2S-MAT04: Plane Geometry

UNIT I. Points, Lines, and Planes

1.1 The undefined terms
1.2 Segments, Rays, and Angles (Subsets of a Line)
1.3 Perpendicular Lines and Parallel Lines
1.4 Basic Constructions

UNIT II. Reasoning and Proof

2.1 Deductive Reasoning
2.2 Conditional Statements
2.3 Two-Column Proof
2.3.1 Proving Theorems on segments and angles
2.3.2 Proving Theorems on Parallel Lines and Perpendicular Lines

UNIT III. Triangles

3.1 Basic Terms
3.2 Congruent Triangles
3.3 Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles
3.4 Inequalities in Triangles
3.4.1 Inequalities in one triangle
3.4.2 Hinge Theorem and Its Converse
3.5 Basic Constructions
UNIT I. Points, Lines, and Planes

GEOMETRY
- is based on a deductive structure. It is also a system of thought in which conclusions are justified by means of
previously assumed or proved statements.

ELEMENTS OF A DEDUCTIVE STRUCTURE

 Undefined Terms
 Postulates
 Definitions
 Theorems and other conclusions

“Undefined Terms”
- geometric terms that are described but not defined.
- words that we simply understand.

1. POINT. It is a geometric figure represented by a dot, has location but not size.

Note: A point has no dimension. It is usually named with a capital letter. (e.g. ·A, ·B, ·C)

2. LINE. It is an infinite set of points. It is straight and it continuous forever in both directions. A line has no thickness,
but it has infinite length.

Note: A line is a set of points. It is straight, and it continuous forever in both directions. A line has no
thickness, but it has infinite length.

3. PLANE. A two-dimensional geometric figure. It has infinite length and infinite width but no thickness.

A PLANE is a surface such that if any two points on the surface are connected by a line, all points of the line are also
on the surface.

A POSTULATE is a statement which is accepted as true without proof.

Which of the following statements do you accept to be true without proof?
1. God is good.
2. Osama Binladen is dead.
3. Year 2024 is the end of the world.

A THEOREM is a statement that is proven using: undefined terms, defined terms, postulates or other proven
theorems.

A DEFINITION states the meaning of a term or idea.

 Definitions are reversible.

 Theorems and postulates are not always reversible.

DEFINITIONS. Collinear Points is a set of points is collinear if and only if they lie on the same line.

DEFINITIONS. Coplanar Points are points that lie on the same plane.

DEFINITIONS. Intersection is the set of all points common to two or more geometric figures.

Example: If points are collinear then they lie on the same line.
If points lie on the same line then they are collinear.

SOME POSTULATES AND THEOREMS

 Two Point Postulate. Through any two points, there exists exactly one line.
 Line Point Postulate. A line contains at least two points.

 Line Intersection Postulate. If two lines intersect, then their intersection is exactly one point.

 Three Point Postulate. Through any three noncollinear points, there exists exactly one plane.
 Plane-Point Postulate. A plane contains at least three noncollinear points.

 Plane Line Postulate. If two points lie in a plane, then the line containing them lies in the plane.
  Plane Intersection Postulate. If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

 Ruler Postulate. The points on a line can be matched one to one with the real numbers. The real number
that corresponds to a point is the coordinate of the point.

SUBSETS OF A LINE
1. Line Segment. It is a part of a line consisting of two endpoints and all the points between these points.
2. Ray. It is a part of a line that has one endpoint and extends infinitely in one direction.

 Segment Addition Postulate (SAP)

If B is between A and C, then AB + BC = AC.
If AB + BC = AC, then B is between A and C.

DEFINITION. The length or measure of a segment is the distance between the two endpoints.

DEFINITION. Two segments are congruent if and only if they have equal measures.

DEFINITION. A point of a segment is its midpoint if and only if it divides the segment into two congruent parts.

DEFINITION. Any line, segment, ray, or plane that intersects a segment at its midpoint is called a bisector of the
segment.

Theorem. Every segment has exactly one midpoint.

 Angles and Angle Pairs
DEFINITION. An ANGLE is the union of two noncollinear rays with a common endpoint called vertex.

 Postulate. Given any angle, there is a unique real number between 0 and 180 known as its degree measure.
 Protractor Postulate. The measure of an angle is a unique positive number.

TYPES OF ANGLES
DEFINITION. ACUTE ANGLE. An angle whose measure is between 0° and 90°.
DEFINITION. RIGHT ANGLE. An angle whose measure is exactly 90°.
DEFINITION. OBTUSE ANGLE. An angle whose measure is between 90° and 180°.

DEFINITION. Two angles are congruent if and only if they have equal measures.

Theorem. All right angles are congruent.

DEFINITION. Angle bisector is a ray that divides an angle into two congruent angles .The dividing ray is called
bisector of the angle.

Theorem. Angle Bisector Theorem. 𝑳𝑴 is the angle bisector of ∠NLP if and only if M is in the interior of
∠NLP and ∠NLM ≅ ∠MLP .

TYPES OF ANGLE PAIRS

ADJACENT ANGLES. Two angles are adjacent if they have a common vertex and a common side between
them.

COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES. Two angles are complementary angles if and only if the sum of their measures is 90.
SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLES. Two angles are supplementary angles if and only if the sum of their measures is 180.

VERTICAL ANGLES. Two angles are vertical angles if and only if they are two nonadjacent angles formed by two
intersecting lines.

Theorem. It two angles are vertical, then they are congruent.

LINEAR PAIR. Two angles form a linear pair if and only if the angles are adjacent and the non-common side form
opposite rays.

 Linear Pair Postulate. If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary angles.

Perpendicular Lines and Parallel Lines

DEFINITION. Lines, ray, or segments are PERPENDICULAR if and only if they intersect to form a right angle.

 Postulate: There is exactly one line perpendicular to a given line passing through a given point on the line.

DEFINITION. A line that both bisects and is perpendicular to a given line segment is called a perpendicular
bisector of the segment.

 Postulate. Each given line segment has exactly one perpendicular bisector.
DEFINITION. Two coplanar lines that do not intersect are called parallel lines.

 Parallel Postulate: Through a point not on a line, exactly one line is parallel to the given line.

DEFINITION. A line is a transversal if and only if it intersects two or more coplanar lines at different points.

 Angle Addition Postulate. If M is in the interior of ∠NLP, then the measure of ∠NLP is equal to the sum of
the measures of ∠NLM and ∠MLP.
 Unit 2: Reasoning and Proofs
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- a reasoning that use facts, definitions, accepted properties, and the laws of logic to form a logical argument.
- forming conclusions from facts.

Conditional Statement - is a statement that can be written in if-then form.

Statements Associated to a Conditional - If p, then q.

CONVERSE: If q, then p.
INVERSE: If ~ p, then ~ q.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: If ~ q, then ~ p.

If a line is perpendicular to a segment, then it forms a right angle.

CONVERSE: If q, then p.

If a line forms a right angle to a segment, then it a perpendicular.

If a line is perpendicular to a segment, then it forms a right angle.

INVERSE: If ~ p, then ~ q.

If a line is not perpendicular to a segment, then it does not form a right angle.

If a line is perpendicular to a segment, then it forms a right angle.

CONTRAPOSITIVE: If ~ q, then ~ p.

If a line does not form a right angle to a segment, then it is not a perpendicular.

WHAT IS A PROOF? It is a convincing argument that something is true.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF THE FORMAL PROOF OF A THEOREM

1. Statement: States the theorem to be proved.

2. Drawing: Represents the hypothesis of the theorem.
3. Given: Describes the Drawing according to the information found in the hypothesis of the theorem.
4. Prove: Describes the according to the claim made in the conclusion of the theorem.
5. Proof. Orders a list of claims (Statements) and Justifications (Reasons), beginning with the Given and ending
with the Prove; there must be a logical flow in this Proof.

PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY

Reflexive: A = A
Symmetric: If A = B then B = A.
Transitive: If A = B and B = C, then A = C.
Addition Property of Equality: If A = C, then A + B = C + B, where A, B, & C are real numbers.
Multiplication Property of Equality: If A = C, then A (B) = C(B), where A, B, & C are real numbers.

Theorem. Congruence of angles is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

∠𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≅ ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪.
If ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≅ ∠𝑫𝑭𝑬, then ∠𝑫𝑭𝑬 ≅ ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪.
Reflexive:

If ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≅ ∠𝑫𝑭𝑬 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∠𝑫𝑭𝑬 ≅ ∠𝑱𝑲𝑳, then ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≅ ∠𝑱𝑲𝑳.

Symmetric:
Transitive:

PROVING THEOREMS OF SEGMENTS AND ANGLES

If two segments are congruent, then their measures are equal.

If 𝑳𝑴 is the angle bisector of ∠NLP then ∠NLM ≅ ∠MLP.

All right angles are congruent.

It two angles are vertical, then they are congruent.

Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.

PROVING THEOREMS ON PERPENDICULAR LINES

 If two lines are perpendicular, then the pairs of adjacent angles they form are congruent.

DEFINITION. Corollary is a statement that follows from a proven statement.

Corollary 1 If two lines are perpendicular, then all four angles they form are congruent.
Corollary 2 If two lines are perpendicular, then all four angles they form are right angles.

PROVING THEOREMS ON PARALLEL LINES

If parallel lines have a transversal, then alternate exterior angles are congruent.
If parallel lines have a transversal, then alternate interior angles are congruent.
If parallel lines have a transversal, then interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.
If parallel lines have a transversal, then exterior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.

 Postulate. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the pairs of corresponding angels are congruent.
 UNIT 3: Triangles
DEFINITION. A TRIANGLE (symbol ∆) is the union of three segments determined by three noncollinear points.

CONCEPT MAPS are visual representations of information. (E.g. charts, graphic organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn
Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts.)
  TRIANGLE ANGLE SUM THEOREM. The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180°.

Corollary 1. Each angle of an equiangular triangle measures 60°.

Corollary 2. The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
Corollary 3. If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle, then the third angles
are also congruent.

DEFINITION. Exterior angle of a triangle. An angle that is formed by a side and an extension of the adjacent
side is an exterior angle of the triangle.

 Theorem. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of the measures of the two
nonadjacent interior angles of another triangle.

DEFINITION. Two triangles are congruent triangles if and only if all of their corresponding parts are congruent.

1. ∆ABC ≅ ∆ABC. (Reflexive Property of Congruence)

2. If ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF, then ∆DEF ≅ ∆ABC. (Symmetric Property of Congruence)

3. If ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF and ∆DEF ≅ ∆GHI, then ∆ABC ≅ ∆GHI. (Transitive Property of Congruence)

Methods of Proving (Showing) Triangles to be Congruent

If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of another triangle, the triangles
SSS are congruent.
If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts
SAS of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts
ASA of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
If two angles and the non-included side of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
AAS parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent (CPCTC)

DEFINITION (CPCTC). If two triangles are congruent, the six pairs of corresponding parts are congruent.

DEFINITION. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with (at least) two equal sides.

DEFINITION. An equilateral triangle is a special isosceles triangle in which all three sides are congruent.
• Equilateral triangles are also equiangular, which means all three angles are congruent.
• The measure of each angle is 60 degrees.

SPECIAL RULES
There are a few special rules you ought to remember when dealing with isosceles and/or equilateral triangles.

If a triangle is equilateral, it is equiangular.

If two angles of a triangle are congruent, they are the base angles of an isosceles triangle.
If a triangle is equiangular, it is equilateral.

LINES ASSOCIATED WITH TRIANGLES

A MEDIAN of a triangle is a segment whose endpoints are a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite sides.

CONCURRENT LINES
DEFINITION. Two or more lines are concurrent if they intersect in one and only one point.

 Theorem. The medians of a triangle are concurrent.

DEFINITION. Centroid is the point of (concurrency) intersection of the medians of a triangle.

  Theorem. The medians of a triangle meet at a point that is two thirds the distance from the vertex to the
midpoint of the opposite side.

DEFINITION. A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a line perpendicular to a side through the midpoint
of the side.

 Theorem. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.

DEFINITION. Circumcenter is the point of concurrency (intersection) of the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle.

DEFINITION. An altitude of a triangle is perpendicular segment drawn from a vertex to the line that contains the
opposite side.

DEFINITION. Orthocenter is the point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle.

DEFINITION. An angle bisector of a triangle is a segment that divides an angle of a triangle in to two congruent
parts.

DEFINITION. Incenter is the point of intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle.

Inequalities in Triangles
DEFINITION. a > b Let a and b be real numbers, a > b if there is a positive number p for which a = b + p.

Ex: 9 > 4 because there is a positive number 5 for which 9 = 4 + 5.

Properties of Inequalities where a, b, c, and d are real numbers

1. Trichotomy: If a > b then b < a

Ex: 30° > 20° so, 20° < 30°

2. Addition: If a > b and c > d, then a + c > b + d

Ex: m∠ A > m∠ C, so m∠ A + m∠ B > m∠ C + m∠ B

3. Transitive: If a > b and b > c, then a > c

Ex: m∠ A > m∠ C and m∠ C > m∠ B, so m∠ A > m∠ B

4. Multiplication: If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc

Ex: m∠ A > m∠ B and C = 2, so (2) m∠ A > (2) m∠ B

 Theorem: If one side of a triangle is longer than a second side, then the measure of the angle opposite the
longer side is greater than the measure of the angle opposite the shorter side.

 Theorem: The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side.

 HINGE THEOREM: If two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the
included angle of the first is larger than the included angle of the second, then the third side of the first is
longer than the third side of the second
 INDIRECT PROOF
GIVEN: P
PROVE: Q
STEPS:
1.Suppose that ¬Q is true.
2. Reason from the supposition until you reach a contradiction.
3. Note that the supposition claiming that ¬Q is true must be false and that Q must therefore be true.
Step 3 completes the proof.

 Theorem. (Converse of Hinge Theorem). If two sides of a triangle are equal in measure to two sides of
another triangle, and the third side of the first is greater than the third side of the second, then the measure
of the included angle of the first triangle is greater than the measure of the included angle of the second
triangle.

 Theorem : If one angle of a triangle is greater than a second angle, then the measure of the side opposite
the larger angle is longer than the measure of the side opposite the smaller angle.