STRUCTURAL

ANALYSIS
NINTH EDITION

R. C. HIBBELER

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 To The Student
With the hope that this work will stimulate
an interest in Structural Analysis
and provide an acceptable guide to its understanding.
This page intentionally left blank
  Preface
This book is intended to provide the student with a clear and thorough
presentation of the theory and application of structural analysis as it
applies to trusses, beams, and frames. Emphasis is placed on developing
the student’s ability to both model and analyze a structure and to provide
realistic applications encountered in professional practice.
For many years now, engineers have been using matrix methods to
analyze structures. Although these methods are most efficient for a
structural analysis, it is the author’s opinion that students taking a first
course in this subject should also be well versed in some of the more
important classicial methods. Practice in applying these methods will
develop a deeper understanding of the basic engineering sciences of
statics and mechanics of materials. Also, problem-solving skills are
further developed when the various techniques are thought out and
applied in a clear and orderly way. By solving problems in this way one
can better grasp the way loads are transmitted through a structure and
obtain a more complete understanding of the way the structure deforms
under load. Finally, the classicial methods provide a means of checking
computer results rather than simply relying on the generated output.
New Material and Content Revision. This edition now includes
examples of the causes of structural failures, the concept of a load path,
and an enhanced discussion for drawing shear and moment diagrams
and the deflection of beams and frames. Chapter 17 has been added,
which now provides a discussion of structural modeling concepts and a
general description of how computer software is applied. Included are
some structural modeling projects, along with a set of problems that
require a computer analysis.
Structural Terminology. There are several places throughout the text
where illustrations and discussion of additional terminology has been
added, so that the student becomes familiar with the basic forms of
fundamental structures and the names of their members.
Problem Arrangement. Different from the previous edition, the
problems in each chapter are now placed at the end of the chapter. They
are grouped with section headings for the convenience of assigning
problems for homework.
New Problems. There are approximately 70% new problems in this
edition. They retain a balance of easy, medium, and difficult applications.
In addition, some new fundamental problems have been added that
stress the importance of drawing frame moment diagrams and drawing
deflected structures. Apart from the author, the problems have been
checked by four other parties, namely Scott Hendricks, Karim Nora,
Kurt Norlin, and Kai Beng Yap.
Additional Photos. The relevance of knowing the subject matter is
reflected by the realistic applications depicted in many new and updated
photos along with captions that are placed throughout the book.
vi P r e fa c e

Organization and Approach

The contents of each chapter are arranged into sections with specific topics
categorized by title headings. Discussions relevant to a particular theory
are succinct, yet thorough. In most cases, this is followed by a “procedure
for analysis” guide, which provides the student with a summary of the
important concepts and a systematic approach for applying the theory. The
example problems are solved using this outlined method in order to clarify
its numerical application. Problems are given at the end of each chapter,
and are arranged to cover the material in sequential order. Moreover, for
any topic they are arranged in approximate order of increasing difficulty.

Hallmark Elements
• Photographs. Many photographs are used throughout the book
to explain how the principles of structural analysis apply to real-world
situations.
• Problems. Most of the problems in the book depict realistic
situations encountered in practice. It is hoped that this realism will
both stimulate the student’s interest in structural analysis and develop
the skill to reduce any such problem from its physical description to a
model or symbolic representation to which the appropriate theory can
be applied. This modeling process is further discussed in Chapter 17.
Throughout the book there is an approximate balance of problems
using either SI or FPS units. The intent has been to develop problems
that test the student’s ability to apply the theory, keeping in mind that
those problems requiring tedious calculations can be relegated to
computer analysis.
• Answers to Selected Problems. The answers to selected
problems are listed in the back of the book. Extra care has been taken
in the presentation and solution of the problems, and all the problem
sets have been reviewed and the solutions checked and rechecked to
ensure both their clarity and numerical accuracy.
• Example Problems. All the example problems are presented in a
concise manner and in a style that is easy to understand.
• Illustrations. Throughout the book, an increase in two-color art
has been added, including many photorealistic illustrations that
provide a strong connection to the 3-D nature of structural engineering.
• Triple Accuracy Checking. The edition has undergone rigorous
accuracy checking and proofing of pages. Besides the author’s review
of all art pieces and pages, Scott Hendricks of Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Karim Nohra of the University of South Florida, and Kurt
Norlin of Laurel Technical Services rechecked the page proofs and
together reviewed the Solutions Manual.
 P r e fa c e vii

• Fundamental Problems. These problem sets are selectively

located at the end of most chapters. They offer students simple
applications of the concepts and, therefore, provide them with the
chance to develop their problem-solving skills before attempting to
solve any of the standard problems that follow. You may consider
these problems as extended examples since they all have solutions
and answers that are given in the back of the book. Additionally, the
fundamental problems offer students an excellent means of studying
for exams, and they can be used at a later time to prepare for the
exam necessary to obtain a professional engineering license.

Contents
This book is divided into three parts. The first part consists of seven
chapters that cover the classical methods of analysis for statically
determinate structures. Chapter 1 provides a discussion of the various
types of structural forms and loads. Chapter 2 discusses the
determination of forces at the supports and connections of statically
determinate beams and frames. The analysis of various types of
statically determinate trusses is given in Chapter 3, and shear and
bending-moment functions and diagrams for beams and frames are
presented in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, the analysis of simple cable and
arch systems is presented, and in Chapter 6 influence lines for beams,
girders, and trusses are discussed. Finally, in Chapter 7 several common
techniques for the approximate analysis of statically indeterminate
structures are considered.
In the second part of the book, the analysis of statically indeterminate
structures is covered in six chapters. Geometrical methods for
calculating deflections are discussed in Chapter 8. Energy methods for
finding deflections are covered in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 covers the
analysis of statically indeterminate structures using the force method
of analysis, in addition to a discussion of influence lines for beams. Then
the displacement methods consisting of the slope-deflection method in
Chapter 11 and moment distribution in Chapter 12 are discussed.
Finally, beams and frames having nonprismatic members are considered
in Chapter 13.
The third part of the book treats the matrix analysis of structures using
the stiffness method. Trusses are discussed in Chapter 14, beams in
Chapter 15, and frames in Chapter 16. Finally, Chapter 17 provides some
basic ideas as to how to model a structure, and for using available
software for solving problem in structural analysis. A review of matrix
algebra is given in Appendix A.
viii P r e fa c e

Resources for Instructors

• MasteringEngineering. This online Tutorial Homework program
allows you to integrate dynamic homework with automatic grading
and adaptive tutoring. MasteringEngineering allows you to easily track
the performance of your entire class on an assignment-by-assignment
basis, or the detailed work of an individual student.
• Instructor’s Solutions Manual. An instructor’s solutions manual
was prepared by the author. The manual was also checked as part of
the Triple Accuracy Checking program.
•  Presentation Resources. All art from the text is available in
PowerPoint slide and JPEG format. These files are available for
download from the Instructor Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.
com. If you are in need of a login and password for this site, please
contact your local Pearson Prentice Hall representative.
•  Video Solutions. Located on the Companion Website, Video
Solutions offer step-by-step solution walkthroughs of representative
homework problems from each chapter of the text. Make efficient
use of class time and office hours by showing students the complete
and concise problem solving approaches that they can access anytime
and view at their own pace. The videos are designed to be a flexible
resource to be used however each instructor and student prefers. A
valuable tutorial resource, the videos are also helpful for student self-
evaluation as students can pause the videos to check their
understanding and work alongside the video. Access the videos at
www.pearsonhighered.com/hibbeler and follow the links for the
Structural Analysis text.
• STRAN. Developed by the author and Barry Nolan, a practicing
engineer, STRAN is a downloadable program for use with
Structural Analysis problems. Access STRAN on the Companion
Website, www. pearsonhighered.com/hibbeler and follow the links
for the Structural Analysis text. Complete instructions for how to
use the software are included on the Companion Website.

Resources for Students

• MasteringEngineering. Tutorial homework problems emulate the
instrutor’s office-hour environment.
• Companion Website. The Companion Website provides practice
and review materials including:
❍ Video Solutions—Complete, step-by-step solution walkthroughs

of representative homework problems from each chapter.

 P r e fa c e ix

Videos offer:
■ Fully worked Solutions—Showing every step of representative

homework problems, to help students make vital connections

between concepts.
■ Self-paced Instruction—Students can navigate each problem

and select, play, rewind, fast-forward, stop, and jump-

to-sections within each problem’s solution.
■ 2 4/7 Access—Help whenever students need it with over

20 hours of helpful review.

❍ STRAN—A program you can use to solve two and three
dimensional trusses and beams, and two dimensional frames.
Instructions for downloading and how to use the program are
available on the Companion Website.
An access code for the Structural Analysis, Ninth Edition Companion
Website is included with this text. To redeem the code and gain access to the
site, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/hibbeler and follow the directions on
the access code card. Access can also be purchased directly from the site.

Acknowledgments
Through the years, over one hundred of my colleagues in the teaching
profession and many of my students have made valuable suggestions
that have helped in the development of this book, and I would like to
hereby acknowledge all of their comments. I personally would like to
thank the reviewers contracted by my editor for this new edition, namely:
Delong Zuo, Texas Tech University
Husam Najm, Rutgers University
Tomasz Arciszewski, University of Colorado—Boulder
Brian Swartz, University of Hartford
Vicki May, Dartmouth College
Thomas Boothby, Penn State University
Leroy Hulsey, University of Alaska—Fairbanks
Reagan Herman, University of Houston
Des Penny, Southern Utah University
Ahmet Pamuk, Flordia State University
Also, the constructive comments from Kai Beng Yap, and Barry Nolan,
both practicing engineers are greatly appreciated. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge the support I received from my wife Conny, who has always
been very helpful in preparing the manuscript for publication.
I would greatly appreciate hearing from you if at any time you have
any comments or suggestions regarding the contents of this edition.

Russell Charles Hibbeler

[email protected]
your work...
your answer specific feedback

®
  CONTENTS

1
Types of Structures and
Loads 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Classification of Structures 4
1.3 Loads 9
1.4 Structural Design 28
Problems 29
Chapter Review 33

2
Analysis of Statically Determinate
Structures 35
2.1 Idealized Structure 35
2.2 Load Path 48
2.3 Principle of Superposition 49
2.4 Equations of Equilibrium 50
2.5 D
 eterminacy and Stability 51
2.6 A
 pplication of the Equations of
­Equilibrium 58
Fundamental Problems 68
Problems 70
Project Problem 79
Chapter Review 80
 C o n t e n t s xiii

3
Analysis of Statically
Determinate Trusses 83

3.1 Common Types of Trusses 83

3.2 Classification of Coplanar Trusses 89
3.3 The Method of Joints 96
3.4 Zero-Force Members 100
3.5 The Method of Sections 102
3.6 Compound Trusses 108
3.7 Complex Trusses 112
3.8 Space Trusses 116
Fundamental Problems 123
Problems 125
Project Problem 135
Chapter Review 136

4
Internal Loadings Developed
in Structural Members 139
4.1 Internal Loadings at a
­Specified Point 139
4.2 Shear and Moment Functions 145
4.3 
Shear and Moment Diagrams
for a Beam 150
4.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams
for a Frame 160
4.5 Moment Diagrams Constructed by the
Method of Superposition 165
Fundamental Problems 170
Problems 174
Project Problem 184
Chapter Review 185
x i v C o n t e n t s

5
Cables and Arches 187

5.1 Cables 187

5.2 C able Subjected to
­Concentrated Loads 188
5.3 C able Subjected to a Uniform
­Distributed Load 190
5.4 Arches 196
5.5 Three-Hinged Arch 197
Problems 203
Chapter Review 209

6
Influence Lines for Statically
­Determinate Structures 211
6.1 Influence Lines 211
6.2 Influence Lines for Beams 219
6.3 Qualitative Influence Lines 222
6.4 Influence Lines for Floor Girders 230
6.5 Influence Lines for Trusses 234
6.6 M
 aximum Influence at a Point due to a
Series of Concentrated Loads 238
6.7 A bsolute Maximum Shear and
­Moment 248
Fundamental Problems 253
Problems 254
Project Problem 265
Chapter Review 266
 C o n t e n t s xv

7
Approximate Analysis of Statically
Indeterminate Structures 269
7.1 Use of Approximate Methods 269
7.2 Trusses 270
7.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frames 274
7.4 Portal Frames and Trusses 277
7.5 L ateral Loads on Building Frames:
P­ortal Method 282
7.6 L ateral Loads on Building Frames:
­Cantilever Method 288
Problems 294
Project Problem 301
Chapter Review 302

8
Deflections 305

FPO
8.1 Deflection Diagrams and the
­Elastic Curve 305
8.2 Elastic-Beam Theory 311
8.3 The Double Integration Method 313
8.4 Moment-Area Theorems 320
8.5 Conjugate-Beam Method 330
Fundamental Problems 338
Problems 342
Chapter Review 346
x v i C o n t e n t s

9
Deflections Using Energy
­Methods 349
9.1 External Work and Strain Energy 349
9.2 Principle of Work and Energy 353
9.3 Principle of Virtual Work 354
9.4 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses 356
9.5 Castigliano’s Theorem 363
9.6 Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses 364
9.7 M
 ethod of Virtual Work:
Beams and Frames 370
9.8  irtual Strain Energy Caused
V
by ­Axial Load, Shear, Torsion,
and ­Temperature 381
9.9  astigliano’s Theorem for Beams
C
and Frames 387
Fundamental Problems 393
Problems 395
Chapter Review 402

10
Analysis of Statically
­Indeterminate Structures
by the Force Method 405
10.1 Statically Indeterminate Structures 405
10.2  orce Method of Analysis:
F
­General ­Procedure 408
10.3 Maxwell’s Theorem of Reciprocal
D­isplacements; Betti’s Law 412
10.4 Force Method of Analysis: Beams 413
10.5 Force Method of Analysis: Frames 422
 C o n t e n t s xvii

10.6 Force Method of Analysis: Trusses 426

10.7 Composite Structures 429
10.8  dditional Remarks on the Force
A
­Method of Analysis 432
10.9 Symmetric Structures 433
10.10 Influence Lines for Statically
­Indeterminate Beams 435
10.11 Q
 ualitative Influence Lines
for Frames 439
Fundamental Problems 446
Problems 447
Chapter Review 458

11
Displacement Method of Analysis:
Slope-Deflection Equations 461
11.1  isplacement Method of Analysis:
D
­General Procedures 461
11.2 Slope-Deflection Equations 463
11.3 Analysis of Beams 469
11.4 Analysis of Frames: No Sidesway 477
11.5 Analysis of Frames: Sidesway 482
Problems 490
Project Problem 495
Chapter Review 495
x v i i i C o n t e n t s

12
Displacement Method of Analysis:
Moment Distribution 497
12.1 General Principles and Definitions 497
12.2 Moment Distribution for Beams 501
12.3 Stiffness-Factor Modifications 510
12.4  oment Distribution for Frames:
M
No ­Sidesway 516
12.5  oment Distribution for Frames:
M
­Sidesway 518
Problems 526
Chapter Review 531

13
Beams and Frames Having
­Nonprismatic Members 533
13.1 L oading Properties of Nonprismatic
­Members 533
13.2  oment Distribution for Structures
M
­Having Nonprismatic Members 538
13.3 
Slope-Deflection Equations
for ­Nonprismatic Members 544
Problems 546
Chapter Review 547
 C o n t e n t s xix

14
Truss Analysis Using the
­Stiffness Method 549
14.1  undamentals of the Stiffness
F
­Method 549
14.2 Member Stiffness Matrix 552
14.3  isplacement and Force
D
T­ransformation Matrices 553
14.4 Member Global Stiffness Matrix 556
14.5 Truss Stiffness Matrix 557
14.6  pplication of the Stiffness Method for
A
Truss Analysis 562
14.7 Nodal Coordinates 570
14.8  russes Having Thermal Changes and
T
Fabrication Errors 574
14.9 Space-Truss Analysis 580
Problems 582
Chapter Review 583

15
Beam Analysis Using the
­Stiffness Method 585
15.1 Preliminary Remarks 585
15.2 Beam-Member Stiffness Matrix 587
15.3 Beam-Structure Stiffness Matrix 589
15.4  pplication of the Stiffness Method for
A
Beam Analysis 589
Problems 602
x x C o n t e n t s

16
Plane Frame Analysis Using the
Stiffness Method 605
16.1 Frame-Member Stiffness Matrix 605
16.2  isplacement and Force
D
­Transformation Matrices 607
16.3  rame-Member Global Stiffness
F
­Matrix 609
16.4  pplication of the Stiffness Method
A
for Frame Analysis 610
Problems 619

17
Structural Modeling and
­Computer Analysis 623
17.1 General Structural Modeling 623
17.2  odeling a Structure and its
M
­Members 625
17.3  eneral Application of a Structural
G
­Analysis Computer Program 630
Computer Problems 635
Problems 636
Project Problems 637

Appendices
A.  atrix Algebra for Structural
M
­Analysis 640

Fundamental ­Solutions 654

Answers to Selected Problems 680

Index 693
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
 Chapter 1

© Joel Stahl/AP Images

Severe wind loadings caused by a hurricane have caused noticeable damage

to the windows of the high-rise building.
Types of Structures
and Loads
This chapter provides a discussion of some of the preliminary
aspects of structural analysis. The phases of activity necessary to
produce a structure are presented first, followed by an introduction
to the basic types of structures, their components, and supports.
Finally, a brief explanation is given of the various types of loads that
must be considered for an appropriate analysis and design.

1.1 Introduction
In this text we will present many of the different ways engineers model and
then analyze the loadings and deflections of various types of structures.
Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges,
and towers; and in other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames,
and mechanical, and electrical supporting structures are important.
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a
load. When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public
use, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability,
while taking into consideration economic and environmental constraints.
Often this requires several independent studies of different solutions
before final judgment can be made as to which structural form is most
appropriate. This design process is both creative and technical and
requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and the laws of
mechanics which govern material response. Once a preliminary design of
a structure is proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to ensure
that it has its required stiffness and strength. To analyze a structure
properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the members are
supported and connected together. The loadings are determined from
codes and local specifications, and the forces in the members and their
displacements are found using the theory of structural analysis, which is

3
 4 C h a p t e r 1   T y p e s of Structures and Loads

the subject matter of this text. The results of this analysis then can be
1 used to redesign the structure, accounting for a more accurate
determination of the weight of the members and their size. Structural
design, therefore, follows a series of successive approximations in which
every cycle requires a structural analysis. In this book, the structural
analysis is applied to civil engineering structures; however, the method of
analysis described can also be used for structures related to other fields
of engineering.

1.2 Classification of Structures

It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of
elements composing a structure and to be able to classify structures as to
their form and function. We will introduce some of these aspects now and
discuss others throughout the text.

Structural Elements. Some of the more common elements from

which structures are composed are as follows.
Tie Rods. Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often
referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature of this load,
these members are rather slender, and are often chosen from rods, bars,
angles, or channels, Fig. 1–1.

rod bar

angle channel

typical cross sections

Tie rods used for wind bracing. tie rod

Fig. 1–1
 1.2 Classification of Structures 5

Beams. Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to

carry vertical loads. Quite often they are classified according to the way 1
they are supported, as indicated in Fig. 1–2. In particular, when the cross
section varies the beam is referred to as tapered or haunched. Beam cross
sections may also be “built up” by adding plates to their top and bottom.
Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if
they are short and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become
quite large and this force may govern their design. When the material
used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminum, the cross section is
most efficient when it is shaped as shown in Fig. 1–3. Here the forces
developed in the top and bottom flanges of the beam form the necessary
couple used to resist the applied moment M, whereas the web is effective
in resisting the applied shear V. This cross section is commonly referred Shown are typical splice plate joints used
to as a “wide flange,” and it is normally formed as a single unit in a rolling to connect the steel girders of a highway
mill in lengths up to 75 ft (23 m). If shorter lengths are needed, a cross bridge.
section having tapered flanges is sometimes selected. When the beam is
required to have a very large span and the loads applied are rather large,
the cross section may take the form of a plate girder. This member is
fabricated by using a large plate for the web and welding or bolting plates
to its ends for flanges. The girder is often transported to the field in
segments, and the segments are designed to be spliced or joined together
at points where the girder carries a small internal moment.
Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is easy
to construct this form directly in the field. Because concrete is rather
weak in resisting tension, steel “reinforcing rods” are cast into the beam
The prestressed concrete girders are
within regions of the cross section subjected to tension. Precast concrete simply supported and are used for this
beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in the same manner and highway bridge.
then transported to the job site.
Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood or
laminated. Laminated beams are constructed from solid sections of M V
wood, which are fastened together using high-strength glues.
web

wide-flange beam

fixed–supported flange
simply supported beam
M V beam

web

cantilevered beam continuous beam flange

Fig. 1–2 Fig. 1–3
wide-flange beam
 6 C h a p t e r 1   T y p e s of Structures and Loads

Wide-flange members are often used column beam column

for columns. Here is an example of a
beam column. Fig. 1–4

Columns. Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive
loads are referred to as columns, Fig. 1–4. Tubes and wide-flange cross
sections are often used for metal columns, and circular and square
cross sections with reinforcing rods are used for those made of concrete.
Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending
moment as shown in the figure. These members are referred to as
beam columns.

Types of Structures. The combination of structural elements and

the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a structural
system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of
structures. Ranked in order of complexity of their force analysis, they are
as follows.
Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to be large and its
depth is not an important criterion for design, a truss may be selected.
Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular
fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same
plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas space
trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for
derricks and towers.
Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the
entire truss to bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in
the members. Because of this, one of the primary advantages of a truss,
compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a given load,
Fig. 1–5. Also, a truss is constructed from long and slender elements, which
can be arranged in various ways to support a load. Most often it is
economically feasible to use a truss to cover spans ranging from 30 ft
(9 m) to 400 ft (122 m), although trusses have been used on occasion for
spans of greater lengths.
 1.2 Classification of Structures 7

Loading causes bending of the truss, which

develops compression in the top members,
and tension in the bottom members.

Fig. 1–5

Cables and Arches. Two other forms of structures used to span long
distances are the cable and the arch. Cables are usually flexible and carry
their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support bridges,
Fig. 1–6a, and building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has
an advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are
greater than 150 ft (46 m). Because they are always in tension, cables will
not become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams
or trusses. Furthermore, the truss will require added costs for construction
and increased depth as the span increases. Use of cables, on the other
hand, is limited only by their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage.
The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be rigid, however, in order
to maintain its shape, and this results in secondary loadings involving
shear and moment, which must be considered in its design. Arches are
frequently used in bridge structures, Fig. 1–6b, dome roofs, and for
openings in masonry walls.

Cables support their loads in tension. Arches support their loads in compression.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1–6
 8 C h a p t e r 1   T y p e s of Structures and Loads

rigid pinned
1

Frame members are subjected to

internal axial, shear, and moment loadings.

rigid pinned

Fig. 1–7

Frames. Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams
and columns that are either pin or fixed connected, Fig. 1–7. Like trusses,
frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame causes
bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure
is generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. The strength of
such a frame is derived from the moment interactions between the beams
and the columns at the rigid joints.
Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a material having a
very small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
Typical steel framework. material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated
structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected
to pure tension.
Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced
concrete. As such they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or
hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates or shells. These
structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in
tension or compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or
shell structures are generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three-
dimensional geometry of their surface. Such an analysis is beyond the
scope of this text and is instead covered in texts devoted entirely to
this subject.
© Bob Krist/Documentary
Value/Corbis

The roof of the “Georgia Dome” in

Atlanta, Georgia can be considered
as a thin membrane.
 1.3 Loads 9

1.3 Loads 1

Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it

becomes necessary to determine the loads the structure must support.
Often, it is the anticipation of the various loads that will be imposed on
the structure that provides the basic type of structure that will be chosen
for design. For example, high-rise structures must endure large lateral
loadings caused by wind, and so shear walls and tubular frame systems are
selected, whereas buildings located in areas prone to earthquakes must
be designed having ductile frames and connections.
Once the structural form has been determined, the actual design begins
with those elements that are subjected to the primary loads the structure
is intended to carry, and proceeds in sequence to the various supporting
members until the foundation is reached. Thus, a building floor slab
would be designed first, followed by the supporting beams, columns, and
last, the foundation footings. In order to design a structure, it is therefore
necessary to first specify the loads that act on it.
The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes. In general,
the structural engineer works with two types of codes: general building
codes and design codes. General building codes specify the requirements
of governmental bodies for minimum design loads on structures and
minimum standards for construction. Design codes provide detailed
technical standards and are used to establish the requirements for the
actual structural design. Table 1.1 lists some of the important codes used
in practice. It should be realized, however, that codes provide only a
general guide for design. The ultimate responsibility for the design lies
with the structural engineer.
Since a structure is generally subjected to several types of loads, a brief
discussion of these loadings will now be presented to illustrate how one
must consider their effects in practice.

TABLE 1.1 Codes

General Building Codes
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,
ASCE/SEI 7-10, American Society of Civil Engineers
International Building Code
Design Codes
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, Am. Conc. Inst. (ACI)
Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
National Design Specification for Wood Construction, American Forest and
Paper Association (AFPA)
Manual for Railway Engineering, American Railway Engineering
Association (AREA)