DR.

FRIDAH KATHAMBI

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

African Religion and culture comprises of beliefs and practices of the African
peoples about God, nature and the universe.
Man from its origin is born to worship God in the way his conscience and ability
directs him to do.
The study of religion is aimed at understanding the similarities and differences in
religion, the truth in religion and its relevance to the human society.
Africa with its diverse culture has religion as a factor that helps people to live in
harmony and work towards corporate development of the environment and the
people. Therefore an understanding of African Traditional Religion will create
room for a clear understanding of the African people contextually within the
framework of their belief system.
NB: There have been difficulties in defining Religion

Reasons for Difficulties Encountered in Defining African Religion and

Culture

1. Diversity of African cultures and the peoples-this is due to the existence of

several ethnic groups in Africa who have variances in beliefs and practices.
This makes it difficult to speak of an Africa religion in singular.
2. Geographical extent of the continent of Africa-physical barriers e.g deserts,
mountains and rivers seem to divide the Africa continent into geographical
enclaves.

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3. External influence-divisions of Africa in times of slave trades, colonialism,

apartheid, neo-colonialism and more recently globalization.
4. Confusion of sacred and secular-people are not able to differentiate between
the two.
NB: Despite all these factors, negritude which illustrates Africanness
(commonness) is found in all people of African descent.

It is a thread that knits through the beliefs and practices of African peoples. This
leads us to speak of African religion as one in spite of the various dimensions.
What is Religion?
There is no one definition of religion because various scholars see religion from
their own perspective.
John Ferguson listed seventeen definitions which can be organized into the
following categories; theological, moral, philosophical, psychological and
sociological.
1. Theological Definitions of Religion
Religion means believing in God, belief in spiritual beings, the life of God in the
soul of man, a mystery, at once awesome and attractive. The above theological
definitions of religion have the idea that religion has to do with God or
supernatural spiritual powers.
In summary the four definitions therefore, a theological definition means belief in a
transcendent power which is usually personified as a Supreme Being, but is
sometimes conceived as being diffused through powerful spiritual beings or is held
to be an impersonal, mysterious, supernatural force.
2. Moral Definitions of Religion
Religion is leading a good life, it is morality tinged with emotion, is the
recognition of all our duties as divine commands and free use of our Morality

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which deals with the provision of rules, norms and directives of how people should
live their lives in an acceptable manner.
According to moral theory, Religion is defined as leading a good life.
Religion is said to be the recognition of all our duties as divine commands.
3. Philosophical Definition of Religion
Religion is defined in terms of an abstract, usually as an impersonal concept.
Religion is what a man does with his solitariness.
When one achieves a condition of the solitary (as opposed simply to being alone or
lonely) one has achieved a religious experience.
Furthermore, Religion is defined as the relation of man to his own being, but as a
being outside himself.
4. Psychological Definition of Religion
Religion has to do with the emotions, feelings or psychological states of the human
in relation to the religious object. Because of the misfortunes and sufferings they
experience in the world, people seek comfort or consolation in religion.
5. Sociological Definition of Religion
Religion is the opium of the people (stupefying). It results from the oppression of
the masses by those in positions of social or economic power who use the message
of religion to keep the oppressed content with their lot in this life in the hope of a
just order in the next one.
Religion thus plays a sociological function for both the oppressor and the
oppressed. Furthermore, religion is defined as the conservation of values.
Religion is also defined as a co-operative quest after a completely satisfying life.
Religion is therefore the existence of a community of people which is identified,
bound together and maintained by its beliefs in powers or forces greater than the
community itself.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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1. Discuss the definition of religion from the various perspectives.

Types of Religious Beliefs
1. Atheism-those who deny the existence of God or gods.
2. Deism - is a system of thought advocating natural religion based on human
reason rather than revelation.
3. Humanism - is the assertion of the dignity and worth of man and his capacity
for self-realization through reason. The humanist usually rejects
supernaturalism.
4. Monism - recognizes only one kind of ultimate substance. Oneness and unity of
reality.
5. Theism - is the belief in God or gods.
6. Pantheism - is the recognition of God in everything. It equates God with the
forces and laws of the universe.
7. Polytheism - is the belief in many gods.
8. Henotheism - is the worship of one supreme god in a pantheon of gods
9. Monotheism - is the belief in one God. The three monotheistic religions are
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The living world religions falls within one or
more of the different types of religious belief mentioned above and they include
Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shintoism, African Traditional
Religion, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Explain all the various types of religion
The African and Religion

The African society is overly religious. In African societies, religion is an integral

part of the lives of the individual, the family and the community as a whole.

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In Africa, religion and the family are closely connected. In fact, African religion
can be seen as a system of rites, rules, and practices that aims at preserving and
strengthening the fellowship of the people, the tribe and the family and at
increasing power.
Religion is central to the African life. For example, from birth through all the
major phases of life, there is always a religious touch for the African. When a child
is born, it is most natural to take the child to the diviners to have a glimpse of the
child's destiny so as not to commit any error in the process of the child's
upbringing. At puberty, the child also passes through another set of religious rituals.
When it is time to get married, consultations would be made concerning the choice
of the spouse and the ancestral divinities would be invoked to bless the marriage.
Finally when death come knocking, religion also has a central role to play.
In the whole of the African life, there is no sharp distinction between the secular
and the sacred as it is in the West. The African life is totally soaked in religion.
Why Study Religion?
1. Religion is studied because it is part of cultures and of all history of mankind.
2. Study of religion helps in understanding the differences and to see the
similarities between nations and culture; psychologically, philosophically
theologically, sociologically, and morally.
3. It also helps to appreciate our own beliefs by seeing them alongside those of
others.
4. It helps us to work for ecumenism via a meaningful exchange of ideas between
religious group in dialogue, seminar and open discussions.
5. African religious beliefs and practices will always provide our societies with
moral values which guide the relationships between people in the community
and instruct our relationships with the environment, spiritual realm and physical
wellness.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
1. Define religion with reference to its sociological, theological, psychological,
phenomenological, anthropological and philosophical definitions.
2. Explain why religions ought to be studied.
3. Briefly explain the various types of religions which are regarded as living
religions.
4. What are the functions of religion in the society?
Activity

Suggest three different communities in Kenya, find out any common cultural
beliefs and practices among them.

Summary

It has been difficult to define African religion and culture due to diversity of the
peoples and the cultures.
Although Africans have different affiliations their beliefs and practices especially
in the concept of God are quite similar.
Africans ideas are spread throughout the continent and outside among all peoples
of African and they indicate some similarities.
Definition of terms

Sacred – that which concerns the Holy, God and all that is not worldly.

Secular- That which concerns the world; it is the opposite of the Holy.

Negritude - Commonness of African people and cultures.

Universe- This describes the world and all that is in it.

Worldview – People’s perception of the world.

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CHAPTER TWO

THE ROLE, FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF AFRICAN RELIGION

AND CULTURE

Role of African Religion and Culture in the Society

African religion and culture play a significant role in shaping the society in various
ways:

1. Providing a sense of identity, unity, and belonging thus fostering a strong

communal bond among individuals.
2. African religion and culture serve as a moral compass, guiding individuals'
behavior and shaping their ethical values. These values include respect for
elders, the importance of community, and the recognition of the collective spirit.
3. African religion and culture contribute to the preservation of history and
heritage. Through rituals, ceremonies, and storytelling, the traditions are passed
down from one generation to another, ensuring the continuity of cultural
practices and knowledge.
4. African religion and culture promote environmental conservation and
sustainable living. Many African belief systems emphasize the
interconnectedness between humans and nature, encouraging a harmonious
relationship with the environment.

Functions of African Religion and Culture in the Society

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1. Religion provides support, consolation and reconciliation. Every human

being needs moral and spiritual support in the face of uncertainty. They need
consolation when they are disappointed and reconciliation with society when
they are alienated from its goals and norms. Religion provides important
spiritual and emotional comfort and consolation in the face of failures and
disappointment in life.
2. Religion makes relationship between humanity and the divine possible.
This happens through cult and the ceremonial rituals and thereby gives
humanity assurance for a new security and feels more confident in the midst of
the uncertainties and impossibilities
3. Through its authoritative teaching of beliefs and values, it also provides
solutions to conflicts and ambiguities of human opinions and points of view.
This function of the priest and dogmatic theologians contributes to stability,
order, peace and harmony in the society and thereby help to maintain status quo.
4. Religion gives sacred backing or support to the custom norms and values
of an established society. Religion does not allow individual needs and
impulses to over-ride the general interest of the society. Since there are many
sinners in every society, some methods must always be found in handling such
people of deviant behavior.
5. Religion prescribes rituals in which guilt can be expiated and the sinner
released from bondage and reintegrated into the social group. Thus religion
hallows the norms and values of the society; contributing to social control and
thereby aiding order and stability; and helps in the reconciliation of the sinner.
6. Religion provides a standard of values in terms of which the established
norms, rules and values may be critically examined and found seriously
wanting or lacking. This is especially likely to be true in respect of religions

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which emphasize the transcendence of God and His consequent superiority over
and independent of the established authorities in the society.
7. Religion aids self identify. When individuals accept religious values and the
belief about human nature and destiny associated with them, they develop
important aspects of their own self understanding and self-definition. It invokes
in people the sense of awareness. It expands their ego or spirit by making their
spirit significant for the universe and the universe significant for them.
8. Religion is closely related to growth and maturation of the people and their
passage through the various ages grading which are recognized or
identified by the society. In the passage of life many and new problems
confront the individual. At infancy, the individual must learn the basic trust in
other human beings; later on they must develop some ability to function
independently, to stand on their own feet, and later still they must learn to defer
some of their satisfactions and to discipline their impulses or urges while they
pursue the approved social values.
9. Religion gives spiritual backing or support to norms and values. It supports
the disciplines in the society on many important respects. It also supports in
uncertainty consolation in failures and defeats. It contributes to the development
of the individual activities. In all, religion involves itself in educating and
enlightening the individual. In short, religion helps man to grow into full
maturity. The various rites-of-passage; birth, naming ceremonies puberty,
circumcision, initiation to adulthood, marriage and burial rites have religious
significance. They help to integrate man fully into the society to which he
belongs. Traditional African society it is strongly believed that the well-being
of the community depends upon the good will of God, the divinities and the
ancestors. Therefore before any venture is embarked upon in the society, those
spiritual powers are consulted and taken into confidence.
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Elements of African Religion and Culture

1. Beliefs in God- Africans have a concept of a universal God and the creator.
Africans do not actively worship this supreme God. Supreme Being is not known
to have been exclusively worshipped by traditional Africans.
Instead, the Africans divinities and the ancestors who are lesser beings have been
actively involved in every day religious life of the traditional Africans.
They directly receive sacrifices offerings and prayers offered by Africans.
In most traditional Africans societies the Supreme Being was not actively involved
in everyday religious practices of the people, but the divinities the gods and
ancestors were.
In some parts of Africans the Supreme Being is mentioned in prayers, songs and in
some religious ceremonies.
Supreme Being is above the lesser divinities and the hierarchy of beings.
The God who is above other lesser gods, seems not to be intimately involved or
concerned with man’s world instead man seek lesser powers to meet their desires.
This leads man to turn to divinities, the gods the ancestors and spirits.
God is occasionally mentioned or remembered.
Though we may not be able to talk of a monolithic but a multi-sided concept of
God in Africa, there is the belief in God in African Traditional Religion. The
multi-sided concept of God in Africa comes from the basic fact that in each
locality, the concept of God derives from the sociological structure as well as the
climate of the area.
In the matriarchal societies of Africa, God is thought of in feminine terms whereas
the masculine concept is widespread.
Concept of God in Africa

a. God is Real

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To the Africans God is real. Each people group has a specific name for God in
Africa. The name could be unique to God and at times may be used partly by other
divinities. When this is done however, it is to emphasize the fact that such beings
derived their being from God. The names of God in Africa are usually descriptive
of God's character and an emphatic assertion that to the African mind God is not
thought of in abstract terms.
b. God is Unique
In the African mind, God is he to whom no one else can be compared; be it spirit
or human. There are no images either graven or in drawing or painting for God in
Africa. This is because in Africa, the issue is that no one can be compared with
God. The concept of God as king is also another way to emphasize the uniqueness
of God.
c. God is the Absolute Controller of the Universe

In the African thought, God is the absolute controller of everything. He is the

source of every power and authority. All other things exist in consequence of him
and all events that come to pass come to be because he permitted them to be. In the
attempt to express the fact that God is the controller of all things the Bantu of
South Africa has a saying that: "Shikakunamo (God) sits on the back of every one
of us, and we cannot shake him off'.
Another aspect of this belief is that it is only God that can give humanity the
essential personality that makes them human and he is equally the only one that
can determine when that part of human beings returns to him.

Exercise

i. What do the Africans believe about God?

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2. Belief in divinities – These are spirits with divine powers that act as
intermediates between humans and God.
Some African groups do not seem to have divinities while some were known to
have no special shrines or worship places designated to the divinities or to
Supreme Being.
However the Yoruba of Nigeria are known for having several hundreds of
divinities.
Some Africans scholars do not accept the term polytheism (worship of many gods)
they prefer the term divinities or deities to gods.
It is not clear whether African divinities were worshipped as gods or whether they
were only intermediates.
Some have argued that African do not worship their divinities nor their ancestors
but God.
A view is that sacrifices offerings and prayers offered are not directed to the
divinities or ancestors but to God.
African divinities are many and have specific area of influence and control.
Some divinities were mythological figures while others were heroes or heroines.
There were divinities of the sea or waters, rain, thunder, fertility, healthy or
sickness, planting or harvest, tribal, clan or family.
African divinities took the forms of mountains, rivers, forests, the sun, the moon,
the stars and ancestors.
The existence of divinities is not common to the whole of Africa.
In African theology, the divinities were brought into being as a result of things in
regard to the divine ordering of the world.
Divinities are derivatives from God. In other words, they have no independent
existence of their own. They are only in existence due to the being of God.
Consequently, they are nothing apart from God.
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Each divinity has its own local name in the local language of the people. The name
is usually descriptive of the functions allotted to the divinity or the natural
phenomenon to which it is associated.
The divinities were brought into being as functionaries in the theocratic
government of the universe. Consequently, the divinities are like ministers with
their own department to look after and thus act as intermediaries between human
beings and God with reference to their particular portfolio.
The divinities in African are made up of the following categories:

i. Primordial divinities. These are the principal who are part of the original order
of things.
ii. Conceptualization of prominent attributes of God as discerned especially
through the natural phenomenon.
iii. Deified ancestors and heroes. The deification usually comes because they have
exhibited in their lifetime the attributes of the deities.
Exercise

i. Who, according to African Traditional Religion, are the divinities?

3. Belief in spirits – These are souls of departed members of the community.
Traditional African concepts of reality and destiny are deeply rooted in the spirit
world.
There is no area or object which does not have spirits of its own. For example, we
have the spirits that inhabit trees, dwelling areas other artifacts. There are spirits
which dwells in rocks, mountains, hills and valleys. Generally it is believed that
spirits can possess and can be used for either good or bad causes.
Categories of Spirits

a. Non-human spirits

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b. The spirits of the dead

c. Ghost-Spirits-The Africans believed that if the dead is not properly buried with
the necessary rites, the dead will not be admitted to the abode of the departed
ones and will therefore become a wanderer having an aimless haunting
existence.
Some other groups in addition to this believes that those who did not die naturally
(like who died by hanging, drowning or of incurable diseases or during pregnancy)
are regarded as accursed and will also becoming wandering spirits. This is also true
of those that are considered to have died prematurely. The group also includes
those who have been wicked while on earth and have been excluded from the
fellowship of the good people.
i. The 'Born-to-Die' Spirits- These are spirits of wandering children who find
their way into the womb of pregnant women and thus began a cycle of being
born to die repeatedly. In most communities in Africa where this belief is
common, it is not out of place to see pregnant women looking for protection
against such spirits.
ii. The Guardian-Spirits- The prevalent belief here is that the essence of human's
personality becomes a sort of split entity which acts as the person's spiritual
counterpart. There are the groups that see the guardian spirit as a separate entity
entirely. It can either bring good fortune and at times put obstacles in one's way.
It is as a result of this that the guardian spirit is usually appeased.
EXERCISE

a. Discuss the classification of spirits in African Traditional Religion

The makeup of spirits (constitutes of spirits).

The whole world is full of spirits.

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The homes of spirits are many e.g. silk cotton tree, baobab tree, sycamore tree,
burial grounds among others.
There are two types of spirits
a) Bad spirits
b) Good spirits
There is a firm belief in reincarnation. This is belief in and practice of exorcism or
spirit possession. It involves belief in life after death, future reward and future
punishment. It also deals with evil spirits possession. It is clear that spirit world of
Africans is densely populated with spiritual beings.
These consist of spirits ancestors and Supreme Being (God)

Dwelling places of spirits

i. Certain trees
ii. Rocks
iii. Caves
iv. Rivers
v. Lakes
vi. Forests
vii. Animals
viii. Human beings
ix. Skies
x. The ground
xi. Carved or molded
xii. Objects
xiii. Charms
xiv. Amulets
How African Communicated with Spirits

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i. Divination
ii. Singing and dancing to them
iii. Recitation/chanting and invoking their names
iv. Making sacrifices to them
v. Saying prayers.
vi. Giving offerings
vii. Burning incense
Categories of spirits

a) Ancestors – spirits of dead elders

The ancestors are close to the humans and serve as their custodians.
b) Non-human spirits – these were created as spirits by God.
All spirits are endowed with certain powers which they apply on human beings for
their good or for their harm.
Because spirits are malicious human beings must be wise when dealing with spirits.
They can easily be angered, provoked or injured by humans.
Spirits can be manipulated to serve the humans or harm them.
4. Belief in Ancestors- These are departed elders of the African societies. These
join up with non-human spirits and carry out the duties or other spirits.
The basis for the belief in ancestors lies in the general world-wide belief that
communication takes place between the living and the dead and that the dead are
able to be of help or otherwise to the living. For the Africans there is a clear cut
demarcation between the Supreme Being and the divinities on the one hand and the
ancestors on the other hand.
To them, the Deity and the divinities belong to the supra-sensible world while the
ancestors are part and parcel of the existence of the living. In other words, the
ancestors are related to the living in a way that Deity and divinities are not. The

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ancestors are still regarded as part and parcel of the family or community they
belonged while they were on earth.
The ancestors, though still related to the living are no longer mortals. It is believed
that since they have crossed to the supernatural world, they have been freed from
all the restrictions of the physical world and can therefore be of help to their kin
who are still bound by these physical restrictions. It is also believed that for some
reasons they can prove to be against their own family. By the reason of their
having crossed to the other world, the can serve to some extent as intermediaries
between the living and Deity and the divinities. In this way, they continue their
role as leaders of the family —the role they have played while living. This is
because while they were on earth they have been the priests or priestesses of the
family.
In Africa, the ancestors are factors of cohesion or unity. Again when serious
disputes are to be settled in the families, the ancestors are called upon and as such
it is easier to reach agreements. Ancestors are approached as spirits in cognizance
of the fact that they are no longer mortals.
It is not just anybody that can be qualified to be an ancestor in Africa.
Requirements for those who Qualify to be Ancestors

1. They must have lived to old age

2. They must have had children while on earth
3. They must have died natural death
4. They must have lived lives that are worthy of emulation
The cult of the ancestors in African religion is a means of communion and
communication between those who are living and those who have departed the
land of the living. The belief in the continued existence of the departed souls is
symbolized by various cults.

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Ways in which Africans Venerated Spirits and Ancestors.

i. Pouring ablations
ii. Making sacrifices and giving offerings
iii. Naming children after them
iv. Praying to God through them
v. Addressing them by power names of titles
vi. Inviting them to social functions e.g. birth, initiation and marriages.
vii. Teaching children about them
viii. building shrines
ix. Taking care of graves
x. Honoring their wishes
Exercise
a. Why do Africans believe in ancestors?
5. Belief in impersonal (mystical) powers.
This is a dominant belief in traditional African society.
The source of mystical power is not always known but is usually attributed to
higher power that deposits power in objects or things.
The manifestation or use of mystical power are related to the practices of medicine
men or women, diviners and seers, who use natural objects like plants and animals
for medicine, magic, charms and amulets.
Mystical powers can be sent to specific destinations for an intended good or evil.
The life of Africans is at the mercy of the wicked users of the mystical powers.
Belief in Mystical Powers Produce Specialists such as:

 Medicine men
 Rain makers
 Mediums

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 Diviners
 Sorcerers
 Magicians
 Witches
The Hierarchy of Spiritual Beings

i) The Supreme Being (God) is the highest and the greatest.

ii) Divinities (gods) occupy second position
iii) Ancestors
NB: The authority power and influence of spirits depends on their position within
their order.

Spirits dispense and control the activities of mystical powers and forces.
They influence morality and ethics of the human societies.
NB: Religion in Africa is holistic (totality of life). It is connected with all life from
the time before birth to death and even after life.

A person lives in a community which incorporates the living the unborn and the
departed (ancestors/dead)
There is a spiritual understanding of life where all happening such as diseases,
drought, faming, good harvest, rains etc are interpreted as having a spiritual cause.
There is a close connection between visible and the invisible

The Role of Spirits and Divinities in African Communities

i. They offer advice on personal issues

ii. Act as mediators between human beings and God. They intercede for
humans.
iii. Take part in daily routine of the family participate in their ceremonies.
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iv. They are guardians of moral and ethical order.

v. They may be manipulated by humans to cause harm.
vi. They possess religious specialist and give important information on how to
handle humans.
vii. Guard sacred places.
viii. Warm the living on impending danger.
ix. Preside over religious ceremonies.
x. They are custodians of African moral values.
6. Belief in Magic and Medicine-It has been universally acknowledged that
human beings are aware that they needed to be aided by supernatural powers in
order to cope with the complexities, complications and the riddles of their
existence. There is the need for deliverance and the mastery of environmental
circumstances. To meet the needs of this existence human beings have
recognized two principal powers. The first is the divine power which is
approached via submission and appeal and the other is the power of the
elemental spirits which is approached by harnessing and tapping it to use for
their own ends. This is what is called magic.

In Africa, you cannot talk about magic and medicine without talking about religion.
As it has been in the ancient world, medicine has been closely associated with
religion basically because the priest in most times doubles as the divine healer.
Medicine in Africa is also seen as having its root in religion. Medicine is seen as
having its source in God and operated through a divinity.
Most traditional doctors in Africa often claim to have been taught the art of
medicine by the divinities or in a dream or trance. Some claim to have been carried
away by the whirlwind for a period of time ranging from seven days to seven years
to be taught the art of medicine.

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In Africa, magic and medicine often go hand in hand because: The same divinity
has both magic and medicine under his portfolio, the same word is usually used to
cover the two phenomena and medicine often involves specifications of time and
rituals.
ASSIGNMENT
a. Discuss the relationship between God and the divinities in African Traditional
Religion

CHAPTER THREE

SOURCES OF AFRICAN RELIGION AND THE AFRICAN RELIGIOUS

PRACTICES
Sources of African Religion and Culture
Having no sacred texts, Africans religion is found in various aspects of daily lives
living and non-living objects in Africa. These include physical and oral sources of
information.
The Physical Sources
1. Shrines and Sacred Places

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These are the places that are connected with the worship of the divinities. They
could be found in the homes where family religious rituals are conducted or in the
grooves that are normally hidden to the uninitiated. These places are important
because religious concepts could be expressed through them.
2. Music, Dance and Drama
Africans are dancing people and their religion is usually embedded in religious
festivals, rituals and ceremonies. The religious music, dance and drama are
powerful media of communication especially in the traditional societies. The
Africans sing and dance out of religious feelings. Thus when people participate it
serves as an outlet for their religious feelings.
3. Religious Articles and Objects
Traditional religion does not frown at the use of religious articles and objects.
These include objects worn round the neck, waist, on the arms and the legs. The
importance of these objects lies in the fact that these religious articles and objects
help the researchers to peep into the concept behind the objects.
4. Art Works and Symbols
Different categories of art works could be invaluable sources of religious beliefs.
They provide a wealth of information on the past and present religious beliefs of
the people. These include wooden and clay sculptures found in the family shrines
and general shrines and grooves. These simple cultic objects and symbols could
throw more light on the whole complexity of beliefs and practices connected with
their use.
5. Religious Specialists or Cultic Personnel
These are people that are found in every society. They know a lot about rituals,
ceremonial and religious maters. The list includes medicine men, priests, rain-
makers, diviners, musicians and craftsmen. Each one of these people is a trained

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specialist in their profession and in most cases highly experienced. A lot can be
collected about African religion from these set of people.
Oral Sources
1. Myths
These are sacred tales that centers on spiritual beings and deities and are usually
believed to have happened. Most African myths give explanatory answers to the
questions posed to humanity by their physical environment. Myths serve as the
practical way of documenting the oral beliefs and handing them down from
generation to generation. Myths include etiological myths (those that attempt to
explain the mysteries of life), cosmologic myths (myths explaining the origin of
the earth) and creedal myths (those that are ritual formulae that are learnt and
recited like prayers).
Myths enjoy a high degree of authenticity and when these are properly studied,
they could provide invaluable illumination on African religion.
2. Theophanous Names
The importance of names as sources of African religion derives from the
significance and impact of names among Africans. For the Africans, a name is an
omen. It is supposed to represent the most cherished thought or the situation
surrounding the birth of the child. Names thus reflect the African philosophy of life
or a wish or prayer. Consequently, many names affirm the existence of God and
also describe the African thought of Him.
3. Proverbs

Africans have a rich repertoire of proverbs in which are enshrined ancient wisdom,
beliefs and accumulated experiences of past generations. The value of proverbs as
source materials for the religious beliefs of the oral based people derives from the
high regard in which proverbs are held in African societies. In different African

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societies there are different proverbs which have the belief in God as their themes.
For example, the Akan of Ghana has a proverb that can be translated to mean "if
you will tell God, tell it to the wind". This is a proverb that establishes the
omnipresence of God. There are also proverbs that have to do with the relationship
of man to the deities. If a list of proverbs of Africa are collected and studied, they
would yield highly important information on African religion.
3. Prayers
Prayers are specifically religious activities and would contain a lot of information
on religious beliefs. Prayers in Africa are usually made to God, the deities and the
ancestors.
Through prayers one can see man's dependence on God and the belief that God has
the ability to meet man's need being expressed.
ASSIGNMENT
i. What are the sources from which data for the study of African Traditional
Religion can be found?

The African Religious Practices

African religious practices are diverse and rich, reflecting the vast cultures and
traditions across the continent.

These practices are deeply rooted in the belief systems and cosmologies of the
African people, and play a significant role in shaping their daily lives and
interactions with the spiritual realm.

From the ancient rituals of the Egyptian civilization to the animistic traditions of
sub-Saharan Africa, African religious practices are characterized by a deep

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reverence for nature, ancestral worship, and the presence of powerful deities and
spirits.

These beliefs and practices are often intertwined with the social, political, and
economic aspects of African communities, providing a sense of identity and
cohesion.

Reasons why rituals and ceremonies are conducted

 To honor and communicate with ancestors.

 To seek guidance.
 To promote harmony with the natural world.

African religious practices emphasize communal participation, with community

members coming together to celebrate and support one another in times of joy and
hardship.

Despite the influences of colonization and the spread of other religions, African
religious practices continue to thrive and evolve, remaining an integral part of
African culture and heritage.

Rituals and Ceremonies in African Society

Rituals are actions performed in religious ceremonies associated with certain
beliefs.
Ritual practices are many depending upon their functions. There are rituals that are
communal with fixed annual seasons, hence ceremonial in nature while others are
private or do not have any fixed annual calendar, but are practiced as needs arise.

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Rituals and ceremonies play very dominant religious and social functions in
African societies. They are ceremonies have their accompanied practices rules and
regulations.
The form of rituals varies greatly from region to region, ethnic group to ethnic
group and over from individuals to individual within the same religious tradition.
Not every member of society performs all rituals.
In spite of differences African religions share certain common features especially
in their rituals and ceremonies.
They always involve larger groups of people or entire community’s e.g.
agricultural rituals function communally to benefit the group. They perform these
rituals to ensure rains, successful, harvest and abundant agricultural productions.
Rituals Involve the Following

 Dancing
 Singing
 Charting
 Offering sacrifices
 Pouring of libations
Social Rituals Take Place in:

 Shrines
 Temples
 Altars
NB: Communal rituals cement the bond of unity among community.

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CHAPTER FOUR

AFROTHEISM: CONCEPT OF GOD IN AFRICA

God is a reality in every traditional society in Africa.

Most ideas about God are learnt almost by instinct.
His character and personality are often understood through his various names.
Examples of God’s names

 Nyasae
 Were

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 Erikai
 Ngai
 Mwathani
 Murungu
 Muumbi
 Engoro
 Ogun
 Oludumare
 Nyame
NB: Most names run across one or several communities.

The names describe God’s nature and works. Most names indicate an only God
that is not shared because he is a supreme being.
God is mainly associated with the sky, sun and other celestial bodies which
indicate oneness with the universe and in creation (e.g. Ngai-Meru).
Other names portray God as merciful, kind, just among others.
African ideas about God are also perceived through myths, proverbs and other
forms of oral literature.
Meaning of Terms

Afrotheism – Study of God in Africa

Supreme – Mighty and above everything else

Celestial – Objects associated with sky e.g. moon, sun and stars.

Nature of God/Attributes of God

1. Omniscient – All knowing, all seeing, all watching

2. Omnipresent – All round, everywhere

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3. Omnipotent – Almighty, can do everything. Nothing defeats God.

4. Transcendent - powerful and above human’s power. Beyond human
understanding.
5. Immanent – Close to us and able to help us. Has long arms and near us when he
wishes- never far to us.
6. Holy – He is free of evil/pure
7. Sole creator – Source of all life
8. Loving and caring – provides for his people and always with them.
9. Self- existent – Not created, exists alone, self independent and He alone is God.
10.Eternal and everlasting – Ever living. From the beginning was, is and will be.
11.Great and supreme- Ruler, governor, father and authority
12.Savior/protector – Gives safety and protection, cannot forsake and helper of the
poor.
13.Merciful – Acts on his own and He is never influenced.
NB: Due to the attribute of God in Africa, African religion is ranked as
monotheistic. God is always present among the people at all times and places. He
helps human beings to go through the hustles of life.

Although Africans consider God as a great spirit, they describe him in human
terms because of his attributes. He is the greatest spirit, elder whose love is
experienced daily. He deserves all respect. He is not partial. He dwells in the sky
and his supremacy and immensity are associated with natural occurrences e.g.
thunders.
Works of God in Africa

 Mythology portrays human beings as having been created first and given work
to do.
 Celestial phenomena act as symbols of God’s work on earth.

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 The environment shapes God’s image

 Nature and geography of people affect and influence the stories told about God
in relation to mountains, desert cold places, waters etc.
 Africans acknowledge the dwelling places of God to be the environment.
 God was the first to exist and he is immortal.
 Since God is immortal the world is unending.
 God is the source of ‘Mana’ who is stronger than the power of magic and
witchcraft.
 Environment serves as an indicator of God’s existence. It is a sign of His
creation and manifestation.
NB: For the Africans, presence of natural phenomena is an indication of God’s
wonders and existence. He communicates to the people sometimes through
occurrences in the universe, which serves as God’s imprints on earth.

CHAPTER FIVE

WORSHIP AND SACRIFICE IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

Though God is ever present, there are mysterious forces that are beyond human
power.
Humans are vulnerable to those powers and therefore there is a constant need to
appease God.
From African myths of creation, human beings were created to enjoy certain
prestigious position in God’s plan. This is the gift of immortality, regimentation
after old age and continuous supply of food (providence) from God.
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However, certain human activities, behavior and attributes affected the glorious
relationship between humans and God. For this reason God withdrew from the
people.
Death became the severe punishment that humans got after fall.
Africans have a need to find a way of restoring the lost relationship with God.
Worship plays a significant role in the social life of the Africans. It is seen as a
total response to God and it is expressed in words and action in the forms of rites
and ceremonies.
Worship
Worship means to treat somebody or something as deity: to treat somebody or
something as divine and show respect by engaging in acts of prayer and devotion.
Worship is an expression of man's attitude towards God and other spiritual beings.
It is also an act of communication and communion between man and the
supernatural world. It is a means of retaining God-man relationship and the
channel through which an upset of the balance of such relationship is rectified and
restored.
Since religion permeates all of life in Africa, it is believed that there has to be a
balance at all times in the relationship between God and humanity; the spirits and
humanity and the departed and the living. The effect of any misbalance in the
African thought leads to misfortunes and sufferings of all kinds. Worship and
offering of sacrifices is therefore a psychological device to ensure the restoration
of this balance. Worship and sacrifices are done mostly in the temples, grooves and
shrines and they can be daily, weekly, occasional and annual.
Types of Worship
1. Daily Worship
Daily worship is usually done before divinities in the family compounds. The head
of the family stands here as the worshipper committing the entire family and the
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affairs of the day to the spirits and the ancestors. It is usually not an elaborate
worship. The family head invokes blessings upon the family members. The priests
too in their family houses also perform daily worship of the divinity on behalf of
themselves, their families and the whole community by extension. It is usually also
not elaborate and consists of invocation of blessings.
2. Weekly Worship
The weekly worship follows almost the same format as in the daily worship but it
is usually more elaborate with more worshippers in attendance and it is done under
the leadership of the priests and priestesses of the particular divinity. The day of
worship is determined by the day dedicated to the particular divinity and the
worship takes place in the central shrine or in an open space in front of the central
shrine.
During the worship, prayer is offered on behalf of worshippers of the divinity for
life, health and protection from their enemies' attack. It often involves offering
favorite items of the divinity. The weekly worship is usually concluded with songs
rendered in the praise of the divinity.
3. Annual Worship
The annual worship is the most elaborate of all the worships as almost all the
community and the neighboring communities partake. During this annual worship
priests and priestesses from other communities are invited to partake in the
worship.
The annual worship usually takes place in the central shrine of the divinity and
special arrangements are made depending on the need of the occasion. It is usually
an occasion of rejoicing, thanksgiving and renewal of covenant.
Worshippers come to show their gratitude for the blessings they have received
from the divinity in the past year and call for guidance in the New Year. There are
certain festivals that are tied to the harvest period and must precede the eating or
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even buying and selling of particular produce. For example, in some communities
the new harvest cannot be found in the market or eaten in private without the
celebration of the major divinity of the community.
FORMS OF WORSHIP IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES

i. Libation
Libation is the act of pouring out of a liquid such as water, wine or oil as a
sacrifice to God, the divinities or an ancestor.
While the libation is being poured, the officiating priest also pours out the
people's requests to God or the divinity in prayer. In most cases, water is
used in libation but other items like liquor can be used depending on the
occasion and the divinity.
The importance of libation lies in the belief that since the liquor softens the
ground, it symbolically opens the way to the presence of the divine powers.
Thus in the process of worship, the family head can pour libation to the
ancestral spirits on behalf of the family to sanction the demands of the
family members.
Libation is also poured during other social activities like marriage, naming,
laying of the foundation of a new house and the opening of a new house.
ii. Invocation
Invocation is calling upon a greater power such as God, divinities or spirits
for help or just to seek their presence.
In African Traditional Religion the worshipper calls upon God or the
divinities. It is usually done while libation is being poured out. The
worshipper addresses God or the divinity as the case may be inviting them to
attend and accept their worship. This is sometimes accompanied by the
sounding of a gong (percussion instrument) or a rattle to create a moment of

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silence whereby divine or supernatural presence could be felt. The sounding

of the gong is also followed by the calling of the names, appellations and
praise names of God or the divinity. After this the purpose of the gathering is
stated and the supernatural is asked to come and be part of them.
iii. Offering
Offering involves the presentation of foodstuffs and other items except
animals. Offerings are usually directed to God, the spirits and the ancestors.
As the items are offered, the officiating priest invokes the recipients of the
offering to come and accept the offering.
iv. Prayer
This is the most common act of worship in African Traditional Religion.
Prayers are usually short and may be accompanied by sacrifices and
offerings. They are made to request or to give thanks.
Through prayers, the worshippers are able to communicate either directly or
indirectly with God, the divinities and the ancestors.
Prayers, like the making of sacrifices and offerings are at the heart of
African religious life. People pray almost every time in every place.

Types of Prayers
 Prayers of thanksgiving in which people give gratitude to God
 Supplications in which people ask for material blessings
 Prayers of protection in which people ask for protection against sickness
and death, victory over enemies and long life
 Prayers of dedication in which belongings and children are dedicated to
God.

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Though people often pray directly to God, it is the priest that does
community prayer because it will involve using the various liturgical names
and attributes of God or the divinities during such prayers.
v. Songs
Songs find an important place in the traditional worship among Africans.
The songs are used more in communal worship and each divinity usually has
its own sets of songs and music that are connected with its cult.
Songs are sung as the occasion demands. For examples, some are used only
during the sacred day worship; others are reserved for the annual worship
while some are for crisis period or funeral time.
When the order of worship is strictly followed there are points in which
songs are rendered. At these points the song is led by the officiating priest or
one of his attendants and later the whole congregation joins in.
The songs vary depending on what is to be done next on the program.
When used in worship, songs confirm the faith of the worshippers, their
belief in and about the divinity as well as their assurances and hopes in the
future life.
The songs also enhance emotional and physical participation in the act of
worship which some of the time leads to ecstatic (happiness feelings)
experiences that often results to prophetic utterances from the divinity
through the human medium.
vi. Blessings – Good wishes being asked of God such as God be with you.
vii. Proverbs and songs – that express reverence for and gratitude to God.
viii. Intercessors – It is not anybody that can make direct communication with
God. This is done by special people or spirits e.g. elders, priests, seers,
prophets, diviners, medicine men and rain makers and ancestors. They pray
on behalf of the people.
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ix. Sacrifices – Sacrifices involve killing of an animal which is given in parts or

entirely to God.
NB: Among Africans, worship of God takes places at any place and time. There
are no strict rules governing when people should worship. Practice and custom of
worship vary from place to place.

Reasons/importance of worship

1. To maintain peace and harmony with God.

2. To counter the evil in the world.
3. To obtain peace with fellow humans.
4. Maintain peace with self.
5. To create a feeling of fellowship as the worshipers converge to worship.
6. Helps community to mark important events or occasions.
7. To promote acquisition of moral values.
8. To maintain good relationship with the ancestors.
NB: The fall made Africans vulnerable to suffering, the worst being death. As a
result, there is a constant need for worship. The reason is to attempt to restore the
broken relationship as well as maintain peace and harmony with self, God and
other creation.

Occasions when Africans worship

 During harvest festivals

 The birth rites
 Initiation
 Marriage
 Death
 Planting time

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 Times of national hunting

 Gathering and fishing
 The blessing of cattle
 Unusual phenomena
 Coronation of chiefs and kings
NB: Though there is no strict time and place, there are areas designated for
worship.

Areas/ places of Worship

 Special shrines
 Temples
 Altars
 Groves
 Other sacred places e.g. hills tops
 Foot of mountains
 River banks
 Caves
 Sacred mountains
 Water falls
 Special tree (sacred trees).
SACRIFICES
Sacrifices play an essential role in African Traditional Religion as it is of every
religion in the world. It is inconceivable in the African mind to have a religion
without a system of sacrifice.
Sacrifice is the act of offering the life of animal or a human being to the divine
power or powers. It is also seen as a means of communion between humanity and
God.

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It is the highest means of establishing and maintaining relationship between

human beings and God on the one hand and the divinity on the other hand. It can
also be said to be the most effective means through which humanity can influence
the divinities or other supernatural powers that may be interested in the affairs of
this world.
What is offered and the manner of offering it depends on the nature of the cult, the
occasion of the sacrifice and the injunctions given by the receiver of the sacrifice
through the priest.
Unlike some other religions where sacrifices can be total burnt offering to God or
the deity, in African religion sacrifices are usually shared by both the receiver and
the worshippers. This is done by placing part belonging to the receiver on the
shrine and the rest is eaten by the worshippers.

Categories of sacrifices in African Religion

1. The Thanks-Offering
This type of sacrifice is given to God or the divinity in appreciation of the
blessings received or to solicit the favor of the receiver. It is usually accompanied
by feasting where the worshippers and the divinity share a common meal.
Through thanksgiving sacrifices, Africans believe that beneficial relation is
established between them and the divinity. The following are examples of
occasions that warrant thanksgiving offering: abundant harvest, escape from
death or an accident, successful hunting or fishing expedition and victory over
enemies.

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2. The Votive Offering

In this type of sacrifice, the worshippers go before the divinity as supplicants to ask
for favors. This may include blessings, money and material things as well as gifts
of children. In the process the supplicant makes a vow of something to be given to
the divinity for the favor received. The vow will dictate the items of the offering.
Like the thanks offering, the sacrifice is made in the midst of dancing and singing,
merrymaking, eating and drinking.
3. The Propitiation or Expiation Sacrifice
This is a kind of sacrifice that looks more of an atonement sacrifice. It is aimed at
lessening the wrath of the divinity through the process of self humiliation.
It is usually offered when there is crisis signified by low or no harvest, protracted
illness, famine, sudden death, outbreak of plagues or epidemics and diseases.
During the process of the sacrifice efforts are made to locate the cause of the
trouble and the best means of removing the trouble. It will also include how to
calm the wrath of the divinities or the spirits responsible for the calamity and win
back their favor.
Through this sacrifice the worshipper can also express regret for past wrongs and
mistakes and ask for forgiveness. It is usually held that after the sacrifice have been
performed the worshippers or the one that has made the sacrifice have been
transformed from the state of defilement to that of purity.
4. The Foundation Sacrifice
This sacrifice is based on the African belief that any new venture that one lays his
hands upon should be committed into the hands of God, the divinities, the
ancestors and the spirits. Thus the following activities call for foundation
sacrifice: laying the foundation of a new house building, cultivating a new land,
setting out on a journey, taking a new wife and the commencement of a new career.
5. The Preventive Sacrifice
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As the name implies, this sacrifice is expected to prevent impending disaster or

calamity. It is a means through which the one who offers it expect protection
against enemies or the protection of the whole community from disaster.
It is believed that as a sacrifice can remove evil and calamity so also it can prevent
evil or misfortune from occurring. Most of the times this sacrifice is done throug
the instruction of the divinity from the oracle.
6. The Substitution Sacrifice
This is a sacrifice that is expected to take the place of another person whose life is
being threatened or is about to be terminated. The sacrifice is done on behalf of the
person even if the person may not be able to perform the sacrifice himself.
The sacrificial victim involved and other items of the sacrifice are usually rubbed
on the body of the person and they are treated like a corpse and buried as if the
person has actually being buried. The animals commonly used for this sacrifice are
sheep, cows and oxen.
7. The Meal and Drink Offerings
This is the most common type of sacrifice and it takes place almost every day at
the household shrines, sacred days and communal shrines.
In this sacrifice, any type of food item can be offered and in most cases, the kind of
food offered is what the people eat at home. To offer this sacrifice, the leader first
pours libation after which the meal is offered to the divinities or the ancestors. The
rest of the food is then shared among the worshippers as a sacramental feast
through which they enter into communion with the divinity.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss the various types of sacrifice in African Traditional religion.

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CHAPTER SIX

RITES OF PASSAGE IN AFRICAN SOCIETIES

DEFINITION OF RITES OF PASSAGE

They are ceremonial events marking transitions in an individual's life. They include birth,
puberty/initiation, marriage and death.

They have cultural Importance such that they reinforce identity, social roles, and
connection to ancestors.

There is diversity of traditions regarding rites of passage in Africa. There are over 3,000
ethnic groups in Africa with unique practices.

Stages of Rites of Passage

1. Separation: Individual is removed from their previous status.

2. Transition: A process of learning and transformation.

3. Incorporation: Integration into society with a new status.

BIRTH RITES

They are meant to welcome a new member into the community.

Practices may involve prayers, blessings, and ancestral invocation.

Rituals Associated with Birth Rites

1. Preparation for the Birth

 Blessings and protection for the mother-Pregnant women may undergo

blessings or rituals to ensure a safe delivery. Protective charms, amulets, or
herbs may be used to ward off evil spirits.
 Involvement of Elders-Elder women, often midwives, play a critical role in
guiding the mother and overseeing the birth process.

2. Ceremonies Immediately After Birth

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 Cutting the Umbilical Cord-The act is symbolic of the child’s separation from
the spiritual realm and entry into the physical world.
 Disposal of the placenta- placenta is often buried in a sacred place, symbolizing
the connection of the child to the land or ancestors.

 First Cry-The baby’s first cry is celebrated as a sign of vitality and blessings.
 Special prayers or incantations may be recited to welcome the child.
 Shaving of the mother and the baby- This signifies end of pregnancy and
beginning of new life as independent individuals,

3. Naming Rituals

 Introduction to the Community-a naming ceremony is held to officially

introduce the child to the family and community. The name given often
reflects the circumstances of birth, ancestral lineage, or desired qualities for the
child.
 For example: Among the Akan of Ghana, names are given based on the day of
the week the child is born. In the Kikuyu community of Kenya, children are
often named after ancestors as a way of honoring them.
 Ritual Objects like water, milk, honey, bitter herbs or traditional brews may be
used during the ceremony to symbolize purity, sweetness, and life.

4. Integration into the Community

 Ancestral Blessings-The child is introduced to the ancestors through prayers,

offerings, or sacrifices. This ritual seeks the ancestors' protection and guidance
for the child.
 Symbolic Gestures- the child may be passed over fire or bathed in sacred water
to symbolize purification and protection.
 Community Feast- a communal celebration with feasting, dancing, and singing
marks the child’s official acceptance into the community.

5. Blessings and Protection

 Protective Charms- Beads, amulets, or bracelets are placed on the child to

ward off evil spirits and protect against harm.
 Sacrifices and Offerings- Animals, food, or libations are offered to the ancestors
or deities to ensure the child’s health, prosperity, and longevity.
 Prayers and Invocations-Specific prayers or invocations are made by elders or
spiritual leaders to bless the child and invoke divine favor.

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6. Postnatal Care for the mother

 Cleansing Rituals- the mother undergoes purification to cleanse her of the

spiritual and physical effects of childbirth. Herbs or sacred water may be used
in this process.
 Confinement Period- the mother is often confined for a specific period (e.g. 40
days) to recover and bond with the baby.
 Support from the Community- Women in the community provide food, care,
and guidance to the mother during this period.

7. Milestones in the Baby’s Early Life

 Weaning Ceremonies- a ritual may mark the transition from breastfeeding to

solid foods, symbolizing growth and independence.
 Initiation into Clan or Lineage- the child may be given specific symbols or
marks (e.g. tribal scars or beads) to identify their clan or lineage.
 Thanksgiving to Deities- families offer thanksgiving sacrifices to deities or spirits
for the safe arrival and continued health of the child.

8. Gender-Specific Rituals

 For Male Children- in some societies, male children may undergo specific
rituals signifying their future roles as protectors or providers.
 For Female Children- female children may receive rituals that emphasize
fertility, nurturing, and their role in continuing the lineage.

9. Community Responsibility

 The entire community plays an active role in raising the child, reflecting the
African proverb, "It takes a village to raise a child."
 Elders and spiritual leaders guide the parents in nurturing the child according to
cultural values and traditions.

INITIATION/PUBERTY RITES

These marks transition from childhood to adulthood. It imparts cultural values,

responsibilities, and skills.

Rituals Associated with Initiation/Puberty Rites

1. Preparation for the Rites

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 Seclusion Period- the initiates are separated from their families and secluded in
a specific location, such as a forest or sacred hut, to symbolize their
detachment from childhood. During this period, they are taught cultural values,
responsibilities, skills, and community expectations.
 Spiritual Cleansing- the initiates undergo spiritual cleansing to purify them and
prepare them for their new status. This may involve bathing in sacred water,
smearing with specific herbs, or fasting.
2. Rituals of Transition

 Ceremonial Circumcision or Body Modifications- circumcision for boys and, in

some cultures, other forms of body modification e.g. piercing, are common.
These symbolize bravery and maturity. Pain endurance during these processes
is often considered a sign of readiness for adulthood.
 Initiation Songs and Dances- traditional songs and dances accompany the rites,
often reflecting themes of transformation, courage, and unity.
 Instruction by Elders- elders or mentors teach the initiates essential life skills,
community traditions, moral codes, and gender-specific roles. For example,
boys might learn hunting, leadership, and protection roles. Girls might learn
household management, motherhood, and social decorum.
3. Symbolic Death and Rebirth

 Symbolic Death- the rites often symbolize the "death" of the child and the
"birth" of the adult. This may involve symbolic acts like burying childhood
items or wearing special garments signifying the end of childhood.
 Naming or Title-Giving- the initiates may be given new names or titles to
signify their new identity and status in the community.
4. Tests of Endurance and Bravery

 Physical Challenges- the initiates may undergo physical tests, such as endurance
runs, wrestling, or other challenges, to prove their strength and readiness for
adult responsibilities.
 Cultural Knowledge Exams- some communities require initiates to demonstrate
their understanding of cultural norms, spiritual beliefs, and practical skills.
5. Blessings and Community Acceptance

 Blessing Ceremonies- the community's spiritual leader, elders, or parents bless

the initiates, invoking protection, prosperity, and wisdom.
 Ritual Feasting- a communal feast is held to celebrate the successful completion
of the rites. It marks the initiates’ official acceptance as adults in the community.

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6. Gender-Specific Rites

 Boys- boys are often prepared for roles as warriors, leaders, or providers.
Ceremonies might emphasize strength, courage, and responsibility.
 Girls- Girls are taught about womanhood, fertility, marriage, and motherhood.
Some communities include rituals to celebrate their role as future nurturers and
caretakers of the family.
7. Symbols of Adulthood

 Special Attire or Marks- Initiates may wear specific garments, jewelry, or body
marks that signify their new status.
 Tools or Weapons- boys may receive tools (e.g. spears or knives) symbolizing
their readiness to contribute to the community. Girls may receive household
items or ornaments reflecting their new responsibilities.
8. Community Integration and Celebration

 Public Procession- the initiates are reintroduced to the community through a

public procession, showcasing their new identity.
 Community Dance and Song- traditional dances and songs are performed to
honor the initiates and celebrate their successful transition.
 Role Assignments- the initiates may be assigned specific roles in the community,
reflecting their readiness to contribute to societal growth.
9. Symbolic Connection to Ancestors and Deities

 Offerings and Sacrifices- offerings may be made to ancestors or deities to seek

blessings for the initiates’ future.
 Invocation of Ancestral Guidance- prayers or rituals invoke the guidance and
protection of ancestors for the initiates.
10. Lessons on Community Values and Responsibilities

 Social Responsibility- initiates are taught the importance of communal

harmony, respect for elders, and upholding traditions.
 Moral and Ethical Teachings- elders emphasize honesty, loyalty, and respect as
key values for adulthood.
Examples from Specific Communities:

 Among the Kikuyu of Kenya, boys undergo circumcision, while both boys and
girls are taught about family responsibilities, cultural values, and community
leadership.
 Among the Zulu of South Africa, the umemulo ceremony for girls celebrates
their readiness for marriage and societal roles.

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 Among the Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania, boys undergo circumcision and
seclusion before being initiated into warrior groups (moran).

MARRIAGE RITES

This is the union of families and continuation of the community. It emphasises on

community approval and ancestral blessings.

Steps and Rituals Involved in Marriage

1. Courtship and Selection of a Spouse

 This stage involves identifying a suitable partner, often guided by family,

community elders, or matchmakers. Compatibility between families, clans, or
communities is a critical factor.

Key Practices

 There are social gatherings or cultural events where young people meet
potential spouses. After this, families investigate the background of the
prospective spouse, including their character, family history, and health.

2. Consultation and Negotiations

 Once a potential spouse is identified, families of both parties engage in

consultations and negotiations. Marriage is seen as a union of families, not just
individuals.

Key Practices

 Elders or representatives from both families meet to discuss the marriage.

 Negotiations often include a discussion of dowry or bride price (e.g. cattle,
goods, or money to be given), which symbolizes appreciation to the bride's
family.
 Agreement is reached on ceremonial arrangements and expectations.

3. Engagement and Betrothal

 This stage formalizes the agreement between the two families and marks the
beginning of preparations for marriage.

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Key Practices

 An engagement ceremony may be held, with the groom’s family presenting

gifts to the bride’s family.
 Symbolic items (e.g. clothing, jewelry) may be exchanged to signify
commitment.
 The couple is often considered officially engaged, and the community is
informed.

4. Pre-Wedding Rituals

 These rituals prepare the couple for their roles as husband and wife and
include spiritual and communal ceremonies.

Key Practices

o Counseling- elders or relatives provide guidance on marital responsibilities,

family life, and traditions.
o Blessings- both families and community elders may perform blessings or
purification rituals.
o Preparations- families finalize arrangements for the wedding ceremony,
including venue, food, and attire.

5. Wedding Ceremony

 The wedding is the central event where the marriage is officially recognized by
the community.

Key Practices

 Ceremonial rituals, often led by elders or spiritual leaders, formalize the union.
 Feasting, singing, dancing, and other forms of celebration are common.
 The bride may be escorted to the groom’s home in a symbolic act of joining
the two families.

6. Post-Wedding Rituals

 After the wedding, certain rituals ensure the couple’s successful integration into
family and community life.

Key Practices

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 The bride is introduced to the groom’s family and shown her responsibilities in
the household.
 Fertility prayers or rituals may be conducted to bless the couple with children.
 Observances, such as a “honeymoon period,” may be held where the bride
stays secluded with her husband to strengthen their bond.

7. Establishing the Family

 Marriage in ATS is primarily for family continuity, and the couple is expected
to build a home and raise children.

Key Practices

 The couple establishes their household within the community, often with the
support of extended family.
 Continuous guidance and involvement of both families ensure stability in the
marriage.

DEATH RITES

Death is a significant transition in African Traditional Societies (ATS) that marks the end
of physical life and the beginning of the individual's journey to the spiritual
realm/ancestral world. Death rites in ATS are steeped in rituals that express communal
solidarity, affirm beliefs in the afterlife, and ensure the deceased's safe transition to the
world of ancestors. These rituals vary across different African cultures but share common
underlying themes and functions.

Examples: Ashanti (Ghana): Elaborate funerals to celebrate life and secure blessings.
Dogon (Mali): Dama dance to guide the deceased to the spirit world.

Common Practices

Prayers, libations, and rituals for continuity of life.

Rituals Associated with Death Rites

1. Preparation of the Body

 Washing and Dressing- the deceased's body is often washed and dressed in
special clothing, symbolizing purification and readiness for the afterlife.

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 Adornment- in some communities, the body is adorned with beads, jewelry,

or specific items that held significance in the person’s life.

2. Mourning Period

 Wailing and Crying- public expressions of grief, including wailing, are common
and signify the loss experienced by the community.
 Shaving of Hair- family members may shave their hair as a sign of mourning
and solidarity.
 Wearing Mourning Attire- the bereaved often wear specific clothing or colors
to signify their mourning status.

3. Sacrifices and Offerings

 Animal Sacrifices- animals such as goats or chicken may be sacrificed to appease

the spirits and guide the deceased safely to the ancestral realm.
 Food and Drink Offerings- meals and drinks are offered to the deceased to
nourish their spirit on their journey.

4. Funeral Rites

 Burial Practices- the location of the burial site is often significant, with many
communities burying their dead close to family homes or ancestral lands.
Grave goods (tools, utensils, or personal belongings) may be placed in the
grave to aid the deceased in the afterlife.

 Dirges and Songs: Songs and chants are performed to honor the deceased and
reflect their life journey.

5. Post-Burial Rites

 Cleansing Rituals- after burial, the family and community undergo rituals to
cleanse themselves from death's spiritual impurity.
 Memorial Ceremonies- periodic rituals, such as "second burial" or anniversaries,
are conducted to maintain the bond with the deceased and ensure their
peaceful existence among the ancestors.

6. Role of Spiritual Leaders

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 Spiritual leaders such as diviners and priests, often perform rituals to

communicate with the ancestors, interpret the cause of death, and ensure
harmony between the living and the dead.

7. Communal Involvement

 Community Participation- the entire community typically participates in death

rites, signifying solidarity and collective responsibility for the deceased's
journey.
 Collective Feasting- sharing meals is an integral part of the rituals, symbolizing
unity and continuity of life.

8. Ancestor Veneration

 Honoring the Deceased- the deceased is often regarded as an ancestor, and

rituals are performed to honor their spirit and ensure they protect and bless
the living.
 Offering Libations- liquids such as water or alcohol are poured onto the
ground as offerings to the ancestors.

Significance of Death Rites

 Spiritual Transition- death rites help guide the deceased to join the ancestral world.
 Social Continuity - these rituals reinforce social bonds and affirm communal values.
 Cultural Identity- the rites express and preserve the unique cultural beliefs of the
community.

Common Themes Across Rites of Passage

1. Transition and Transformation

 It is a movement Between Life Stages- Rites of passage mark significant

transitions, such as birth to childhood, childhood to adulthood, singlehood to
marriage, and life to the afterlife. They symbolize the end of one stage and the
beginning of another, often referred to as a "death" and "rebirth."
 Change in Identity- participants often receive a new status, name, or role in
the community, reflecting their transformed identity.

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2. Community Involvement

 Collective Participation- these rites are communal events where family, elders,
and the larger community play active roles. The presence of the community
emphasizes the interconnectedness of individuals and the collective
responsibility for their development.
 Public Acknowledgment- the rites often include ceremonies or celebrations that
publicly recognize the individual's new status, ensuring their acceptance within
the community.
3. Instruction and Education

 Transmission of Knowledge- elders and mentors teach participants about

cultural values, traditions, responsibilities, and societal expectations. For
example, during initiation rites, initiates are taught about marriage, family life,
morality, and their roles in society.
 Spiritual and Practical Guidance- lessons may include spiritual teachings, life
skills, and ethical principles to prepare individuals for their new roles.
4. Symbolism

 Symbolic Acts- rituals involve symbolic gestures such as circumcision, shaving of

the head, or wearing special attire to signify transformation.
 Use of Sacred Objects- items like water, fire, herbs, or beads are often used to
symbolize purification, protection, and blessings.
 Death and Rebirth Imagery- many rites use metaphors of death (letting go of
the old self) and rebirth (emergence of a new self) to emphasize personal
growth.
5. Spiritual Connection

 Communion with Ancestors and Deities- rites often involve invoking the
presence of ancestors and deities to bless and guide the individual. Offerings,
prayers, and sacrifices are made to seek divine favor and protection.
 Purification and Cleansing- participants undergo rituals to cleanse them of
impurities, ensuring their spiritual readiness for the next phase of life.
6. Testing and Endurance

 Trials and Challenges- many rites involve tests of physical, mental, or

emotional endurance to prove readiness for the next stage. For example,
circumcision, fasting, or isolation symbolize courage, discipline, and maturity.
 Demonstration of Readiness- successfully completing these challenges validates
the individual's preparedness for new responsibilities.
7. Sacred Space and Time

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 Designated Ritual Spaces- rites often take place in sacred locations, such as
forests, rivers, or shrines, emphasizing the spiritual significance of the event.
 Sacred Timing these rites are conducted during specific periods deemed
auspicious, such as harvest seasons or specific lunar phases.
8. Gender Roles and Responsibilities

 Preparation for Gender-Specific Roles- rites often prepare individuals for roles
traditionally assigned to their gender, such as leadership and protection for
men or nurturing and caregiving for women.
 Recognition of Gender Differences- the rituals and teachings often reflect the
distinct expectations and responsibilities of men and women in the community.
9. Celebration and Festivity

 Feasting and Dancing- rites of passage often culminate in communal

celebrations with feasting, singing, and dancing to honor the individual and
their transition.
 Expression of Joy and Unity- these festivities strengthen community bonds and
highlight the collective nature of the transition.
10. Reinforcement of Cultural Values

 Preservation of Tradition- rites of passage serve as a means to transmit cultural

heritage and values from one generation to the next.
 Social Cohesion- these rituals reaffirm shared beliefs and foster a sense of
belonging and identity within the community.
11. Protection and Blessings

 Invoking Protection- rituals often involve prayers, sacrifices, or the use of

protective charms to guard the individual against harm during and after the
transition.
 Blessings for Success- elders or spiritual leaders bless participants, invoking
prosperity, health, and guidance in their new stage of life.
12. Integration into Society

 Social Acceptance- the rites signify the individual's acceptance into their new
role and responsibilities within the community.
 Acknowledgment of Maturity- successful completion of the rites affirms the
individual's readiness to contribute to the community’s well-being.

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MODERN INFLUENCES ON RITES OF PASSAGE

1. Decline in Practice

 Urbanization and Migration- with many people moving to urban areas,

traditional settings and community structures that support rites of passage are
often disrupted. In addition, urban life emphasizes individualism, making
communal rites less practical.

 Time and Economic Constraints- modern lifestyles, characterized by busy

schedules and economic pressures, reduce the time and resources available for
elaborate rituals.

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2. Influence of Formal Education

 Shift in Knowledge Transmission- formal education has replaced traditional

teachings provided during rites of passage, such as life skills, cultural values,
and moral education.

 Conflict with Academic Schedules- rites often conflict with academic calendars,
leading to postponement or abandonment.

3. Impact of Religion

 Christianity and Islam- the spread of Christianity and Islam has led to the
replacement or modification of some traditional rites with religious ceremonies.
For example, Christian confirmation or Islamic coming-of-age ceremonies may
replace initiation rites.

 Rejection of Traditional Practices- some religious groups view traditional rites

as incompatible with their beliefs and discourage participation.

4. Legal and Human Rights Concerns

 Prohibition of Harmful Practices- governments and advocacy groups have

banned practices considered harmful, such as female genital mutilation (FGM)
and certain initiation rituals. Legal frameworks and human rights campaigns
have created awareness and discouraged harmful rites.

 Child Protection Policies- modern laws emphasize the rights of children,

limiting practices that involve pain, abuse, or exploitation.

5. Modernization of Rituals

 Simplification of Ceremonies- rites are often simplified to fit into modern

lifestyles, with shorter durations and less elaborate rituals.

 Hybrid Practices- some communities incorporate modern elements, such as

formal education themes or religious prayers, into traditional rites.

6. Economic Challenges

 Cost of Rites- traditional rites, often involving feasting and gifts, can be
expensive. Economic hardships lead to the scaling down or abandonment of
such practices.

 Commercialization- some rites have become commercialized, losing their

cultural and spiritual significance.

7. Influence of Technology and Media

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 Globalization of Culture- exposure to global cultures through media and the

internet has introduced alternative ways of marking life transitions, such as
birthday parties and graduation ceremonies.

 Reduced Secrecy- traditional rites often rely on secrecy, but modern media can
expose these practices, leading to ridicule or loss of sacredness.

8. Changing Gender Roles

 Shift in Gender Expectations- modern movements advocating gender equality

challenge the gender-specific roles emphasized during traditional rites.
Women’s participation in education and employment has reduced the focus on
rites that prepare them solely for marriage and motherhood.

 Focus on Individual Choice- modern values emphasize personal freedom,

leading some to opt out of rites they find restrictive or outdated.

9. Religious Syncretism

 Integration of Religious Beliefs- traditional rites are often modified to align

with Christian, Islamic, or other religious teachings, creating syncretic practices.

 Religious Oversight- religious leaders sometimes preside over what were

traditionally community-led rites.

10. Global Health and Hygiene Awareness

 Medicalization of Rites- practices like circumcision are increasingly performed

in hospitals or clinics to ensure safety and hygiene.

 Awareness Campaigns- global health organizations promote alternatives to

harmful practices and provide education on health-related issues.

11. Individualism over Communalism

 Emphasis on Personal Milestones- modern society values individual

achievements (e.g. academic graduations, career milestones) over communal
rites.

 Privatization of Ceremonies- rites are increasingly celebrated in private or

immediate family settings rather than as community-wide events.

12. Erosion of Cultural Identity

 Loss of Indigenous Knowledge- modern influences can dilute or replace the

cultural teachings traditionally imparted during rites of passage.

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 Generational Gap- younger generations may view traditional rites as irrelevant

or outdated, leading to a decline in their practice.

Examples of Modern Influences on Specific Rites

 Birth Rites- hospital births and modern naming ceremonies are replacing
traditional birth rituals.

 Initiation/Puberty Rites- urbanization and education have led to a decline in

seclusion and traditional teachings.

 Marriage Rites- modern weddings influenced by Western culture often

overshadow traditional marriage ceremonies.

 Death Rites- cremation and simplified funeral services are becoming more
common due to time and cost constraints.

CONCLUSION

 Rites of passage are crucial in African societies for individual and communal
identity. They preserve cultural identity and ensure continuity.
 Modern challenges call for intentional preservation of these practices.
 A deeper understanding fosters appreciation of Africa's rich cultural heritage.

QUESTIONS

1. Discuss ways in which similar rites compare in your own culture.

2. Explain the universal elements of rites of passage across different cultures.
3. Discuss ways in which rites of passage reflect the values and beliefs of a
community.
4. Elucidate reasons why communal celebrations and involvement important in rites
of passage.
5. Analyze ways in which rites of passage evolved in modern societies.
6. How do rites of passage reinforce a sense of identity and belonging within a
community?
7. Discuss the significant of act of naming in birth rituals across cultures.
8. Explain the role of elders and spiritual leaders in birth rites.
9. Discuss ways in which practices such as the burial of the umbilical cord or placenta
reflect a child’s connection to the land or ancestors.
10. Explain how protective charms and blessings for newborns and mothers
demonstrate beliefs in spirituality and protection.
11. How do birth rites differ between urbanized and traditional communities.

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12. Analyze why seclusion a common practice during initiation rites. What does it
symbolize?
13. Explain ways in which initiation rites prepare individuals for their roles in
adulthood.
14. Evaluate the significance of pain endurance or physical challenges in initiation rites.

CHAPTER SEVEN

NUMINOUS/MYSTICAL POWERS IN AFRICAN RELIGION AND

CULTURE

Mystical- A force or power above human understanding often experienced when

one comes into contact with the sacred.

Mystical/numinous powers in Africa include:

1. Mana
African religion recognized the presence of some mysterious power that is referred
to as Mana.
Mana is an impersonal power that is regarded with great fear. It is also referred to
as mystical power. It is not fiction but a reality.
Mana is mainly used for good or ill by a specialist in magic or witchcraft
(uganga/uchawi). Such people either apply it in their activities to protect their
client or harm them.

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Mana is a power that is ultimately comes or originates from God. This power is
both visible and physical.
Its presence can be felt during worship or when used by some religious specialist
like witchdoctors or herbalists.
Mana is also invisible and mysteriously spiritual. The invisible can be seen when it
is put to use by the special spirits or ancestors.
This power is involved in the practice of magic and religion.
2. Taboo
A taboo is the oldest unwritten code of law that operates in Africa.

It refers to anything considered sacred and therefore forbidden to be touched or

used.
In its religious sense, it is closely associated with mana (mystical power).
The power of mana can be communicated and passed on to people, places and
polluted objects. It is this power that makes objects or people tabooed.
Examples of Tabooed Persons

 Kings
 Chiefs
 Priests
 Medicine men and women
 Places associated with God or spirits are consecrated and so are tabooed.
Objects Tabooed

 Blood
 Dead bodies
 Some animals
Certain Social Sanctions are put on (measures)

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 Menstruating women
 Nursing mothers
 Widows
 Twins
NB: All these are regarded a taboo.

Importance of Taboos

i. Taboo regulates morality and ethnics by putting social sanctions on various

things.
ii. They are meant to protect the tabooed person or place.
iii. To protect the community from unwanted issues or behavior or dangerous
persons or objects.
iv. Protects people from incidences that may harm them.
Application of Numinous Power in Various Aspects of African Beliefs and
Practices

1. The aspect of magical powers

Magic is a supposed supernatural power that makes impossible things to happen or
gives somebody control over the forces of nature.
Magic is used in many cultures for healing, keeping away evil, seeking the truth
and for vengeful purposes.
Magic is also the art of attaining objectives, acquiring knowledge or performing
works of wonder through supernatural or non-rational means.
In African cultures, human often think that they can use the mysterious power at
work in the world for their own ends. This power impersonal.
Human beings need to know the technique by which they can gain control over the
elemental powers of the universe.

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Africans believe that this technique works automatically provided that the
necessary taboos are observed and ritualistic words are used.
In magic, they see no need to submit to God
Humans need the power but want to gain control over it.
It applies on the principle,” may my will be done”.
Techniques used in Magic
i. Chants and spells.
ii. Gestures or actions that often have a symbolic relation to the desired result.
iii. Use of substances believed to have a special relationship with the powers
needed to accomplish the intended purpose.
Magic is the handling of nature and bending them to man's will to safeguard his
welfare and shaping his destiny.
Magic involve at least a partial symbolic recognition of the society's spiritual world
view and of its divinities and myths. In this respect magic often merges with
religion and indeed the line between the two is frequently blurred.
Religion, however, is usually regarded as the public acknowledgment of
spirituality, while magic tends to be private and oriented toward power and gain by
supernatural means rather than toward worship.
Distinction between white and black magic

White magic is employed for good while black magic is used to harm others.

 Black magic is sometimes referred to as witchcraft or sorcery, even though

many people who practice witchcraft do not seek to cause harm. Magic in the
supernatural sense is different from stage magic, in which apparent magical
effects are produced for entertainment.
Forms of Magic
i. Homeopathic Magic

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This type of magic operates on the principle that like begets like. It is the use of
small portions of a thing to represent and affect the whole. In applying this form of
magic, a magician tries to produce an effect by merely imitating it with the aid of
supernatural power. Working on this principle of similarity, a person can injure or
destroy an enemy by injuring or destroying an image of him believing that just as
the image suffers so does the enemy.
Homeopathic magic can also be used for the benefit of the society. For example, a
barren woman can be asked to carry a carved image on her back in imitation of a
mother with a child. A person who has a compound fracture can be asked to
produce a fowl whose leg would be broken at the same point as that of the patient.
The magician then treats the wound of the fowl and performs the magical rites. As
the fowl recovers so the patient recovers. In the same way, spotted leaf is used as a
remedy for a spotted skin disease while twisted rings are worn on the fingers to
prevent snake bites. In the case of severe drought, water is thrown into the air
while spells and incantations are pronounced by a magician inviting rain to come
down. Rain could also be invited by making a thick black smoke in imitation of
rain-bearing cloud to attract rain.
ii. Sympathetic Magic
This is the magic in which a symbolic action affects an object with which the
symbol is in "sympathy" or harmony. This is used mostly in witchcraft where a
doll or image can be made and with incantations be said to represent somebody
and whatever is done to the image will begin to affect the person. For example if a
pin is used to strike the doll, the person would begin to bleed and feel pain from
that same spot.
iii. Contagious Magic
This is the influencing of one thing through contact with another that is believed to
be magically charged. It is believed that whatever one does to a material object that
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has been used by the person or that the person has come in contact with will affect
that person. This type of magic is based on the principle that things that have once
been associated must remain ever afterwards in contact even after they have been
separated. For example, it is believed in most African communities that fingernails,
hair, urine and placenta among other things can be used to harm anybody hence all
these things are guarded jealously.
This type of magic is also used to the benefit of the society in that it is used for
protection. For example, the teeth of a snake or lion or any other wild animal can
be wrapped in leather. They then worn on the neck or the waist and these prevent
such animals from attacking the wearer. Gun powder too is worn mostly by hunters
as a protection against gunshot accidents.

Similarities between Magic and Religion

i. Both deal with a power wholly other than humanity itself. The two
recognizes the transcendental, the supernatural and the power beyond
humanity.
ii. Both have a common root. They both arise as a consequence of humanity's
sense of need. They are the result of humanity's attempt to deal with the
mystery that surrounds their immediate physical environment.
iii. Both are symbolic. There are objects representing the supernatural entities in
both. Such objects in turn are endowed with magical or religious
significance.
iv. Taboos are common to both. There are some things that must be done and
some things that must be avoided for efficacy (effectiveness) of both.
v.Both arise from the desire of humanity to dominate and have powers over
others. When they possess such powers, fear, awe and respect are created out
of the situation for them.
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vi. Both have supernatural frame of reference and appeal to man's inadequacy
and are able to give power to those who are in search of them for the
purpose of dominating others.
Differences between Magic and Religion
a. Magic deals with non-human order of reality while religion seeks foster idea of
fellowship between human beings and God.
b. Magic seems to make some things work together for humanity's good through
the use of force. Apart from its public concern as in the case of rainmaking,
magic at the personal level is used by the hunter, trader, students or politicians
for selfish ends. Religion on the other hand is more concerned with the good of
the whole community by giving sanction to common laws and norms. So
religion gives inner sense of sanity, peace and self -being but magic does not
provide these.
c. Magic tends to show human beings how to obtain certain good things through
their effort. Through magic, power is tapped and made use of to satisfy
individual's needs. Religion on the other hand puts power in the hands of the
Divine and human beings can have communion and communication with the
Divine. This is to say that religion implies trust, dependence and submission.
Magic commands and religion implores.
d. Religion requires high moral standards on the part of its adherents. Religion
holds that humanity must maintain high moral life in order to maintain
communion with the Divine. Magic on the other hand would operate in spite of
the moral status or ethical standard of the ones involved.
ASSIGNMENT

 Compare and contrast magic with religion.

2. The aspect of Medicine

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These are substances that are used in treating or preventing disease or illness.
Africans sees medicine as both treatment and preventive. Medicine then is the art
of using the available forces or materials of nature to prevent diseases and to
restore and preserve health.
In traditional understanding, medicine is closely associated with religion. This is
because medicine comes directly from God and it operates through divinities and
spirits.
3. The aspect of Witchcraft (uchawi)-is the application of bad magic mainly to
harm people.
Male or female practice it mainly at night.
Males are referred to as wizards while females are witches.
Africans believe that witches are people with an inherent power by means of which
they can do anything, especially negative things in the world. It is however
believed that some of the witches may have acquired the powers for the purpose of
helping their children, but it is held by and large that their powers are used for evil
and anti –social purposes and that their main task is that of pestering people's life.
Africans believe that witches are mostly women though some men are found in
their rank and file who hold some important office. It is further held that some
people are born with the powers of witchcraft while others acquired it. Also, it can
be passed on to people by means of sharing food that is given by a member who
wants to initiate the person.
It is usually thought that a person may possess the power without realizing it.
However, whether they are aware of it or not, they can use the powers and this is
why in Africa the concept of witchcraft is mystifying, appalling and sinister.
Witches operate mainly at night. They meet in the guilds and they meet spiritually.
The meetings are mainly the activities of the souls. This is why it is believed in
Africa that witches leave their physical bodies at home asleep in their houses while
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their souls have went off to their meeting. To be able to do this, it is believed that
they can take the form of a cat (especially black), an owl or bat. It is also believed
that if this animal or bird whose form is taken is killed during the process, the
witch using the body automatically dies.
It is also believed that at meetings members must supply a human victim,
presumably somebody close to them and in whose well being they have deep
interest. It is also believed that witches have powers to spoil medicines and render
magic useless because they know the plants, roots, herbs and barks the magician
and the medicine-men use. As a result of this, some medicine-men collaborate with
witches so that they can work successfully. They are thought to be so potent that
they can be the cause of misfortune and illness. People hold them responsible for
accidents, sudden deaths, poverty, barrenness and a host of human miseries.
4. The aspect of Sorcery – Sorcerers are witches and therefore women. They
operate at day times. They use poison in their magic.
Both sorcerers and witches are believes to disguise themselves into animals.
They are perceived to be evil and enemies of the community.
Sorcery is the application of bad magic on people or object. It is generally held in
Africa that sorcery can be used to harm people, destroy life or property and disrupt
the well-being of an individual and to change a happy destiny to an unhappy one.
Generally speaking, sorcery stands for anti-social employment of physical powers.
Thus, a person who uses bad magic is called a sorcerer and they are usually feared
by all because of their mischievousness.
It is believed that sorcerers are capable of employing all sorts of ways to attack
other people and their belongings. They can send flies, snakes, lions or any other
animal to attack their target. They can even spit on the ground and command their
spittle to go and harm another person or even go to the extent of invoking evil
spirits to attack or possess their victims.
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They have been said to have called upon lightning to attack their victims; they
have also been said to cause elephantiasis of the legs and others have used direct
poisoning on their victims. It is also possible for them to attack their enemies
through invocation and incantation. In doing this, they usually employ sympathetic
or contagious magic. For example, they can prepare an effigy (image) and invoke
the spirit of their target into the effigy. After this, they can harm the person through
whatever is done to the image into which the person's spirit has been invoked.
For the purpose of preventing themselves from being harmed by sorcerers, the use
of charms, amulets and various type of medicines, either taken directly (orally) or
through incisions is prevalent.
NB: Magic, sorcery and witchcraft are negative use of the mystical power in the
universe.

ASSIGNMENT
a. Discuss the African belief in witches and sorcerers.
5. The aspect of Protective powers
Due to misuse of power through magic, Africans feel vulnerable to magical
practices. This makes them need to protect themselves from disorder that may be
caused by the practice of witchcraft and sorcery.
The use of protective charms is to counteract evil in the society.
Charms – Object used for protection from magical powers.

The uses of charms vary from one place to the next.

The aim is to have protection from danger.
Charms are gotten from herbs animal skins and metals.
They can either be worn or just put in specific places in ones environment wearing
of charm from of magic to the wearer and the one when administers it.
The magician instructs clients on how to use the charm e.g. revere to part from it.

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Examples of Charms in Gikuyu Community

 Hate or despising
 Love
 Defensive
 Destructive magic/witchcraft
 Healing
 Enticing and attracting
 Silencing and surprising
 Fertility human and agricultural.
NB: It is only the wearer who knows the usefulness of the charm otherwise it is
meaningless to any other person. The ritual process makes the charms relevant.

CHAPTER EIGHT

SPECIALISTS IN AFRICAN RELIGION AND CULTURE

These are special people in African communities.

Being an African specialist in the society is based on the application of mana and
these people hold special vital power than others.
Specialists must be trained otherwise misuse of mana can harm the people.
Specialists must be of good character.
Categories of African Specialists and their Functions/Role

1. Healers/Herbalist/ Medicine men

They are concerned with diseases, sickness and misfortunes.
They find out the cause of problem that may be particularly spiritual/physical.
They use word and medicine, rituals and at times require the sick to offer a
sacrifice.

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NB: Diseases and misfortune are religious experience which requires a religious or
psychological approach to deal with.

Healers play the role of cleansers.

They offer curative remedies for people attacked by evil spirits and curses.
They are friends of the society.
Medicine – is used to increase productivity and fertility e.g. in cases of barrenness
and impotence.

Men and women consult specialists for religious and physical healing.
They are also consulted to guarantee success and maintain peace and harmony at
both individual and community levels.
Such cases are success in business, elections and exams.
Medicine-men abound in the African society and they are called by various names
depending on the language of the community. They are also referred to as
herbalists and traditional doctors. More often than not, the male sex is
predominantly found in this profession but there have been women also that have
featured as herbalists.
One fundamental belief in Africa concerning the functions of the medicine-men is
that all diseases and misfortune and even accidents are caused mysteriously either
through the agency of witches, sorcerers and the effect of evil words. As a result,
they are to be treated religiously.
The African medicine-man does not see his art and profession as exclusive of
religion as is the practice in the West now. Thus, going side-by-side with the use of
roots and herbs is the invocation of religious and mysterious powers. It is in line
with this prevalent belief that there must always be at least one accessible and
effective medicine-man in every African community.

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There is no fixed rule governing the call of the medicine-man. The call may come
when he is young and unmarried or in the middle or later stage of life. It is not also
out of place to see the medicine-man passing on his powers and knowledge to his
children, be they male or female. There are also some that are specifically chosen
in mysterious circumstances to become medicine-men. Finally there are those who
only feel interested and walk into the field to seek knowledge and are thus initiated.
Whichever the means through which they become medicine-men, they are
expected to be trustworthy, upright, moral, friendly, willing and ready to serve.
They are not expected to charge exorbitantly but remain affordable to the poor.
Before any medicine-man can perform as a professional, he would have undergone
training through apprenticeship from older medicine-men. It is during this
apprenticeship period that they are taught the medicinal value, quality and use of
various herbs, leaves, roots, fruits, barks and grasses. They are also exposed to the
values of other objects like minerals, dead insects, bones, feathers, powders,
animal excreta and shells among others. They are also taught the causes, cure and
prevention of diseases and other forms of sufferings like barrenness, failures in
undertakings, poor farm yield and other forms of misfortune.
They are also taught how to combat witches and sorcerers and the way they can
turn the spirit world into advantageous use in the battle against evil. When the
training is over, they are formally and publicly initiated into the guild of
professional medicine-men. It is after this ceremony that they are recognized as
medicine-men.
Roles of Medicine men
i. Medicine-men are expected to combat witchcraft and other forms of social evil.
This they do by frustrating their efforts at afflicting people with diseases and at
times entering into open confrontation with them.

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ii. They are expected to be able to unravel the cause of diseases and misfortunes.
They are expected to find out who is behind the sickness if it is not caused
naturally.
iii. They are expected to diagnose and apply the right treatment of the ailment and
apply a means that will prevent the ailment from recurring.
iv. They are expected to function as diviners. It has to be stated however that not
all medicine-men are diviners but it is expedient for them to be in order to
function properly and as expected by the society. By virtue of their profession
they are expected to have access to the forces of nature and other forms of
knowledge unknown or little known by the public.
v. Medicine-men function as aids-giver in that they work to ensure the success of
people in their various endeavors. They can provide needed medicine for
increased farm productivity, treat impotence and various illness as well as
barrenness and pre-natal and ante-natal care. They work to ensure the all round
success of humanity.
It has to be mentioned that as it exists in all other profession even to date, there are
times that some unscrupulous elements within the medicine-men that uses their
knowledge to the disadvantage of others.
Usually this is the general knowledge that exists about medicine-men today. But it
is professionally unethical for medicine-men to behave this way.
Differences between Priests and Medicine Men

i. The priest is more functional in the various social gatherings of the society
than the medicine-man.
ii. The priest lives within the society at a place in time while the medicine-man
more often than not is itinerant.
iii. The priest has an established shrine while the medicine-men have none.

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iv. The medicine-man carries both the knowledge and power of spiritual and
chemical substances while the priest may be limited to spiritual powers
alone.
v.The priesthood is an institution while the medicine-art is a profession.
vi. The medicine-man operates empirically using substances that can be seen
accompanied with words, but the priests operate dogmatically. He is more of
a teacher of doctrines.
2. Rainmakers
They make rain when it is needed and stop it if it is too much.
They study the sky and signs of weather very carefully
They are likened to diviners ( foretell future)
They conduct rituals and sacrifices to persuade God to give rain
They often use rain stone, burning rain leavers or water sprinkling in their rituals.
This is seen as form of magic where imitative methods are used.
3. Political leaders
These comprise of kings, queens and other political rules.
They are perceived to have more power and hence must be respected.
Several taboos revolve around them for they are consecrated to their offices.
They are divine symbols of authority in the society.
They are referred to as God’s divine and are considered Holy.
People must always speak well of them and give them due respect.
Their subjects should not come near them or copy their life styles e.g. cloths.
Their authority is believed to come from God.
In most communities they have the power of the life and death over their people.
Several taboos are associated with them. The murder of a king e.g. is seen as a
great disaster for the kingdom and often kept secret until a new ruler is chosen.

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NB: Although kings, queens and other rulers are revered in Africa, they are
supposed to mind the welfare of their people.

They lead people in times of crises

They avert danger and disaster.
They are also spiritual heads of their communities.
They must be people of high integrity.
They deal with both political and spiritual affairs of their communities.
They are highly respected by their subjected almost sat the point of adoration.
4. Prophets
This is a rare category in the community
Where present, they acted as mediators between people and God.
 They mediated God’s blessings to the people especially at planting,
harvesting initiation etc.
They have great spiritual authority.
They play the role of diviners in sense that they foretell the future.
Their office is hereditary and the successors are trained from birth.
The symbols of the office are in most cases a judgments seat, a black bull skin,
cloak staff and the gourd of honey (examples from Meru –Kenya)
NB: Prophets act as religious symbols of God’s presence among the people.

They have unique character and qualities e.g. they have to be born pure (no
deformities) never murder, good character and happily married.
They must obey all the customs
They should never do anything harmful to people.
They serve as judges for they can pronounce curses or blessings.
5. Mediums.

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These are specialists who act as a link between human beings and the dead or the
spirits.
Their work is done through spirit possession. The specific spirit of a dead person
gets into a living person (medium) and communicates its wish to the living.
In most cases, communication involves warnings of some misdeed that the living
has violated.
The beating of drums or singing of music, clapping of hands in rhythmic manner
induces the medium into a state of possession.
6. Diviners
They work closely with mediums by the practice of divination.
They use special stones nuts, gourds, shells and palm reading.
Their job is to see into things using their divine knowledge and ability which other
people do not have.
Specifically they look for wrong doers, lost articles or discover causes of illness.
They are consulted as comforters, advisors and judges in all sorts of problems and
crises.
Diviners are concerned with the art of divination. Divination is the art of
attempting to foretell the future or reveal the mind of the divinities or spirits and
revealing of the unknown.
The diviner more often than not can be a priest or a medicine-man; but it is
possible for a medicine-man or a priest not to be a diviner. This is why it is
necessary to treat the diviner as a separate religious leader in African Traditional
Religion.
In the African society, divination is the means through which various problems
facing both the society and individuals are solved. It is thus a key provision in
African religion and a widespread practice from community to community.

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Diviners are also contacted when articles are stolen and needed to be found; when
spouses are to be chosen and when the society wishes to embark on war among
others.
Some methods of divination include:
 Use of stones
 Sands
 Shaking of gourds
 Palm reading
Divination can also be done through forming or seeing images in pots of water,
listening and interpreting sounds.
Though it is sometimes hereditary, the choice and training of diviners depends on
the will of the person. As a rule, any male or female who is interested can enlist for
training to become a diviner. Anybody of any sex or age can enlist to be trained by
going to an older diviner as an apprentice. During the period of apprenticeship, the
trainee learns the name, signs and symbols of divination figures, the proverbs and
stories connected with these figures and the practice and the rites of the cult of
divination.
To mark the end of the training, there is usually a ceremony to which all other
diviners are invited. It is after this that the graduate can begin to practice.
Like medicine-men, the main function of the diviner is to act as an intermediary
between humanity and the supernatural world. In most cases, the diviners act on
the initiative of their clients and not of theirs.
They also seek out hidden knowledge and pass them on to the people that need the
knowledge.
Furthermore, they interpret the mysteries of life and convey the messages of the
divinities and the Deity to the people. They are also involved in the settlement of

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disputes and act as seers by uncovering the past and the future so that people can
live meaningful lives.
7. Priests
A priest is one who is especially consecrated to the service of a divinity and
through whom worship, prayer, sacrifice or other service is offered to the object of
worship and pardon, blessing or deliverance is obtained by the worshiper. In
earliest history, the functions of priest were discharged by the head of the family;
later the office became a public one and the office of the priest became a celebrated
central office. As a result of the diversity of language, each locality has a different
name for the priest.
The office of the priest in African Traditional Religion is actually gender free.
Both men and women can hold the office of the priest. Priests may have been set
apart from birth or called to the service of priesthood after some time in life.
There are two types of priests in Africa

a) The lay priests –These are the heads of families both male and female who are
to exercise the functions of the priest for the family. They officiate at the
domestic or the ancestral shrines. By virtue of this office, they approach the
ancestors on behalf of their houses or family clans. They are the natural link
between the living and the invisible ancestors. Priesthood in this category is not
hereditary but is based on age as the most senior member of the family clan
automatically takes the position.
b) The professional priests-These are concerned with the main divinity cults in
Africa. Priests in this category are usually set aside from birth or called to the
task. Apart from these, there are priests who have inherited the position from
their parents. In this case the priest to be would have been understudying the

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parent priest in order to learn all the secrets of the cult and at the death of the
priest step into the shoes as the next priest.

There are communities in Africa where the king is regarded as the deputy of God
on earth. In this case, he has the divine right to undertake certain priestly functions.
He thus may lead in rituals and ceremonies that involve the whole community.
In most cases where the priesthood is non-hereditary, certain signs are noted from
the priest-elect as an indication that a particular divinity has chosen that person as a
priest. The signs are usually varied and would certainly include strange behaviors
from the person. For example, a priest-to-be can disappear only to reappear on the
seventh day. In most cases, there would be no coherent explanation about his
whereabouts within those days. When this happens, a diviner is usually consulted
to ascertain the truth of the situation.
Immediately it is confirmed that the person has been chosen by the divinity as a
priest, the installation ceremony would be carried out. Training of priests in Africa
is done through apprenticeship which may last for as long as seven years. The
priest-elect is usually affiliated to an older priest when he is young for proper
training. While in training, the priest-elect undertakes series of training in occult
knowledge as well as proper performance of public rituals. The priest-designate is
also during training subjected to strict observance of the taboos of the divinity and
of the community; chastity and asceticism becomes the order of the day while there
is abstention from certain types of food. Dresses that are used during this period
are usually white.
The primary duty of the priest in the African community is that of a mediator. The
priest is expected to be in touch with both the divinities and man. The priest is one
that is able to hear and speak on behalf of both the deity and man and knows the
two intimately.

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It is the duty of the priest to offer sacrifices on behalf of human beings and also
turn to bless them in the name of the divinity.
The priest also intercedes with the divinity on behalf of humanity. The common
belief in Africa is that any form of misfortune and pestilence is an expression of
the displeasure of the divinities and the continuation of this is an indication of the
ineffectiveness of the priest's mediation between them and the divinities.
It is also the priest's duty to offer up sacrifices, makes prayers and present offerings
at the same time. The priest leads the worship during the annual festivals of the
divinity. As a custodian of religion and guardian of religious treasures and
knowledge, the priest looks after the emblems and symbols of the divinity and sees
to it that they are properly kept in the prescribed condition.
It is also expected of the priest to uphold custom and traditional practices related to
the divinity. Since the priest is the one in possession of the taboos surrounding the
cult of the divinity, it falls on the priest to ensure that these taboos are not just
observed but that they are also properly and correctly transmitted.
It is also expected of the priest to function as a diviner some of the time. It has to
be noted that the divinity responsible for the cult of divination is different, when
the issues borders on a particular divinity, then the priest may be looked upon to
explain the mysteries surrounding the divinity he stands for as a priest. At times
also, the priest may have to function as an herbalist or medicine-man.
Apart from this, the traditional religion priest is an important figure in the society.
Most of the time, the priest is expected to be present at the cabinet meeting because
membership of the community council is automatic. They are sought for as
advisors on issues bordering on people's life vis-à-vis the society. They also settle
conflicts and enforce morality in the community.

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The priest also features prominently during the installation of a new king for the
community. The priest is also expected to officiate and perform the necessary
rituals at the death of the king.
They are sacred persons who mediate between humans and spirits or humans and
God.
They offer sacrifices and prayers
At times their functions overlap with the medicine men.
They are well trained. The training involves learning of the many prayers and
sacrifices in African religion.
Some received special calling while others inherit the job.
NB: They have to observe special taboos regarding food, sex, mixing with people
or wearing certain kinds of clothes when carrying out their priestly functions.

They act as religious symbol of God’s presence among them people.

Assignment

a. Discuss the role of the priest and the medicine-men in African Religions.

CHAPTER NINE

AFRICAN ETHICS, EVIL, JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENT

The Origin of Evil in Africa

Africans mythology does not describe the origin of evil. It is recognized that good
and evil exist in the world and that God is good e.g. the Baluhyia believe that the
East symbolized all that is good and the west all that is evil. Bukusu clam that evil
is produced by an evil divinity that is independent of God but comes from spirits.

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According to the Ashanti of Ghana, God created a possibility of evil but did not
create people in order to be evil.
NB: In African religion, human beings are responsible for the evil which they
commit.

African Ethics

Africans moral standard is based on good character.

African Ethics involves:
 Chastity before marriage
 Faithfulness in marriage
 Hospitality
 Usefulness
 Kindness
 Truthfulness
 Keeping promises
 Showing respect for the elderly
 It is also man’s duty to protect women.
According to Africans, God judges hypocrisy, stealing and lies.
Morality is guarded by various taboos in the society.
Morality is anthropocentric. It is the tradition of human society, which determines
what is evil rather that God.
Evil is judged by its effects upon society.
NB: The greatest evil lies in the consequences of an act rather that in quality or
nature of the act itself.

If the act cause shame to the family or clan it is more serious than if no shame
results.

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The idea of evil is often relative to its effects on the society or the shame that it
causes.
Morality is relative

Under certain conditions evil is not considered objectively evil.

There is no idea of objective moral standard which applies to all classes of people
as in the case of Ten Commandments in the bible.
A deed is judged by virtue of who does it to when and from what level of status.
NB: Something is evil because it is punished. It is not punished because it is evil

Sin affects society and upsets its rhythm.

Punishment is based on nature and types of a deed as well as the motives of the
offender.
Some deeds may be more evil than others depending on the instability they cause
to the society e.g. rape of a child appears more shameful and offensive than
robbery especially if no murder is committed in the labour.
There are no common rules that govern morality in Africa.
Evil is judged by its effects on the society.

Ideas of Punishment Held by Different Peoples of Africa

a. Punishment is way of dealing with evil in the world.

b. Africans have the ability to choose to be moral.
c. The inability to make wise decisions on moral values is liable to punishment.
d. People could be punished for offences they are not even aware of since God’s
morality is mysterious.

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e. Africans have to worship and make sacrifices to appease God in order to avoid
his wrath.
f. Something is evil because it is punished. It is not punished because it is evil.
g. Evil is only present where there is punishment.
h. Misfortune is not always considered punishment often it is thought to come
from a spirit or from one person using witchcraft to bring misfortune.
i. Misfortune is not always blamed on the sufferer.
Forms of Punishment in African Society/ Types of Punishment

1. Capital punishment – Hanging, beheading stoning drowning, burying alive

and killing by identical means used by the murderer was allowed.
Death is common mode of punishment for the most serious crimes such as murder
some Africans roasted, burnt, tortured and amputated criminals of troublemaking
witchcraft and treason.
Some crimes like murder and witchcraft were considered much more serious than
others and often attracted death penalty.
2. Banishment – Compelling criminal to leave a country for a specified period of
time or for life. It is also sending to exile or deportation.
Crimes like murder and witchcraft attracted this.
It was regarded equivalent to death penalty. This is because it would lead to attack
by animal or capture by slave dealers.
Banishment may be temporary or permanent.
3. Fines – Imposing fines. These were paid to chiefs. This is because all people
were believed to belong to chiefs; chiefs gave a share of fines to family of the
offended party.
Fines were paid in goods, each offence having its own regulation price as a
punishment.

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Only murder was not qualifying for fines. One had to pay with his life.
4. Corporal punishment – e.g. in Kenya’s Bantu, it was administered in public.
Town people were called to witness so as to warn them not to commit similar
offences.
Corporal punishment involves flogging, whipping, tying, yoking, banishment and
castration.
5. Restorative penalties – This is ensuring that the crime victim is returned to the
position as nearly as possible which he was before the crime committed.
6. Compensation and restitution – Here, the focus is on the victim in trying to
compensate them. This help restore broken links and victim is considered
paramount. This applies in crimes of robbery, violence, rape and murder. It
involves return of movable property stolen or dishonestly acquired.

CHAPTER TEN

SOCIAL CHANGE IN AFRICA

Some scholars argue that changes which have so far occurred in Africa have not
caused any radical differences in the social fabric.

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Others note that Africa for better or for worse has been caught up in the general
world – wide revolution.
This is noticeable in the fields of medicine urbanization and administration as areas
in which our traditional society has been disrupted.
NB: Changes may have occurred in daily life and technology as well as in values.

These may have changed individuals live but not the whole fabric of society.

Causes of Social Change in Africa/ Factors that have led to Social Change

1. Education- Informal education has been replaced with contemporary system,

which is formal. Education curriculum, boarding schools and teachers have
contradicting values with indigenous educations. Education has also created a
new social structure of un-educated to drop-outs in education. The hierarchy
goes on from primary to university. Leadership or government management is
based on merit and ability, whereby the intelligent and well educated become
leader replacing the tribal system.
2. Science and technology e.g. phones, electricity, radio, bridges. Modern
medicine and farming can be done without mystical power. Today, people use
drugs and fertilizers. Africans have realized that culture is dynamic. They
expect things to be different since modern technology is changing traditional
African ideas.
3. Introduction of Money economy- The money economy has speeded up the
change because: it has commercialized agriculture, time, labor, movement,
business and land among others. It has also created category of rich and poor.
The gap widens every day, it has led to introduction of vices e.g. robbery with
violence, prostitution, bribery and corruption, child labour, slavery and

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oppression of the poor. Traditionally riches were a sign of God’s blessing.

Today people are less convinced by this belief.
4. Urbanization - Growth of big cities has influenced the changes in Africa power
and facilities have concentrated from their tribal backgrounds to temporary and
individualistic life of town.
5. Social mobility- Traditional life was small scale. People lived in communities
of family clan or tribe where they knew each other. Today governments are
straining to maintain national unity.
6. Westernization-This has been caused by influence from the Western culture
that got into African societies.
NB: The change has effects in the society because it has created unemployment
and drop outs in the communities.

Change occurs in two ways

1. Structural change- refers to the basic units of society (Nuclear family,

extended clan e.t.c). The basic structural units of society still exist in Africa
although some of the details like gender roles have changed.
2. Organizational change – This is a group change that involves organization of
society.
This affects the pollution and society systems, methods of democracy and marriage
systems.
Religious and Cultural Change

In the last century, foreign religious have penetrated in Africa.

Their teachings have affected certain care aspects of religious life, that most
Africans have been left at the cross roads.

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However, irrespective of these new faiths we still find some specific elements of
African religion that have resisted change.
The aspect of religion has not been spared by the revolution of change that has
been taking place in Africa.
With coming of Arabs and missionaries to Africa, two new religious were
introduced:
1. Islam
2. Christianity
These religious spread at the expense of African believes and practices which were
highly condemned by the foreigners, in particular Christian missionaries.
They did not only condemned Africans religion but aspects of culture when they
demand demonic.
Africans started fighting their own cultures in the name of being converted.
This has left most African confused and hanging in the balance.
NB: God does not want us to be aliens to our culture but only aliens to sin.

Once converted an individual goes through rejection of his/her culture later on

started accommodating it and finally engages in re-establishment of an identity.
If one rejects his culture wholly be becomes fanatic cover-religious) if he accepts
his own cultural coding fully he becomes worldly (not recognizing the presence of
sacred)
Worldliness leads to secularism (believe in material things as opposed to sacred)
which has flourished in Africa.
Secular people reject religion co2 has rejected then secular needs.
To them religion is socially irrelevant.
It does not meet their social needs

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Religion in Africa has to show that it can meet both the spiritual and the secular
needs.
NB: A person should strive for a more balanced identity, understand a new religion
and its relationship to his/her culture and affirm or reject all that is wrong.

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CHAPTER ELEVEN

OBSTACLES FACING THE STUDY OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL

RELIGION
1. The Dark Continent Syndrome
The first problem that researchers have faced is the geography of the continent that
has made it very difficult to move around the continent and gather necessary
information.
This made Africa highly inaccessible at the beginning and thus earned the
sobriquet (nickname) "the Dark Continent". By this it was meant that Africa was a
continent that much is not known about.
Despite the acknowledgement of this fact, many foreign writers still go ahead and
publish incorrect information about the African religion. It is unfortunate that to
date such information still makes rounds not only among foreigners but also
among Africans. In other words, because of the fact that the early writers and even
some now do not have adequate knowledge of the people and the religion of Africa,
most of what had been written is mostly or partially untrue or exaggerated or
distorted for various reasons.
2. The Large Size of the Continent
With the great size, the tendency to generalize among the early scholars results in
fallacy (false). For example, it might be very difficult to have a general African
view of God because there are some African societies that conceive God in
feminine terms and there are some that thinks of God in masculine terms.
3. Direct and Indirect Colonial Indoctrination
From the colonial days there has been a lot of indoctrination of the African mind
against their culture and their religion. Even today in the post colonial era, the
indoctrination still goes on and it is not uncommon to hear Africans referring to

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their culture as demonic and evil. As a result, most Africans are not even interested
in studying the religion and those who do are looked down upon. This bias also
affects the research work of the scholars most of whom today have become
Christians or Muslims. The lack of interest in African religion and culture has led
to the gradual extinction of the religion and all it stands for.
4. Death
The next obstacle following indoctrination and which is much more devastating is
the death of the faithful adherents of these religions.
While indoctrination keeps away the youths and the crème of the society away
from traditional religion death started to take away those who would have passed
down the religion to them intact and undiluted.
Unfortunately, as the generation of these adherents die one after the other, so does
the tradition become remembered in fewer details.
Naturally dislocations, distortions and gaps begin to occur in the body of
knowledge of these religions. It is significantly unfortunate because African
religions are highly oral and depends on oral transmission. As a result, where the
priest has died, some religious values, items and knowledge may be lost.
5. Secrecy
Usually, the practices and information about most aspects of religion are guarded
secretly. These secrets are revealed only to the initiates. Those who also have this
secret information on these religions are also under oath not to reveal the secrets to
any non-initiate. This secrecy makes it difficult for the non-initiates to have a true
understanding of these religions.
6. Multiplicity of Languages
African is vast with many countries, languages, ethnics and complex dialects. This
may make it difficult for the researcher to carry out any successfully research in all
parts of nation.
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The multiplicity of languages in Africa is also a major hindrance to the study of

religion.
The number of languages in Africa: "the number of distinctive languages spoken in
Africa is open to debate. Some experts put the number at around 2,000, while
others count more than 3,000.
7. Influence of other Religions
The influence of other religions, especially, Christianity and Islam on African
religion cannot be overemphasized. As generation after generation of Africans
come under the influence of foreign religions or embrace the foreign religions, one
or two things happen: they either cut away completely from the old faith (which
may lead to total neglect of the old faith until it gradually disintegrates) or practice
the two religions and come out being syncretistic.
8. The Influence of Western Education and Culture
Western education has most of the time taken the people out of their native homes
and exposed them to foreign education and culture. Consequently, they lost touch
with their homeland and culture and this leads to losing touch with their religion.
There are times when people like this return home and are made rulers or chief yet
they lack a proper understanding of the traditional religion and this has come to
pose serious problem to the existence and the study of African religions. There are
multi-various names of God in Africa. This may make it difficult for a scholar to
fully understand the concept of God among these different peoples.
Exercise

a. Discuss the factors that are militating against the study of African Traditional
Religion.

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Meaning of Terms

Proverbs – Saying in a community that carries hidden wisdom.

Taboos – Ritualistic prohibitions in a society

Sacrifices – animal offerings directed to God

The Importance of African Religion to Contemporary Scholars

1. African religion, with its rich and diverse traditions, holds immense value in
understanding the cultural, social, and spiritual fabric of the continent.
2. African religious practices shape the identities of African communities, both
historically and in the present day.
3. Researchers gain insights into the complexities of African societies, their belief
systems, rituals, and the interconnectedness between religion and various
aspects of life. This knowledge helps to challenge the long-held stereotypes and
misconceptions about Africa and its people.
4. Studying African religion allows for a deeper understanding of the impact of
colonization and globalization on indigenous practices, and the ways in which
African communities have adapted and maintained their religious traditions in
the face of external pressures.
5. The study of African religion contributes to a more comprehensive
understanding of the continent's history, culture, and people.
6. By studying African religion, scholars and researchers gain insights into the
diverse belief systems and spiritual practices that have shaped African societies.
This knowledge sheds light on the complex interactions between religion and
politics, economics, and social structures, and highlights the resilience and
richness of African cultures.

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7. Understanding African religion can foster intercultural dialogue and

appreciation, promoting a more inclusive and tolerant global society.
8. The study of African religion is crucial for challenging stereotypes, preserving
cultural heritage, and fostering a deeper understanding of the continent's past
and present. By examining African religion, we can challenge the stereotypes
that have often been associated with Africa, such as the notion that it is a
primitive or backward continent.
9. Studying African religion allows preservation and protection of the rich cultural
heritage of the continent, ensuring that future generations can appreciate and
learn from these traditions.

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