Terrorism
Definition
Terrorism is the use of violence or threats to create fear, usually to achieve political,
religious, or ideological goals. It often targets civilians or non-combatants to make a statement or
force change.
In peace psychology, terrorism is typically defined as the use of violence or the threat of
violence against civilians or non-combatants to instill fear, coerce, or manipulate a political,
social, or ideological agenda. This definition emphasizes the psychological effects of terrorism,
particularly the fear and trauma it inflicts on individuals and societies, which can perpetuate
cycles of violence and hinder peacebuilding efforts.
Root cause of terrorism/ Why do people become terrorists?
According to peace psychology, people may become terrorists due to a combination of
individual, social, political, and psychological factors. These factors are often interconnected,
creating a complex environment that leads individuals to adopt violent methods as a means of
achieving their goals. Some key reasons why people become terrorists, from the perspective of
peace psychology, include:
1. Perceived Injustice and Grievances
Many individuals turn to terrorism because they feel marginalized or oppressed by the
government, society, or a particular group. They may experience social, political, or economic
injustices that lead to anger and resentment. When they perceive that peaceful methods of change
are ineffective or unavailable, terrorism may seem like the only viable option.
Example: People in regions where there is extreme poverty, lack of political power, or
oppression might turn to terrorist groups as a means of protest or to demand justice.
2. Radicalization and Ideological Influence
Individuals may be radicalized through exposure to extremist ideologies that justify violence
as a necessary tool to achieve a certain belief or goal. This radicalization often takes place in
environments where individuals feel disconnected or alienated from the larger society. They may
be influenced by charismatic leaders or groups that offer a sense of identity, purpose, and
belonging.
Example: Young people in conflict zones or marginalized communities may join terrorist
groups after being exposed to ideologies that glorify martyrdom and violent resistance.
3. Psychological Trauma and Revenge
People who have experienced personal trauma (such as violence, loss of loved ones, or
displacement) may seek revenge or a sense of justice through violence. This trauma can create a
desire for retribution against those perceived as responsible for their suffering, driving them
toward terrorism as a form of psychological release or payback.
Example: People living in areas affected by war, who have lost family members or endured
violence, may join terrorist groups to avenge those losses.
4. Group Identity and Socialization
Terrorism often involves group dynamics where individuals feel a sense of loyalty or identity
within a collective. The sense of belonging to a group with a shared purpose or ideology can
encourage individuals to take part in terrorist acts. Peer pressure, groupthink, and socialization
within these environments can reinforce violent behaviors as normal or even virtuous.
Example: In some cases, individuals may join terrorist groups because their friends, family,
or community members are involved, and they feel pressured to conform or find a sense of
belonging.
5. Lack of Social Integration and Alienation
When individuals feel disconnected from the mainstream society or experience social
alienation, they may be more susceptible to extremist ideologies. Feelings of exclusion, lack of
opportunities, and hopelessness can contribute to the desire for radical change through violent
means.
Example: Youth in impoverished or marginalized communities who feel disconnected from
mainstream political or economic systems may be drawn to groups that promise a sense of
purpose and empowerment.
6. State Repression and Lack of Political Alternatives
When individuals or groups are subjected to state repression, where their peaceful efforts to
seek justice or change are met with violence or oppression, terrorism may be seen as a way to
resist or challenge the authorities. Without legitimate political channels or institutions to voice
their concerns, some may resort to terrorism as the only means of effecting change.
Example: In regions where governments violently suppress opposition movements (such as
in some authoritarian regimes), groups may turn to terrorism as a form of resistance.
7. Moral Justification of Violence
Terrorists often perceive their actions as morally justified, believing that they are fighting for
a higher cause, such as religion, nationalism, or justice. Peace psychology suggests that these
individuals may dehumanize their targets, viewing them as enemies or obstacles to a just world,
which makes it easier for them to justify violence.
Example: Extremist religious groups may view their violent actions as a form of divine duty
or a way to defend their faith, leading them to engage in terrorism without questioning the
morality of their actions.
8. Cycle of Violence
Terrorism can contribute to cycles of violence, where violent acts perpetuate further violence,
making it challenging to build trust, reconciliation, or long-term peace in affected areas.
Types of terrorism
Terrorism is of different types;
Political Terrorism
Political terrorism involves the use of violence or the threat of violence to achieve
political goals, such as overthrowing a government, changing policies, or gaining independence.
Example: The Irish Republican Army (IRA): The IRA engaged in political terrorism
during the late 20th century in Northern Ireland. Their goal was to end British rule in Northern
Ireland and reunify Ireland. They carried out bombings, assassinations, and attacks on civilians
and military personnel.
Religious Terrorism
Religious terrorism is driven by extremist beliefs and involves the use of violence in the
name of religion to achieve specific religious or ideological goals, often targeting those who are
seen as "unbelievers" or "enemies."
Example: ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria): ISIS is a well-known group that used
religious extremism to justify acts of terrorism. They carried out brutal attacks, such as the 2015
Paris attacks, and sought to establish a caliphate governed by their interpretation of Islamic law.
They targeted civilians and non-Muslims in various countries.
International Terrorism
International terrorism involves terrorist acts that cross national boundaries, targeting
individuals or organizations in multiple countries, or having an international scope. These attacks
typically involve groups or individuals with global or regional objectives and often target foreign
governments, international institutions, or civilians from different countries.
Example: 9/11 Attacks (2001): The terrorist attacks carried out by the extremist group al-
Qaeda targeted the United States. The hijackers attacked the World Trade Center in New York
and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., leading to a global response. These attacks were aimed at
challenging U.S. foreign policy and its global influence, affecting not just the U.S. but the entire
international community.
National Terrorism
National terrorism refers to terrorist activities that are confined to a single country, often
motivated by issues related to national politics, local grievances, or regional autonomy. The aim
is typically to influence domestic politics or gain independence for a particular group within that
country.
Example: The Basque Nationalist and Separatist Organization (ETA): ETA operated in
Spain and sought the independence of the Basque Country from Spain. ETA conducted
bombings, assassinations, and kidnappings within Spain, targeting Spanish government officials,
police, and civilians, in an effort to achieve its political goals.
Question from past papers
Q: How terrorism is perceived in European and asian regions. Differentiate with examples.
A: Terrorism is viewed differently in Europe and Asia due to regional political, historical, and
cultural factors.
Europe:
In Europe, terrorism is often seen through the lens of security, national safety, and
counterterrorism efforts, with a focus on protecting citizens from attacks by both foreign and
domestic groups.
Western Europe (e.g., France, UK, Germany):
In countries like France and the UK, terrorism is seen as a threat to public safety,
especially after attacks by radical Islamist groups. There is a strong emphasis on
preventing attacks, surveillance, and anti-radicalization programs.
Example: The 2015 Paris attacks by ISIS terrorists were widely condemned as acts of
terrorism, leading to increased security measures across Europe. Similarly, the 2005
London bombings (7/7) by Islamist extremists were also seen as a major terrorist threat.
Eastern Europe (e.g., Russia, Poland):
Eastern European countries, especially Russia, view terrorism through a geopolitical
lens. In Russia, terrorism is often linked to separatist movements, particularly in regions
like Chechnya, and there is a focus on combating both Islamist and nationalist groups.
Example: The 2004 Beslan school hostage crisis in Russia, where Chechen
separatists took hostages, is often seen as an act of terrorism that targeted innocent
civilians. In Poland, terrorism is less of a direct threat, but the country remains vigilant,
particularly due to its proximity to conflicts in neighboring regions like Ukraine.
Asia:
Terrorism in Asia is often viewed in the context of regional conflicts, ethnic tensions, and
ideological struggles. Many Asian countries face different types of terrorism, such as
insurgencies, separatism, and religious extremism.
South Asia (e.g., India, Pakistan, Afghanistan):
In South Asia, terrorism is deeply tied to political and territorial conflicts, especially
between India and Pakistan. Many groups use violence as a means to achieve political
goals, often focusing on issues like the Kashmir dispute.
Example: The 2001 Indian Parliament attack, blamed on Pakistani-based militants, is
viewed as terrorism by India, while some in Pakistan see it as a political struggle over
Kashmir. Similarly, the Taliban's actions in Afghanistan are seen as terrorism globally,
but there are also those who view them as a resistance movement.
Southeast Asia (e.g., Indonesia, Philippines):
Southeast Asia faces terrorism from Islamist groups like Jemaah Islamiyah in
Indonesia and Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines. These groups often have local goals but
also align with broader global jihadist movements.
Example: The 2002 Bali bombings in Indonesia, carried out by Jemaah Islamiyah,
were seen as a terrorist attack against civilians. In the Philippines, Abu Sayyaf's
kidnapping of foreigners is widely seen as terrorism, although some may view it as part
of a larger fight for autonomy in Mindanao.
East Asia (e.g., China, Japan, South Korea):
In East Asia, terrorism is often associated with separatist movements and ideological
extremism. In China, terrorism is linked to ethnic and religious tensions, particularly in
regions like Xinjiang, where the Uighur Muslim population has faced government
repression.
Example: The 2013 Kunming train station attack in China, attributed to Uighur
separatists, was labeled as terrorism by the Chinese government. In Japan, terrorism is
less common, but the 1995 Tokyo subway sarin attack by the Aum Shinrikyo cult was a
major terrorist event.
Key Differences:
Europe: European countries tend to view terrorism primarily as a security issue, with a
focus on protecting civilians from attacks, particularly from Islamist extremism. This is
often driven by global jihadist threats. Examples like the Paris attacks and the London
bombings highlight the concern with international terrorism.
Asia: In Asia, terrorism is often linked to regional conflicts, separatist movements, and
religious extremism. In South Asia, it’s tied to territorial disputes, while in Southeast
Asia, it’s often driven by Islamic radicalism. Examples like the Bali bombings
(Indonesia), the Mumbai attacks (India), and the Taliban's activities in Afghanistan show
how terrorism is often deeply intertwined with local politics and ethnic tensions.
In conclusion, while both Europe and Asia view terrorism as a significant threat, Europe
focuses more on global jihadist terrorism and Asia often faces a more complex range of terrorism
driven by local political struggles, ethnic conflicts, and regional instability.
Q: Major terrorist attacks in history and their impacts on mental health, peace, and other
factors over the world.
A: Major terrorist attacks have had lasting impacts on mental health, peace, and security
worldwide. Here are some key examples:
1. 9/11 Attacks (2001) – USA
Impact: Widespread trauma, PTSD, and anxiety. Led to the War on Terror, wars
in Afghanistan and Iraq, and increased global security measures.
2. Madrid Train Bombings (2004) – Spain
Impact: Anxiety and fear in Spain. Strained relations with extremist groups and
boosted counterterrorism efforts across Europe.
3. Paris Attacks (2015) – France
Impact: PTSD and fear in the public. Created political divisions and led to stricter
security laws in France and Europe.
4. Mumbai Attacks (2008) – India
Impact: Trauma for survivors and families. Increased tensions between India and
Pakistan and improved counterterrorism efforts in India.
5. Bali Bombings (2002) – Indonesia
Impact: Psychological effects on survivors. Damaged Indonesia’s tourism and
strained relations with extremist groups.
6. Beslan School Siege (2004) – Russia
Impact: PTSD and trauma for children and families. Increased fears of separatism
and strengthened counterterrorism policies in Russia.
Overall Impact:
Mental Health: Terrorist attacks cause long-term trauma, PTSD, and anxiety.
Peace: They disrupt global peace, lead to conflicts, and strain international relations.
Other Factors: Increased security, stricter laws, and rising xenophobia against certain
groups.
These attacks show how terrorism not only causes immediate harm but also has lasting
effects on society and individuals.
Theoretical Framework of Terrorism
1. Psychological Theories
Frustration-Aggression Theory: This theory suggests that terrorism is a result of unmet
needs or goals, leading to frustration. This frustration can manifest as aggression and
violence, with individuals or groups turning to terrorism to express their anger and
dissatisfaction.
Example: A person or group feels marginalized or oppressed and uses terrorism as a way to
fight back against perceived injustices.
Cognitive Theory of Terrorism: This theory focuses on how individuals or groups
perceive reality. People who engage in terrorism may see the world through a distorted
lens, believing that violence is the only solution to their grievances. They may also
develop an “us vs. them” mentality, seeing the enemy as evil or subhuman.
Example: Terrorists who believe they are fighting for a righteous cause may convince
themselves that violence is justified.
2. Sociological Theories
Social Learning Theory: According to this theory, individuals learn violent behaviors,
including terrorism, by interacting with others in their social environment. If someone is
exposed to violent ideologies or radical groups, they are more likely to adopt those
beliefs and become involved in terrorism.
Example: A young person raised in an environment where extremism is normalized may
eventually adopt these views and participate in violent acts.
Relative Deprivation Theory: This theory suggests that people resort to terrorism when
they feel deprived of certain rights, resources, or opportunities compared to others in
society. This feeling of injustice and inequality can lead to anger and violence.
Example: A minority group that experiences economic or social disadvantages may use
terrorism as a tool to demand rights or recognition.
3. Political and Ideological Theories
Political Process Theory: This theory emphasizes that terrorism often arises from
political struggles and conflicts. It suggests that political movements or groups may resort
to terrorism as a strategy to achieve their goals, particularly when they believe other
forms of political expression are unavailable or ineffective.
Example: Groups seeking independence or autonomy (e.g., separatist movements) may
resort to terrorist tactics to challenge governments they perceive as oppressive.
Ideological Theory: This theory posits that terrorism is driven by a particular ideology,
often related to religious, political, or nationalist beliefs. Terrorists believe that their
ideology justifies the use of violence to achieve their objectives, and that their cause is
superior to others.
Example: Al-Qaeda's attacks were motivated by an extremist interpretation of Islam, with
the belief that violence was necessary to protect and promote their worldview.
4. Rational Choice Theory
This theory argues that individuals or groups engage in terrorism as a rational decision,
weighing the potential benefits against the risks. Terrorists may believe that their actions will
lead to greater political power, social change, or personal gain.
Example: A terrorist group may believe that by committing an attack, they will draw
attention to their cause and pressure the government into negotiations or concessions.
5. Anomie Theory
Emile Durkheim's Anomie Theory suggests that terrorism can arise in societies
experiencing a breakdown of social norms or values, resulting in a state of normlessness,
confusion, and alienation. Individuals may resort to terrorism to restore a sense of meaning or
identity.
Example: In times of political instability or societal breakdown, individuals may feel
disconnected from society and join terrorist organizations to find a sense of purpose.
6. Strain Theory
Robert Merton’s Strain Theory proposes that when individuals or groups face strain or
societal pressures, such as poverty or discrimination, they may turn to deviant behaviors,
including terrorism, to cope with their frustrations or achieve their goals.
Example: A person who feels economically disadvantaged and sees no legitimate way to
improve their status may resort to violence or terrorism to force social change.
