Module-1

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Advantages of electrical vehicle: -
1. Running cost is lower than petrol and diesel-powered cars.
2. Low maintenance cost.
3. Zero tailpipe emissions.
4. Tax and financial benefits.
5. Electrical vehicles are easy to drive and quiet.
6. Easy to charge at home.
7. Convenient cabin space and more storage facility.
8. Better performance

Comparison between internal combustion engine vehicle and electrical vehicle: -

Point of comparison Internal combustion engine Electrical Vehicle

vehicle
Source of power The source of power for ICEV is Electricity is obtained from charged
different types of fuels such as batteries, ultra-capacitors etc.is the
diesel and petrol source of power for EV.
Prime mover Internal combustion engine or Electric motors is the prime mover
power train in EV.
Specific energy There is high specific energy of Low specific energy of fuel.
fuel.
Power density Fuel used in ICEV has high power The power density in batteries is
density low
Impact on environment ICEV emits green house gases EV does not have adverse effect on
which has adverse effect on environment.
environment.
Travelling distance ICEV can travel more than around EV travels less than around 100
300 miles per fill. miles per charge.
ICEV requires less refilling time EV has long charging time, about
Refilling time
(approx. less than 5 min.). 0.5 to 8 hours.
In EV, batter bank takes large
In ICEV, fuel tank takes less space
Space & weight fuel tank space. Also, the batteries are very
and the weight of fuel is very less.
heavy.
The maintenance and running
Maintenance and running The electric vehicles require low
costs of internal combustion
costs running and maintenance costs.
engine vehicles are high.
The efficiency of IC engines is The electric motors used in
Efficiency
about 30%. electric vehicles have

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 approximately 80% efficiency.
IC engine vehicles have average The initial cost of electric vehicles
Capital cost
initial cost. is high.
In case of IC engine vehicles, the In case of EVs, the braking energy
Recovery of braking
braking energy cannot be can be recovered by using
energy
recovered. regenerative braking.
IC engine vehicles require to pick Electric vehicles produce
Time required for
up some speed to deliver maximum torque instantly after
maximum torque
maximum torque. starting of motor..

2.1 Configurations of Electric Vehicles:

Previously, the EV was mainly converted from the existing ICEV by replacing the internal
combustion engine and fuel tank with an electric motor drive and battery pack while retaining
allthe other components, as shown in Figure 2.1. Drawbacks such as its heavy weight, lower
flexibility, and performance degradation have caused the use of this type of EV to fade out.

Fig 2.1 Primary electrical vehicle power train.

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 Fig. 2.2: Conceptual illustration of general EV configuration

In its place, the modern EV is built based on original body and frame designs. This satisfies the structure
requirements unique to EVs and makes use of the greater flexibility of electric propulsion.
A modern electric drive train is conceptually illustrated in Figure 2.2. The drive train consists of three
major subsystems: electric motor propulsion, energy source, and auxiliary. The electric propulsion
subsystem is comprised of a vehicle controller, power electronic converter, electric motor, mechanical
transmission, and driving wheels. The energy source subsysteminvolves the energy source, the energy
management unit, and the energy refueling unit. The auxiliary subsystem consists of the power steering
unit, the hotel climate control unit, and the auxiliary supply unit.
Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle controller provides
proper control signals to the electronic power converter, which functions to regulate thepower flow
between the electric motor and energy source. The backward power flow is due to the regenerative
braking of the EV and this regenerated energy can be restored to the energy source, provided the energy
source is receptive. Most EV batteries as well as ultracapacitors and flywheelsreadily possess the ability
to accept regenerated energy.
The energy management unit cooperates with the vehicle controller to control the regenerative braking
and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy refueling unit to controlthe refueling unit, and to
monitor the usability of the energy source. The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power
at different voltage levels for all the EV auxiliaries, especially the hotel climate control and power
steering units.

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2.1.1 Possible EV configurations due to the variations in electric propulsion
characteristics and energy sources: -
There are many possible EV configurations due to variations in electric propulsion and energy sources.
Based on these variations, six alternatives are available.
1. EV configuration with clutch, gear box and differential: -

Fig 2.1.1 (a)

Figure 2.1.1 (a) shows the configuration of the first alternative, in which an electric propulsion replaces
the IC engine of a conventional vehicle drive train. It consists of an electric motor, a clutch, a gearbox,
and a differential. The clutch and gearbox may be replaced by automatic transmission. The clutch is used
to connect or disconnect the power of the electric motor from the driven wheels. The gearbox provides a
set of gear ratios to modify the speed-power (torque) profile to match the load requirement. The
differential is a mechanical device (usually a set of planetary gears), which enables the wheels of both
sides to be driven at different speeds when the vehicle runs along a curved path.
2. EV configuration without clutch and gear box : -

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 Fig 2.1.1 (b)
With an electric motor that has constant power in a long speed, a fixed gearing can replace the multispeed
gearbox and reduce the need for a clutch. This configuration not only reduces the size and weight of the
mechanical transmission, but also simplifies the drive train control because gear shifting is not needed
3. EV configuration with clutch, gear box and differential (single assembly) :-

Fig 2.1.1 (c)

Similar to the drive train in (b), the electric motor, the fixed gearing, and the differential can be further
integrated into a single assembly while both axles point at both driving wheels. The whole drive train is
further simplified and compacted.
4. EV configuration with two electric motor:-

Fig 2.1.1 (d)

In Fig2.1.1(d), the mechanical differential is replaced by using two traction motors. Each of them drives
one side wheel and operates at a different speed when the vehicle is running along a curved path.

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 5. EV configuration with wheel motor and fixed gear :-

Fig 2.1.1 (e)

In order to further simplify the drive train, the traction motor can be placed inside a wheel. This
arrangement is the so-called in-wheel drive. A thin planetary gear set may be used to reduce the motor
speed and enhance the motor torque. The thin planetary gear set offers the advantage of a high-speed
reduction ratio as well as an inline arrangement of the input and output shaft.
6. EV configuration with wheel motor and no mechanical gear:-

Fig 2.1.1 (e)

By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing between the electric motor and the driving wheel, the out-
rotor of a low-speed electric motor in the in-wheel drive can be directly connected to the driving wheel.
The speed control of the electric motor is equivalent to the control of the wheel speed and hence the
vehicle speed. However, this arrangement requires the electric motor to have a higher torque to start and
accelerate the vehicle.

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2.2 Performance of Electric Vehicles:
A vehicle’s driving performance is usually evaluated by its acceleration time, maximum speed, and
gradeability. In EV drive train design, proper motor power rating and transmission parametersare the
primary considerations to meet the performance specification. The design of all these parameters
depends mostly on the speed–power (torque) characteristics.
2.2.1 Traction Motor Characteristics: -

Standard variable speed electric motor drive characteristics is shown here. At the low-speed region (less
than the base speed as marked in Figure 2.3), the motor has a constanttorque. In the high-speed region
(higher than the base speed), the motor has a constant power. Thischaracteristic is usually represented
by a speed ratio x, defined as the ratio of its maximum speedto its base speed. In low-speed operations,
voltage supply to the motor increases with the increaseof the speed through the electronic converter
while the flux is kept constant. At the point of base speed, the voltage of the motor reaches the source
voltage. After the base speed, the motor voltageis kept constant and the flux is weakened (field control).
In this region, the flux and torque both drop like a hyperbola with increasing speed.

Fig. 2.2.1(a) Typical variable-speed electric motor characteristics

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Speed -torque characteristics of a typical traction motor with different speed ratio(x): -

Fig. 2.2.1(a)
Figure 2.2.1.(a) shows the torque–speed profiles of a 60kW motor with different speed ratios x (x = 2, 4,
and 6). It is clear that with a long constant power region, the maximum torque of the motor can be
significantly increased, and hence vehicle acceleration and gradeability performance can be improved
and the transmission can be simplified. However, each type of motor inherently has its limited maximum
speed ratio. For example, a permanent magnet motor has a small x (𝑥 < 2) because of the difficulty of
field weakening due to the presence of the permanent magnet. Switched reluctance motors may achieve
(𝑥 > 6) and induction motors about (𝑥 = 4).

2.2.2 Tractive Effort and Transmission Requirement:

The tractive effort developed by a traction motor on driven wheels and the vehicle speed are given by
F = -------------------1
and

V= ----------------2
where Tm and Nm are the motor torque output and speed in rpm, respectively,
𝑖𝑔 is the gear ratio of transmission,

𝑖𝑜 is the gear ratio of final drive,

𝜂𝑡 is the efficiency of the whole driveline from the motor to the driven wheels and

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 r is the radius of the drive wheels.
 The use of a multigear or single-gear transmission depends mostly on the motor speed–torque
characteristics.
 That is, at a given rated motor power, if the motor has a long constant power region, a single-gear
transmission would be sufficient for a high tractive effort at low speeds.
 Otherwise, a multigear (more than two gears) transmission has to be used.

Fig 2.2.2 (a)

Figure 2.2.2(a) shows the tractive effort of an EV, along with the vehicle speed with a traction motor of
x = 2 and a three-gear transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c, the second gear
covers d–e–f, and the third gear covers g–f–h.

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 Fig 2.2.2(b)
Figure 2.2.2(b) shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x = 4 and the two gear transmission.
The first gear covers the sped region a-b-c and second gear d-e-f.

Fig 2.2.2(c)
Figure 2.2.2(c) shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x = 6 and a gear transmission. These
three designs have same tractive effort versus vehicle speed profiles. Therefore, vehicle will have the
same acceleration and gradeability.

2.2.3 Vehicle Performance:

Basic vehicle performance includes maximum cruising speed, gradeability, and acceleration.
1. Maximum crushing speed of a vehicle can be easily found by the intersection point of the
tractive effort curve with the resistance curve (rolling resistance plus aerodynamic drag), in the
tractive effort vs.vehicle speed diagram shown in fig 2.2.3(a), 2.2.3(b) and 2.2.3(c).

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 Fig 2.2.3 (a)

Figure 2.2.2(a) shows the tractive effort of an EV, along with the vehicle speed with a traction motor of
x = 2 and a three-gear transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c, the second gear
covers d–e–f, and the third gear covers g–f–h.

Fig 2.2.2(b)
Fig 2.2.3(b

Figure 2.2.3(b) shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x = 4 and the two gear transmission.
The first gear covers the sped region a-b-c and second gear d-e-f.

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 Fig 2.2.3(c)
Figure 2.2.2(c) shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x = 6 and a gear transmission. These
three designs have same tractive effort versus vehicle speed profiles. Therefore, vehicle will have the
same acceleration and gradeability.

It should be noted that such an intersection point does not exist in some designs, which usually use a
larger traction motor or a large gear ratio. In this case, the maximum vehicle speed is determined by the
maximum speed of the traction motor as
,
V = m/sec-----------1
,
where Nm max is the allowed maximum rpm of the traction motor and ig min is the minimum gear ratio
of the transmission (highest gear).

Gradeability: - Gradeability is determined by the net tractive effort of the vehicle, 𝐹𝑡−𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝐹𝑡−𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡
− 𝐹𝑟 − 𝐹𝑤),as shown in Figures above. At mid- and high speeds, the gradeability is smaller than the
gradeability at low speeds. The maximum grade that the vehicle can overcome at the given speed can
be calculated by
𝐹𝑡−𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐹𝑡 − (𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑤)
𝑖= =
𝑀𝑣𝑔 𝑀𝑣𝑔

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 where 𝐹𝑡 is the tractive effort on the driven wheels
𝐹𝑟 is the tire rolling resistance, and 𝐹𝑤 is the aerodynamic drag, 𝑀𝑣𝑔, 𝑀𝑣 is the total mass of the
vehicle and g is grading resistance.
Acceleration performance of a vehicle is evaluated by the time used to accelerate the vehicle froma low-
speed V1 (usually zero) to a higher speed (100 km/h for passenger cars). For passenger cars,acceleration
performance is more important than maximum cruising speed and gradeability, since since it is the
acceleration requirement, rather than the maximum cruising speed or the gradeability, that dictates the
power rating of the motor drive. The acceleration time,
t = V +V
Where Vb and Vf are base speed and final acceleration speed, Pt is the tractive power on driven wheels
transmitted from the traction motor corresponding to vehicle base speed. δ is the vehicle rotational inertial
constant.

δM
P = V +V
2t
The power rating obtained from Pt equation is only the power consumed for vehicle acceleration. To
accurately determining the tractive power rating, the power consumed in overcoming the rolling
resistance and dynamic drag should be considered.

2.3 Tractive Effort in Normal Driving:

The vehicle performance discussed so far dictates vehicle capabilities with respect to speed, gradeability
and acceleration, thus dictating the power capacity of the power train. However, during normal driving
conditions of the electric vehicle, the maximum capabilities are rarely considered. During most of the
operation time, the power train operates with partial load. Actual tractive effort (power) and vehicle
speed vary widely with operating conditions, such as
o Acceleration or deceleration
o Uphill or downhill motion, etc.
These variations are associated with the traffic environment as well as the type of vehicles. City and
highway traffic conditions vary greatly, as do the different. based on the missions of the vehicles, such
as a
o Universal passenger car
o Vehicles with regular operation routes and schedules.
It is difficult to describe the tractive effort and vehicle speed variations in all actual traffic environments
accurately and quantitatively. However, some representative drive cycles (driving schedules) have been
developed to emulate typical traffic environments. These drive cycles are represented by the vehicle
speeds vs. the operating time while driving on a flat road. Some typical drive cycles are illustrated in
Figure 2.3.1, which include:
The EPA Federal Test Procedure, commonly known as FTP-75 for the city driving cycle, are a series of tests
defined by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to measure tailpipe emissions and fuel economy of
passenger cars (excluding light trucks and heavy-duty vehicles). which include :

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(a) FTP75 urban cycle, (b) FTP75 highway cycle, (c) US06 cycle, which is a high-speed and high-
acceleration drive cycle, (d) J227a schedule B, (e) J227a schedule C, and (f) J227a schedule D.
The J227a series is recommended by the Society of Automotive Engineers in the U.S.A.6 and is
applied in the evaluation of EVs and batteries.

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2.4. Energy Consumption:
 In transportation, the unit of energy is usually kilowatt-hour (kWh) rather than joule or kilojoule
(J or kJ). The energy consumption per unit distance in kWh/km is generally used to evaluate the
vehicle energy consumption.
 Similar to ICE vehicles, l/100 km (for liquid fuels) or kg/100 km (for gas fuels, such as hydrogen)
or mpg, or miles per kilogram is a more suitable unit of measurement forvehicles that use gaseous
fuels.
 On the other hand, for battery-powered EVs, the original energy consumption unit in kWh,
measured at the battery terminals, is more suitable. The battery energy capacity is usually
measured in kWh and the driving range per battery charge can be easily calculated.

Energy consumption is an integration of the power output at the battery terminals. For propelling,the
battery power output is equal to resistance power and any power losses in the transmission and the motor
drive, including power losses in electronics. The power losses in transmission and motor drive are
represented by their efficiencies ηt and ηm, respectively. Thus, the battery power outputcan be expressed
as

V 1 dV
P = (M g(f + i) + ρ C A V + Mδ
ηη 2 dt

Here, the non-traction load (auxiliary load) is not included. In some cases, the auxiliary loads maybe too
significant to be ignored and should be added to the traction load. When regenerative braking is
effective on an EV, a part of that braking energy wasted in conventional vehicles can be recovered by
operating the motor drive as a generator and restoring it into the batteries. The regenerative braking
power at the battery terminals can also be expressed as ∝

∝V 1 dV
P = (M g(f + i) + ρ C A V + Mδ
ηη 2 dt

where road grade i or acceleration dV/dt or both of them are negative, and α (0 <α<1) is the percentage
of the total braking energy that can be applied by the electric motor, called the regenerative braking
factor. The regenerative braking factor α is a function of the applied braking strength and the design of
the power train. The net energy consumption from the batteries is

𝐸 = P 𝑑𝑡 + P 𝑑𝑡

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