🌋 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
Geological Structure and Time Scale

1. Importance of Geological Structure

● Determines rock types and slopes.

● Influences soil properties (physical & chemical).
● Affects mineral availability.
● Regulates surface and underground water resources.
● Directly impacts socio-economic development.

2. Geological Time Scale

● Used by earth scientists and geologists to date historical events.

● The Earth is estimated to be 4.6 billion years old (based on radiometric dating).
● Geologic time is divided into:
○ Eons (Longest time units, over 500 million years).
○ Eras (Subdivisions of Eons, lasting millions of years).
○ Periods & Epochs (Smaller divisions based on rock formations and fossil records).
● Precambrian Era accounts for 87.6% of Earth's history.

3. Geological History of India

● 200 million years ago, India was part of Gondwanaland (Southern Supercontinent).
● Peninsular India is one of the oldest landmasses on Earth.
● Geological evolution involved:
○ Alpine orogeny (formation of the Himalayas in the Tertiary Period).
○ Indo-Gangetic Plain formation (Pleistocene Period).
○ Ongoing sedimentation in the floodplains (e.g., Hugli Basin).
● Complex geological history, involving:
○ First crust formation.
○ First sedimentary rock deposits.
○ First orogeny (mountain-building process).
○ Recent alluvial deposits.
● Many rock formations are superimposed and subjected to intense folding and faulting.
 The Archaean Era (Precambrian Period)
1. Overview

● Timeframe: 4.6 billion years ago to 570 million years ago.

● Duration: Constitutes 86.7% of Earth's history.
● Introduced by: J.D. Dana in 1782.
● Significance:
○ Formation of the first atmosphere and life-supporting conditions.
○ Development of chemosynthesis and photosynthesis.
○ Oldest plutonic rocks of Earth's crust.
● Rock Characteristics:
 ○ Crystalline, contorted, faulted, azoic (lifeless), and unfossiliferous.
○ Plutonic intrusions present.
○ Foundation for ancient plateaus and mountain cores worldwide.

2. Archaean Rocks in India

● Known as Purana in the Indian Geological Time Scale (T.S. Holland).

● Also called Archaean gneiss.
● Coverage:
○ Two-thirds of Peninsular India.
○ Himalayan foothills (Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh).
○ Trans-Himalayan regions (Zanskar, Ladakh, Karakoram).
● Major formations:
○ Aravalli, Dharwar, Cuddapah, Vindhyan systems.
○ Meghalaya Plateau and Mikir Hills.
● Mineral Composition:
○ Granite, gabbro, orthoclase, quartz, muscovite, biotite, hornblende.

3. Types of Archaean Gneiss in India

(i) Bengal Gneiss

● Highly foliated rocks.

● Locations:
○ Eastern Ghats, Odisha (Khodolites, named after the Khond tribe).
○ Jharkhand (Manbhum & Hazaribagh).
○ Andhra Pradesh (Nellore), Tamil Nadu (Salem).
○ Son Valley, Meghalaya Plateau, Mikir Hills.
● First identified in: Midnapur district, West Bengal.

(ii) Bundelkhand Gneiss

● Massive granitoid rocks.

● Locations:
○ Bundelkhand (UP), Baghelkhand (MP), Maharashtra, Rajasthan.
○ Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
● Characteristics:
○ Coarse-grained, granite-like texture.
○ Criss-crossed quartz veins.

(iii) Nilgiri Gneiss

 ● Dark-colored, massive eruptive rock.
● Named after: Job Charnock (his tombstone in Kolkata was made from this rock).
● Appearance:
○ Bluish-grey to dark-colored.
○ Medium to coarse-grained texture.
○ Belongs to the Charnockite series.
● Locations:
○ Tamil Nadu (South Arcot, Palni Hills, Shevaroy Hills, Nilgiri).
○ Andhra Pradesh (Nellore).
○ Odisha (Balasore), Karnataka, Kerala (Malabar).
○ Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan (Aravalli).

4. Economic Importance

● Major mineral resources:

○ Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Minerals: Iron, copper, manganese, mica,
dolomite.
○ Precious metals: Lead, zinc, silver, gold.
● Archaean rocks are India’s primary repositories of mineral wealth.

Dharwar System (2500–1800 Million Years Ago)

● First metamorphosed sedimentary rock system in India.
● Named after Dharwar district, Karnataka.
● Composed of igneous debris, schists, and gneisses.
● Locations:
○ Karnataka (Dharwar, Bellary, Nilgiris, Madurai)
○ Chotanagpur Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau, Mikir Hills
○ Aravallis, Rialo (Delhi series), Himalayan region

Key Dharwar Series and Features

Series Location Significant Features

Champion Mysore, Bangalore, Kolar, One of the deepest gold mines (3.5
Series Raichur (Karnataka) km depth), 5.5g gold per tonne

Champaner Vadodara, Aravalli foothills Quartzites, conglomerates, green

Series marble
Chilpi Series Balaghat, Jabalpur, Phyllites, quartzites, manganese-rich
Chhindwara (MP) rocks

Closepet Balaghat, Chhindwara (MP) Copper pyrite, quartzite, ore for

Series Malanjkhand Copper Plant

IronOre Singhbhum, Bonai, 65 km range, 3000 million tonnes of

Series Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar iron ore
(Odisha)

Khondolite Eastern Ghats (Odisha, AP) Khondolites, charnockites, gneisses

Series

Rialo (Delhi) Delhi-Alwar (Rajasthan) Makrana marble (Taj Mahal marble

Series source)

Sakoli Series Jabalpur, Rewa (MP) Rich in mica, dolomite, marble

Sausar Series Nagpur, Bhandara Mica schist, quartzite, magniferous

(Maharashtra), Chhindwara rocks
(MP)

Economic Importance

● Minerals: Iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, gold, silver, mica, copper, tungsten,
nickel, precious stones, building materials.

2. Cuddapah System (Purana Group)

● Named after Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh.
● Sedimentary-metamorphic formations.
● Locations:
○ Cuddapah & Kurnool (AP), Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan-Delhi (Alwar),
Lesser Himalayas.
● Main rocks: Shales, slates, limestone, quartzite.
● Thickness: Up to 6,000m, indicating significant basin sinking.

Notable Cuddapah Series

Series Location Features
 Papaghani Papaghani Quartzites, sandstones, shales, limestones,
Series River Valley intrusions of dykes & sills (metamorphosed to
(AP) marble, talc, slate, serpentine)

Economic Importance

● Minerals: Iron ore, manganese, asbestos, copper, nickel, cobalt, marble,

jasper.
● Building materials and interior decoration stones.
● Metallic contents in ores are low, making extraction uneconomical.

3. Vindhyan System
● Named after Vindhyan Mountains.
● Covers 103,600 sq km from Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to Sasaram (Bihar).
● Divides the Ganga Plain & Deccan Plateau.
● Sedimentary deposits up to 4000m thick.
● Great Boundary Fault (GBF) separates it from Aravallis (800 km).

Notable Vindhyan Series

Series Location Features

Bhander Western Vindhyan Region Sandstones, shales, limestone (building

Series materials)

Bijwar Chhatarpur & Panna (MP) Red sandstone, quartzite, diamond-rich

Series basaltic intrusions

Kaimur Bundelkhand (UP), Sandstone, conglomerate, shale,

Series Baghelkhand (MP) historical monument stone

Economic Importance

● Minerals: Red sandstone, diamonds (Panna & Golconda mines), inferior iron
ore & manganese.
● Historical buildings from Vindhyan Red Sandstone:
 ○ Qutub Minar, Humayun’s Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Red Fort,
Jama Masjid, Sanchi Stupa.
○ Coarse sandstone used for grindstones & millstones.

Palaeozoic Era (Dravidian Era in India) (570–245 million

years ago)
● Includes Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian periods.
● Marks the beginning of life on Earth.
● Found in Salt Range, Pir Panjal, Handwara, Lidder Valley, Anantnag (J&K),
Spiti, Kangra, Shimla (Himachal Pradesh), Garhwal & Kumaon (Uttarakhand).
● Pangaea started breaking, leading to the formation of the Tethys Sea.
● Cambrian rocks include shales, sandstones, clays, quartzites, slates, salts, and
marble.

2. Gondwana System (Mesozoic Era) (345–280 million years ago)

● Formed during Upper Carboniferous to Jurassic Period.

● Fluviatile and lacustrine deposits in river basins and lakes.
● Coal, iron ore, kaolin, fire clay, sandstone, and grits found in these formations.
● Named after the Gond tribe of Madhya Pradesh, term coined by H.B. Medlicott
(1872).

3. Important Gondwana Formations

● Talcher Series (Odisha) – High-quality coal reserves (38.65 billion tonnes),

divided into Talcher, Jagannath, Kalinga, Lingaraj, and Hingula regions.
● Damuda Series (Middle Gondwana Period) – Major coal-bearing formations in
Raniganj, Jharia, Karanpura, Bokaro, Singrauli, Korba, Pench Valley, and
Singareni.
○ Jhingurda Coal Seam (131m) – Thickest coal seam in India.
● Panchet Series (Youngest Lower Gondwana System) – Greenish sandstone &
shales, but no coal seams.
● Iron ore shales in Raniganj (West Bengal) contain low-grade iron (siderite &
limonite).

4. Economic Importance of Gondwana System

● 95% of India’s coal deposits are in Gondwana formations.

 ● Major coalfields: Damodar Valley (WB, Jharkhand), Mahanadi Valley (Odisha,
Chhattisgarh), Godavari Valley (AP), and Satpura Basin (MP).
● Also provides iron ore, limestone, sandstone, and raw materials for ceramics.

5. Aryan Period (Upper Carboniferous Onwards)

● Tethys Sea formed, connecting the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

● Volcanic activity in Kashmir Himalayas (Pir Panjal to Ladakh).
● Breakup of Gondwanaland, leading to India drifting north and colliding with
Eurasia.
● Deccan Trap lava eruptions occurred.
● Expansion of Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
● Formation of the Himalayas due to Tertiary mountain-building.
● Ice Age (Pleistocene Period) covered large parts of Earth under ice.
● Evolution and spread of humans worldwide.

1. Cretaceous Period (146–65 million years ago)

● Origin of the term: Derived from Latin creta, meaning “chalk.”
● Widespread deposits with different facies in various regions of India.
● Major events:
○ Marine transgression along the Coromandel coast and Narmada Valley.
○ Massive lava outpouring leading to the formation of the Deccan Trap.
○ Intrusion of plutonic rocks such as gabbro and granite.
● Deccan Trap (Lava Plateau Formation):
○ Volcanic eruptions led to over 3,000 m of basaltic lava deposits.
○ Covers ~500,000 sq km in Gujarat (Kachchh, Kathiawar), Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh (Malwa Plateau), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, northern
Andhra Pradesh, and NW Karnataka.
○ Lava thickness variations:
■ 3,000 m in Mumbai.
■ 800 m in Kachchh.
■ 150 m in Amarkantak.
■ 60 m in Belgaum (Karnataka).
■ Individual lava flows: 5–29 m thick (observed near Bhusawal,
Maharashtra).
○ Inter-trappean beds: Sedimentary layers between lava flows.
○ Economic significance:
■ Basalt used in roads and buildings.
 ■ Minerals found: Quartz, bauxite, magnetite, agate, and semi-
precious stones.
■ Rich in: Magnesium, carbonate, potash, and phosphates.

2. Tertiary System (Cenozoic Era) (66–2.6 million years ago)

● Cenozoic = “Recent Life” (fossils closely related to modern mammals, plants, and
invertebrates).
● Divided into Two Periods:
1. Tertiary (66–2.6 million years ago).
2. Quaternary (2.6 million years ago – present).
● Key Geological Events:
1. Breakup of Gondwanaland (final phase).
2. Formation of the Himalayas due to the uplift of the Tethys geosyncline
(collision of Indian and Eurasian plates).

3. Three Phases of Himalayan Uplift

1. First upheaval (Eocene–Oligocene, ~65 million years ago):
○ Formation of Greater Himalayas.
2. Second upheaval (Mid-Miocene, ~45 million years ago):
○ Folding of Lesser Himalayas.
3. Third upheaval (Post-Pliocene, ~1.4 million years ago):
○ Formation of Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas).
○ Evidence suggests Himalayas are still rising.

4. Tertiary Deposits in the Peninsular Region

● Found in Kachchh, Kathiawar, Konkan, Malabar, Nilgiris, and Eastern Ghats.

Quaternary Period
 ● Definition: The most recent geological period, containing fossils of species still
living today.
● Two subdivisions:
○ Pleistocene Epoch (~2.6 million – 11,700 years ago) →Ice Age, major
climatic changes.
○ Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago – Present) →Modern landscapes,
human civilization.

2. Formation of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain

● Emerged during the Pleistocene Epoch.

● Formed in a "foredeep" or synclinal basin, which developed due to the
downwarping of the Himalayan foreland.
● Result of Himalayan uplift and sedimentation.

3. Ice Age & Glaciation in India

● Ice-sheets extended to altitudes as low as 1500 m.

● Moraine deposits and Karewa formations in Kashmir and Bhadarwa (Doda,
Jammu Division) are from the Pleistocene Epoch.
● River terraces of Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri also belong
to this period.

4. Karewas of Kashmir

● Lacustrine (lake) deposits from the Pleistocene Epoch.

● Composition: Sands, clays, loams, silt, and boulders.
● Location: Found along the lower slopes of Pir Panjal, dipping towards Kashmir
Valley.
● Economic Importance:
○ Pampore & Pulwama karewas →Famous for saffron, almonds, and
walnuts.
○ Significant for agriculture and soil fertility.
 Feature Geologic Era Age (mya) Epoch of Formation

The Aravalli Range Precambrian 2,500 - 1,800 Archean-Proterozoic

Bundelkhand Plateau Precambrian 2,500 - 1,800 Archean-Proterozoic

Dharwar Plateau (Karnataka
Precambrian 2,500 - 1,800 Archean-Proterozoic
Plateau)
Deccan Plateau Mesozoic-Cenozoic 65 - 66 Late Cretaceous - Paleocene

Chotanagpur Plateau Precambrian 1,000 - 500 Proterozoic

Vindhyan Range Precambrian 1,000 - 500 Proterozoic

Satpura Range Paleozoic 350 - 250 Carboniferous-Permian

Eastern Ghats Precambrian 1,600 - 550 Proterozoic

Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills) Cenozoic 66 - 55 Paleocene-Eocene

Himalayas Cenozoic 50 - 10 Eocene-Pleistocene

Shiwalik Hills Cenozoic 2-5 Pleistocene

🌋 PHYSIOGRAPHY (Relief)
On the basis of tectonic history, stratigraphy, and physiography, India may be divided into the following
four physiographic divisions as shown on the map:
1. The elevated Peninsular region;
2. The mighty Himalaya and their associated young folded mountains;
3. The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains;
4. The Deserts.
5. The Coastal Plains and Islands.

THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

Geographical Extent:
● Length: ~2,400 km from Indus Gorge (west) to Brahmaputra Gorge (east).
● Width: 500 km in Kashmir, 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
● Total Area: ~5 lakh sq km

Connection with Central Asia: Pamir Knot (Roof of the World) connects the Himalayas with Central Asian
high ranges. The range extends eastward in an arcuate curve convex to the south.

Indian Himalayan Extent:

● From Pakistan's eastern border to Myanmar (~2,500 km).

● Width: ~500 km (west), ~320 km (east).
● Separated from the Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains by the Himalayan Front Fault
(HFF).
● Includes parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh.
● Offshoots extend north-south along the India-Myanmar border (Nagaland,
Manipur, Mizoram).

ORIGIN OF THE HIMALAYAS:

The Himalayan Mountains are a complex system composed of Precambrian and Eocene rocks,
predominantly sedimentary and metamorphic. The region has undergone intense folding and faulting,
leading to debates among geologists regarding its origin. Two major theories explain the formation of
the Himalayas: the Geosynclinal Theory and the Plate Tectonic Theory.

1. The Geosynclinal Theory, supported by Argand, Kober, and Suess, states that the Tethys Sea existed
between the Laurasian Shield (Angaraland) in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. Over
millions of years, sediments accumulated in this geosyncline due to erosion from these landmasses.
Around 65 million years ago, the first uplift led to the formation of the Greater Himalayas during
the Eocene Period. The second uplift, around 45 million years ago in the Miocene Period, created
the Lesser Himalayas, while the third uplift, about 1.4 million years ago in the Pliocene Period,
resulted in the Shivalik Hills (Outer Himalayas).

2. The Plate Tectonic Theory, proposed by W.J. Morgan in 1967, is based on Sea-Floor Spreading and
explains that 65 million years ago, the Indian Plate began moving northward, colliding with the
Eurasian Plate. This collision caused subduction, compressing and folding the Tethys sediments,
leading to the formation of the Himalayas. The Indian Plate continues to move northward, causing
the Himalayan peaks to rise further. This collision initially formed the Ladakh and Zanskar Ranges
(Trans-Himalayas) before the Great Himalayas emerged.
 As the Indian Plate subducted under the Eurasian Plate, thrust faults like the Main Central Thrust
(MCT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and Himalayan Front Fault (HFF) were created. The second
major uplift, around 45 million years ago, led to the formation of the Lesser Himalaya, including
rugged ranges like Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, Karol, and Mahabharat. This uplift also created
intermontane basins such as Kashmir Valley, Dun Valley (Uttarakhand), and Kathmandu Valley
(Nepal). The third uplift, around 1.4 million years ago, formed the Shivalik Hills, composed of thick
deposits of boulders and conglomerates.

The Himalayan Front Fault (HFF) remains tectonically active, frequently experiencing earthquakes and
tremors. The Himalayas continue to evolve as the Indian Plate moves northward, leading to further uplift
and seismic activity.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE HIMALAYAS:

1. Trans-Himalaya (Tethys Himalaya)

2. Greater Himalaya
3. Lesser Himalaya
4. Shiwalik (Outer Himalaya)

1. The Trans-Himalayas
The Trans-Himalaya is a narrow belt, about 40 km wide, consisting of Tethys
sediments and marine fossil-bearing rocks underlain by Tertiary granite. It forms the
core of the Himalayan axis and has undergone partial metamorphosis. The valleys in
this region contain a large accumulation of debris due to defeated streams that could
not maintain their original course across the rising Himalayan barrier.

2. The Greater Himalayas

The Greater Himalaya is a lofty and continuous range, separated from the Lesser
Himalaya by the Main Central Thrust (MCT). It extends about 25 km in width, with an
average height exceeding 6100 m. Some of the world's highest peaks, such as Mt.
Everest, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, and Nanda Devi, are
located in this zone. The Greater Himalaya is composed of crystalline, igneous, and
metamorphic rocks such as granite, schists, and gneiss. It experiences less rainfall
than the Lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks, leading to extensive physical
weathering but lower erosion rates. Due to its extreme altitude, the region has limited
forest cover.

3. The Lesser Himalayas

The Lesser Himalaya, about 80 km wide, has an elevation between 1300–4600 m. It
is made up of unfossiliferous sediments and metamorphosed crystalline rocks,
primarily slate, limestone, and quartzites. The southern margins of this region contain
highly compressed Upper Palaeozoic to Eocene rocks, often with volcanic material.
Examples of autochthonous belts are found in regions like Murree-Panjal thrust
(Kashmir), Giri thrust (Shimla), and Krol-MBT (Garhwal). The Lesser Himalaya is
highly prone to erosion due to heavy rainfall, deforestation, and urbanization.

4. The Shiwaliks (Outer Himalaya/Sub-Himalaya)

The Shiwaliks extend from Jammu & Kashmir to Assam, with a width ranging from 8
km in the east to 45 km in the west and an elevation of 900–1500 m. Unlike the Greater
 and Lesser Himalaya, the Shiwaliks are not continuous. Between the Shiwaliks and
the Lesser Himalaya, longitudinal valleys known as Duns (Doons) exist, including
Dehra Dun, Potli, Kothri, Kathmandu, Chumbi, and Kyarda. The Shiwaliks are
composed of sandstones, clay, conglomerates, and limestone, mainly from the Upper
Tertiary Period. The range is broader in the west and narrows in the east.

LONGITUDINAL DIVISIONS OF THE HIMALAYAS:

The Himalaya are divided into different sections based on their geographical extent. Sir S. Burrard
classified them into four divisions: (i) The Western Himalaya, (ii) The Kumaun Himalaya, (iii) The
Nepal Himalaya, and (iv) The Assam Himalaya. Prof. S.P. Chatterjee (1973) further divided the
Himalaya into six transverse divisions:

1. The Kashmir Himalaya

2. The Himachal Himalaya
3. The Kumaun Himalaya
4. The Central Himalaya
5. The Eastern Himalaya

1. The Kashmir Himalayas

Covering 350,000 sq km in Jammu & Kashmir, the Kashmir Himalaya extend 700 km
in length and 500 km in width, with an average height of 3000 m. This region contains
India’s largest number of glaciers, including those in Ladakh, which is a cold desert
region (3600–4600 m). The Gilgit gorge rises 5200 m above sea level, and the Kashmir
Valley (4920 sq km) is a structural longitudinal Dun. Karewa (lacustrine) deposits
here support saffron cultivation and fruit orchards. The region has high snow-covered
peaks, deep valleys, and important mountain passes like Pir Panjal, Zoji-La,
Khardung-La, and Burzil. Major peaks include Nanga Parbat (8119 m), Nanda Devi
(7817 m), and Trisul (7140 m).

2. The Himachal Himalayas

Stretching across Himachal Pradesh, this region covers 45,000 sq km and includes all
three Himalayan ranges—the Greater, Lesser, and Outer Himalaya. The northern
slopes are densely forested with plains and lakes, whereas the southern slopes are
rugged. Important mountain passes such as Rohtang, Bara-Lacha, and Shipki-La
connect this region to Tibet (China). The scenic valleys of Kangra, Kullu, Manali, Lahul,
and Spiti are famous for orchards and tourism, while Shimla, Dalhousie, and
Dharamshala serve as important hill stations.

3. The Kumaun Himalayas

Located between the Satluj and Kali rivers, the Kumaun Himalaya stretch 320 km and
cover 38,000 sq km. The highest peak here is Nanda Devi (7817 m), along with Kamet
(7756 m), Trisul (7140 m), Badrinath (7138 m), and Kedarnath (6940 m). The
Gangotri, Milam, and Pindar glaciers are significant. Hill stations like Mussoorie,
Nainital, Ranikhet, and Almora attract tourists. Several mountain passes including
Thaga-La, Mana Pass, Niti Pass, and Lipu Lekh connect the Kumaun Himalaya with
Tibet.
4. The Central Himalayas
This section extends from the Kali to Tista rivers, covering 800 km with 116,800 sq
km, mostly in Nepal, except the easternmost part in Sikkim and Darjeeling (India). It
contains some of the world’s highest peaks, including Mt. Everest (8850 m),
Kanchenjunga (8598 m), and Makalu (8481 m). The Nathu-La and Jelep-La passes
(4538 m) connect Gangtok (Sikkim) with Lhasa (Tibet, China). Kanchenjunga, located
between Sikkim and Tibet, is the third-highest mountain in the world and is the source
of major rivers like Kosi and Tista.

4. The Eastern Himalayas

Extending from the Tista to Brahmaputra rivers, this section covers 720 km and
67,500 sq km, including Arunachal Pradesh (India) and Bhutan. The Eastern
Himalaya rises steeply from the Assam plains, forming narrow foothills. It includes
the Aka, Dafla, Miri, Abor, and Mishmi Hills, with Namcha Barwa (7756 m) as a
prominent peak. Important mountain passes include Bomdi-La, Diphu, Tse-La, and
Pangsau. Due to heavy rainfall, fluvial erosion is prominent. The southern extension of
the Eastern Himalaya, known as Purvanchal, passes through Nagaland, Manipur,
Tripura, and Mizoram and includes the Patkai-Bum, Naga Hills, and Blue Mountains.
The Myanmar mountain chain extends southward through Andaman & Nicobar
Islands to Indonesia.

SYNTAXIAL BENDS IN THE HIMALAYAS:

The Himalaya, which generally run east-west, undergo sharp bends at their western and eastern
extremities, forming syntaxial bends. In the western syntaxial bend near Nanga Parbat, the Indus River
has cut a deep gorge, bending the geological formations into a hairpin structure. A similar bend occurs
in Arunachal Pradesh, where the Himalaya sharply turn southward after crossing the Brahmaputra River.
This bending, known as the tectonic strike, causes the mountains to change direction from east-west to
north-south.

SNOWLINE:
The snowline is the lower limit of perpetual snow. It varies due to latitude, altitude, precipitation,
moisture, slope, and local topography.

Snowline variations in the Himalaya:

● Eastern & Kumaon Himalayas: ~3500 m
● Western Himalayas: ~2500 m
● Arunachal Himalaya: ~4400 m
● Kashmir Himalaya: 5200–5800 m
● Kumaun Himalaya: ~5100 m
● Karakoram: ~5500 m
● Tibetan side: 900 m higher due to arid conditions and low moisture.

Moisture & Snowline Relationship:

Higher moisture →Lower snowline, Lower moisture →Higher snowline.

HIMALAYAN GLACIERS:

● Cover ~40,000 sq km from Karakoram (J&K) to Arunachal Pradesh.

● Total number of glaciers: ~15,000 between the eastern and western syntaxial bends.
 Main glacier regions:
○ Greater Himalaya & Trans-Himalaya (Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar) →Large
glaciers.
○ Lesser Himalaya →Smaller glaciers (traces found in Pir-Panjal & Dhauladhar
ranges).

● Karakoram glaciers are remnants of the Pleistocene Age, moving 8–15 cm/day at the sides
and 20–30 cm/day in the middle.
● Pir-Panjal glaciers are smaller and fewer than those in the Karakoram and Greater
Himalaya.
● Nanga Parbat glaciers are smaller but move faster due to steep slopes.

ICE AGE IN INDIA:

The Dharwar Ice Age

The Dharwar District of Karnataka shows moraine deposits and glaciated
topographical features, indicating an ice age during the Dharwadian Period,
approximately 1700 million years ago. This suggests early glaciation in the Indian
subcontinent.

The Gondwana Ice Age

The Telcher Series of Odisha, part of the Gondwana System, provides strong evidence
of glaciation during the Gondwana Period. The presence of glacial deposits and
formations confirms the occurrence of an ice age in this region.

The Pleistocene Ice Age

During the Pleistocene Period, glaciation had a significant impact, particularly in the
Himalayas, Karakoram, and Greater Himalayan ranges. Evidence such as erratic
rocks, boulders, cirques, eskers, rock polishing, buff-colored sands, and laminated
clays is found in regions like Kashmir, Bhadarwah (Doda), and Ladakh.

This period also led to the formation of numerous high-altitude glacial lakes in the
Himalayas, such as Kailash-Kund, Sanasar Lake (near Batote), Gulmarg-basin,
Sheshnag, and Gangabal Lake. However, the Peninsular region of India does not
show any evidence of Pleistocene glaciation.
 THE GREAT PLAINS OF INDIA
The Great Plains of India lie to the south of the Shiwalik range, separated by the Himalayan Front
Fault (HFF). These plains act as a transitional zone between the Himalayas in the north and Peninsular
India in the south. They are aggradational plains, formed by alluvial deposits from the Indus, Ganga,
Brahmaputra, and their tributaries. Stretching 2,400 km from west to east, their width varies from
90–100 km in Assam to 500 km in Punjab, increasing from east to west.

The alluvial depth varies significantly; it ranges between 1,300–1,400 m in the southern parts (north
of Bundelkhand) and reaches over 8,000 m near Ambala, Yamunanagar, and Jagadhri (Haryana).
These plains have a remarkably uniform landscape, broken at micro-levels by river bluffs, Bhurs,
levees, dead river channels, ravines, and khols. Changing river courses and frequent floods, though
destructive, help deposit fresh silt, enriching the soil.

ORIGIN OF THE GREAT PLAINS:

The origin of the Great Plains of India remains a debated topic among geologists due to factors such as
the depth of alluvium, depression characteristics, and underlying geological structures. Various theories
attempt to explain their formation:

Alluviation of the Foredeep

Austrian geologist Edward Suess proposed that a foredeep was formed when the
advancing Himalayan crust-waves were halted by the rigid Peninsular block. This
synclinorium-like depression had an uneven bottom with a gentle northward slope
and a steep Peninsular side. The rivers from the Himalayas filled this depression with
alluvium, forming the Great Plains. However, this theory fails to explain the uneven
slope of the plain and the supposed crustal connection between the Himalayas and the
Peninsula.

Infilling of a Rift Valley

Sir G. Burrard suggested that the plains formed due to infilling of a rift valley created
by two parallel faults—one along the southern Shiwalik boundary and the other along
the northern Peninsular boundary. He compared it to rift valleys like the Narmada
and Tapi valleys. However, modern geologists reject this theory, as no geological
evidence of such a massive rift valley (2,400 km long and 500 km wide) exists in
northern India.

Recession of the Sea

According to Blandford, during the Eocene Period, a shallow sea extended from Assam
Valley to Myanmar in the east and from Iran and Baluchistan to Ladakh in the west.
Over time, Himalayan upliftment during the Miocene Period led to the gradual retreat
of these seas, which were then filled by sediments from Himalayan rivers.
Evidence supporting this theory includes:

● Limestone deposits in Kumaun-Garhwal (Uttarakhand)

● Presence of saline lakes in Rajasthan (e.g., Sambar, Rajsamand, Pushkar)
● Joining of the islands of the Gulf of Kachchh with the mainland
● Formation of new islands near the Bangladesh coast
● Seaward extension of the Sundarban Delta
● Marine fossils in the Northern Plains
 However, this theory does not fully explain the central part of the Great Plains.

Remnant of the Tethys Sea

Some geologists believe the Great Plains are remnants of the Tethys Sea, which existed
before the Himalayan upliftment. As the Himalayas rose, rivers deposited massive
sediments, filling the trough that connected to the Bay of Bengal in the east and the
Arabian Sea in the west. The continued rejuvenation of rivers increased the alluvium
thickness, leading to the gradual formation of the plains.

Recent Views: Modern geologists suggest that the Great Plains formed due to a sag in the crust, created
between the northward-moving Indian plate and the soft Tethyan sediments. These sediments were later
crumpled and uplifted to form the Himalayas, while the remaining depression was gradually filled by
river deposits, shaping the plains as we see today.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE GREAT PLAINS:

The Great Plains of India are vast, fertile alluvial plains formed by the depositional activities of the
Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers. These plains have an almost imperceptible slope and can be classified
into several sub-regions based on their topographical and geological characteristics.

The Bhabar Plain

Lying to the south of the Shivalik foothills from Jammu to Assam, the Bhabar Plain is
composed of gravel and unasserted sediments deposited by Himalayan rivers. It is
highly porous, causing small streams to disappear underground, making it unsuitable for
agriculture but ideal for deep-rooted trees. The Gujjars, a cattle-rearing community,
inhabit this region.

The Tarai Tract

Located south of the Bhabar Plain, the Tarai is a marshy, damp region with dense forests
and rich wildlife. It is wider in the east due to higher rainfall and was historically a
malaria-prone area. However, extensive deforestation and reclamation have made it an
important agricultural region, supporting crops such as sugarcane, rice, wheat, and
oilseeds.

The Bhangar Plains

Formed by older alluvium deposits from the Pleistocene period, the Bhangar Plains lie
above the flood limits of rivers. These uplands contain rich, dark soil with high humus
content and calcium carbonate concretions called ‘Kankar.’ Though generally fertile,
some areas exhibit saline and alkaline efflorescences known as ‘Reh’ or ‘Kallar.’ Fossils
of ancient mammals like elephants and rhinoceroses have been found in these deposits.

The Khadar Plains

Composed of newer alluvium, the Khadar Plains lie along river courses and receive fresh
silt deposits every monsoon, enhancing their fertility. The region supports intensive
cultivation of crops such as sugarcane, rice, wheat, and legumes.

Delta Plains
 An extension of the Khadar land, the Delta Plains cover approximately 1.9 lakh sq km in
the lower Ganga region. The sluggish river flow in this area promotes alluvial deposition,
creating old and new mud formations. Upland areas in the delta are called ‘Chars,’ while
marshy zones are referred to as ‘Bils.’ The active Ganga delta continues to extend into
the Bay of Bengal.

MESO-REGIONS OF THE GREAT PLAINS:

The Northern Plains of India can be categorized into four meso-regions based on geo-climatic and
topographical features:

The Plains of Rajasthan

Lying to the west of the Aravallis, these plains include the arid Marusthali and semi-arid
Bagar regions. Covering 175,000 sq km, they slope from the northeast to the southwest.
The presence of saltwater lakes like Sambhar and Didwana indicates that this region
was once covered by the sea. Dry riverbeds such as the Saraswati and Drishadvati
suggest a previously fertile landscape. The Luni River, the only major river in the region,
turns brackish in its lower reaches. The desert landscape is dominated by sand dunes,
but fertile alluvial tracts, known as Rohi, exist in the southwestern part.

The Punjab-Haryana Plains

Stretching over 650 km from northeast to southwest, this alluvial plain has been formed
by the deposition of the Satluj, Beas, and Ravi rivers. The general slope is from northeast
to southwest, with the Delhi Ridge marking its eastern boundary. This region includes
important features such as river bluffs (Dhaya) and Khadar belts (Bet). The Ghaggar
River, considered the remnant of the ancient Saraswati, is now a seasonal stream. Sub-
regions include the Bari Doab (between Beas and Ravi), Bist Doab (between Beas and
Satluj), Malwa Plain, and Haryana-Bhiwani Bagar.

The Ganga Plains

Extending from the Yamuna catchment to the Bangladesh border, the Ganga Plains
cover approximately 1,400 km from west to east, with an average width of 300 km. The
slope gradually declines from northwest to southeast. The plains are further divided into
three sub-regions:

● The Upper Ganga Plain: Includes the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Rohilkhand, and
Agra regions. It features Bhur (aeolian sandy deposits) and is highly productive
for agriculture, growing sugarcane, wheat, and maize.

● The Middle Ganga Plain: Covering central and eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,
this low-gradient region is prone to river course changes. The Gandak, Kosi, and
Son rivers are its major tributaries. The landscape features river bluffs, ox-bow
lakes, and marshy lands.

● The Lower Ganga Plain: Extends from Patna to the Bay of Bengal, bordered by
Assam and Bangladesh in the east and the Chotanagpur Plateau in the west. This
downwarped region has been filled with Ganga and Brahmaputra sediments,
forming a flat terrain with marshes and river channels. It includes the Rahr Plain,
which is prone to soil erosion, and the Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove
swamp, home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.
The Brahmaputra Plain
Covering about 56,275 sq km, this depositional plain extends 720 km in length with an
average width of 80 km. The general altitude decreases from 130 m in the east to 30 m
in the west. The Brahmaputra River dominates the region, forming a complex network of
braided channels and islands, including Majuli, the world's second-largest river island.
The valley is highly fertile, supporting rice and jute cultivation, and is known for its tea
plantations and national parks like Kaziranga and Manas.

Physiographically, the north bank has alluvial fans, marshes, and dense forests due to
obstruction from Arunachal tributaries, while the south bank features larger tributaries
and isolated hills. The region is divided into Upper Assam (east of 94°E longitude) and
Lower Assam (west of 94°E longitude), with varied drainage patterns and landscape
features.

The Brahmaputra River, originating in Tibet, takes a sharp southward turn into Assam
before entering Bangladesh. It is one of the great rivers of the world, with a valley known
for its fertile plains and rich biodiversity.
 THE INDIAN DESERT
A desert is a dry, arid region where the rate of evaporation exceeds precipitation. It is characterized by
low rainfall and extreme temperature variations. The Indian subcontinent has two primary deserts: the
Thar Desert and the Cold Desert of Ladakh.

The Thar Desert: The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a subtropical desert covering
approximately 200,000 sq km. It is primarily located in Rajasthan, with extensions into Gujarat, Punjab,
and Haryana. The desert's landscape consists of sand dunes, barren hills (bhakars), and saline lake beds
(dhands) such as Sambhar, Didwana, and Lunkaransar, which are significant salt sources.

Climate and Vegetation: The Thar Desert experiences extreme temperatures, reaching up to 50°C in
summer and dropping to 5–10°C in winter. Annual rainfall varies from 4 inches in the west to 20 inches in
the east. Strong dust storms with wind speeds of up to 150 km/h are common. Vegetation includes
drought-resistant trees such as the Khejri tree, acacia, and jojoba, which help stabilize sand dunes.

Wildlife and Water Sources: The Thar Desert is home to species like the blackbuck, chinkara, Indian
wild ass, falcon, kestrel, and endangered bustards. The only major river, Luni, originates in the Aravalli
range and flows into the Arabian Sea through the Rann of Kutch. The Indira Gandhi Canal provides
irrigation, supporting agriculture and human settlements.

Economic Activities: The Thar Desert has the highest population density among the world's deserts, with
83 people per sq km. It is India's largest wool-producing region, and animal husbandry is a key
occupation. Bajra (pearl millet) is the main crop grown. Solar and wind energy projects are also being
developed in the region.

The Cold Desert of Ladakh: Ladakh, India's cold desert, lies in the Greater Himalayas in eastern Jammu
and Kashmir. It is bordered by the Karakoram range in the north and the Zanskar range in the south.
The Indus River flows through the region, which has an altitude ranging from 3,000 m in Kargil to over
8,000 m in Karakoram.

Climate and Vegetation: Ladakh experiences extreme cold, with summer temperatures slightly above
0°C and winter temperatures dropping to -40°C. It receives very little rainfall (about 10 cm annually) due
to its location in the rain shadow of the Himalayas. Vegetation is sparse, consisting mainly of shrubs and
grasses. Fruits like walnuts, apples, and apricots are grown in the summer season.
 THE COASTAL PLAINS
The Peninsular Plateau of India is flanked by narrow coastal plains, known as the West Coastal Plains
and the East Coastal Plains, which differ in their formation and characteristics. These plains were shaped
by river deposition and the erosional and depositional actions of sea waves. Their origin is linked to
faulting and subsidence of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal during the Eocene Period.

Gujarat Coastal Plain

The Gujarat Coastal Plain covers almost the entire state of Gujarat, excluding
Banaskantha and Sabarkantha districts. It is formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers
like Sabarmati, Mahi, and Luni, along with the action of winds and sea recession. The
region contains Gondwana rocks, marine Jurassic formations, and Deccan lava deposits.
Key highlands include the Arasur mountains, Rajpipla Hills, Girnar Hills, and Mandav Hills.

The Rann of Kutch is a vast tidal mudflat with abandoned and active creeks, making the
land barren and saline. The Gulf of Kutch separates the Rann from the Kathiawar
Peninsula. The region’s landscape has been shaped by sedimentation, tectonic activity,
and sea-level changes.

West Coastal Plain

The West Coastal Plain lies between the Sahyadris and the Arabian Sea, extending 1,400
km in length and varying from 10 to 80 km in width. It consists of sandy beaches, coastal
dunes, estuaries, lagoons, mudflats, and laterite platforms. The Sahyadris, running
parallel to the coast, have steep escarpments with important gaps such as Thalghat,
Bhorghat, and Palghat.

This coastal plain is divided into three regions:

● Konkan Coast (530 km long, 30–50 km wide) in the north.

● Karnataka Coast (525 km long, 8–25 km wide), the narrowest section.
● Malabar Coast (550 km long, 20–100 km wide) in the south, characterized by
extensive backwaters, lagoons, and sand dunes.

The Malabar Coast is home to important lagoons like Vembanad and Ashtamudi, which
support aquatic life, fishing, agriculture, and tourism. The region has deposits of
monazite sands, rich in radioactive thorium.

East Coastal Plain

The East Coastal Plain lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, stretching
along Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. These plains are composed of alluvial
deposits, forming some of the world's largest deltas, including those of the Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers.

The plain has a straight shoreline with well-defined beaches and sandbars. The Marina
Beach in Chennai is one of the most famous beaches. The region also has significant
lagoons, including Chilika Lake (India’s largest lagoon), Kolleru Lake (between
Godavari and Krishna deltas), and Pulicat Lake (on the Andhra Pradesh-Tamil Nadu
border). These water bodies support rich biodiversity and serve as important ecological
and economic zones.
 THE INDIAN ISLANDS
India has a total of 615 islands, with 572 in the Bay of Bengal and 43 in the Arabian Sea. Among the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, only 36 are inhabited. The Bay of Bengal islands are primarily tectonic
and volcanic in origin, whereas the Arabian Sea islands are mostly coral formations. Additionally, there
are several offshore islands near river mouths, coastal regions, and gulfs like Khambhat, Kachchh, and
Mannar.

Islands of the Bay of Bengal

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands form the major island groups in the Bay of Bengal.
These two groups are separated by the Ten Degree Channel. The Andaman Islands are
about 2000 km from mainland India, with Indira Point as the southernmost point on
Great Nicobar Island.

The region has a warm tropical climate, receiving heavy rainfall, particularly from
November to mid-December. The islands are thickly forested and rich in marine
biodiversity. Barren Island in the Andamans has an active volcano, and Narcondam
Island is another volcanic island. The Andaman Islands are an extension of the Tertiary
mountain chain of Arakan Yoma, with sandstone, limestone, and shale as the main rock
formations. The Nicobar Islands, comprising 18 islands (11 inhabited), are largely of coral
origin.

Agriculture and Tribes in Andaman and Nicobar: Rice is the staple crop of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, while coconut and arecanut are the main cash crops of Nicobar. Tropical fruits like pineapple,
bananas, papaya, and mangoes are also cultivated on a small scale. The indigenous tribal population is
rapidly declining, with the Onges, Jarawas, and Sentinelese being the most notable surviving tribes. The
majority of the current inhabitants are migrants from Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka.

Wildlife and Unique Species: The islands are home to diverse wildlife, including the Giant Robber Crab,
which is found in the Wandoor Marine Biosphere Reserve and Great Nicobar Islands. This rare crab can
climb coconut trees and break the hard shell of coconuts using its powerful claws.

Islands of the Arabian Sea

There are 43 islands in the Arabian Sea, with only 11 being inhabited. The shortest
distance from the mainland (Calicut) is 109 km. Kavaratti is the capital of Lakshadweep,
which is separated from the Maldives by the Eight Degree Channel. These islands lack
hills and streams, with Minicoy being the largest (4.5 sq. km) and housing a lighthouse
and a weather observatory.

Fishing is the primary occupation in Lakshadweep, and coconut is the main crop, along
with small-scale cultivation of pulses and vegetables. The surrounding sea is rich in
marine life.

Offshore Islands
Numerous islands exist in the Ganga Delta, Gulf of Mannar, and along the western
coast. Some important islands include:

● Western Coast Islands – Piram, Bhaisala (Kathiawar), Diu, Pirotan (Kachchh

coast), Elephanta, Karanja (Mumbai coast), St. Mary’s (Mangalore coast), Anjidiv
(Goa coast), and Vypin (near Kochi).
 ● Eastern Coast Islands – Pamban, Sri Harikota (Pulicat Lake), Wheeler
(Mahanadi-Brahmani mouth), New Moore, Ganga-Sagar, and Sagar (Ganga
Delta).

Most of these islands are uninhabited and are administered by nearby states.

Seismic Activity in India: The Indian subcontinent has active plate boundaries, leading to frequent
earthquakes, especially in the Himalayan region, Great Plains of India, Purvanchal, and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. However, earthquakes are less frequent in the more stable Peninsular India.

Seismic Zones in India: India is divided into five seismic zones based on intensity and frequency. Most
high-magnitude earthquakes occur in the folded mountains of the Himalayas. The seismic zoning helps
in disaster preparedness and mitigation efforts across the country.
 Feature Geologic Era Age (mya) Epoch of Formation

The Aravalli Range Precambrian 2,500 - 1,800 Archean-Proterozoic

Bundelkhand Plateau Precambrian 2,500 - 1,800 Archean-Proterozoic

Dharwar Plateau (Karnataka
Precambrian 2,500 - 1,800 Archean-Proterozoic
Plateau)
Late Cretaceous -
Deccan Plateau Mesozoic-Cenozoic 65 - 66
Paleocene
Chotanagpur Plateau Precambrian 1,000 - 500 Proterozoic
Vindhyan Range Precambrian 1,000 - 500 Proterozoic

Satpura Range Paleozoic 350 - 250 Carboniferous-Permian

Eastern Ghats Precambrian 1,600 - 550 Proterozoic

Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills) Cenozoic 66 - 55 Paleocene-Eocene

Himalayas Cenozoic 50 - 10 Eocene-Pleistocene

Shiwalik Hills Cenozoic 2-5 Pleistocene

🌋 DRAINAGE
 TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN INDIA
1. Antecedent or Inconsequent Drainage: These rivers existed before the upliftment of the Himalayas
and have cut deep gorges through the mountains. Examples include the Indus, Satluj, Ganga,
Brahmaputra, and Tista.

● Consequent Rivers: These rivers follow the natural slope of the land. Most Peninsular rivers like
Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri are consequent rivers.
● Subsequent Rivers: These rivers develop after the consequent rivers, often eroding weaker rocks.
Examples include Chambal, Betwa, Son, and Tons.
● Resequent Rivers: These rivers flow in the same direction as the original consequent stream but
develop due to new base levels.
● Obsequent Rivers: These flow opposite to the original consequent stream, such as the tributaries
of Sun Kosi in the Himalayas.

2. Superimposed or Epigenetic Drainage: This occurs when a river develops its course on a surface layer
that has since been eroded, revealing underlying rock structures that do not influence the river's course.
Examples include Damodar, Subarnarekha, Chambal, and Banas.

3. Dendritic Drainage (Tree-like Pattern): This is the most common drainage pattern, resembling a tree,
formed in uniform rock structures with minimal faulting. Examples include the Indo-Gangetic Plains.

4. Trellis Drainage: This pattern develops in folded landscapes where tributaries flow parallel to each
other and join the main river at right angles. It is commonly found in the Singhbhum region of the
Chotanagpur Plateau.

5. Barbed Drainage Pattern: In this pattern, tributaries appear to flow upstream due to river capture,
causing a reversal in flow direction. An example is the Arun River, a tributary of the Kosi in Nepal.

6. Rectangular Drainage: Developing in faulted and jointed rock landscapes, this pattern features
streams making right-angled bends. It is found in the Vindhyan Mountains.

7. Radial Drainage: This occurs when rivers originate from a central peak or dome, flowing outward like
spokes on a wheel. Examples include rivers originating from the Amarkantak Hills (Narmada, Son,
Mahanadi) and those in the Girnar Hills (Gujarat).

8. Annular Drainage: This circular drainage pattern is found around dome-like structures where rivers
erode less resistant rock layers. Examples include Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu),
and parts of Kerala.

9. Parallel Drainage: This pattern features rivers flowing almost parallel to each other, often on steep
slopes. Examples include short, swift rivers of the Western Ghats, such as Surya, Kalu, and Sharavati.

10. Deranged Drainage: This unorganized drainage pattern is found in areas recently vacated by glaciers,
with numerous lakes, marshes, and disconnected streams. It is seen in the glaciated valleys of the
Karakoram.
 RIVER BASINS IN INDIA
Rivers and their tributaries play a crucial role in draining the land surface, eroding landscapes, and
transporting sediments to the sea. The area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage
basin. Based on their catchment area, Indian river basins are classified into three categories:

1. Large river basins (>20,000 sq. km)

2. Medium river basins (2,000–20,000 sq. km)
3. Minor river basins (<2,000 sq. km)

India has 25 major river basins and 103 sub-basins, with the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra being the
largest. These three are international rivers, crossing Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.

Evolution of the Himalayan Rivers

The origin of the Himalayan rivers has been widely debated. Most of them, like the Indus, Satluj,
and Brahmaputra, originally flowed parallel to the Himalayas before turning south through deep
gorges, indicating they are antecedent rivers (older than the mountains).

The evolution of the drainage system is linked to the uplift of the Himalayas. Early theories by
Pascoe and Pilgrim (1919) suggested a massive Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma River flowing across
the Himalayas, later dismembered into three river systems—Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra—
due to tectonic shifts. However, this theory was later criticized due to geological and sedimentary
inconsistencies.

Modern Understanding of Himalayan River Evolution

Enayat Ahmad (1965–71) proposed that the Tethys Sea was a sedimentary basin before the
Himalayan uplift. The first major uplift in the Oligocene period led to the initial formation of rivers
flowing southward. Further upheavals in the Miocene and Pleistocene periods altered river
courses, creating the present-day drainage systems. Key developments included:

● The formation of deep valleys due to continuous uplift.

● The rise of the Tibetan Plateau, which blocked northward-flowing streams, forcing them to
change direction.
● The separation of the Proto-Indus and Proto-Brahmaputra by the Kailash Range.
● The formation of the Shiwalik Range, leading to the development of newer river systems.

These geological processes shaped the present drainage patterns of the Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra river systems.

THE MULTIPLE RIVER THEORY

The Multiple River Theory offers an alternative explanation for the evolution of the Himalayan
drainage. It challenges the idea of a single, massive river like the Indo-Brahma or Shiwalik
River, arguing that geological and physiographic evidence does not support its existence.
The Role of the Eocene Sea (Tethys Sea): According to this theory, the Tethys Sea once extended from
Sindh (Pakistan), Rajasthan, Jammu, and Punjab to Lansdowne and Nainital (Uttarakhand). The
presence of shallow water deposits near Lansdowne suggests that this region was once a coastline. The
eastern continuation of an Aravalli ridge possibly acted as a barrier, limiting the sea’s expansion. At the
same time, another ridge extended from the Rajmahal Hills to the Meghalaya Plateau, forming what is
now the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin. This region was originally submerged under the sea before the uplift
of the Himalayas.

Formation of the Foredeep and Lagoons: With the first Himalayan upheaval, the Tethys Sea broke into
an isolated basin, where sediments began accumulating. A subsequent uplift led to the formation of a
foredeep along the southern boundary of the Himalayas, filled with numerous lagoons. These lagoons
were fed by streams originating from both the Himalayas and the Peninsular region, which carried
sediments that later formed the Shiwalik deposits.

RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

The rivers originating from the Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan regions are classified into three major
river systems: (i) the Indus System, (ii) the Ganga System, and (iii) the Brahmaputra System.

The Indus River System

The Indus River is one of the most important drainage systems in the Indian subcontinent. It has a total
length of 2,880 km, with 709 km flowing in India. Its catchment area is approximately 1,165,000 sq km,
out of which 45,3931.87 sq km lies in India. Originating from the Bokhar Chu Glacier on the northern
slopes of Mt. Kailash, the Indus drains several glaciers and mountain ranges such as the Karakoram,
Ladakh, Zaskar, and the Himalayas. Flowing north-westwards through Tibet (China), where it is called
Singi Khamban or Lion’s Mouth, it enters India in Ladakh. Important tributaries include Zaskar, Suru,
Dras, Shyok, Shigar, and Gilgit. It makes deep gorges, the deepest being at Gilgit (5,200 m). After
passing through India, the Indus enters Pakistan, where it continues its course towards the Arabian Sea.
The Indus Water Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan governs the distribution of its waters.

Major Tributaries of the Indus

● Jhelum (Vitasta): Originates from a spring at Verinag, Kashmir, and flows through Wular Lake
and Baramula before joining the Chenab at Trimmu, Pakistan.
● Chenab (Asikni): Formed by the confluence of Chandra and Bhaga rivers in Himachal Pradesh, it
flows through Pir-Panjal and enters Pakistan. Important hydropower projects on the Chenab
include Salal, Baglihar, and Dulhasti.
● Ravi (Parushni or Iravati): Originates near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, flows through
Chamba, Punjab, and enters Pakistan.
● Beas (Vipasa): Rises from Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass, flows through Kullu Valley and Kangra
before joining the Satluj at Harike.
● Satluj (Satadru or Satudri): Originates from Rakas Lake near Mansarovar in Tibet. It flows
through Shipki La Pass into Himachal Pradesh, crosses Punjab, and enters Pakistan. The Bhakra
Dam is built on this river.
● Ghaggar (Legendary Saraswati): Originates from Shiwaliks in Haryana, and disappears in
Rajasthan. Believed to be part of the ancient Saraswati River system.
The Ganga River System
The Ganga River is the most significant and largest river basin in India, covering 808,334.44 sq km. It
originates as Bhagirathi from Gaumukh (Gangotri Glacier) in Uttarakhand. Alaknanda, originating from
the Satopanth Glacier, joins Bhagirathi at Devprayag to form the Ganga. Flowing 289 km to Haridwar,
it enters the plains and continues southeast to Allahabad, where it meets its longest tributary, the
Yamuna. Further east, it crosses Bihar and turns southeast near Rajmahal Hills. At Farakka, the river
bifurcates into the Hooghly (India) and Padma (Bangladesh). The delta formed by the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers is the Sundarbans, the world's largest delta.

Pollution and Conservation Efforts: The Ganga is heavily polluted due to industrial waste, urban
sewage, and excessive water extraction. Efforts to clean and conserve it include:

1. Ganga Action Plan (GAP): Initiated with INR 1,800 crore spent.
2. Namami Ganga Programme (2014): Budget of INR 20,000 crore focusing on sewage treatment,
riverfront development, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, and public awareness.
3. National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG): Established in 2011 to oversee projects up to INR
1,000 crore.

The Yamuna River

A major tributary of the Ganga, the Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Bandarpunch
Range. It flows southwards, forming the boundary between Haryana and Uttar Pradesh before meeting
the Ganga at Allahabad. Key tributaries include Tons, Chambal, Sind, Betwa, and Ken. Historical
accounts suggest that the Yamuna once flowed southwest towards Rajasthan, merging with the
Saraswati River.

Other Important Rivers in India

1. The Chambal River: The Chambal River, stretching 960 km, originates from the Malwa Plateau near
Mhow Cantt in the Vindhya Range. It flows northward through a gorge until Kota, then turns
northeast, passing Bundi, Sawai-Madhopur, and Dholpur before joining the Yamuna near Etawah.
Its major tributaries include the Banas (left bank) and Kali Sind, Parbati, and Kunwari (right bank).
The river is known for its extensive ravines formed due to geological uplift and erosion. Key
multipurpose projects along the Chambal include the Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar, and
Jawahar Sagar dams.

2. Chambal Ravines & National Chambal Sanctuary: The Chambal ravines, spread across Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh, are deeply dissected landscapes historically infested with
dacoits. These ravines are being reclaimed for agriculture, forestry, and wildlife conservation. The
National Chambal Sanctuary, established in 1979, stretches 400 km along the river and is home to
endangered Gangetic dolphins, eight turtle species, and animals like chinkara, sambar, blue bull,
wolf, and wild boar.

3. The Ramganga River: A small river originating from the Kumaun Himalayas, the Ramganga flows
through the Shiwalik Range before emerging into the Ganga Plains at Najibabad. It eventually joins
the Ganga River in Hardoi district opposite Kannauj.
4. The Sharda River: Rising from the Greater Himalayas at Kalapani (3600 m) near the Lipu-Lekh pass
in Uttarakhand, the Sharda River is known as the Chauka before merging with the Ghagra near
Barabanki. It holds hydroelectric potential, with the Pancheshwar Dam planned as a joint venture
between India and Nepal. The Tanakpur Hydroelectric Project was commissioned in 1993.
5. The Gomti River: A tributary of the Saryu River, the Gomti originates from Fulhar Jheel near Pilibhit,
Uttarakhand. It flows through Sitapur, Lucknow, Barabanki, Sultanpur, and Jaunpur before joining
the Ganga at Kaithi, Ghazipur. The Gomti Valley, known as Katyur Valley, is a major agricultural hub.
However, pollution from industries in Sitapur to Sultanpur has degraded its water quality.

6. The Karnali (Ghagra) River: The Karnali, originating from Gurla Mandhata Peak (7720 m) in Nepal,
flows through the Mahabharata Range before entering India. After merging with the Sharda, it is
called the Ghagra. Passing through Ayodhya and Faizabad, it joins the Ganga near Chapra, Bihar.
Known for its shifting course, it poses flood risks.

7. The Gandak River: Originating in the Nepal Himalayas, the Gandak River drains central Nepal,
entering India in Bihar’s Champaran district. It changes course frequently before merging with the
Ganga at Sonpur, opposite Patna.

8. The Kosi River: Called the “Sorrow of Bihar,” the Kosi originates in Tibet from Mt. Everest’s slopes.
It forms the Sapta-Kosi after joining the Son-Kosi and Tamur-Kosi in Nepal. Entering Bihar, the river
constantly shifts its course. In 2008, it abruptly moved 100 km east, causing a catastrophic flood.
Since 1962, embankments have helped control its flow.

9. The Tista River: The westernmost right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, the Tista originates from
Kanchenjunga. It is a turbulent mountain river known for flash floods, notably in 1787 and 1968. It
flows into Bangladesh, where it meets the Brahmaputra.

10. The Mahananda River: Rising in the Darjeeling Hills, the Mahananda passes through Siliguri before
merging with the Ganga. It is the last north-bank tributary of the Ganga.

11. The Ken River: Originating from the Malwa Plateau, the Ken River flows through Madhya Pradesh’s
Panna district, forming a gorge at Gangau before joining the Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh’s Banda
district. Its major tributaries include the Sonar and Beawar rivers.

12. The Son River: A 780 km long south-bank tributary of the Ganga, the Son River originates from the
Amarkantak Plateau. It forms waterfalls before flowing northeast through the Kaimur Range. During
monsoons, it has a high discharge, whereas in dry seasons, it carries minimal water. It joins the
Ganga at Bankipora, west of Patna.

13. The Damodar River: Draining the Chotanagpur Plateau, the Damodar River flows west to east,
entering the Bengal delta near Asansol before joining the Hugli at Falta, north of Kolkata. The
Barakar is its largest tributary.

14. The Brahmaputra River: Originating from the Angsi Glacier near Mount Kailash and Lake
Mansarovar at 5150 m, the Brahmaputra is called Tsangpo in Tibet. It carves through the Himalayas
via the Namcha Barwa gorge and enters India at Arunachal Pradesh as the Dihang. It flows
westward through Assam, where it receives heavy monsoon rainfall and large tributaries. The river
is notorious for floods and erosion, impacting thousands of hectares annually. Majuli, the largest
river island in Asia, lies in the Brahmaputra. Major tributaries include the Subansiri, Bhareli, Manas,
Sankosh, Tista, Raidak, Dihang, Lohit, and Dhansiri.

TYPES OF LAKES
Lakes are natural depressions filled with water, playing a crucial role in water supply, flood control, and
ecological balance. The lakes in India have different origins and can be classified into various types:
1. Tectonic Lakes: Formed due to fractures and faults in the Earth's crust, these lakes are commonly
found in hilly areas like Kashmir and Kumaon. Examples include Tso Moriri and Pangong Tso in Ladakh.

2. Crater Lakes: These lakes are created when craters or calderas of extinct volcanoes fill with water.
Lonar Lake in Maharashtra is an example.

3. Glacial Lakes (Tarns): Formed by glacial erosion, these small lakes are found in mountainous regions
like Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, and Kumaon (Uttarakhand). The Gangabal Lake in
Kashmir is an example.

4. Fluvial Lakes: Created by river erosion and deposition, these lakes are temporary and eventually get
filled with sediments. They include:
● Plunge-pool lakes (formed near waterfalls)
● Ox-bow lakes (in the Middle and Lower Ganga Plains)
● Alluvial fan lakes, delta lakes, floodplain lakes, and raft-dammed lakes (seen along the Ganga
and Brahmaputra rivers)

5. Aeolian Lakes: These small, temporary lakes form in wind-blown sandy depressions, mainly in Western
Rajasthan. Many of them, called salt lakes, have high salt content. Examples include the Dhands of
Rajasthan.

6. Dissolution Lakes: Formed due to the underground dissolution of limestone or gypsum, these lakes are
found in Cherrapunji, Shillong (Meghalaya), Bhimtal (Kumaon), and Garhwal (Uttarakhand).

7. Lagoons: These lakes are formed by sandbars along the coast, separating them from the sea. Examples
include:

● Chilka Lake (Odisha)

● Pulicat Lake (Andhra Pradesh)
● Vembanad, Ashtamudi, and Kayals (Kerala)

8. Landslide Lakes: Created when landslides or rockfalls block river courses, forming a natural dam.
Gohna Lake in Garhwal is an example.
 MAIN LAKES OF INDIA

LAKE NAME LOCATION TYPE & FEATURES

Ashtamudi Lake Kerala (Kollam) Lagoon, Ramsar site

Bhimtal Uttarakhand (Kumaon) Island in center, tourist attraction

Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh (Bhopal) Upper & Lower Lakes, highly polluted

Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul-

Chandra Tal High-altitude lake (4300 m)
Spiti)
Chembarambakkam
Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu) Supplies water to Chennai
Lake

Chilka Lake Odisha Largest coastal brackish water lake

Jammu & Kashmir

Dal Lake Houseboats, shrinking due to pollution
(Srinagar)
Dhebar Lake
Rajasthan (Udaipur) Largest artificial lake
(Jaisamand)

Himayat Sagar Telangana (Hyderabad) Artificial lake, across Musi River

Hussain Sagar Telangana (Hyderabad) Built in 1562, water source for Hyderabad

Coastal lake, shrinking due to

Kaliveli Lake Tamil Nadu (Viluppuram)
encroachment
Surrounded by deodar trees, tourist
Khajjiar Lake Himachal Pradesh (Chamba)
attraction

Khecheopalri Lake Sikkim Sacred lake for Hindus & Buddhists

Largest freshwater lake in India, Ramsar

Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh
site

Loktak Lake Manipur Only floating lake (Phundis), Ramsar site

Nako Lake Himachal Pradesh (Kinnaur) High-altitude sacred lake

Artificial, built in 1920, heritage guest

Osman Sagar Telangana (Hyderabad)
house
Transboundary lake, brackish water,
Pangong Tso Ladakh
migratory birds
Andhra Pradesh & Tamil 2nd largest brackish water lake, migratory
Pulicat Lake
Nadu birds

Pushkar Lake Rajasthan (Ajmer) Artificial lake, religious significance

Named after Goddess Renuka, hosts

Renuka Lake Himachal Pradesh (Sirmaur)
annual fair
 Roopkund Uttarakhand Mystery lake with 600 ancient skeletons

Sambhar Lake Rajasthan (Jaipur) Largest salt lake in India, Ramsar site

Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala (Kollam) Large freshwater lake, tourist spot

Sat Tal Uttarakhand (near Bhimtal) Group of seven lakes, bird habitat

Himachal Pradesh
Suraj Tal High-altitude lake, source of Bhaga River
(Baralacha Pass)
Madhya Pradesh Created by Tawa Dam, near Satpura
Tawa Reservoir
(Hoshangabad) National Park

Tsongmo Lake Sikkim (near Gangtok) Glacial lake, frozen in winter, sacred

Veeranam Lake Tamil Nadu (Cuddalore) Water supply source for Chennai

Largest lake in Kerala, connected to

Vembanad Lake Kerala
Arabian Sea

Veeranpuzha Lake Kerala (Kochi) Northern extension of Vembanad Lake

Vembanattu Lake Kerala (near Kottayam) Backwater tourism, bird sanctuary

Jammu & Kashmir Largest freshwater lake in India, fed by

Wular Lake (Bandipore) Jhelum River
 MAIN DAMS OF INDIA

Hydroelectric Power Plant Location River Year

Shivanasamudra Hydroelectric Power Plant Karnataka Kaveri 1902

Andhra Pradesh,
Machkund Hydro Electric Power Plant Machkund 1955
Odisha
Hirakud Hydro Electric Power Plant Odisha Mahanadi 1957
Bhakra Nangal Hydroelectric Power Plant Himachal Pradesh Sutlej 1963

Sharavathi Hydroelectric Power Plant Karnataka Sharavathi 1964

Koyna Hydroelectric Power Plant Maharashtra Koyna 1964

Nagarjunasagar Hydro Electric Power Plant Andhra Pradesh Krishna 1967

Idukki Hydro Electric Power Plant Kerala Periyar 1976

Baira-Siul Hydroelectric Power Plant Himachal Pradesh Baira 1981

Srisailam Hydro Electric Power Plant Andhra Pradesh Krishna 1982

Loktak Hydro Electric Power Plant Manipur Leimtak 1983

Kopili Hydro Electric Project Assam Kopili 1984

Jammu and
Salal Hydro Electric Power Plant Chenab 1987
Kashmir
Chamera-I Himachal Pradesh Ravi 1994

Rangit Hydroelectric Power Plant Sikkim Rangit 2000

Baspa-II Hydro Electric Power Plant Himachal Pradesh Baspa 2003

Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power Plant Himachal Pradesh Sutlej 2004

Chamera-II Himachal Pradesh Ravi 2004

Indira Sagar Hydro Electric Power Plant Madhya Pradesh Narmada 2005

Tehri Hydro Electric Power Plant Uttarakhand Bhagirathi 2006

Sardar Sarovar Hydro Electric Power Plant Gujarat Narmada 2006

Karbi Langpi Hydro Electric Project Assam Borpani 2007

Jammu and
Dulhasti Chenab 2007
Kashmir
Bichom,
Kameng Hydro Power Station Arunachal Pradesh 2020-2021
Tenga
🌋 POPULATION
 POPULATION STRUCTURE
● India had a population of 1.21 billion (1,210.2 million) in 2011, making it the second most
populous country after China.
● China had a population of 1.341 billion (1,341.0 million) in 2010, meaning the gap between
India and China was 130.8 million (or 1.9%).
● The United States (USA) was the third most populous country, with a population of 308.7
million—about 901 million less than India.
● India, despite covering only 2.4% of the world's land area, accounted for 17.5% of the
global population, whereas China accounted for 19.4%.
● India's population was nearly equal to the combined population of the USA, Indonesia,
Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Japan.

India's Population in a Global Context

● 2011 Census: India's population was 1.21 billion, making it the second most populous
country after China (1.341 billion in 2010).
● Land Area: India covers only 2.4% of the world’s land area but houses 17.5% of the
global population (compared to 19.4% in China).
● Comparison with Other Countries:
○ India’s population is nearly four times that of the USA (308.7 million in 2011).
○ The combined population of the USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and
Japan is approximately equal to India's.
○ India’s land area is smaller than Russia, Canada, the USA, Brazil, and Australia, yet
their combined population is only 63% of India's.
○ India’s population is twice that of Latin America and 1.2 times that of Africa.

2. Census History in India

● First Census: Conducted in 1872 (not synchronous or complete).

● First Complete Census: Conducted in 1881 and has continued every 10 years since.
● 2011 Census: The 15th census of India (7th after Independence).
● Improvements Over Time: Modifications in schedules and questionnaires for better
data collection.

3. Population Growth: Basic Concepts

● Growth Rate: Change in population between two points in time, expressed as a

percentage.
● Types of Growth:
1. Natural Growth: Difference between birth rate and death rate.
2. Migratory Growth: Due to migration of people.
3. Positive Growth: Population increases when birth rate is higher than death rate or due
to immigration.
4. Negative Growth: Population decreases when death rate is higher than birth rate or due
to emigration.
4. Historical Population Growth Trends

1. Period of Stagnant Population (1901-1921)

○ Growth was slow and irregular due to high mortality rates from epidemics (influenza,
plague, cholera), famines, and World War I.
○ 1921 Census: India’s only recorded negative population growth (-0.31%), marking 1921
as the "Demographic Divide".
2. Period of Steady Growth (1921-1951)

○ Population increased from 251 million (1921) to 361 million (1951).

○ Mortality rates declined due to better healthcare and sanitation, but birth rates
remained high.
○ Growth was mainly mortality-induced.
3. Period of Rapid High Growth (1951-1981)

○ Population rose from 361 million (1951) to 683 million (1981).

○ Death rates fell sharply, but birth rates remained high, leading to a population
explosion.
○ Growth was fertility-induced.
4. Period of High Growth with Signs of Slowing (1981-2011)

○ Growth rate peaked at 2.48% in 1971, then began declining to 1.76% in 2011.
○ Declining birth rates (from 36 per 1,000 in 1981 to 22.5 per 1,000 in 2009) indicate
successful population control efforts.
○ India still has a higher growth rate than China, the USA, Japan, Brazil, Indonesia, and
Bangladesh.

5. Future Population Projections

● By 2028: India is expected to surpass China as the most populous country, reaching
1.448 billion people.
● By 2050: India’s population may peak at 1.62 billion before gradually declining.
● By 2100: India's population is projected to stabilize at 1.54 billion.
● Life Expectancy: Expected to rise from 64.9 years (2013) to 80.6 years (2100).

6. Regional Population Trends in India

● Northern Zone (Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, etc.): Experienced both population

losses (1901-1921) and high growth rates (1951-1981).
● North-Eastern Zone (Assam, Manipur, Tripura, etc.): Saw high growth due to
migration and fewer famines.
● Southern Zone (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, etc.): Generally had lower growth rates, except
Kerala, which saw a sharp rise in early years.
● Western Zone (Maharashtra, Gujarat, etc.): Had high growth due to industrialization
and migration.
 Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) describes the process of change in a society's
population over time. It consists of four stages, each characterized by different birth and death
rates, which impact population growth.

Stage 1: High Stationary Stage

● Birth Rate: High

● Death Rate: High
● Growth Rate: Low
● Characteristics:
○ High infant mortality
○ Frequent famines, diseases, and wars
○ Population remains stable or grows very slowly
○ Pre-industrial societies

Stage 2: Early Expanding Stage

● Birth Rate: High

● Death Rate: Rapidly declining
● Growth Rate: Very high
● Characteristics:
○ Improvements in medicine, sanitation, and food supply reduce deaths
○ Birth rates remain high due to cultural and social factors
○ Population explodes due to the gap between birth and death rates
○ Examples: India in the early 20th century, Sub-Saharan Africa today

Stage 3: Late Expanding Stage

● Birth Rate: Declining rapidly

● Death Rate: Declining slowly
● Growth Rate: Starts to decline
● Characteristics:
○ Urbanization and education lead to family planning and smaller families
○ Women’s empowerment and better economic opportunities reduce birth rates
○ Death rates continue declining, but at a slower rate
○ Examples: India today, Brazil, Mexico

Stage 4: Low Stationary Stage

● Birth Rate: Low

● Death Rate: Low
● Growth Rate: Low (approaching zero population growth)
● Characteristics:
○ High levels of education, healthcare, and economic development
○ Population stabilizes or may start to decline
○ Examples: Japan, Germany, USA, China (recently)
Demographic Transition in India

● India's population growth has followed the classical demographic transition

model.
● Before 1921, population growth was stagnant due to high birth and death rates.
● Post-1921, the country experienced rapid growth as mortality declined.
● Currently, India is in the final phase, characterized by declining fertility rates.
● The UN estimates India’s population will peak at 1.62 billion by 2050 and
decline to 1.54 billion by 2100.

2. Spatio-Temporal Variations in Population Growth

● 2001-2011 average growth rate: 17.64%, but significant regional variations

exist.
● Southern states (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh) and some
northern/eastern states (Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha,
Maharashtra) had low growth rates (11-16%).
● Highest growth rates (over 20%) recorded in Bihar (25.07%), J&K (23.71%),
Chhattisgarh (22.59%), Jharkhand (22.34%).
● Nagaland witnessed negative growth (-0.47%), a sharp decline from 64.53%
in 1991-2001.
● Delhi showed the steepest decline (-26%) in growth rate between 2001-2011.

3. Population Growth in EAG vs. Non-EAG States

● Empowered Action Group (EAG) states: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,

Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha.
● EAG states host 43-46% of India's population and traditionally had high
growth rates.
● 1951-1971: Non-EAG states grew faster.
● 1971 onwards: Growth in non-EAG states declined due to lower fertility rates,
while EAG states stagnated at ~25% growth.
● 2001-2011: Growth in EAG states finally slowed down, contributing to a
significant decline in India's overall growth rate.

4. District-Level Population Growth Patterns

● Number of districts grew from 466 (1991) →593 (2001) →640 (2011).
● High-growth districts (30%+ growth) fell from 102 (1991-2001) to 47 (2001-
2011).
● Nagaland districts had the highest growth in 1991-2001 but showed
negative growth in 2001-2011.
● Urban districts like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi had very low or negative growth
rates due to outmigration.
● Fastest-growing districts (50%+ growth): Yanam (Puducherry), Gurgaon
(Haryana), Daman, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Gautam Buddha Nagar (UP), Upper
Subansiri (Arunachal Pradesh).
5. Child Population (0-6 Years) Trends

● 2011 Census: 158.8 million children (0-6 years), 5 million fewer than 2001.
● Indicates a declining fertility rate, a positive demographic shift.
● 52% of the child population is concentrated in UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, MP,
Rajasthan.
● Largest decline in child population: Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal, Maharashtra, Kerala.
● Increase in child population: Bihar, J&K, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Chhattisgarh.
● Decline in female child population (-2.99 million) is higher than male (-2.06
million), reflecting gender imbalance.

Ethnic Composition
● India has a diverse ethnic composition due to migrations from different regions
over time. The main racial groups in India are:

(i) Negritos

● Earliest occupants of India.

● Migrated from Africa.
● Found mainly in Andaman Islands, Nilgiri Hills, and Rajmahal Hills.
● Physical traits: short stature, dark skin, woolly hair, broad nose, protruding jaws.

(ii) Proto-Australoids

● Migrated from East Mediterranean (Palestine).

● Pushed Negritos into remote areas.
● Found in central and southern India (Bhils, Mundas, Kols, Irulas, etc.).
● Physical traits: dark skin, broad nose, bulbous forehead, but straight hair.

(iii) Mongoloids

● Migrated from China, Tibet, and Myanmar.

● Found in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and northeast India (Nagas,
Garos, Khasis, etc.).
● Two subgroups:
○ Palaeo-Mongoloids (settled along Himalayas).
○ Tibeto-Mongoloids (mostly in Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim).
● Physical traits: round face, high cheekbones, flat nose, sparse body hair.

(iv) Mediterraneans

● Migrated from Southwest Asia (third and second millennium B.C.).

● Settled in north-west India, later moved south.
● Contributed to Indus Valley Civilization.
● Includes Dravidians, who mainly inhabit south India.
● Physical traits: dark skin, long head, medium height.
(v) Brachycephals (Broad-Headed Races)

● Three subgroups with different migration routes:

○ Alpinoids (via Baluchistan, Sindh, Gujarat, Maharashtra).
○ Dinarics (via Ganges Valley).
○ Armenoids (via Chitral, Gilgit, Kashmir, Nepal).

(vi) Nordics (Aryans)

● Last major migrants, arriving in the second millennium B.C.

● Settled in north-west India (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan).
● Mostly represented in upper castes.
● Physical traits: fair skin, tall, long head, strong build.

Caste System in India

India's caste system originated from the Chatur Varna, which divided people into four
categories based on occupation and skin color.

(i) Major Castes (Varna System)

1. Brahmins: Priests, teachers, ritual custodians, landowners.

2. Kshatriyas: Warriors, rulers, landowners.
3. Vaishyas: Farmers, traders, businessmen.
4. Shudras: Laborers, artisans, service providers.

(ii) Scheduled Castes (Dalits or Harijans)

● Historically discriminated against and socially excluded.

● Engaged in occupations considered "unclean" (disposal of dead, manual labor).
● Constitutionally recognized in 1950 for affirmative action benefits.
● Now includes Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists.
● Largest Scheduled Caste populations in: Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar,
Tamil Nadu.
● Punjab has the highest percentage (31.94%) of Scheduled Castes in the total
population.

Tribal Population in India

● Tribes are considered the original inhabitants of India, referred to as Adivasis.
● Historically, people were divided into tribes before the caste system emerged.
● Tribes were self-contained units without hierarchical discrimination.

3. Challenges in Defining Tribal Population

● No clear scientific criteria exist for classifying tribes.

 ● Same tribes may have different classifications across states (e.g., Gonds are a
Scheduled Tribe in Madhya Pradesh but a Scheduled Caste in Uttar Pradesh).
● Seasonal migration affects tribal classification (e.g., Gujjars in different regions).
● Article 342 of the Indian Constitution defines Scheduled Tribes for each state and
union territory separately.

4. Growth of Tribal Population

● Tribal population data has been inconsistent due to changes in classification

criteria.
● The 1951 Census recorded 19.1 million Scheduled Tribes, following the 1950
Scheduled Tribes Order.
● Due to modifications in 1956, an additional 3.4 million tribal people were included,
increasing the count to 22.5 million (6.23% of total population).
● Census data over the decades show a steady increase in the tribal population:
○ 1961: 30.17 million (6.87%)
○ 1971: 38.01 million (6.94%)
○ 1981: 53.8 million (7.58%)
○ 1991: 67.76 million (8.08%)
○ 2001: 84.3 million (8.2%)
○ 2011: 104.3 million (8.6%)
● The tribal population growth rate has generally been higher than the national
average, partly due to amendments in classification criteria and removal of area
restrictions in 1976.

Sex Composition of the Population

● Sex composition is a fundamental demographic characteristic.
● It influences social and economic structures, affecting factors like birth rates,
mortality, migration, and employment.
● The sex ratio is calculated as the number of females per 1,000 males.

3. Trends in India's Sex Ratio

● India's sex ratio has historically been unfavorable to females.

● The ratio declined from 972 females per 1,000 males in 1901 to 930 in 1971.
● Some improvements occurred in later years:
○ 1981: 934
○ 1991: 927
○ 2001: 933
○ 2011: 940
● The net deficit of females increased from 3.2 million in 1901 to 37.3 million in
2011.

4. International Comparison

● India's sex ratio (940 in 2011) is significantly lower than in countries like:
○ Russia (1,167)
○ Japan (1,055)
 ○ Brazil (1,042)
○ USA (1,025)
○ Nigeria (1,016)
○ Indonesia (988)
● The global sex ratio declined from 986 in 2001 to 984 in 2011.

5. Factors Contributing to Low and Declining Sex Ratio

● More males are naturally born than females, a global phenomenon.

● A study of births in India from 1949–1958 showed a sex ratio at birth of 942
females per 1,000 males.
● Data from 1981–1991 confirmed similar trends across hospitals and health
centers

Child Sex Ratio Trends (1961–2011)

● The child sex ratio (ages 0–6) has been declining over the decades.
● The lowest child sex ratios in 2011 were observed in:
○ Haryana (830), Punjab (846), Jammu & Kashmir (859)
○ Among Union Territories: Delhi (866), Chandigarh (867), Lakshadweep
(908)

Improvements in Some States

● Increase in child sex ratio recorded in six states and two Union Territories:
○ Punjab: 789 (2001) →846 (2011) (+57 points)
○ Haryana: 819 →830 (+11 points)
○ Himachal Pradesh: 896 →906 (+10 points)
○ Chandigarh: 845 →867 (+22 points)
○ Gujarat: 883 →886 (+3 points)
○ Tamil Nadu: 942 →946 (+4 points)
○ Mizoram: 964 →971 (+7 points)
○ Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 957 →966 (+9 points)

Worsening Situation in Most States

● 27 states and Union Territories recorded a decline in the child sex ratio.
● Some regions have villages with no girls at all, leading to men seeking brides
from other states.

Government Initiatives to Improve the Girl Child’s Status

● Banning Sex Determination & Female Feticide: Strict laws prohibit prenatal
sex determination and sex-selective abortions.
● National Girl Child Day (24th January): Declared in 2012 to promote
awareness.
● Ladli Scheme (Delhi & Haryana): Encourages families to educate girls and curb
female feticide.
● Sabla Scheme (2011): Empowers adolescent girls through nutrition, health
awareness, and education.
 ● Dhanlaxmi Scheme (2008): Provides financial incentives to families for raising
and educating girls.

Literacy Rate
● Definition: Percentage of the population (aged 7+) that can read and write.
● National Literacy Rate (2011): 74.04%
○ Male Literacy: 82.14%
○ Female Literacy: 65.46%
● Highest Literacy (States in 2011):
○ Kerala (93.91%)
○ Lakshadweep (92.28%)
○ Mizoram (91.58%)
● Lowest Literacy (States in 2011):
○ Bihar (63.82%)
○ Arunachal Pradesh (66.95%)
○ Rajasthan (67.06%)

India's Literacy Rate (1951–2011)

Census Year Overall Literacy (%) Male Literacy (%) Female Literacy (%)

1951 18.3 27.2 8.9

1981 43.6 56.4 29.8

2001 64.8 75.3 53.7

2011 74.04 82.14 65.46

🌋 CLIMATE
JET STREAM AND INFLUENCE
Jet streams are fast-moving winds in the upper atmosphere that play a key role in
influencing India's weather patterns, including monsoons.

1. Winter Season (October–February)

● Westerly Jet Streams (High-altitude winds from the west) shift southward (20°N–
35°N).
● These winds split into two branches due to the Himalayas:
○ One branch moves south of the Himalayas.
○ The other flows north of the Tibetan Plateau.
● High pressure over Afghanistan and Pakistan leads to stable, dry weather in
northwestern India.
● Westerly jet streams also guide western disturbances from the Mediterranean, bringing
rainfall to North India.

2. Summer Season (March–June)

● Due to intense heating, low-pressure areas form over northwest India (Peshawar
region).
● The Westerly Jet Stream shifts northward, allowing warm air to rise, making conditions
ripe for monsoons.
● The Easterly Jet Stream strengthens over Tibet, influencing the Indian Ocean's high-
pressure system.
● This pressure difference pulls moisture-laden southwest monsoon winds from the
Indian Ocean toward India.
● Pre-monsoon showers occur in Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeast India before
full monsoon onset.

Key Role of Jet Streams in Monsoons

● The Easterly Jet Stream over Tibet strengthens the Indian Ocean High, pushing
monsoon winds towards India.
● The strength of monsoon rains depends on the strength of the easterly jet stream.

EL-NINO AND LA-NINA

El Niño (Warm Ocean Current)

● Appears near the Peru coast around December.

● Replaces the cold Peru Current, disrupting normal weather patterns.
● Causes warm waters in the eastern Pacific (Peru, Chile) and cool waters in the
western Pacific (Australia, Indonesia).
● Leads to heavy rainfall in Peru & Chile but droughts in Australia, Indonesia, and
India.
Southern Oscillation (Atmospheric Circulation Shift)

● Normally, low pressure exists over Australia & Indonesia, causing rainfall.
● During El Niño, this low pressure shifts to Peru & Chile, bringing drought to India &
Southeast Asia.
● Weakens the southwest monsoon in India, leading to poor rainfall.

La Niña (Opposite of El Niño - Cooling Event)

● Strengthens normal trade winds.

● Brings colder water to the eastern Pacific (Peru & Chile) and warmer water to
western Pacific (Australia & Indonesia).
● Leads to stronger Indian monsoons and heavy rainfall.

Indian Ocean and Monsoon Connection

● El Niño weakens monsoon winds, affecting India’s rainfall.

● Warmer western Indian Ocean may further disrupt monsoon patterns.
● Recent climate changes suggest El Niño events are becoming stronger & more
frequent.
TROPICAL CYCLONE
A tropical cyclone is a powerful low-pressure system that forms over warm tropical or
subtropical oceans. These storms bring strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges, causing
severe destruction to life and property.

Key Characteristics:

● Rotation: Counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.

● Energy Source: Latent heat of condensation.
● Size: Varies from a few kilometers to several hundred kilometers.
● Eye of the Storm: A calm center, typically 20-65 km wide.
● Wind Speed: Highest just outside the eye, reaching up to 250 km/h or more.
● Landfall Impact: Causes flooding, storm surges, and widespread damage.

Conditions for Formation:

1. Warm Ocean Waters – At least 27°C to provide energy.

2. Moist Air Supply – Continuous inflow of warm, humid air.
3. Coriolis Effect – Required for rotation, cyclones form 8° to 25° N.
4. Low Atmospheric Pressure – Fosters upward movement of warm air.
5. Anticyclonic Circulation at High Altitude – Helps in cyclone intensification.
6. Bay of Bengal vs. Arabian Sea:
○ Bay of Bengal is warmer, has calmer winds, and supports more cyclones.
○ Arabian Sea has cooler waters and the Somalian Current, which inhibits cyclone
formation.

Destruction Caused:

● High winds damage infrastructure and uproot trees.

● Heavy rainfall leads to floods and landslides.
● Storm surges submerge coastal areas.
● Cyclones like Odisha (1999), Phailin (2013), and Hudhud (2014) caused massive
destruction.

Climatic Classifications of India

Many experts have classified India's climate based on temperature, rainfall, and
geographical conditions. Some key classifications include:

1. H.E. Blandford (1889) – First attempt; observed that India has all major world climates.
2. W. Köppen (1918, 1931, 1936) – Divided India into five climate zones (e.g., tropical
rainforest, dry, monsoon).
3. C.W. Thornthwaite (1931, 1933, 1948) – Based on moisture availability for agriculture.
4. L.D. Stamp & W.G. Kendrew (1953) – Divided India into 11 climatic regions.
5. S.P. Chatterji (1953) – Included variations due to monsoons.
6. G.T. Trewartha (1954) – Modified Köppen’s classification with seven climatic regions.
7. V.P. Subramanyam (1956) – Based on temperature variations.
8. B.L.C. Johnson (1969) – Focused on agricultural climate zones.
9. K.L. Rao et al. (1971) – Considered rainfall and monsoon patterns.
10. R.L. Singh (1971) – Comprehensive study including modern meteorological data.

● A (Tropical) – Mean monthly temperature above 18°C, significant rainfall.

● B (Arid & Semi-Arid) – Evaporation exceeds precipitation, includes deserts.
● C (Temperate/Mesothermal) – Warm summers and mild winters.
● D (Continental/Microthermal) – Cold winters, moderate summers.
● E (Polar & Tundra) – Extremely cold climates with little vegetation.

2. Apply Additional Subclassifications

Each primary climate zone is further divided based on seasonal variations in

precipitation and temperature.

Symbol Meaning Climate Characteristic

f No dry season Rainfall occurs year-round

m Monsoon climate Seasonal heavy rainfall

w Dry winters Rainfall mostly in summer

s Dry summers Rainfall mostly in winter

h Hot arid High desert temperatures

Summer temperature below

c Cold summers
22°C
Example:

● Am = Tropical Monsoon (hot, rainy summers, short dry winters)

● BShw = Semi-Arid Steppe (hot, dry summers with seasonal rainfall)

1. Consideration of Climatic Parameters

○ Temperature: Mean monthly and annual variations.

○ Rainfall: Total annual rainfall and seasonal distribution.
2. Regional Differentiation

○ Divided India into 10 major climatic divisions based on temperature and

rainfall thresholds.
3. Use of Qualitative and Quantitative Data

○ Data from meteorological stations for scientific precision.

○ Consideration of geographical factors (e.g., proximity to coasts, altitude).
R.L. Singh’s 10 Climatic Divisions

Climate Type Regions Covered Rainfall Temperature Range (°C)

NE India, Sikkim, N.
1. Humid North-East >200 cm July: 25–33, Jan: 10–25
Bengal

2. Humid Sahyadri &

Konkan, Malabar Coast ~200 cm July: 25–30, Jan: 18–28
Western Coast

WB, Odisha, Jharkhand,

3. Humid South-East 100–200 cm July: 25–35, Jan: 12–27
Chhattisgarh

4. Sub-Humid
Gangetic Plain 100–200 cm July: 25–40, Jan: 10–25
Transition

5. Sub-Humid Littoral Coromandel Coast 75–150 cm May: 28–38, Jan: 20–30

6. Sub-Humid
Upper Ganga Plain 75–150 cm July: 25–40, Jan: 17–25
Continental
7. Semi-Arid Rajasthan, Haryana,
25–75 cm July: 25–28, Jan: 15–25
Subtropical Punjab

Gujarat, Maharashtra, MP,

8. Semi-Arid Tropical 50–100 cm July: 26–40, Jan: 15–28
Karnataka, Telangana

Thar Desert, Kutch, W.

9. Arid Climate <25 cm June: 30–40, Jan: 10–15
Rajasthan

J&K, Ladakh, HP,

10. Western Himalayas Up to 150 cm July: 5–30, Jan: 0–5
Uttarakhand
🌋 MINERALS (Iron Ore & Bauxite)
Definition and Importance of Minerals: Minerals are aggregates of two or more elements with a definite
chemical composition and atomic structure, formed through inorganic processes. In economic geography,
minerals refer to naturally occurring materials of economic value that are mined. They are found in the Earth's
crust as ores, which are extracted, processed, and utilized for economic development. The availability and
per capita consumption of minerals are key indicators of a country's economic progress.

Distribution of Minerals in India: India is rich in mineral resources, but their distribution is highly uneven.
Most mineral wealth is concentrated in the igneous and metamorphic rocks of Peninsular India, whereas the
Great Plains and the Himalayan region lack metallic minerals. Major mineral-rich states include Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, and Assam. However, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Gangetic West Bengal have limited mineral resources.

Classification of Mineral Resources in India

1. Mineral Fuels (Fossil Fuels): These are energy resources essential for power generation and industrial
activities. Examples: Coal, Petroleum (Mineral Oil), Natural Gas

2. Metallic Minerals: These minerals contain metal elements and serve as raw materials for the
metallurgical industry.
○ Ferrous Minerals (contain iron): Iron ore, Manganese
○ Non-Ferrous Minerals (do not contain iron): Copper, Bauxite (Aluminum)

3. Non-Metallic Minerals: These minerals do not contain metal elements but are vital for industrial and
agricultural purposes. They are used in cement, glass, ceramics, fertilizers, and various industries.
Examples: Limestone, Mica

IRON ORE
Types of Iron-Ore found in India

METAL
IRON ORE TYPE DESCRIPTION LOCATIONS
CONTENT

Haematite Oxide of iron, compact & Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, MP,

60-70%
(Red Ochre) lumpy Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, AP

Magnetite Igneous/metamorphic, rich in

60-65% Karnataka, AP, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
(Black Ore) iron

Limonite
Yellowish, inferior quality 35-50% UP, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh
(Hydrated Iron Oxide)

Siderite
Poor quality, low metal content 10-40% Not economically viable
(Iron Carbonate)
Major Iron-Ore Producing States & Mining Centers
 STATE / REGION MAJOR DEPOSITS KEY FEATURES

Mayurbhanj (Badampahar),
Keonjhar (Banspani, Toda),
Odisha Largest producer (~50% of India's total
Sundergarh (Kandadhar Pahar),
(Haematite) production)
Cuttack (Tomka Range), Koraput
(Hirapur Hills)
Bailadila (Bastar), Dalli-Rajhara
Chhattisgarh Bailadila – India's largest mechanized
(Durg), Bilaspur, Jagdalpur,
(Haematite, Magnetite) mine, major exporter via Visakhapatnam
Raigarh, Surguja
Kudremukh (Chikmagalur),
Bababudan Hills (Chikmagalur),
Karnataka Exports through Mangalore; Sandur
Sandur Range (Bellary-Hospet),
(Haematite, Magnetite) Range supplies Vijayanagar Steel Plant
Dharwar, Tumkur, Chitradurga,
Shimoga
Singhbhum (Noamundi, Gua),
Jharkhand Bonai Range, Daltenganj, One of the oldest mining regions (since
(Haematite) Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Ranchi, 1904)
Santhal Pargana
Pirna-Adolpale-Asnora,
Goa Major export hub via Marmagao Port;
Sanquelim-Ponda, Kundem-Surla,
(Haematite) High-quality ore
Sirigao-Bicholim-Dalda
Maharashtra
Chandrapur, Ratnagiri Small-scale production
(Haematite)

Tamil Nadu Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore,

Medium-scale production
(Magnetite, Haematite) Madurai, Tirunelveli

Andhra Pradesh & Telangana Anantapur, Cuddapah, Guntur,

Scattered reserves
(Haematite, Magnetite) Nellore, Khamman, Kurnool

Rajasthan Alwar, Bundi, Bhilwara, Jaipur,

Limited deposits
(Haematite) Sikar, Udaipur

Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand Mirzapur (UP), Almora, Garhwal,

Inferior quality iron ore
(Limonite, Haematite) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

Himachal Pradesh
Kangra, Mandi Small deposits
(Limonite)
Haryana
Mahendergarh Minor reserves
(Haematite)
West Bengal
Birbhum, Burdwan, Darjeeling Low-scale mining
(Haematite)
Jammu & Kashmir
Udhampur, Jammu Limited reserves
(Haematite)
Gujarat
Bhavnagar, Junagarh, Vadodara Small-scale production
(Haematite)
 Kerala
Kozhikode Minor reserves
(Magnetite)

Exports:

● India is the 5th largest exporter of iron ore in the world (~55% of production exported).
● Major export destinations: Japan, South Korea, West Europe, Iran, UAE, Gulf countries.
● Key export ports: Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao, Mangalore.

BAUXITE
Major Bauxite Producing States & Mining Centers
STATE /
MINING CENTERS PRODUCTION KEY FEATURES
REGION

Kalahandi-Koraput Belt, Bolangir, Largest producer, hosts NALCO

Odisha 49%
Sambalpur, Sundargarh aluminium plant

Gulf of Kutch & Khambhat,

Gujarat Bhavnagar, Jamnagar, Junagarh, 24% Major reserves in coastal areas
Amreli, Kachchh, Kheda, Sabarkantha

Dumka, Gumla, Lohardaga, Munger, Lohardaga known for high-

Jharkhand 9%
Palamu, Ranchi grade bauxite

Maikal Range, Amarkantak Plateau, Major supplier to BALCO

Chhattisgarh 8%
Bilaspur, Raigarh, Surguja (Korba Plant)

Kolhapur, Pune, Ratnagiri, Satara, Significant deposits in Western

Maharashtra 8%
Thane Ghats

Balaghat, Jabalpur, Katni, Mandla,

Madhya Pradesh 2.42% Scattered reserves
Shahdol

Minor production, mostly for

Goa Various small deposits 1.11%
local use

Tamil Nadu Madurai, Nilgiri, Salem 0.10% Supplies MALCO (Mettur plant)

Andhra Pradesh (East & West

Godavari, Visakhapatnam), Kerala
(Kannur, Kollam,
Scattered reserves, minor
Other States Thiruvananthapuram), Rajasthan Negligible
production
(Kota), Uttar Pradesh (Banda,
Lalitpur), Jammu & Kashmir (Jammu,
Poonch, Udhampur)
Bauxite Usage & Exports:

● 80% of total bauxite is used for aluminium production.

● Major importers: Italy (60%), UK (25%), others (Germany, Belgium, Japan).

Major Aluminium Plants in India

PLANT LOCATION KEY FEATURES

BALCO
Former PSU, now under Sterlite
(Bharat Aluminium Company Korba, Chhattisgarh
Industries.
Limited)

HINDALCO Established in 1958, bauxite

Renukut, Uttar Pradesh
(Renukoot Plant) from Lohardaga (Jharkhand).

MALCO Established in 1965, sources

Mettur, Tamil Nadu
(Madras Aluminium Company) bauxite from Shevaroy Hills.

NALCO Commissioned in 1981, later

Koraput, Odisha
(Koraput Aluminium Plant) disinvested in 2006.
🌋 LIVESTOCK (Cattle)
 BIOTIC RESOURCES
The biotic resources include natural vegetation, fisheries, livestock (cattle, buffaloes, goat, and sheep
rearing, pig rearing) fisheries, poultry farming. The livestock sector, which contributes about 27% to the GDP
from agriculture and allied activities, is of special importance in the arid and semi-arid regions.

CATTLE
Cattle play a crucial role in India's rural economy, providing income to marginal farmers and landless
workers. The government has established seven central breeding farms to improve indigenous breeds,
and exotic breeds like Jersey and Holstein are also being introduced to boost milk production.

Cattle in India are classified into three categories:

● Milch Breeds: These cows produce a high quantity of milk. Notable breeds include Deoni (2000 kg
per lactation), Gir (3000+ kg), Sahiwal (3000-4500 kg), and Sindhi (5000 kg). These breeds are native
to different regions of India, such as Andhra Pradesh, Saurashtra, and Punjab.

● Draught Breeds: These breeds are known for their strength and are used for agricultural purposes.
Examples include Nagori, Bachaur, Kathiawari, Malvi, Hallikar, Amritmahal, Kangyam, Killari,
Ponwar, and Siri. They are commonly found in regions like Mysore, Haryana, and the Himalayan
region.

● Dual-Purpose Breeds: These breeds provide both milk and draught power. Popular ones include
Hariana, Ongole, Gaolo, Rath, Dangi, Krishna Valley, and Nimari, found across Haryana, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.

To improve cattle breeds, seven central breeding farms have been established across India, in locations
like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka. Additionally, exotic high-
yielding breeds such as Jersey, Holstein, Swiss Brown, and Ayrshire have been introduced to enhance
milk production.

Buffaloes
Buffaloes contribute significantly to India's dairy industry, making up 17% of the total
livestock but providing 55% of the country's milk supply. India has the largest buffalo
population globally, with major breeds like Murrah, Bhadwari, Jaffarabadi, Saurti,
Mehsana, and Nagpuri. While Murrah buffaloes yield up to 2000 kg of milk per lactation,
Bhadwari buffaloes produce around 1600 kg. However, livestock in India often suffer
from diseases, prompting the government to implement the "Livestock Health: Disease
Control" scheme. Additionally, regulations on cattle trade imposed in 2017 sparked
protests, as they affected farmers, meat exports, and industries dependent on livestock
by-products.

Goat Rearing
Goats provide milk, meat, and hide, contributing about 35% of India’s total meat
consumption. The goat population increased from 47 million in 1951 to 135.1 million in
2012, with Bihar, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh leading in numbers. Most
goats are desi breeds, such as Angora (Himachali), Jamunapari, Marwari, Mehsanwi,
and Zalawadi. To enhance productivity, cross-breeding with foreign breeds like Alpine,
Nubian, Saanen, and Turkish Angora has been undertaken to improve milk and meat
yields.
Sheep Rearing
Sheep are an important source of mutton, wool, and hide, with India's population
increasing from 39 million in 1951 to 65.1 million in 2015-16. Rajasthan leads in sheep
rearing (25%), followed by Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
Common Indian sheep breeds include Lohi, Kutchi, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kathiawari,
and Jaisalmeri. However, Indian wool is of inferior quality compared to Australia and
South Africa and is mainly used for coarse carpet production. Efforts to improve sheep
breeds involve cross-breeding with high-quality breeds like Australian Merino, Russian
Merino, Spanish Merino, and Leicester (UK).

Poultry Farming
Poultry farming in India has evolved from traditional methods to commercial production.
Poultry includes chickens, ducks, geese, quails, emu, and turkeys, providing meat,
eggs, and feathers. Egg production increased from 50.70 billion in 2006-07 to 82.93
billion in 2015-16, while poultry meat production rose to 3.26 million tonnes. The major
poultry-producing states are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal,
and Haryana, making poultry farming a key contributor to rural employment and
nutrition.

FISHERIES
REFER TO HANDWRITTEN NOTES
⚡ POWER (Coal & Hydroelectricity)
HYDROELECTRICITY IN INDIA
Hydropower (hydroelectricity) is a renewable energy source that generates electricity using the power of
moving water, such as rivers and waterfalls. Historically, water mills have been used for irrigation and
mechanical operations like milling and lifting.

India’s first hydro-electric plant was established in 1898 at Darjeeling, followed by Mettur (Tamil Nadu)
in 1899 and Sivasamudram (Karnataka) in 1902. Another early plant was built on the Jhelum River at
Mohara in 1909.

Development After Independence: The real progress in hydro-power began post-independence with the
construction of several multipurpose projects such as Bhakra-Nangal, Rihand, Hirakud, Nagarjunasagar,
Damodar Valley, Chambal, Tungabhadra, Tehri, and Koyna. These projects significantly boosted
electricity production in the country.

Hydro-electric development depends on factors like river flow, topography, and demand for energy. Due
to these factors, the distribution of hydro-power is uneven across India. Andhra Pradesh ranks first in
hydro-power generation, followed by Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Maharashtra, Kerala, and Madhya
Pradesh.

The focus on hydro-electricity was particularly strong during the First Five-Year Plan, leading to the
installation of many multipurpose projects aimed at both energy production and water resource
management.

How Does It Work?

Hydropower plants use reservoirs, gates, and turbines to control and convert water flow into electricity.
Water's potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as it flows downhill, turning turbines that generate
electricity.

Global Usage

Hydropower is the most widely used renewable energy source. The largest producers include China, the
U.S., Brazil, Canada, India, and Russia. It accounts for about 71% of global renewable electricity
production.

Largest Hydropower Plant: The Three Gorges Dam (China) is the world's largest, producing 22,500 MW
of electricity.

Types of Hydropower Plants

1. Impoundment – Uses a dam to store water and release it through turbines.
2. Diversion (Run-of-River) – Channels water through a canal or pipe without requiring a dam.
3. Pumped Storage – Functions like a battery, storing excess energy by pumping water to a
higher reservoir for later use.

Hydropower Classification (Based on Capacity)

● Micro: Up to 100 kW
● Mini: 101 kW – 2 MW
● Small: 2 – 25 MW
● Mega: More than 500 MW
Advantages of Hydropower
● Renewable & cost-effective – No fuel costs, lower long-term investment.
● Reliable & inflation-free – Does not rely on fossil fuels.
● Supports peak demand – Quick start/stop capability.
● Environmental benefits – Reduces carbon emissions.

Disadvantages & Challenges

● High initial costs – Capital-intensive projects.
● Environmental impact – Leads to deforestation, displacement, and loss of biodiversity.
● Geographic limitations – Requires specific locations.
● Project delays – Due to land acquisition, legal issues, and state conflicts.

Challenges in India
● Hydropower potential in central India is underdeveloped due to tribal opposition, legal
hurdles, and financial constraints.
● Slow project execution – Only 10,000 MW added in the last decade.
● Interstate conflicts delay dam construction (e.g., Subansiri Project).
🌋 ECONOMY
 SUGARCANE
Sugarcane, a member of the bamboo family, is native to India. It is a major source of sugar, gur
(jaggery), and khandsari (unrefined sugar). Around two-thirds of sugarcane is used for producing gur
and khandsari, while the remaining one-third goes to sugar factories. Sugarcane also serves as a raw
material for alcohol production and bagasse (crushed cane residue), which can be used for paper
manufacturing and as a substitute for petroleum-based products.

Conditions for Growth

● Climate: Hot and humid conditions with temperatures between 21°C–27°C and annual rainfall of 75–150
cm.
● Soil: Sugarcane grows in various soils, including loamy, clayey, black cotton soil, and laterites.
However, deep, rich loamy soil with nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus is best.
● Irrigation: Required in areas with low rainfall.
● Labour Intensive: Sugarcane requires significant human labor for sowing, weeding, irrigating, cutting,
and transportation.

● Weather Sensitivity:
○ Heavy rainfall lowers sugar content.
○ Drought conditions produce fibrous crops.
○ Frost is harmful and must be avoided.
○ Hot, dry winds (like 'loo' in North India) are also harmful.

Production Trends
India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation but is the second-largest producer after Brazil.

● 1951–61: Production increased 93% due to agricultural diversification.

● 1960–71: Growth slowed due to market fluctuations.
● 1971–81: Production surged 22% due to new sugar mills.
● 2006–07: Peak production of 355.52 million tonnes.
● 2012–13: Production was 338.96 million tonnes.

Area Under Cultivation

● 1950-51: 1.7 million hectares
● 2000-01: 4.32 million hectares
● Growth slowed after 2006-07, with fluctuations in area coverage.

Yield (Production per Hectare)

● 1950-51: 33.42 tonnes/hectare
● 1990-91: 65.39 tonnes/hectare
● 2000-01: 68.57 tonnes/hectare
● 2012-13: 66.9 tonnes/hectare, much lower than Brazil (79.0 t/ha), Colombia (101.3 t/ha), Egypt (116.7
t/ha), and Peru (125.5 t/ha).

● Reasons for Low Yield:

○ Poor fertilizer use
○ Uncertain weather
○ Inadequate irrigation
 ○ Inferior cane varieties
○ Fragmented land holdings
○ Traditional cultivation methods

Research & Innovation

The Sugarcane Breeding Institute in Coimbatore (since 1912) developed higher-yielding varieties like Co
238, Co 239, and CoL 18, which may increase yield by 10 tonnes/hectare.

Production Area Key

Rank State Key Districts
Share (%) Share (%) Characteristics
Largest producer, main Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bijnor,
regions: Ganga-Yamuna Moradabad, Saharanpur, Kheri,
1 Uttar Pradesh 0.36 0.4286
Doab, Rohilkhand, Trans- Deoria, Bulandshahr, Bareilly,
Saryu Sitapur
Highest yield, highest Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Pune,
2 Maharashtra 0.24 0.2 recovery rate, longest Nashik, Solapur, Sangli, Satara,
crushing period Osmanabad, Aurangabad
Belgaum, Mandya, Mysore,
3 Karnataka 0.107 0.08 Third-largest producer
Bijapur, Shimoga, Chitradurga
Tirupur, Salem, Tiruchirapalli,
Highest productivity Dharampuri, Coimbatore,
4 Tamil Nadu 0.1069 0.07
(110.23 t/ha) Madurai, Thanjavur,
Ramanathapuram

Ratooning
A method where sugarcane is cut, but the roots remain for regrowth, reducing costs and maturation time.
However, yield decreases with each successive crop.

Geographical Distribution of Sugarcane in India

Main Sugarcane Growing Belts
1. Satluj-Ganga Plain (Punjab to Bihar) – 51% of total area, 60% of total production
2. Black Soil Belt (Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu along the Western Ghats)
3. Coastal Andhra and Krishna Valley

Regional Differences in Cultivation

● Northern India:
○ Lower yield due to extreme weather (hot 'loo' winds in summer, frost in winter).
○ Main areas: Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Rohilkhand, Trans-Saryu regions.

● Southern India:
○ Higher yield due to stable temperatures and absence of frost.
○ Faces competition from other cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and ground
Groundnut Production in India
Importance of Groundnut
● Most important oilseed in India, accounting for nearly half of the country's oilseed production.
● Rich in proteins, vitamins, and has high calorific value.
● Contains 40-50% oil, used for edible oil, margarine, soap, medical emulsions, and more.
● Consumed in various forms: raw, roasted, sweetened, or salted.
● Oil cake is used as cattle feed.
● Acts as a soil-enhancing crop by fixing nitrogen in the soil

Factor Requirement

Climate Tropical climate

Temperature 20-30°C

Rainfall 50-75 cm (Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper limit)

Sensitivity Susceptible to frost, drought, excessive rain, and stagnant water

Growth Period Requires dry winter at ripening

Rank State Production Share (%) Key Districts

1 Andhra Pradesh 0.23 Chittoor, Kurnool, Anantapur

2 Tamil Nadu 0.18 Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore

Junagadh, Jamnagar, Amreli, Bhavnagar,

3 Gujarat 0.16
Rajkot, Sabarkantha, Panchmahal, Surat

Chittorgarh, Bhilwara, Tonk,

4 Rajasthan 0.13
Jhalawar, Jaipur

Dharwar, Gulbarga, Belgaum, Bellary,

5 Karnataka 0.08
Kolar, Tumkur, Raichur, Mysore
 Automobile Industry in India
India's automobile industry is one of the largest and fastest-growing in the world. The
country manufactures around 12 million vehicles annually, with over 1.5 million exported
each year. By 2050, India is expected to have 600 million vehicles on its roads, making
it the largest car market globally.

Growth and Development

● The industry gained momentum post-independence with the establishment of Premier
Automobiles Ltd. (Mumbai, 1947) and Hindustan Motors Ltd. (Kolkata, 1948).
● As of today, there are 17 passenger car manufacturers, 9 commercial vehicle producers,
16 two- and three-wheeler manufacturers, and 14 tractor manufacturers in India.
● India's automobile sector contributes 7.1% to GDP and directly or indirectly employs 12.5
million people.
● The industry was delicensed in 1991, and 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is now
allowed.

Production and Market Trends

● FY 2017-18: India produced 29.08 million vehicles, a 14.8% growth from 25.33 million in FY
2016-17.
● Growth rate by segment:
○ Commercial Vehicles (CVs): 18-20%
○ Passenger Vehicles (PVs): 8-10%
○ Two- and Three-Wheelers: 17-19%

Major Automobile Hubs

The industry is mainly located near iron and steel centers, markets, and ports. Major
automobile hubs include:

● Chennai, Delhi, Gurugram, Jabalpur, Jamshedpur, Kolkata, NOIDA, Mumbai

● Motorcycle hubs: Faridabad, Mysore
● Scooter hubs: Pune (Akurdi), Lucknow, Ahmedabad (Odhav), Kanpur (Panki), Satara

Key Automobile Manufacturers

● Passenger Cars:

○ Maruti Udyog Limited (Gurugram, Haryana)

○ Hindustan Motors (Chennai, Kolkata)
○ Premier Automobiles (Mumbai)
○ Hyundai Motors (NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh)
○ Honda City (Uttar Pradesh)
○ Mahindra & Ford collaboration (Ford Escort)
○ Mercedes-Benz (Collaboration with TELCO)
○ Fiat Uno (Premier Automobiles & Fiat-Ind-Auto Limited collaboration)
● Jeeps:

○ Entire production is by Mahindra & Mahindra (Mumbai)

● Two- and Three-Wheelers:

○ Mopeds: TVS-Suzuki
○ Scooters: Bajaj Auto, LML (Mumbai, Pune, Delhi, Kanpur)
○ Motorcycles: Chennai, Delhi, Mysore
● Commercial Vehicles (Trucks & Buses):

Tata Engineering & Locomotive Co. (TELCO) (Hyderabad, Pithampur, Rupnagar,

○
Surajpur)
○ Premier Automobiles, Mahindra & Mahindra (Mumbai)
○ Ashok Leyland, Standard Motors (Chennai)
○ Hindustan Motors (Kolkata)
○ Bajaj Tempo (Pune)
● Defense Vehicles:

○ ‘Vehicles Factory’ (Jabalpur) - In collaboration with Nissan, producing Shaktiman

Trucks

Key Challenges & Reforms

● Demonetization (2016) affected sales
● BS-III vehicle ban (April 2017) impacted production
● GST implementation (July 2018) altered tax structures
● NGT’s diesel vehicle ban (2018) affected diesel sales
● Cess increase (Sept 2017) added costs

Exports and Global Presence

● In 2017-18, India exported 4.04 million vehicles, compared to 3.48 million in 2016-17.
● Key export destinations include South West Asia, East Africa, Southeast Asia, East
Europe, USA, and the UK.
 TRANSPORTATION
RAILWAYS

Railway Zone Headquarters

Central Railway (CR) Mumbai (Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus)

Eastern Railway (ER) Kolkata

Northern Railway
New Delhi
(NR)
North Eastern
Gorakhpur
Railway (NER)
North Western
Jaipur
Railway (NWR)
North Central
Prayagraj (Allahabad)
Railway (NCR)
North East Frontier
Maligaon (Guwahati)
Railway (NFR)
Southern Railway
Chennai
(SR)
South Central
Secunderabad
Railway (SCR)
South Eastern
Kolkata
Railway (SER)
South East Central
Bilaspur
Railway (SECR)
South Western
Hubballi (Hubli)
Railway (SWR)
Western Railway
Mumbai (Churchgate)
(WR)
West Central Railway
Jabalpur
(WCR)
East Central Railway
Hajipur
(ECR)
East Coast Railway
Bhubaneswar
(ECoR)

1. Established – Indian Railways was founded on 16 April 1853, with the first train
running from Mumbai (Boree Bunder) to Thane (34 km).
 2. Fourth Largest Rail Network – Indian Railways has a network of over 68,000
km, making it the fourth largest in the world (after the USA, China, and Russia).

3. Owned by the Government – It is fully owned by the Government of India

and operated under the Ministry of Railways.

4. World’s Largest Employer – Indian Railways employs over 1.2 million people,
making it one of the largest employers in the world.

Trains & Services

5. Fastest Train – Vande Bharat Express (New Delhi to Varanasi), with a top
speed of 180 km/h.

6. Longest Train Route – Vivek Express (Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari) covers

4,273 km in 74 hours 35 minutes.

7. Slowest Train – Mettupalayam-Ooty Nilgiri Passenger, running at 10 km/h.

8. Busiest Station – Howrah Junction (West Bengal) handles the most trains
daily.

9. Most Luxurious Train – Maharajas’ Express, offering a 5-star luxury

experience.

10. Highest Railway Bridge – Chenab Bridge (Jammu & Kashmir) is the tallest
railway bridge in the world (359 m above the river).

Railway Zones & Connectivity

11. Total Railway Zones – Indian Railways has 18 zones and over 70 divisions.

12. Longest Platform – Gorakhpur Junction (Uttar Pradesh) has the longest
railway platform in the world (1.36 km).

13. First Electric Train – Deccan Queen (Mumbai to Pune, 1929).

14. First Metro Rail – Kolkata Metro (1984) was India’s first underground metro
system.

15. Most Unusual Station Name – Ib (Odisha) has the shortest station name in
India.
Electrification & Modernization

16. 100% Electrification by 2030 – Indian Railways aims to become a net-zero

carbon emitter by 2030.

17. Semi-High-Speed Corridors – Bullet Train (Mumbai-Ahmedabad) under

construction, expected to run at 320 km/h.

18. Automatic Train Control – The introduction of KAVACH (an AI-based safety
system) to prevent accidents.

19. Solar-Powered Trains – Indian Railways is launching solar and bio-diesel-

powered locomotives.

Longest Railway Route 🚉

● Vivek Express (Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari)

● Distance: 4,273 km
● Duration: ~74 hours 35 minutes
● Covers 9 states (Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
etc.)

2. Shortest Railway Route 🚉

● Nagpur-Kamptee Passenger
● Distance: 3 km
Duration: ~5 minutes

3. Busiest Railway Route 🚉

● Delhi–Mumbai & Delhi–Howrah

● Handles the maximum number of trains daily.

4. Most Scenic Railway Routes 🚉

● Kalka – Shimla (Himalayan Queen) – UNESCO Heritage Site, famous for

sharp curves and tunnels.
● Konkan Railway (Mumbai – Goa – Mangalore) – Beautiful coastal
landscapes, tunnels, and bridges.
● Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (Toy Train) – A UNESCO-listed mountain
railway.

● Nilgiri Mountain Railway – Steepest railway route in India, uses rack-and-

pinion technology.

5. Highest Railway Route 🚉

● Bhairabi-Sairang Railway (Mizoram)

Chenab Bridge (J&K) – World’s highest railway bridge (359m above river
 Chenab).

6. Railway Route with Maximum Tunnels 🚉

● Konkan Railway – 92 tunnels, longest is Karbude Tunnel (6.5 km).

7. Electrification Progress ⚡

● Over 85% of Indian railway routes are electrified (aiming for 100% by 2030).

ROADWAYS
National
Length
Highway Route Key Facts
(km)
(NH)
Longest NH in India, connecting the
Srinagar, J&K – Kanyakumari,
NH 44 4112 northernmost and southernmost
Tamil Nadu
parts of the country.
Longest east-west corridor,
Porbandar, Gujarat – Silchar,
NH 27 3507 enhancing connectivity across eight
Assam
states.
Part of the Golden Quadrilateral;
connects major cities like Delhi,
NH 48 Delhi – Chennai, Tamil Nadu 2807
Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Mumbai,
Bengaluru, and Chennai.
Runs along India's western coast,
Panvel, Maharashtra –
NH 66 1622 passing through Maharashtra, Goa,
Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu
Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
Integral part of the Grand Trunk
NH 19 Delhi – Kolkata, West Bengal 1435 Road; connects Delhi with Kolkata
via Agra, Kanpur, and Varanasi.
Part of the Golden Quadrilateral;
Chennai, Tamil Nadu – Kolkata, runs along the eastern coast
NH 16 1711
West Bengal through Andhra Pradesh and
Odisha.
Historically known as the Delhi-
NH 2 Delhi – Kolkata, West Bengal 1465 Kolkata Road; vital for trade between
northern and eastern India.
Mumbai, Maharashtra – Chennai, Connects two major port cities;
NH 4 1237
Tamil Nadu passes through Pune and Bengaluru.
Coastal highway enhancing
Kolkata, West Bengal – Chennai,
NH 5 1533 connectivity between eastern coastal
Tamil Nadu
states.
 Hajira, Gujarat – Kolkata, West Major east-west link connecting
NH 6 1949
Bengal central India to the eastern coast.
Previously the longest NH before
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh –
NH 7 2369 renumbering; traverses central and
Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu
southern India.
Part of the Golden Quadrilateral;
crucial for trade between the
NH 8 Delhi – Mumbai, Maharashtra 1428
national capital and financial
capital.
Mumbai, Maharashtra – Connects western and southeastern
NH 9 841
Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh India, facilitating regional trade.
Connects the national capital to the
NH 10 Delhi – Fazilka, Punjab 403
India-Pakistan border.
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh – Links central India to the western
NH 12 890
Jaipur, Rajasthan state of Rajasthan.
Pathankot, Punjab – Samakhiali, Runs along India's western border,
NH 15 1526
Gujarat connecting Punjab to Gujarat.

Coastal highway running parallel to

Panvel, Maharashtra – Edapally,
NH 17 1296 NH 66; passes through Goa and
Kerala
Karnataka.
Known as the Hindustan-Tibet
Ambala, Haryana – Shipki La,
NH 22 459 Road; reaches up to the India-
Himachal Pradesh
China border.
Vital link between the national capital
NH 24 Delhi – Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 438
and Uttar Pradesh's capital.
Connects Bihar and West Bengal;
Barhi, Jharkhand – Jalpaiguri, West
NH 31 1125 important for northeastern
Bengal
connectivity.

Feature Details
Longest NH NH 44 (Srinagar – Kanyakumari, 4,112 km)

Second Longest NH NH 27 (Porbandar – Silchar, 3,507 km)

Shortest NH NH 548 (Mumbai – Pune, 5 km)

First NH Built Grand Trunk Road (NH 1, NH 19)

Highest NH NH 505 (Himachal Pradesh, 5,540m altitude)

Longest Bridge on
Bhupen Hazarika Bridge (9.15 km, Assam)
NH

Special Roadway Projects

● Golden Quadrilateral (GQ):

○ 5,846 km highway network connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.

 ○ Completed in 2012, boosting trade and reducing travel time.

● North-South & East-West Corridor:

○ Connects Srinagar (J&K) to Kanyakumari (TN) and Porbandar (Gujarat) to Silchar

(Assam).
○ Covers 7,142 km, improving nationwide connectivity.

● Bharatmala Pariyojana:

○ Aims to build 35,000 km of new highways to improve border areas, economic corridors,
and rural roads.
○ Estimated cost: ₹5.35 lakh crore.

● Delhi-Mumbai Expressway:

○ 1,386 km long, India's longest expressway (8 lanes, expandable to 12).

○ Expected to reduce travel time to 12 hours (from 24 hours).

● Char Dham Highway Project:

○ 900 km road network connecting Kedarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri for
pilgrimage and tourism.

● Atal Tunnel (Rohtang, Himachal Pradesh) – World's longest highway tunnel (9.02 km)
at 3,000+ meters altitude.
● Yamuna Expressway – India's first expressway with an airstrip for emergency
landings.
● Longest Elevated Road – The Delhi-Meerut Expressway (96 km) includes India’s
longest elevated stretch (9 km).
● Chenani-Nashri Tunnel (J&K) – India’s longest road tunnel (9.3 km) on NH 44.
● Mumbai-Pune Expressway – India’s first six-lane expressway, operational since 2002.