Geologic Location of Clay Minerals in

Niger State and Their Uses in the

Ceramic Industry

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Objective of the Study
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of Clay Minerals
2.2 Geologic Distribution of Clay in Niger State
2.3 Uses of Clay in the Ceramic Industry
3. SOURCES AND AVAILABILITY OF CLAY IN NIGER STATE
3.1 Major Clay Deposits in Niger State
3.2 Factors Influencing Clay Distribution
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1 Summary of Findings
4.2 Conclusion
4.3 Recommendations

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Clay minerals are among the most essential natural resources globally, particularly in
industrial applications such as ceramics, paper production, pharmaceuticals, and
construction materials. In Nigeria, extensive clay deposits have been documented across
different regions, including Niger State, which is part of the Bida Basin. The geologic
setting of the region supports significant clay formation, primarily as a result of the
weathering of feldspathic rocks and sedimentary processes (Adeleye, 1971; Obaje, 2009).
The clay deposits in Niger State are dominantly kaolinitic and occur in locations such as
Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu (Obaje et al., 2022). These areas have been mapped
geochemically and physically to assess their economic viability for industrial applications
(Akhirevbulu et al., 2010).

The clay deposits in Niger State are typically interbedded with siltstones and sandstones,
forming a fining-upward sequence that is characteristic of the Enagi Formation within the
Bida Basin (Adeleye & Dessauvagie, 1972). Studies on these clay occurrences,
particularly in Kutigi, have revealed that they possess high kaolinite content, which
makes them suitable for ceramic production (Obaje et al., 2022). However, clay deposits
in Mashegu and Lemu contain higher silica content, which may necessitate beneficiation
before they can be effectively used in ceramic manufacturing (Akhirevbulu et al., 2010).
According to Alabi (2005), the mineralogical composition of these clays typically
includes kaolinite (about 43.64%), quartz (54.55%), and trace amounts of illite (1.18%).
These compositions significantly influence the physical and thermal properties of the
clays, which determine their suitability for ceramic production.

In the ceramic industry, clay minerals play a critical role due to their plasticity, shrinkage
properties, and firing characteristics. Studies by Coker et al. (1992) and Emofurieta
(1988) suggest that the clay deposits in Niger State exhibit desirable characteristics for
manufacturing refractory bricks, tiles, and sanitary ware. The high kaolinite content in
Kutigi clay, for instance, enhances its workability and strength after firing (Obaje et al.,
2022). On the other hand, the higher quartz content in some deposits contributes to their
grittiness, which may require modification through particle size reduction or blending
with other clay sources (Akhirevbulu et al., 2010). Moreover, research has shown that the
clay deposits within the Bida Basin have low levels of iron oxide (Fe₂O₃), making them
suitable for whiteware ceramic production (Adegoke, 1979).

Despite the promising characteristics of these clay deposits, challenges such as inadequate
processing facilities and limited industrial exploitation hinder their full utilization (Obaje,
2009). The need for further research and investment in beneficiation techniques is critical
to improving the economic value of these clays (Adeleye, 1973). Additionally, promoting
local industries that utilize indigenous clay materials could reduce Nigeria’s dependence
on imported ceramic products, fostering industrial development and job creation in the
region (Obaje et al., 2022).

1.2 Objective of the Study

The primary objective of this study is to examine the geologic distribution of clay
minerals in Niger State and evaluate their suitability for the ceramic industry.
Specifically, this study aims to:

1. Identify and Map Major Clay Deposits – To determine the locations of significant clay
deposits within Niger State, with a focus on areas such as Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu.

2. Analyze the Mineralogical Composition – To investigate the chemical and

mineralogical properties of the clay deposits, including their kaolinite, quartz, and
feldspar content, which influence their suitability for ceramic applications.

3. Evaluate Industrial Suitability for Ceramic Production – To assess the physical

properties, plasticity, shrinkage, and firing behavior of the clays in relation to ceramic
manufacturing requirements.

4. Highlight Challenges and Opportunities – To identify challenges in clay mining and

utilization, propose beneficiation techniques, and explore ways to enhance local industrial
applications in Nigeria’s ceramic sector.

5. Promote Sustainable Development – To recommend efficient extraction and

processing methods that will enhance the economic and environmental sustainability
of clay mining in Niger State.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Clay Minerals

Clay minerals are a group of hydrous aluminum silicates characterized by their fine-
grained, layered structures. They are commonly formed through the weathering of
feldspathic rocks and the alteration of silicate minerals under low-temperature conditions
(Grim, 1968). These minerals are among the most widely distributed natural resources
and play a significant role in various industrial applications such as ceramics,
construction, and pharmaceuticals (Velde, 1995).

Types and Classification of Clay Minerals

Clay minerals are classified based on their crystal structures and chemical compositions.
The primary groups include kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, and chlorite. Kaolinite is a
non-swelling clay with a 1:1 layer structure, making it ideal for ceramic applications due
to its high refractoriness and low shrink-swell properties (Murray, 2007).
Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite group, is highly expansive and is used in
drilling muds and as an absorbent (Malu et al., 2013). Illite is a non-expanding clay found
predominantly in marine sediments, whereas chlorite is more common in metamorphic
environments (Akhirevbulu et al., 2010).

Formation and Occurrence of Clay Minerals

Clay minerals originate from the chemical weathering of pre-existing rocks, primarily
feldspar-rich granites and basalts, under humid climatic conditions (Wilson, 1999). Their
formation is also influenced by hydrothermal alteration and sedimentary processes,
leading to the deposition of clay in floodplains, marine basins, and deltaic environments
(Murray, 1960). In Nigeria, clay deposits are commonly associated with the Bida Basin,
the Chad Basin, and parts of the Basement Complex regions, where they occur in various
forms such as kaolin, lateritic clay, and bentonite (Obrike et al., 2007).

Industrial Uses of Clay Minerals

The widespread application of clay minerals in industries is due to their plasticity, binding
properties, and thermal stability. Kaolinite is predominantly used in ceramics, paper
production, and cosmetics. Smectites, such as bentonite, are valuable in drilling
operations, while illites serve as raw materials in cement production (Odigi, 1989).
Additionally, clay minerals are increasingly utilized in environmental management for
pollution control, wastewater treatment, and as liners in landfills (Okoye & Obi, 2011).

In conclusion, clay minerals are vital geological resources with diverse industrial
applications. Their formation, classification, and distribution are influenced by geological
and environmental conditions, making them essential for economic development.
Understanding their properties and occurrences helps optimize their utilization in various
industries, including ceramics, where they play a crucial role in product durability and
functionality.

2.2 Geologic Distribution of Clay in Niger State

Clay mineral deposits are widely distributed across Niger State, occurring in significant
quantities in areas such as Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu. These deposits are primarily
associated with the Enagi Formation of the Bida Basin, which is a sedimentary unit
composed of interbedded clays, siltstones, and sandstones in a fining-upward sequence
(Adeleye, 1974). The geological setting of these deposits suggests that they were formed
through a combination of weathering, sedimentation, and diagenetic processes, leading to
the accumulation of kaolinitic clays suitable for various industrial applications.

Major Clay Deposits in Niger State

The Kutigi clay deposit is one of the most economically viable clay sources in the state. It
contains high kaolinite content, making it suitable for ceramic and refractory applications.
Geochemical studies indicate that the deposit has a relatively low silica content compared
to other deposits in the region, enhancing its industrial usability (Alabi, 2005). The
Mashegu and Lemu deposits, on the other hand, contain a higher proportion of quartz and
silica, which may require beneficiation before they can be effectively used in ceramic
manufacturing.

The geophysical and geochemical characterizations of these clay deposits have shown
variations in mineral composition across different layers. For example, X-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis of the Kutigi deposit reveals a high concentration of kaolinite in the upper
layers, while the lower layers contain more quartz and feldspar (Obaje et al., 2022). In
contrast, the Lemu deposit has been noted for its very high quartz content, which affects
its plasticity and firing behavior in ceramic applications.

Geological Factors Influencing Clay Distribution

The Bida Basin, which hosts most of the clay deposits in Niger State, is a Cretaceous
intracratonic basin that extends from Kontagora in the north to Dekina in Kogi State
(Braide, 1992). It is bounded by Precambrian basement rocks to the north and south,
providing a stable environment for the deposition of sedimentary sequences rich in clay
minerals (Kogbe, 1981). The sedimentary rocks in the basin primarily include sandstones,
siltstones, and claystones, which were deposited under fluvial, deltaic, and shallow
marine conditions.

Several geological and environmental factors influence the distribution of clay deposits in
the region, including:
1. Weathering and Erosion – The alteration of feldspathic rocks and sedimentary units
over time contributes to the formation of secondary clay deposits.
2. Hydrothermal Alteration – In some locations, clay deposits have been enriched by
hydrothermal processes, leading to higher alumina content (Obaje, 2009).
3. Deposition in Low-Energy Environments – Clay accumulates in floodplains, river
channels, and lake basins where fine particles settle and undergo compaction and
diagenesis.

Economic Importance and Utilization Potential

The economic viability of Niger State’s clay deposits depends on their mineralogical
composition and physical properties. The high kaolinite content in Kutigi clay makes it a
prime candidate for ceramic manufacturing, while the Mashegu and Lemu clays, with
 higher silica content, may require processing before they can be used in bricks, tiles, and
refractory products. Additionally, the clays from these areas have been found to be
suitable for pharmaceutical applications, as they exhibit the necessary purity and chemical
stability.

2.3 Uses of Clay in the Ceramic Industry

Clay minerals are fundamental raw materials in the ceramic industry, where they serve as
essential components in the production of bricks, tiles, sanitary wares, tableware, and
refractory materials. The unique properties of clay, including plasticity, shrinkage, and
thermal stability, make it an ideal material for molding and firing into durable ceramic
products (Murray, 2007). In Nigeria, particularly in Niger State, the abundance of
kaolinitic clay deposits presents significant opportunities for industrial utilization.

Role of Clay in Ceramic Manufacturing

Clay plays a crucial role in ceramic production due to its binding ability, moldability, and
ability to withstand high firing temperatures. Kaolinite-rich clays, commonly found in
Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu within Niger State, are suitable for ceramic applications such
as pottery, tiles, and refractory bricks. The chemical composition of clay, particularly the
ratio of silica (SiO₂) to alumina (Al₂O₃), determines its suitability for specific ceramic
applications (Singer & Sonja, 1971). The Avutu clays studied in southeastern Nigeria,
which share similar characteristics with those in Niger State, have been evaluated for their
high kaolinite content and plasticity, confirming their potential in ceramic manufacturing.

Physical and Chemical Properties for Ceramic Use

The suitability of clay for ceramics depends on its mineralogical composition, plasticity,
shrinkage behavior, and firing properties. Studies on clay deposits in Nigeria indicate that
Niger State's kaolinitic clays exhibit favorable firing characteristics, including low
shrinkage and high refractoriness, which are desirable for brick and tile production
(Murray, 1960). The optimum SiO₂:Al₂O₃ ratio in these clays enhances their strength
and thermal resistance, making them suitable for both structural and decorative ceramic
products.

Industrial Applications of Clay in the Ceramic Industry

The various applications of clay in ceramics include:
1. Brick and Tile Production – Clay is widely used in making structural bricks, roofing
tiles, and floor tiles due to its binding and hardening properties after firing (Malu et al.,
2013).
2. Sanitary Wares and Tableware – Fine-grained kaolinitic clays are used in producing
washbasins, toilets, plates, and bowls, where whiteness and smooth texture are required.
3. Refractory Materials – Clay is a key component in refractory bricks and linings for
kilns and furnaces due to its ability to withstand high temperatures without deformation
(Obinegbu & Chiaghanam, 2019).
4. Glazed Ceramics and Porcelain – High-quality kaolin clays are used in producing
porcelain and glazed ceramics, which require high purity and controlled firing properties.

3.0 SOURCES AND AVAILABILITY OF CLAY IN NIGER STATE

3.1 Major Clay Deposits in Niger State

Niger State is endowed with significant clay deposits, particularly in Kutigi, Mashegu, and
Lemu, which are primarily associated with the Enagi Formation of the Bida Basin. These clay
deposits occur in economic quantities and are known for their industrial potential in ceramic
and refractory applications. The geological setting of these deposits suggests that they were
formed through weathering, sedimentary deposition, and diagenetic processes (Adeleye,
1974; Obaje, 2009). Studies have shown that these clays vary in composition, with some
deposits being rich in kaolinite, making them suitable for ceramics, while others contain
higher amounts of quartz and iron oxides, requiring beneficiation before industrial use
(Akhirevbulu et al., 2010; Obaje et al., 2022).

Kutigi Clay Deposits

The Kutigi clay deposit, located in Lavun Local Government Area, is one of the most well-
documented clay sources in Niger State. It has been found to be kaolinitic in nature, with a
high alumina (Al₂O₃) content and relatively low silica (SiO₂) impurities, which are desirable
properties for ceramic and refractory applications (Alabi, 2005). According to Obaje et al.
(2022), geochemical analyses of the upper layers of the Kutigi clay deposits indicate a high
concentration of kaolinite, while lower layers contain more quartz and feldspar. The
estimated reserve of the Kutigi clay deposits is approximately 672,579 tons, covering an area
of about 57,400 m² (Akhirevbulu et al., 2010). The plasticity and firing properties of this clay
make it suitable for brick, tile, and sanitary ware production.

Mashegu and Lemu Clay Deposits

The Mashegu and Lemu clay deposits also contain significant clay reserves; however, they
have a higher silica content, which can affect their workability and strength in ceramic
applications. Unlike the Kutigi deposit, which can be used directly in ceramic production, the
clays from Mashegu and Lemu require beneficiation processes such as particle size reduction,
chemical treatment, and blending with purer clays to improve their plasticity and firing
behavior (Obrike et al., 2007). Mineralogical studies indicate that these deposits have lower
kaolinite content but higher quartz and iron oxide impurities, which can influence their color,
shrinkage, and overall ceramic performance (Malu et al., 2013).

Geological Formation and Industrial Potential

The clay deposits of Niger State are associated with the Bida Basin, a Cretaceous
intracratonic sedimentary basin that extends from Kontagora in the north to Dekina in Kogi
State (Braide, 1992). The basin is primarily composed of sandstones, siltstones, and
claystones, which were deposited under fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine conditions
(Kogbe, 1981). The presence of clay-rich horizons in these formations is attributed to
prolonged weathering and erosion of feldspathic source rocks, leading to the deposition of
fine clay particles in low-energy environments (Murray, 1960).

The clay deposits in Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu have been found to be suitable for several
industrial applications, including:
- Ceramic production – Used in bricks, tiles, and sanitary ware due to their high kaolinite
content.
- Refractory materials – Applied in kiln linings and furnace bricks because of their high-
temperature resistance.
- Paper and paint industries – Used as fillers and coating agents to improve texture and
durability.

3.2 Factors Influencing Clay Distribution in Niger State

The distribution of clay minerals in Niger State is influenced by a variety of geological,

climatic, and environmental factors. The Bida Basin, which hosts a significant portion of
these deposits, provides the necessary sedimentary environment for clay formation.
Additionally, factors such as weathering, depositional processes, and post-depositional
alterations contribute to the spatial distribution and mineralogical composition of these clays
(Adeleye, 1974; Obaje, 2009).

1. Geological Controls on Clay Distribution

The geology of Niger State is characterized by the Basement Complex and sedimentary units
of the Bida Basin. The Basement Complex, made up of granites, migmatites, and schists,
plays a role in the primary formation of clay minerals through chemical weathering. The Bida
Basin, on the other hand, provides a depositional setting for secondary clays derived from
eroded and transported materials (Kogbe, 1981).

The Enagi Formation, which dominates the Bida Basin, contains thick sequences of
siltstones, sandstones, and claystones, which undergo diagenetic processes that further refine
the clay deposits (Akhirevbulu et al., 2010). Studies have shown that the clays found in
Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu exhibit variations in composition due to their position within the
sedimentary sequence, with the upper layers being more kaolinitic and the lower layers
having higher quartz and feldspar content.

2. Climate and Weathering Processes

Clay formation is significantly influenced by tropical weathering conditions. The warm,
humid climate of Niger State accelerates chemical weathering of feldspar-rich rocks, leading
to the formation of kaolinite, the dominant clay mineral in the region (Wilson, 1999). The
high rainfall during the wet season contributes to leaching and transportation of clay particles,
depositing them in low-energy environments such as floodplains and river valleys (Obaje,
2009).

The rate of hydration and hydrolysis of silicate minerals plays a critical role in the
differentiation of clay mineral types. In areas where intense leaching occurs, kaolinite
dominates due to the removal of alkaline and alkaline earth elements, while in regions with
less leaching, illite and smectite may be present (Murray, 2007).

3. Depositional Environment and Sedimentary Processes

The transportation and deposition of clay minerals depend on the energy levels of the
depositional environment. In Niger State, clays are predominantly found in fluvial, deltaic,
and shallow marine environments, where low-energy conditions allow for the settling and
accumulation of fine-grained sediments (Adeleye, 1973).
The Kutigi clay deposit, for example, exhibits a classic fining-upward sequence, indicating
deposition in a low-energy floodplain environment. In contrast, the Mashegu and Lemu clays,
which contain higher quartz content, may have been deposited in more energetic conditions,
leading to the incorporation of coarser materials (Braide, 1992).

4. Post-Depositional Alteration and Diagenesis

After deposition, diagenetic processes further alter the clay mineralogy. Compaction,
cementation, and mineral transformation can modify the original clay composition. In Niger
State, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of clay deposits indicates that some layers have
undergone secondary enrichment of kaolinite, while others have been affected by silica
cementation**, reducing their plasticity (Obaje et al., 2022).

4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Summary of Findings

The study assessed the geologic distribution, mineralogical composition, and industrial
suitability of clay deposits in Niger State, with a focus on Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu. The
results indicate that these clay deposits occur in economic quantities and are associated with
the Enagi Formation of the Bida Basin. The findings highlight the importance of kaolinitic
clays in ceramic and refractory applications, while also identifying challenges related to high
silica content in some locations.

1. Geologic Distribution of Clay Deposits

The Kutigi clay deposit is characterized by a high kaolinite content, making it suitable for
ceramic and refractory applications. In contrast, the Mashegu and Lemu clay deposits contain
a higher proportion of quartz and silica, which may require beneficiation before industrial
use. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed that the upper layers of Kutigi clay are
richer in kaolinite, whereas the lower layers contain higher quartz and feldspar content.

2. Factors Influencing Clay Distribution

The distribution of clay minerals in Niger State is influenced by geological, climatic, and
environmental factors. The Bida Basin’s sedimentary environment provides a favorable
setting for clay accumulation, with fluvial and deltaic processes playing a crucial role.
Weathering intensity and leaching processes determine the kaolinite content, while post-
depositional alterations contribute to variations in mineralogy. Areas with high rainfall and
prolonged weathering exhibit higher kaolinite enrichment, while those with lower leaching
rates contain more silica and iron oxides.

3. Industrial Applications of Niger State Clays

The study confirmed that the clay deposits in Niger State have significant economic potential
for industrial applications, including:
- Ceramic production: Used for bricks, tiles, and sanitary ware due to their high kaolinite
content.
- Refractory materials: Suitable for kiln linings and furnace bricks.
- Paper and paint industries: Can be used as fillers and coating agents.
4. Challenges
While the Kutigi clay deposit meets industrial requirements, the Mashegu and Lemu deposits
require beneficiation to enhance their usability. High silica and iron oxide content in some
deposits may limit their direct use in ceramics.

4.2 Conclusion

The study has established that Niger State hosts significant clay deposits, particularly in
Kutigi, Mashegu, and Lemu, which are part of the Enagi Formation of the Bida Basin. These
clay deposits are predominantly kaolinitic, making them suitable for ceramic and refractory
applications. However, variations in mineralogical composition, particularly the higher silica
and iron oxide content in some areas, necessitate beneficiation processes before full industrial
utilization.

The geologic distribution of these clays is largely controlled by weathering, depositional

environments, and post-depositional alterations. The Bida Basin’s sedimentary framework
has provided a favorable setting for clay accumulation, while climatic conditions have
influenced the leaching and enrichment of kaolinite minerals. Furthermore, the presence of
quartz and feldspar in deeper layers suggests a need for careful material selection and
processing in industrial applications.

The industrial relevance of Niger State’s clay deposits is evident in their potential
applications in ceramic manufacturing, refractory production, and other industries such as
paper and paint. Despite their economic viability, challenges such as high impurity levels,
lack of advanced processing infrastructure, and limited exploration efforts hinder their
optimal exploitation.

4.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance
the exploration, processing, and utilization of clay deposits in Niger State for industrial
applications:

1. Comprehensive Geological Mapping and Exploration

- Further detailed geological surveys should be conducted to accurately map the quantity,
quality, and spatial distribution of clay deposits in Niger State.
- Government agencies, research institutions, and private investors should collaborate to
fund geophysical and geochemical studies for better resource assessment.

2. Improved Processing and Beneficiation Techniques

- Since some deposits, particularly in Mashegu and Lemu, have higher silica and iron oxide
content, beneficiation methods such as washing, sieving, and chemical treatments should be
employed to enhance their suitability for ceramic production.
- Establishing local clay processing plants** with modern equipment will help refine raw
clay into high-quality industrial materials.
3. Investment in Ceramic and Refractory Industries
- The government and private sector should invest in the development of ceramic industries
that utilize locally sourced clay, reducing dependence on imported raw materials.
- Small and medium-scale ceramic enterprises should be encouraged through funding,
training, and infrastructure development to boost local production.

4. Environmental and Sustainable Mining Practices

- Sustainable clay mining regulations should be enforced to prevent environmental
degradation, including soil erosion and deforestation caused by uncontrolled excavation.
- Reclamation and reforestation programs should be implemented in mining areas to restore
the ecosystem after clay extraction.

5. Research and Development for Industrial Applications

- Further scientific studies should be carried out to explore new industrial applications of
Niger State’s clays, such as their use in pharmaceuticals, water purification, and advanced
ceramics.
- Universities and research centers should collaborate with industrial partners to optimize
clay utilization technologies.

6. Government Policies and Support for the Clay Industry

- The government should provide incentives, tax reliefs, and subsidies to encourage
investors in the ceramic and refractory sectors.
- Implementing a National Clay Development Program can help in formulating policies that
promote local clay-based industries and enhance economic diversification.

By implementing these recommendations, Niger State can fully harness the economic
potential of its clay resources, strengthen local industries, and contribute to Nigeria’s
industrial growth through sustainable and efficient clay utilization.

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