-breathed, lonely, harmless beast. These are all verse, and
with the exception of the "Dream of the Rood" hardly narrative. The
last two are really English bestiaries. "The Romaunt of the Rose," the
greatest medieval allegory, in its English form, contains seventy-six
hundred ninety-eight lines. You will find all these included in
Chaucer's work, but only seventeen hundred five are his.[1] The
"Parlament of Foules" and the "House of Fame," however, are his,
but not "The Court of Love," "the Flower and the Leaf," "The
Cockowe and the Nightingale." Between Chaucer and Spenser come
Dunbar's "Thistle and the Rose" and "The Golden Targe;" Lydgate's
"Temple of Glass;" Hawes's "Pastime of Pleasure;" Douglas's "Palace
of Honour" and "King Hart;" Lyndesay's "Dream" and "Complaint of
Papingo;" Barclay's "Ship of Fooles;" Sackville's "Induction" to the
"Mirror for Magistrates." After Spenser, besides Phineas Fletcher's
"The Purple Island" and Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," come
Addison's "Vision of Mirza," Parnell's "Paradise of Fooles," Thomson's
"Castle of Indolence," Johnson's "Journey of a Day," Collin's "The
Passions," and Aikin's "The Hill of Science."
In the beautiful Elizabethan English translation we have also the
allegories of the Bible, of which the "Twenty-third Psalm" is
doubtless the best known example, as it is perhaps the best loved
quotation from the Old Testament. All the psalms put their truths
allegorically in the broad literary sense. Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the other
prophets often speak in strict allegorical narratives, which they
explain either immediately or later. The great literary beauty of the
"Revelation" depends on the exquisite use of allegory; the leaves of
the tree of life are for the healing of the nations; the water of the
river of life is for everyone that thirsteth.
Mention of Hawthorne's use of allegory calls to
Allegory and
parable
mind the distinction a student of narrative types
distinguished must make between parable on the one hand and a
particular kind of allegory on the other, that kind in
which there are no abstractions. He asks himself, What is the
difference when both narratives have only people for actors? He
finds the answer in the fact that the actors of the parable are always
representatives of a type, doing nothing outside the type, nothing
individual, while the actors of that sort of allegory in which there are
no personified abstractions are always individual men even though
they may have universal vices or virtues; that is, they perform
individual deeds and go through peculiar experiences, that not all
the men of their class could perform and go through. But although
more individual, the allegory is less human than the parable; for the
happenings of the parable are always probable, while those of the
allegory may be probable, improbable, or so fantastic as to be wholly
impossible.
The allegory is usually longer also than the parable. Besides, unlike
the parable, the allegory demands no interpretation from without,
but carries its interpretation along from name to name. Hence the
allegory can be said to be an extended metaphor, and the parable, a
long half simile. On the other hand, many proverbs are concise
parables and many are also brief allegories.
Allegory meets fable on the fact that both may be
Allegory and fable
distinguished
satiric; but stands aside from fable on the fact that
allegory is much longer and employs personified
abstractions as characters. Hawthorne's "Celestial Railroad" is an
example of humorous-satiric allegory. Parable, we recall, is always
spiritual, allegory often so, and fable never.
When you set out to write, therefore, you will have
Working definition
in mind a general summary somewhat like this: An
allegory is a narrative of imaginary events designed
to teach a series of utilitarian or spiritual truths—the actors in the
events being either individuals with typical follies, vices, and virtues,
or personified abstractions that go through individual and particular
experiences.
To proceed to write original allegory you will need
How to write
allegory
to pay especial attention to (1) the series of lessons
you mean to teach: Shall it be in the realm of
politics, trade, education, or general morals? (2) The tone of your
teaching: Shall it be humorous or grave? (3) The kind of
personages: Shall they be real persons made more-or-less typical
and abstract, or shall they be abstractions made more-or-less
concrete and individual? (4) The course of the action: What shall
happen? There must be something a-doing that is in itself interesting
and that has a beginning, a middle, and an end. You must not fall
into the error of merely enumerating and cataloguing. You must
have a definite action going forward in which your personages take a
necessary part. Allegory fell into disrepute in the past because of the
attempts of lazy and careless writers. There is evidence of its revival
as a popular type. A present-day writer in the Atlantic Monthly has
shown us how vigorous, informing, and pungent it may be: "The
Novelist's Allegory" is entirely worth while with its good old-
fashioned flavor. (5) You must pay attention to the characterizations:
you must see to it that the speeches you put into the mouths of your
creatures could be delivered by them in the world or society you
have got together. Everything in the action—the time, the place, the
characters of the persons—must conform to the ideal nature of the
subject. The laws of the actual universe you may violate, but not the
laws of your imaginary universe. Moreover, the nearer the actual and
the imaginary come together on essentials, the more effective your
preaching will be. What you write as author's narrative must be vital
and contributive.
Make your description of dress and gesture so vivid that it will
quicken the imagination of your readers. Never yourself think of your
personages as abstractions. Let them live and move before you as
real beings; then tell about them.
A testimony to the return of allegory into good favor is its use on
the stage. We no longer are afraid to see that Ibsen's "Peer Gynt" is
an allegorical satire and not the bucolic love tale that some persons
try to make it, and that even the wonderful scene of Ase's death is
pathos serving satire. Maeterlinck's "Blue Bird," which is
unmistakable allegory, has pleased the latest theater-going public
high and low.
This thought leads to a word in general on
Present-day
interest in
primitive types. Although it is becoming the fashion
primitive types to be interested in them, and hence many poor
specimens both in prose and verse will get into
print, yet the writing of such simple and idealistic things by way of
reaction from our intense and often hectic realism, is surely in the
main wholesome, regardless of the value of the individual pieces.
Years ago Count Tolstoy said, "The artist of the future will
understand that to compose a fairy-tale, a little song which will
touch, a lullaby or a riddle which will entertain, a jest which will
amuse, or to draw a sketch such as will delight dozens of
generations or millions of children and adults, is incomparably more
important and more fruitful than to compose a novel, or a
symphony, or paint a picture of the kind which diverts some
members of the wealthy classes for a short time and is then forever
forgotten. The region of this art of the simplest feelings accessible to
all is enormous, and it is as yet almost untouched." Of course the
hope of literary excellence for such an epoch, if it comes, will lie in
the possibility of the pieces being kept as Tolstoy's own are, very
near to the naïve.
 The Artist

One evening there came into his soul the desire to fashion an
image of The Pleasure that abideth for a Moment. And he went forth
into the world to look for bronze. For he could think only in bronze.
But all the bronze of the whole world had disappeared, nor
anywhere in the whole world was there any bronze to be found,
save only the bronze of the image of The Sorrow that endureth
Forever.
Now this image he had himself, and with his own hands, fashioned,
and had set it on the tomb of the one thing he had loved in life. On
the tomb of the dead thing he had most loved had he set this image
of his own fashioning, that it might serve as a sign of the love of
man that dieth not, and a symbol of the sorrow of man that
endureth forever. And in the whole world there was no other bronze
save the bronze of this image.
And he took the image he had fashioned, and set it in a great
furnace, and gave it to the fire.
And out of the bronze of the Image of The Sorrow that endureth
forever, he fashioned an image of The Pleasure that abideth for a
moment.
—Oscar Wilde.
"Poems in Prose" (Fortnightly Review, July 1, 1894).

The House of Judgment

And there was silence in the House of Judgment, and the Man
came naked before God.
And God opened the Book of the Life of the Man.
And God said to the Man, "Thy life hath been evil, and thou hast
shown cruelty to those in need of succor, and to those who lacked
help thou hast been bitter and hard of heart. The poor called to thee
and thou did'st not hearken, and thine ears were closed to the cry of
my afflicted. The inheritance of the fatherless thou did'st take unto
thyself, and thou did'st send the foxes into the vineyard of thy
neighbor's field. Thou did'st take the bread of the children and give
it to the dogs to eat, and my lepers who lived in the marshes, and
were at peace and praised me thou did'st drive forth on the highway,
and on mine earth out of which I made thee thou did'st spill
innocent blood."
And the Man made answer and said, "Even so did I."
And again God opened the Book of the Life of the Man.
And God said to the Man, "Thy life hath been evil, and the Beauty I
have shown, thou hast sought for, and the Good I have hidden, thou
did'st pass by. The walls of thy chamber were painted with images,
and from the bed of thine abominations thou did'st rise up to the
sound of flutes. Thou did'st build seven altars to the sins I have
suffered, and did'st eat of the thing that may not be eaten, and the
purple of thy raiment was broidered with the three signs of shame.
Thy idols were neither of gold nor of silver that endure, but of flesh
that dieth. Thou did'st stain their hair with perfumes, and put
pomegranates in their hands. Thou did'st stain their feet with saffron
and spread carpets before them. With antimony thou did'st stain
their eyelids and their bodies thou did'st smear with myrrh. Thou
did'st bow thyself to the ground before them, and the thrones of thy
idols were set in the sun. Thou did'st show to the sun thy shame and
to the moon thy madness."
And the Man made answer and said, "Even so did I."
And the third time God opened the Book of the Life of the Man.
And God said to the Man, "Evil hath been thy life, and with evil
did'st thou requite good, and with wrong-doing kindness. The hands
that fed thee thou did'st wound, and the breasts that gave thee suck
thou did'st despise. He who came to thee with water went away
thirsting and the outlawed men who hid thee in their tents at night
thou did'st betray before dawn. Thine enemy who spared thee thou
did'st slay in an ambush, and the friend who walked with thee thou
did'st sell for a price, and to those who brought thee Love, thou
did'st ever give Lust in thy turn."
And the Man made answer and said, "Even so did I."
And God closed the Book of the Life of the Man and said, "Surely I
will send thee to Hell. Even into Hell will I send thee."
And the Man cried out, "Thou can'st not."
And God said to the Man, "Wherefore can I not send thee to Hell,
and for what reason?"
"Because in Hell I have always lived," answered the Man.
And there was silence in the House of Judgment.
And after a space God spake, and said to the Man, "Seeing that I
may not send thee into Hell, surely I will send thee unto Heaven.
Even unto Heaven will I send thee."
And the Man cried out, "Thou can'st not."
And God said to the Man, "Wherefore can I not send thee unto
Heaven and for what reason?"
"Because never, and in no place, have I been able to imagine it,"
answered the man.
And there was silence in the House of Judgment.
—Ibid.

The Chain That Binds

It was morning when the youth started out from his father's house
and sought the highway. Those the young man met on the road
inquired of him, "Where are you going? What do you seek?"
He answered, "I seek Freedom!"
 "Freedom!" exclaimed his questioners. "Are you not free? Are we
not all our own masters?"
The young man smiled. "I do not mean freedom of thought and
speech. That you may have. What I seek is liberation from heredity
and environment, from the physical, intellectual, and spiritual laws
that tyrannize over us and make us slaves."
His listeners turned away, some laughed, and some scorned, and
some wept, and the young man traveled on. But all along the road
he met those that scorned him and laughed at him, and soon his
steps lagged, and his feet seemed leaden. Looking down, he saw a
chain binding his ankles—the chain of Public Opinion. Now he must
delay. Angrily he tore at the chain until the hasps broke, and he
stood unbound.
Then he made haste; for he had already lost much time. Soon he
met a vender of goods, and the vender stopped and besought the
youth to buy a jewel. The young man desired the jewel, and he
thought, "Why can I not beat this man and steal his jewel?" But lo,
his hands were fettered with the chain of Conscience, and he
wrenched the chain till it fell apart. Then he beat the man and took
his jewel and went on his way.
Ahead of him he saw a cloud, and from the cloud arose a mist, and
the mist formed itself into many shapes, strange signs and symbols,
the like of which he had never seen before. The youth cried out,
"This is a new faith; I will embrace it." But his arms were bound
behind him with the chain of Superstition; and he strove to break
the chain, but when the lock gave way, the cloud and mist had
disappeared.
Thus year after year sped on; the youth became a man; the man
grew old before his time. When he broke a fetter, a new one took its
place. The chains that bound him were innumerable. One by one he
broke the laws that society and the ages had formed for him, but
each wish that he gratified gave place to another.
 The chains that he had worn and wrenched weighed on him. His
flesh and spirit were chafed and sore. Weak and disheartened he
sank down, and the memory of his fruitless life recurred to him. A
voice arrested him, and looking up he saw a man older and more
withered than he was.
And the stranger said, "Behold the chain that binds you now." The
Seeker-after-Freedom looked down. His ankles were encumbered by
the heaviest chain he had yet worn.
The old man continued. "You flaunted yourself in the face of your
fellows. You boasted that you were greater than they. You are, in
that you are the arch-sinner. You have sought to destroy those gifts
with which the Almighty endowed you. You found it easy to break
the fetter of Love, of Conscience, of Remorse. This chain you cannot
break. You welded it yourself. The strength of an armed force cannot
tear it asunder; the fires of Perdition cannot melt it."
The traveler died, bound with the chain of Insatiable Desire.
—Elizabeth Sudborough.

The Love Which Surpassed All Other Loves

The girl's heart was lonely. She had never had the comforts of a
home. And there was a yearning for some love which would fill her
life. So she determined to set out in search of such a love. In her
wanderings she met many hardships, and was scorned by everyone
as a simpleton.
After she had wandered a year, one day a great eagle flew to her,
and said, "I know what you are seeking. I can satisfy your wants. I
am the governing force of the world; I am Love of Gold. Take me,
and while I am with you, all will be well with you."
For a moment the girl was dazzled by the comforts which seemed
stretched out before her if she would accept this Love. But her heart
was not satisfied, and she shook her head. The eagle flew away with
a taunting laugh.
 Another year passed and still she had met nothing to quiet her
longing. But one day as she was walking through a village, she saw
a happy family seated on the door-step of a neat cottage. While she
was looking at this group, she heard a voice, and, glancing down,
saw a beautiful little wren.
"I am the Love of a Mother's Heart," said the little bird. "When all
others fail, I still remain true. Take me and hide me in your bosom,
that your mother's heart may be tender to you."
Tears came to the girl's eyes, for the little bird had touched a
wound in her life, the neglect of her by her mother. But her longing
was not yet satisfied, and so she passed on.
At the end of another year she was walking along the side of a
quiet pond. She stopped and looked at the water, envying it its
peace. A blue-jay was perched on the branch of a tree nearby, and
soon he spoke to her. "I am the Love of Man for Woman. I have
been known since the beginning of time. Let me be with you, that
you may be a good wife."
The girl was strongly tempted to take this Love of which she had
heard so much. Perhaps this was, after all, the Love she was
seeking. As she meditated, the old longing came back with
redoubled force. It would not do to make this Love a part of her life,
so she sadly left the blue-jay, and went on.
The next year came, and the girl had become a woman, but her
heart was still empty of love. She entered a quiet grove one evening,
and, wearied, sat down on a log.
A lovely nightingale came and perched itself on her shoulder, and in
a sweetly comforting tone said, "Many have had the same longing
which you have had; but few have possessed the courage to resist
temptations offered by other loves. I am the Love of Woman for
Woman, the Love of True Friendship. I am greater and more
enduring than any other love. Take me and hide me in your heart.
You will be happy then as few are privileged to be."
 The girl was comforted, and she took the beautiful bird and placed
it next her heart. At last her longing was satisfied, and she praised
God for His Gift.
—Florence Gifford.
 CHAPTER III
THE INGENIOUS-ASTONISHING
GROUP
This large division of narratives of imaginary events is somewhat
hard to name briefly, though it is definitely enough marked off as a
distinct class when we consider the tone, the source, and the
purpose. The whole air of these extravagant tales is that of
sophistication. No reader however ignorant would mistake them for
stories of primitive people. Though they sometimes contain
supernatural creatures as actors, though they recount stupendous
deeds, though they often proceed in simple diction, yet the reader is
never confused as to the state of mind of the narrator. It is plain
that, however much he may seem to wish to create credulity in the
mind of the reader, the story-teller has none in his own mind. He is a
non-believer—or better perhaps, a "make-believer," in the children's
sense of the term. The source of his narrative is ingenuity, and the
purpose is astonishment or satire. In the present study we shall
notice four smaller divisions of this group: (1) the tale of mere
wonder, (2) the imaginary voyage with a satiric or instructive
purpose, (3) the tale of scientific discovery and mechanical
invention, (4) the detective story and other tales of pure plot.

I. The Tale of Mere Wonder

In the species Tales of Mere Wonder, we mean to
Collections of
wonder stories
classify those stories of marvels that are told with
the simple purpose of astonishing. The adventures
of Sinbad the Sailor are typical. He comes upon a bird's egg, for
instance, which he at first mistakes for the dome of a cathedral, or
walks in a valley covered with diamonds the size of apples. The
"Persian Tales" like the Arabian "Thousand and One Nights" are
stories of wonder and enchantment. Though they are very old, many
of them much older than their written form and traceable to the
traditions of various countries, these Oriental stories as we have
them to-day are not folk-tales in the strict sense of the term. They
are put into a frame-work and are acknowledged to be narratives of
ingenuity. The two earlier sets, translated into French, produced
many imitations. Besides these there are the "Tartar Tales," the
"Chinese Tales," "Mogol Tales," the "Turkish Tales," and so on. The
most literary and perhaps the most valuable from the point of view
of real thinking displayed in them are the very modern Oriental
stories of George Meredith, published under the title "The Shaving of
Shagpat." They are all wonder tales though extremely philosophical.
Robert Louis Stevenson has given us the "New Arabian Nights."
To write one of these exaggerations you need only
Suggestions for
writing
recall your own or other persons' attempts at the
fireside when the stock of folk stories has run low.
You address your efforts to your eight and ten-year-old brothers who
have got past Jack-the-Giant-Killer and are in the stage of
development that the people of the twelfth century were to whom
Marie de France told her fables and her stories of mere wonder. The
fine ladies and gentlemen of Henry the Second's day loved to hear
of costly robes and magic carpets and jewelled beds worth half a
kingdom, that came at the touch of a ring or at the murmuring of a
secret phrase. Unfortunate princes, too, they enjoyed being told
about, who allowed themselves to be misled by wily councilors, and
lost for a time their kingdoms; beautiful princesses who sat
enchanted in gorgeous underground palaces, waiting their
deliverers; wonderful plants with otherwhere unheard-of properties;
and animals with stupendous powers, like the monstrous birds that
the Arabian writer says carried Nimrod through the air in a cage or
with out-stretched wings sheltered Solomon's army from the sun.
Chaucer, you know, began and
 "left half told
The story of Cambuscan bold,
Of Camball and of Algarsife,
And who had Canace to wife,
That owned the virtuous ring and glass,
And of the wondrous horse of brass
On which the Tartar king did ride."

This horse had a screw in his ear. If one got upon his back, turned
the screw, and whispered a word, one might be instantly in the
kingdom one named. If you can not dream out an original oriental
story of your own, you might finish this of Chaucer's—The Squire's
Tale. Remember that probability is not called for, but only
magnificence, splendor, magic, daring, and success on the part of
your hero or heroine. Either may have wealth untold, dominion
unlimited, and knowledge supernatural. Your diction may range from
the simplest and the baldest to the most luxuriant and extravagant.
Whatever matches your subject, no matter how extravagantly
improbable, will be acceptable.
Like the stories of mere wonder in—fact a blending
Medieval tales of
chivalry
of them with legend—were the medieval tales of
chivalry in the later and perverted editions. The
elements are the same as those of the wonder tale, with the
addition of riotous history; that is, the using of any deed of any hero
for him or for someone else, with all the glamour of magic and
luxuriance thrown about it.
To modern readers a very uninteresting perversion
Heroic romances
of this type of narrative is the heroic romance of the
second and third quarters of the seventeenth
century, best represented perhaps by Le Grand Cyrus of Madam de
Scudéri. Nobody, I suppose, to-day who had not a theory to prove
could be persuaded to wade through the 6,679 pages of the ten
octavo volumes of this walty story. But although the particular style
of writing of Scudéri and her contemporaries has passed away, and
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