Crime prevention is the attempt to reduce and deter crime and criminals.

It is applied
specifically to efforts made by governments to reduce crime, enforce the law, and
maintain criminal justice.
Studies
Criminologists, commissions, and research bodies such as the World Health
Organization, United Nations, the United States National Research Council, the UK Audit
Commission have analyzed their and others' research on what lowers rates of interpersonal
crime.
They agree that governments must go beyond law enforcement and criminal justice to tackle the
risk factors that cause crime, because it is more cost effective and leads to greater social benefits
than the standard ways of responding to crime. Multiple opinion polls also confirm public
support for investment in prevention. Waller uses these materials in Less Law, More Order to
propose specific measures to reduce crime as well as a crime bill
The World Health Organization Guide (2004) complements the World Report on Violence and
Health (2002) and the 2003 World Health Assembly Resolution 56-24 for governments to
implement nine recommendations, which were:
1. Create, implement and monitor a national action plan for violence prevention.
2. Enhance capacity for collecting data on violence.
3. Define priorities for, and support research on, the causes, consequences, costs and
prevention of violence.
4. Promote primary prevention responses.
5. Strengthen responses for victims of violence.
6. Integrate violence prevention into social and educational policies, and thereby
promote gender and social equality.
7. Increase collaboration and exchange of information on violence prevention.
8. Promote and monitor adherence to international treaties, laws and other mechanisms to
protect human rights.
9. Seek practical, internationally agreed responses to the global drugs and global arms trade.
The commissions agree on the role of municipalities, because they are best able to organize the
strategies to tackle the risk factors that cause crime. The European Forum for Urban Safety and
the United States Conference of Mayors have stressed that municipalities must target the
programs to meet the needs of youth at risk and women who are vulnerable to violence.
To succeed, they need to establish a coalition of key agencies such as schools, job creation,
social services, housing and law enforcement around a diagnosis.
Types

Several factors must come together for a crime to occur:

1. an individual or group must have the desire or motivation to participate in a banned or
prohibited behavior;
2. at least some of the participants must have the skills and tools needed to commit the
crime; and,
3. an opportunity must be acted upon.
Primary prevention addresses individual and family-level factors correlated with later criminal
participation. Individual level factors such as attachment to school and involvement in pro-social
activities decrease the probability of criminal involvement.
Family-level factors such as consistent parenting skills similarly reduce individual level risk.
Risk factors are additive in nature. The greater the number of risk factors present the greater the
risk of criminal involvement. In addition there are initiatives which seek to alter rates of crime at
the community or aggregate level.
For example, Larry Sherman from the University of Maryland in Policing Domestic
Violence (1993) demonstrated that changing the policy of police response to domestic violence
calls altered the probability of subsequent violence. Policing hot spots, areas of known criminal
activity, decreases the number of criminal events reported to the police in those areas. Other
initiatives include community policing efforts to capture known criminals. Organizations such as
America's Most Wanted and Crime Stoppers help catch these criminals.
Secondary prevention uses intervention techniques that are directed at youth who are at high risk
to commit crime, and especially focus on youth who drop out of school or get involved in gangs.
It targets social programs and law enforcement at neighborhoods where crime rates are high.
Much of the crime that is happening in neighborhoods with high crime rates is related to social
and physical problems. The use of secondary crime prevention in cities such
as Birmingham and Bogotá has achieved large reductions in crime and violence. Programs such
as general social services, educational institutions and the police are focused on youth who are at
risk and have been shown to significantly reduce crime.
Tertiary prevention is used after a crime has occurred in order to prevent successive incidents.
Such measures can be seen in the implementation of new security policies following acts of
terrorism such as the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Situational crime prevention uses techniques focusing on reducing on the opportunity to commit
a crime. Some of techniques include increasing the difficulty of crime, increasing the risk of
crime, and reducing the rewards of crime.

Situational crime prevention

Introduction and description

Situational crime prevention (SCP) is a relatively new concept that employs a preventive
approach by focusing on methods to reduce the opportunities for crime. It was first outlined in a
1976 report released by the British Home Office SCP focuses on the criminal setting and is
different from most criminology as it begins with an examination of the circumstances that allow
particular types of crime. By gaining an understanding of these circumstances, mechanisms are
then introduced to change the relevant environments with the aim of reducing the opportunities
for particular crimes. Thus, SCP focuses on crime prevention rather than the punishment or
detection of criminals and its intention is to make criminal activities less appealing to offenders.
SCP focuses on opportunity-reducing processes that:
 Are aimed at particular forms of crime;
 Entail the management, creation or manipulation of the immediate environment in as
organised and permanent a manner as possible; and
 Result in crime being more difficult and risky or less rewarding and justifiable.
The theory behind SCP concentrates on the creation of safety mechanisms that assist in
protecting people by making criminals feel they may be unable to commit crimes or would be in
a situation where they may be caught or detected, which will result in them being unwilling to
commit crimes where such mechanisms are in place. The logic behind this is based on the
concept of rational choice - that every criminal will assess the situation of a potential crime,
weigh up how much they may gain, balance it against how much they may lose and the
probability of failing, and then act accordingly.
Situational Crime prevention can be applied using twenty-five opportunity reducing techniques:
 Increase the Effort: Includes target hardening (e.g. Tamper-proof packaging),
controlling access to facilities (e.g. Electronic card access), applying screen exits (e.g.
Electronic merchandise tags), deflecting offenders (e.g. dispersing pubs) and controlling
tools or weapons (e.g. Disabling stolen mobile phones).
 Increase the Risks: Includes extending guardianship (e.g. neighbourhood watch),
Assisting natural surveillance (e.g. adequate street lighting), Reducing anonymity (e.g.
compulsory taxi identification cards), utilising place managers (e.g. rewarding vigilance)
and strengthening formal surveillance (e.g. Security guards).
  Reduce the Rewards: Includes concealing targets (e.g. unmarked bullion trucks),
removing targets (e.g. women's refuges), and identifying property (e.g. cattle branding),
disrupting markets (e.g. monitoring of pawn shops) and denying benefits (e.g. speed
humps).
 Reduce Provocations: Includes reducing frustrations and stress (e.g. efficient queues and
polite service), avoiding disputes (e.g. Separate enclosures for rival soccer fans), reducing
emotional arousal (e.g. controls on violent pornography), neutralising peer pressure (e.g.
targeting and removing troublemakers from a school) and discouraging imitation (e.g. V-
chips in televisions).
 Remove the excuses: Includes setting rules (e.g. rental agreements), posting instructions
(e.g. 'No Parking' signs), alerting conscience (roadside speed display boards), assisting
compliance (e.g. easy library check-out) and controlling drugs and alcohol (e.g. alcohol
free zones)
One example of SCP in practice is automated traffic enforcement. Automated traffic
enforcement systems (ATES) use automated cameras on the roads to catch drivers who are
speeding and those who run red lights. Such systems enjoy use all over the world. These systems
have been installed and are advertised as an attempt to keep illegal driving incidences down. As
a potential criminal, someone who is about to speed or run a red light knows that their risk of
getting caught is nearly 100% with these systems. This completely disincentives the person from
speeding or running red lights in areas in which they know ATES are set up. Though not
conclusive, evidence shows that these type of systems work. In a Philadelphia study, some of the
city's most dangerous intersections had a reduction of 96% in red light violations after the
installation and advertisement of an ATES system.
Applying SCP to information systems (IS)

Situational crime prevention (SCP) in general attempts to move away from the "dispositional"
theories of crime commission i.e. the influence of psychosocial factors or genetic makeup of the
criminal, and to focus on those environmental and situational factors that can potentially
influence criminal conduct. Hence rather than focus on the criminal, SCP focuses on the
circumstances that lend themselves to crime commission. Understanding these circumstances
leads to the introduction of measures that alter the environmental factors with the aim of
reducing opportunities for criminal behavior. Other aspects of SCP include:
1. targeting specific forms of crime e.g. cybercrime
2. aiming to increase the effort and decrease potential risks of crime
3. reducing provocative phenomena
Safeguarding
Another aspect of SCP that is more applicable to the cyber environment is the principle of
safeguarding. The introduction of these safeguards is designed to influence the potential
offender's view of the risks and benefits of committing the crime. A criminal act is usually
performed if the offender decides that there is little or no risk attached to the act. One of the
goals of SCP is to implement safeguards to the point where the potential offender views the act
unfavorably. For example, drivers approaching a traffic junction where there are speed cameras
slow down if there is a nearly 100% chance of being caught trying to run a red light. The use of
crime "scripts" has been touted as a method of administering safeguards. Scripts were originally
developed in the field of cognitive science and focus on the behavioural processes involved in
rational goal-oriented behaviour. Hence scripts have been proposed as tool for examining
criminal behaviour. In particular the use of what is termed a "universal script" has been advanced
for correctly identifying all the stages in the commission process of a crime.
Application to cybercrimes
It has been suggested that cybercriminals be assessed in terms of their criminal attributes, which
include skills, knowledge, resources, access and motives (SKRAM). Cybercriminals usually
have a high degree of these attributes and this is why SCP may prove more useful than traditional
approaches to crime. Clarke proposed a table of twenty-five techniques of situational crime
prevention, but the five general headings are:
1. Increasing the effort to commit the crime
2. Increasing the risks of committing the crime
3. Reducing the rewards of committing the crime
4. Reducing any provocation for committing the crime
5. Removing any excuses for committing the crime
These techniques can be specifically adapted to cybercrime as follows:
Increasing the effort
Reinforcing targets and restricting access- the use of firewalls, encryption, card/password access
to ID databases and banning hacker websites and magazines.
Increasing the risk
Reinforcing authentication procedures- background checks for employees with database
access, tracking keystrokes of computer users, use of photo and thumb print for ID
documents/credit cards, requiring additional ID for online purchases, use
of cameras at ATMs and at point of sale.
Reducing the rewards
Removing targets and disrupting cyberplaces – monitoring Internet sites and incoming spam,
harsh penalties for hacking, rapid notification of stolen or lost credit bankcards, avoiding ID
numbers on all official documents.
Reducing provocation and excuses
Avoiding disputes and temptations – maintaining positive employee-management relations and
increasing awareness of responsible use policy.
Many of these techniques do not require a considerable investment in hi-tech IT skills and
knowledge. Rather, it is the effective utilization and training of existing personnel that is key.
It has been suggested that the theory behind situational crime prevention may also be useful in
improving information systems (IS) security by decreasing the rewards criminals may expect
from a crime. SCP theory aims to affect the motivation of criminals by means of environmental
and situational changes and is based on three elements:
 Increasing the perceived difficulty of crime;
 Increasing the risks; and
 Reducing the rewards.
IS professionals and others who wish to fight computer crime could use the same techniques and
consequently reduce the frequency of computer crime that targets the information assets of
businesses and organisations. Designing out crime from the environment is a crucial element of
SCP and the most efficient way of using computers to fight crime is to predict criminal
behaviour, which as a result, makes it difficult for such behaviour to be performed. SCP also has
an advantage over other IS measures because it does not focus on crime from the criminal's
viewpoint. Many businesses/organisations are heavily dependent on information and
communications technology (ICT) and information is a hugely valuable asset due to the
accessible data that it provides, which means IS has become increasingly important. While
storing information in computers enables easy access and sharing by users, computer crime is a
considerable threat to such information, whether committed by an external hacker or by an
‘insider’ (a trusted member of a business or organisation). After viruses, illicit access to and theft
of, information form the highest percentage of all financial losses associated with computer
crime and security incidents. Businesses need to protect themselves against such illegal or
unethical activities, which may be committed via electronic or other methods and IS security
technologies are vital in order to protect against amendment, unauthorised disclosure and/or
misuse of information. Computer intrusion fraud is a huge business with hackers being able to
find passwords, read and alter files and read email, but such crime could almost be eliminated if
hackers could be prevented from accessing a computer system or identified quickly enough.
Despite many years of computer security research, huge amounts of money being spent on
secure operations and an increase in training requirements, there are frequent reports of computer
penetrations and data thefts at some of the most heavily protected computer systems in the world.
Criminal activities in cyberspace are increasing with computers being used for numerous illegal
activities, including email surveillance, credit card fraud and software piracy As the popularity
and growth of the Internet continues to increase, many web applications and services are being
set up, which are widely used by businesses for their business transactions.
In the case of computer crime, even cautious companies or businesses that aim to create effective
and comprehensive security measures may unintentionally produce an environment, which helps
provide opportunities because they are using inappropriate controls. Consequently, if the
precautions are not providing an adequate level of security, the IS will be at risk.

Application to sexual abuse

Smallbone et al.’s Integrated Theory of Child Sexual Abuse posits that it can be useful to study
child sexual abuse as a situationally specific incident, and that on any particular occasion, a
variety of different factors can influence whether that incident is likely to occur. One set of
factors is situational factors, which form the immediate backdrop to the setting in which the
abuse takes place. Situational factors, it is argued, can influence not just whether a person abuses
a child, but whether the idea of abusing occurs to them in the first place. The particular
opportunities and dynamics of a situation are said to present cues, stressors, temptations and
perceived provocations, which trigger motivation.
The consideration of situational factors leads to the argument that some offenders may be
considered as ‘situational’, marking them out from other types. The ‘situational offender’ is
someone who is not primarily attracted to children. Instead, he is stimulated to offend by specific
behavioural cues or stressors, often while performing care-giving duties. The authors of the
theory argue that modifying the situations experienced by children, through situational crime
prevention strategies, could lower the likelihood of abuse, irrespective of the disposition of
people who are likely to come into contact with children. The authors concede that there has
been little testing of situational interventions, which means there is little evidence to demonstrate
their effectiveness.
An evaluation of a programme which worked work mothers in London to reduce situational risk
of child sexual abuse in the home illustrated some of the challenges that mothers faced in
identifying and reducing situational risk:
1. Increasing understanding about abuse, how and where it happens.
2. Accepting the possibility of abuse at home and in the family.
3. Accurately assessing the risks posed to one's own children.
4. Lowering known risks by negotiating with family members.
Situational crime prevention and fraud

In computer systems that have been developed to design out crime from the environment, one of
the tactics used is risk assessment, where business transactions, clients and situations are
monitored for any features that indicate a risk of criminal activity. Credit card fraud has been one
of the most complex crimes worldwide in recent times and despite numerous prevention
initiatives, it is clear that more needs to be done if the problem is to be solved. Fraud
management comprises a whole range of activities, including early warning systems, signs and
patterns of different types of fraud, profiles of users and their activities, security of computers
and avoiding customer dissatisfaction. There are a number of issues that make the development
of fraud management systems an extremely difficult and challenging task, including the huge
volume of data involved; the requirement for fast and accurate fraud detection without
inconveniencing business operations; the ongoing development of new fraud to evade existing
techniques; and the risk of false alarms.
Generally, fraud detection techniques fall into two categories: statistical techniques and artificial
intelligence techniques.
Important statistical data analysis techniques to detect fraud include:
 Grouping and classification to determine patterns and associations among sets of data.
 Matching algorithms to identify irregularities in the transactions of users compared to
previous proof
 Data pre-processing techniques for validation, correction of errors and estimating
incorrect or missing data.
Important AI techniques for fraud management are:
 Data mining – to categorise and group data and automatically identify associations and
rules that may be indicative of remarkable patterns, including those connected to fraud.
 Specialist systems to programme expertise for fraud detection in the shape of rules.
 Pattern recognition to identify groups or patterns of behaviour either automatically or to
match certain inputs.
 Machine learning techniques to automatically detect the characteristics of fraud
 Neural networks that can learn suspicious patterns and later identify them.
Applications
Neighborhoods can implement protective strategies to reduce violent crime. The broken
windows theory of crime suggests that disorderly neighborhoods can promote crime by showing
they have inadequate social control. Some studies have indicated that modifying the built
environment can reduce violent crime. This includes deconcentrating high-rise public housing,
making zoning changes, restricting the number of liquor licenses available in an area, and
keeping vacant lots and buildings maintained and secure.