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The document discusses the historical significance of the Vaisesika Catuṣṭri, a foundational text of ancient Indian philosophy that defines Dharma as essential for prosperity and liberation. It highlights the contributions of Sage Kanada and the challenges faced in studying the Vaisesika due to historical amalgamations with Nyaya philosophy and the loss of early commentaries. The text aims to provide a deeper understanding of Dharma and its philosophical implications within the context of Vaisesika thought.
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39 views35 pagesS SANKARANARAYANAN - Vaisesika Chatusruti A Historical Perspective
The document discusses the historical significance of the Vaisesika Catuṣṭri, a foundational text of ancient Indian philosophy that defines Dharma as essential for prosperity and liberation. It highlights the contributions of Sage Kanada and the challenges faced in studying the Vaisesika due to historical amalgamations with Nyaya philosophy and the loss of early commentaries. The text aims to provide a deeper understanding of Dharma and its philosophical implications within the context of Vaisesika thought.
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itineo2012Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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/ 35
VAISESIKA CATUHSUTRI
A Historical Perspective
Ss. Sankaranarayanan
THE ADYAR LIBRARY AND RESEARCH CENTRE In ancient India, people were intensely
desirous of knowing what Dharma is. For,
they were aware : ‘Dharma is the foundation
of the entire universe; for solace the crea-
tures take refuge in one who is firmly rooted
in Dharma; one drives away sin by means
‘of Dharma; everything rests on Dharma.
Hence the great men declare Dharma as the
highest’ (Mahanarayana Upanisad).
The Vaisesikasitra of Kanada was one
among the early authorities to offer a
definition of Dharma in clear terms.
THE ADYAR LIBRARY PAMPHLET SERIES
GENERAL EDITOR
S. SANKARANARAYANAN.
VAISESIKA CATUHSUTRI
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE VAISESIKA CATUHSUTRI
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
S. SANKARANARAYANAN
THE ADYAR LIBRARY AND RESEARCH CENTRE
The Theosophical Society
Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India © 2003 The Adyar Library and Research Centre,
‘Adyar, Chennai 600020, India
First Edition 2003
ISBN 81-85141-45-2
Distributors
‘Americas and Japan :
‘The Theosophical Publishing House,
P.O. Box 270, Wheaton,
Ilinois 60189-0270, U.S.A.
India and Other Countries :
‘The Theosophical Publishing House,
The Theosophical Society,
‘Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India
PRINTED IN INDIA
‘At the Vasanta Press, The Theosophical Society,
‘Adyar, Chennai 600 020.
PREFACE
‘Practise dharma’ (dharmam cara) is the command of
the scripture. But what is dharma? How to identify it?
‘And what is its definition’? These were the questions
that seem to have been confronting the great Indian
thinkers of the yore. Sage Kanada of pre-Buddhist
era, the founder of the Vaiesika realistic school of
philosophy, was perhaps the first to offer a definition :
“Dharma is that which is the means to attain prosper
ity and liberation’. He also put forward the thesis that
the knowledge of six categories (sat padarthah) taught
in the Vaigesikadarsana is also dharma. The historical
forces that might have led to the above idea were taken
up for a brief study in a research paper published in
the Adyar Library Bulletin, vol. 65 (2001). It is now
felt that this paper should reach a wider circle of the
students interested in the history of ancient Indian
ideas. Hence the same is republished as no. 56 in the
‘Adyar Library Pamphlet Series.
S. SANKARANARAYANAN
Honorary Director CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTORY
PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS
PRATIINASUTRAM
DHARMALAKSANASUTRAM
DHARMAPRAMANASUTRAM ; FIRST
INTERPRETATION
SECOND INTERPRETATION
PADARTHAJNANAPRAYOJANASUTRAM
ABBREVIATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NOTES,
PAGE
14
28
4
39
49
3 2 VAISESIKA CATUHSOTRI
attaining the result), Herein again Badarayana offers a
precise laksana (definition) of the subject matter,
specifies pramdna-s (the means of knowledge required
for knowing the subject taught), seeks to establish their
samanvaya (harmony of the proofs cited) and thus sets
out the main part of his treatise, Vedantadarsana.
In the Vaisesikacatuhstirl, too, Sttrakara Kanada
does exactly the same with regard to the Vaisesika-
darsana, Herein, he, too, indicates the four preambular
factors namely : visaya (dharma), prayojana (nihsreya-
sa), sambandha (relation between these two) and
adhikarin, (nihsreyasa-kama, one who is desirous of
liberation). Herein he offers a precise laksana (defini-
tion) of the subject of the treatise, He also specifies
and indicates pramdna-s (proofs) and again he sets out
his unique thesis of the correct knowledge of the six
categories of the Darsana, being the means to nih-
Greyasa (liberation). In this way Vaisesikacatuhsiitri,
too, constitutes a compact unit by ably introducing the
subject of the Vaisesikadaréana.'
I
Problems and Limitations
Before we actually enter the subject, it is good to
have some general idea about the problems a student
faces when he takes up the Vaisesikasitra for a serious
study. The problems are indeed many and varied.
‘Already they have been ably detailed by scholars.” In
fact, the problems of the Vaisesikasitra are mainly due
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3
to certain historical factors which are peculiar to the
Vaisesikadarsana, What are they ? There are reasons to
suppose the Vaisesikasittra-s to be pre-Buddhistic.
Further it is true that the tradition associates the
Vaigesikadarsana very closely with the Nyayadarsana.
But the fact is that in the very early period these two
Darsana-s had their own independent developments.
However, they came to be amalgamated due to certain
historical developments, some time during A.D. 350-
450. During the process of this unique epoch-making
amalgamation, a good number of Vaisesikasittra-s
came to be bodily incorporated in the Nyayasiitrapatha,
AS a result, certain vital Vaisesika theories came to be
recognized as Naiyayika theories. A few of the
important Vaiéesika concepts were lost sight of ; some
Nyaya views came to appear in the Vaisesika garb.’
Not only this. Prior to the amalgamation Advaita-
carya Samkara had ridiculed and condemned the
Vaisesika scheme of six categories, the theories of
atomism and inherence to be illogical and sistapari-
grhita ‘things not favoured by the learned cultured
orthodox men’.‘ But subsequent to the amalgamation,
the noted Sista Naiydyika Uddyotakara (c. A.D. 550)
came forward to defend the Vaisesika categories and
theories. The reputed sista-s like Kumarila Bhatta,
Prabhakara Misra (both of the 7th century) largely
appropriated, each in his own way, with certain
emendations to the Vaisesika theory of error, doctrines
of atomism, inherence, asatkaryavada, jfianakarma- 4 VAISESIKA CATUHSUTRI
samuccayavada, aikabhavikavada.’ All these, besides
other factors, seem to have led S.N. Dasgupta to the
hypothesis that the Vaisesikadarsana represented an old
school of Mimams, older than what now goes as
PUrva Mimamsadarsana of Jaimini.*
The Vaisesikasiztra had very early commentaries,
From the Bauddha and Jaina sources, and from certain
orthodox philosophers of medieval times we hear
the names Vaisesikasiitra-bhasya, Vaisesikakatandt,
Ravana-bhasya, Bharadvaja-vrtti, Atreya-bhasya, etc.
of the early Vaiéesikasiitra commentaries. We do not
know whether these names signified one work or more
than one. But all of them had been lost long ago. It is
indeed hardly possible to surmise the probable histori-
cal factors that might have contributed to the total loss
of all these commentaries with a striking uniformity.
However one could suggest the following.
Just now we saw that the amalgamation of the
Nyaya and Vaigesika Daréana-s brought in sweeping
changes in the Vaigesikadarsana. As a result of this, the
early commentaries of the pre-amalgamation era had
presumably lost their relevance totally and had become
‘obsolete. Hence, they were forgotten once for all.
Pragastapada (early 6th century) came after the ep-
och of amalgamation. Being placed in such a peculiar
historical context, he might have realized the infeasibil-
ity of reviving and restoring the VaiSesikadarsana of
Kanada to its original form and status. Hence he seems
to have thought it wiser to write an independent
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3
Vaisesika manual titled Padarthadharmasamgraha
(which in course of time came to be honoured with the
title Prasastapadabhasya). In this work the author in-
corporated the early Vaisesika concepts in such a way
as to bar the severe criticisms and charges levelled
against the Vaisesika doctrines by the rivals, such as
the Bauddha-s, the Jaina-s, the Vedantin-s, etc, On a
close scrutiny, the PraSastapadabhasya betrays influ-
ences it has of the era of amalgamation as well as that
of the post-amalgamation.”
Of course, we have three direct commentaries on
the Vaisesikasitra. Of them one is the well-known
Upaskara of Samkara Misra. The other two are less
known, the commentary by Candrananda, and the
anonymous commentary. But none of them is assign-
able to a date carlier than the 12th-15th centuries." So
there is a vast gap of about two millennia between the
Stra text and these commentaries. These are the limi-
tations — unique ones — when we set out our study of
the Vaisesikasitra-s in their historical context. Yet, let
us proceed cautiously.
I
Catustitrt (The Four Aphorisms)
Now let us try to study the texts of the four
aphorisms one by one. We shall also analyse in detail
their contents for understanding and appreciating their
significance, both historical and philosophical, 6 VAISESIKA CATUHSOTRI
1. Pratijidstitram : The Aphorism Introducing the Subject
of the Treatise
athato dharmam vyakhyasyamah. :
“Then, therefore, we shall expound dharma in
detail.”
Comments
‘The word atha ‘then’ has been recognized by lexi-
cons in various senses, such as ‘immediate succession’,
‘commencement’, ‘auspiciousness’, ‘questioning’, “en-
tirety’, ‘option’, etc’ Of them, the sense ‘immediate
succession’ (Gnantarya) alone suits the present context,
‘And this sense by nature qualifies ‘expounding
dharma’, the principal member of the content of the
aphoristic sentence now under study." But what was
the prior correlate (dnantarya-pratiyogin) in the imme-
diate succession of which Sttrakara Kanada under-
took the task of dharma-exposition? The Stra text
gives us no clue to answer this question, since it
happens to be the very first aphorism of the treatise.
Yet, it is imperative that we should somehow fix the
prior correlate. Otherwise, our fixing “immediate suc-
cession’ as the only possible sense of atha (then)
would serve no purpose whatsoever ; since ‘immediate
succession’ prevails everywhere on its own, at all
times, irrespective of our making a statement about it.
Certainly every person undertakes every act, ‘in the
immediate succession’ of every other act of his. There~
fore we have to specify now the act, the antecedent or
prior correlate, in the immediate succession to which,
‘A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 7
and as a natural consequence of which, SUtrakara could
have commenced the act of expounding dharma.
The style and wording of the present Vaisesika
aphorism are in striking parallel to the first Apastamba-
Srautasiitra ; athato darsapitrnamasau vyakhyasyamah,
and the first Apastambadharmasittra : athatah samaya-
carikan dharman vyakhyasyamah. The former apho-
rism is viewed to be in continuation of the Apastamba-
ajfiaparibhasasiitra-s (aphorisms on the technicalities
of the ywjfia or sacrifice in general) that have been
introduced by the simple aphorism yajfiam vyakhya-
symah, “We shall expound the sacrifice’. Hence the
commentators could fix the composition of the Pari-
bhasasiitra itself as the prior correlate, and elucidate
the first Srauta aphorism as : ‘In the immediate succes-
sion (atha) to the expounding of the Paribhasasiitra of
sacrifices in general. Besides, since without expound-
ing and performing the DargapUrnamisa rite, the other
individual sacrifices cannot be expounded and per-
formed, therefore (afah) we shall expound the same in
detail (vyakhyasyamah).’ Similar is the case with the
said Dharmasiztra also since the same is taken to be in
continuation of the above Srautastitra. Hence with no
difficulty, the commentators have explained the apho-
rism as, ‘in the immediate succession (atha)’ to the
composition of the Srautasiitra, because the perform-
ance of the Srauta scarifices depends on many
dharma-s of conventional practices, therefore (atah) we
shall expound in detail (vyakhyasyamah) the dharma-s 8 VAISESIKA CATUHSOTRI
of conventional practices (samayacarikan dharman).
But, as stated above our present aphorism is the first
‘sutra of the Vaigesikadargana, and it is not preceded by
any work accomplished by Sutrakara. Hence, in our
case, we have to search elsewhere only for a suitable
prior correlate that could fit in well with the sense of
‘atha ‘in the immediate succession’ of the Kanddasttra,
Here we could follow the path shown by the great
commentators of the Piirva Mimamsa and the Vedanta-
sitra-s, While elucidating the first Mimamsa aphorism
athato dharmajijiasa Bhasyakara Sabarasvamin fixed
vedadhyayana ‘the learning of Veda’ as the prior corre-
late of atha (then). The reason is that a thorough
Knowledge of the Vedic text is an essential pre-
requisite of dharmajijhasa ‘an inquiry into dharma’ (lit.
desire to know dharma). Likewise while commenting
on the first Vedanta aphorism athdto brahmajijfiasa,
Bhasyakira Sri Samkara fixed the acquirement of the
sadhana-catustaya ‘the fourfold means” as the prior
correlate of atha (then). For, these fourfold means are
the special and effective causes (puskala asadharana~
Kairana) for the rise of the brahmajijiasa “the desire to
know Brahman’. In the same way we may have to find
out a probable factor, an antecedent, not mentioned in
the Vaigesika aphorism which might have been
responsible for inducing Kanida to undertake the task
of expounding dharma. If that factor is discovered the
same could be fixed as the prior correlate of atha.
What could have been that factor, an antecedent ?
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 9
a The traditional commentators of 12th-13th centu-
ries (see above) are inclined to fix ‘the pupils expecta-
tion and question’ (sisyakanksa, Sisyaprasna) ; and
Sutrakara-s paying obeisance to God (iévaranama-
kara), as the antecdents and prior correlates of atha
(then). But those items could be the natural antecedents
of every other Daréana also, and they could not be the
special cause of the commencement of the Vaisesika-
dargana alone.
True, Prasastapada tells us that he commenced his
Padarthadharmasamgraha after paying obeisance to
God, the cause of the world (pranamya —hetum
Kvaram), But that need not be taken to be a com-
mentary on atha of the Vaiéesika aphorism under
study. Further Prasastapiida (6th century, see above)
belonged to the age after the Nyaya-Vaisesika amalga-
mation, and it was in that age the concept of isvara
and Isvardnumana (inference establishing God as the
cause of the world) became the central point of the
amalgamated Nyaya-Vaisesika system.'?
In fact, as in the scheme of the twenty-five tattva-s
of the Samkhya system, so in Kanada’s scheme of six
categories, there appears no room for God. Hence it is
highly improbable that SUtrakara Kanada could have
thought of indicating obeisance to God as a prereq-
uisite to his expounding dharma.
In view of all this, it is good for us, the students of
the history of Vaigesika thought, to endeavour to
analyse the factors that might have led Kanada to 10 VAISESIKA CATUHSOTRI
undertake the job of expounding dharma by composing
the Vaisesikasizira. Let us try. The Chandogyopanisad
makes no attempt to define dharma. Yet it classifies
dharma into three branches (trayo dharmaskandhah) :
the one comprising the performance of sacrifices, study
of scriptures, and giving charities (all to be performed
by the houscholders) ; the other in the form of austeri-
ties (of the hermits); and the third in the form of
spending one’s entire lifetime in the teacher's abode
(naisthika-brahmacarya), All these branches lead to
punyaloka, the regions of prosperity meant for virtuous
people.”
The Brhaddranyakopanisad, too, does not define
dharma; yet it declares dharma and satya are
identical."*
‘According to the Mahabharata, a determination
(vyavasdya) of what is dharma and what is adharma is
beyond the capacity of man; Hence, a man should not
try to determine that." The same epic goes further too.
SWho can expound dharma, which is dangerously
sharper than even the edge of the razor? Neither
Kalmasa, nor Kapila, nor even Krsna, nor Lohita can
undertake that job.”
Many more passages of similar import can be cited
from the epic. These instances are clear enough to
show that the early thinkers, at least a good number of
them, like Vyasa, were conscious of their inability to
define dharma.
‘A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE n
Apastamba, the highly acclaimed e3
‘rare ce far He agape
the inability of the writers of his age to define
dharma ; yet, he gives a general guideline that may
help one in identifying dharma only for all practical
Purposes, but not in a precise manner. His tel
ing
Dharma and adharma do not roam about
proclaiming ‘Here we are’. Again the gods
gandharva-s and pits, ete, do not come to teach
us” ‘This is dharma; that is adharma’, So our
guidance is: that is dharma, which, when being
performed, the Aryas praise; and which they
condemn is adharma.”
This definition of dharma and adharma provided
by Apastamba may be condensed in Sanskrit as
Grylyaprasamsavisayam karma dharmah; aryi-
yagarhanavisayam karma adharmah. |
‘Dharma is that act which is commended by the
Aryas (the learned cultured men). Adharma is
that act which is condemned by the Aryas.”
This sort of loose and normative definitions of
dharma and adharma belong to the class of what the
logicians eall yiavahdrikalaksana (definition of a given
thing, for the purpose of worldly transactions). The
illustrious lawgiver Manu also goes by the path of
Apastamba. He too does define dharma but describes it
as: ‘One should consider an act as dharma which is 2 VaiSESIKA CATUHSUTRI
heartily approved by the learned pious men who are
always free from desire and hatred.’ "
‘Another well-known lawgiver Yajfiavalkya, does
not define and expound dharma. But he declares
among the pious acts, such as performance of sacrifice,
practising of non-injury, giving gifts, reciting Veda and
so on, the highest dharma is the realization of self by
means of yoga.”
‘All those authorities clearly point to an age when
great thinkers were feeling helpless and insecure, ot
more probably were reluctant to expound dharma by
precisely defining it, Le. by offering a good wyvartta-
Kalaksana ie. definition that helps us in differentiating
the definiendum (laksyam), the entity under definition
from the rest, Maybe they thought that the eternal
(sandana) dharma is 100 great, vast and serious &
subject to be expounded by »pdvarttakalaksana. So, i
dharma is defined, dharma is defiled. For it would
‘open the gate for the most incompetent and charac-
terless persons to expound dharma in their own way
and it would upset the social order. Hence, propriety
expects that sisfa-s (the learned cultured men) should
hot go beyond designating certain kinds of acts as
dharma ; and they should not undertake the task of
expounding dharma by means of some vyivarttaka-
Taksana —a task that amounts to blasphemy. At any
rate, it is almost certain that in the history of ancient
Indian thought there was a period when dharma was
highly venerated, but left undefined precisely.
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE B
No doubt, the Dharmasastra writers of that age like
Visvamitra and others were not unaware of the fact
that the vague vyavaharikalaksana, like the one given
by authorities like Apastamba, might not help men pre-
occupied with worldly affairs, in identifying dharma
and adharma." Yet, these writers did assert that a
person totally devoted to the performance of dharma
(dharmasalin) can certainly identify dharma with the
help of the descriptive form of definition i.e. the vyava-
harikalaksana, provided by the ancient writers. like
Apastamba ; and here lies their dexterity (pravinyam).
In this context, Visvamitra cites almost verbatim the
descriptive and normative definition of dharma as
given by Apastamba.””
On the other hand, the Vaisesikasiitra seems to
indicate that Kanada who lived in that age might have
thoroughly examined all the then available authorities
on dharma, observed their inability in expounding and
defining dharma ; and he had come boldly forward to
do that job thoroughly by defining dharma scientifi-
cally, as we shall see in the sequel. Therefore it is only
logical to say that this task of examining earlier
authorities, a task undertaken by Kanada himself must
have been the prior correlate of atha (then) ie. ‘in the
immediate succession’. So it is this task of examining
the earlier authorities which constituted the first cause
(nidana) that induced Kanada to expound dharma by
writing the Vaisesikasiitra.
The word atah carries the sense of reason 4 ValsESIKA CATUHSOTRI
(atah-Sabdo hetvarthah). This word is generally used to
indicate the causality of what has been just before
stated in the context, with regard to what is about to be
stated next. Hence, we may conclude that the causality
indicated by atah is contained in what is conveyed by
aatha (then) itself, That word, as we just saw above is
intended to convey the sense ‘after examining the
existing authorities on dharma’. Consequently the word
atah may be taken to signify ‘because those existing
authorities are found not expounding dharma precisely,
therefore’. This sense would very well connect the
sense of atha with that conveyed by dharmam
aikhyasyamah.
a iris al the basis of our above detailed discussion,
the first aphorism could be’ logically taken to mean
‘after examining the authories on dharma, because they
are found wanting in the exposition of dharma prop-
erly, therefore we shall expound dharma excellently
and by its distinguishing characteristic’,
2. Dharmalaksanastitram : Definition of Dharma
yato ‘bhyudayanihsreyasasiddhih sa dharmah.
“That is dharma from which is the attainment of
prosperity and liberation.’
‘Comments
The words abhyudaya (
