EEN-412

LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS

DR. ABDUL ATTAYYAB KHAN

EMAIL ADDRESS: [email protected]

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 Modeling in Time Domain

INTRODUCTION
 Two approaches are available for the analysis and design of feedback control systems.
 The first, which is known as the classical, or frequency-domain, technique.
 This approach is based on converting a system’s differential equation to a transfer
function, thus generating a mathematical model of the system that algebraically
relates a representation of the output to a representation of the input.
 Replacing a differential equation with an algebraic equation not only simplifies the
representation of individual subsystems but also simplifies modeling interconnected
subsystems.
 The primary disadvantage of the classical approach is its limited applicability: It can
be applied only to linear, time-invariant systems or systems that can be approximated
as such.
 A major advantage of frequency-domain techniques is that they rapidly provide
stability and transient response information.
 Thus, we can immediately see the effects of varying system parameters until an
acceptable design is met.

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 INTRODUCTION
 With the arrival of space exploration, requirements for control systems
increased in scope.
 Modeling systems by using linear, time-invariant differential equations and
subsequent transfer functions became inadequate.
 The state-space approach (also referred to as the modern, or time-domain,
approach) is a unified method for modeling, analyzing, and designing a wide
range of systems.
 For example, the state-space approach can be used to represent nonlinear
systems that have backlash, saturation, and dead zone.
 Also, it can handle, conveniently, systems with nonzero initial conditions.
 Time-varying systems, (for example, missiles with varying fuel levels or lift in an
aircraft flying through a wide range of altitudes) can be represented in state
space.

INTRODUCTION
 Many systems do not have just a single input and a single output.
 Multiple-input, multiple-output systems (such as a vehicle with input direction
and input velocity yielding an output direction and an output velocity) can be
compactly represented in state space with a model similar in form and
complexity to that used for single-input, single-output systems.
 The time-domain approach can be used to represent systems with a digital
computer in the loop or to model systems for digital simulation.
 With a simulated system, system response can be obtained for changes in
system parameters—an important design tool.
 The states-pace approach is also attractive because of the availability of
numerous state-space software packages for the personal computer.

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 INTRODUCTION
 The time-domain approach can also be used for the same class of systems
modeled by the classical approach.
 This alternate model gives the control systems designer another perspective
from which to create a design.
 While the state-space approach can be applied to a wide range of systems, it is
not as intuitive as the classical approach.
 The designer has to engage in several calculations before the physical
interpretation of the model is apparent, whereas in classical control a few quick
calculations or a graphic presentation of data rapidly yields the physical
interpretation.
 We will limit the state-space approach to linear, time-invariant systems or
systems.
 State-space analysis and design rely on matrices and matrix operations.

SOME OBSERVATIONS
 We proceed now to establish the state-space approach as an alternate method
for representing physical systems.
 We now demonstrate that for a system with many variables, such as inductor
voltage, resistor voltage, and capacitor charge, we need to use differential
equations only to solve for a selected subset of system variables because all
other remaining system variables can be evaluated algebraically from the
variables in the subset.
 Our examples take the following approach:
1. We select a particular subset of all possible system variables and call the
variables in this subset state variables.
2. For an nth-order system, we write n simultaneous, first-order differential
equations in terms of the state variables. We call this system of simultaneous
differential equations state equations.
3. If we know the initial condition of all of the state variables at as well as the
system input for ≥ , we can solve the simultaneous differential equations
for the state variables for ≥ .

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS
4. We algebraically combine the state variables with the system’s input and find
all of the other system variables for ≥ . We call this algebraic equation the
output equation.
5. We consider the state equations and the output equations a viable
representation of the system. We call this representation of the system a state-
space representation.

SOME OBSERVATIONS
 Let us now follow these steps through an example. Consider the RL network
shown in Figure 3.1 with an initial current of (0).
1. We select the current, ( ), for which we will write and solve a differential
equation using Laplace transforms.
2. We write the loop equation,

3. Taking the Laplace transform, using Table 2.2, Item 7, and including the initial
conditions yields

 Assuming the input, ( ), to be a unit step, ( ), whose Laplace transform is

= 1⁄ , we solve for ( ) and get

Figure 3.1: RL network

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS

from which

 The function ( ) is a subset of all possible network variables that we are able to
find from Eq. (3.4) if we know its initial condition, (0) and the input, ( ).
 Thus, ( ) is a state variable, and the differential equation (3.1) is a state
equation.
4. We can now solve for all of the other network variables algebraically in terms of
( ) and the applied voltage, ( ). For example, the voltage across the resistor
is
The voltage across the inductor is

The derivative of the current is

SOME OBSERVATIONS

Thus, knowing the state variable, ( ), and the input, ( ), we can find the value, or
state, of any network variable at any time, ≥ . Hence, the algebraic equations,
Eqs. (3.5) through (3.7), are output equations.
5. Since the variables of interest are completely described by Eq. (3.1) and Eqs.
(3.5) through (3.7), we say that the combined state equation (3.1) and the
output equations (3.5 through 3.7) form a viable representation of the network,
which we call a state-space representation.

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS
 Equation (3.1), which describes the dynamics of the network, is not unique.
 This equation could be written in terms of any other network variable. For
example, substituting = ⁄ into Eq. (3.1) yields

which can be solved knowing that the initial condition 0 = (0) and knowing
( ). In this case, the state variable is ( ).
 Similarly, all other network variables can now be written in terms of the state
variable, ( ), and the input, ( ).

SOME OBSERVATIONS
 Let us now extend our observations to a second-order system, such as that
shown in Figure 3.2.
1. Since the network is of second order, two simultaneous, first-order differential
equations are needed to solve for two state variables. We select ( ) and ( ),
the charge on the capacitor, as the two state variables.
2. Writing the loop equation yields

Converting to charge, using = ⁄ , we get

Figure 3.2: RLC network

But an nth-order differential equation can be converted to a simultaneous first-

order differential equations, with each equation of the form

where each is a state variable, and the ’s and are constants for linear, time-
invariant systems. We say that the right-hand side of Eq. (3.11) is a linear
combination of the state variables and the input, ( ).

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS
 We can convert Eq. (3.10) into two simultaneous, first-order differential equations in
terms of ( ) and ( ). The first equation can be ⁄ = . The second equation can
be formed by substituting ∫ = into Eq. (3.9) and solving for ⁄ . Summarizing
the two resulting equations, we get

3. These equations are the state equations and can be solved simultaneously for the
state variables, ( ) and ( ) using the Laplace transform and the methods
discussed in previous lecture, if we know the initial conditions for ( ) and ( ) and
if we know ( ), the input.
4. From these two state variables, we can solve for all other network variables. For
example, the voltage across the inductor can be written in terms of the solved state
variables and the input as

Equation (3.13) is an output equation; we say that ( ) is a linear combination of the

state variables, ( ) and ( ), and the input, ( ).

SOME OBSERVATIONS
5. The combined state equations (3.12) and the output equation (3.13) form a viable
representation of the network, which we call a state-space representation.
Another choice of state variables can be made, for example, ( ) and ( ), the resistor
and capacitor voltage, respectively. The resulting set of simultaneous, first-order
differential equations follows:

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS
 Again, these differential equations can be solved for the state variables if we know the
initial conditions along with ( ).
 Further, all other network variables can be found as a linear combination of these
state variables.
 Typically, the minimum number of state variables required to describe a system equals
the order of the differential equation.
 Thus, a second-order system requires a minimum of two state variables to describe it.
 We can define more state variables than the minimal set; however, within this
minimal set the state variables must be linearly independent.
 For example, if ( ) is chosen as a state variable, then ( ) cannot be chosen,
because ( ) can be written as a linear combination of ( ), namely = ( ).
 Under these circumstances we say that the state variables are linearly dependent.
 State variables must be linearly independent; that is, no state variable can be written
as a linear combination of the other state variables, or else we would not have
enough information to solve for all other system variables, and we could even have
trouble writing the simultaneous equations themselves.

SOME OBSERVATIONS
 The state and output equations can be written in vector-matrix form if the system is
linear. Thus, Eq. (3.12), the state equations, can be written as

where

 Equation (3.13), the output equation, can be written as

where

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS

 We call the combination of Eqs. (3.15) and (3.16) a state-space representation of the
network of Figure 3.2.
 A state-space representation, therefore, consists of:
1. The simultaneous, first-order differential equations from which the state variables
can be solved and
2. the algebraic output equation from which all other system variables can be
found.
 A state-space representation is not unique, since a different choice of state variables
leads to a different representation of the same system.

SOME OBSERVATIONS
 The representations developed were for single-input, single-output systems, where ,
, and in Eqs. (3.15) and (3.16) are scalar quantities.
 In general, systems have multiple inputs and multiple outputs. For these cases, and
become vector quantities, and becomes a matrix.
 In next section we will generalize the representation for multiple-input, multiple-
output systems and summarize the concept of the state-space representation.

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 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
 Now that we have represented a physical network in state space and have a good idea
of the terminology and the concept, let us summarize and generalize the
representation for linear differential equations.
 First, we formalize some of the definitions that we came across in the last section.
 Linear combination. A linear combination of n variables, , for = 1 to , is given by
the following sum, :

where each is a constant.

 Linear Independence: A set of variables is said to be linearly independent if none of
the variables can be written as a linear combination of the others.
 System variables: Any variable that responds to an input or initial conditions in a
system.
 State variables: The smallest set of linearly independent system variables such that
the values of the members of the set at time along with known forcing functions
completely determine the value of all system variables for all ≥ .

THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

 State Vector: A vector whose elements are the state
variables.
 State Space: The -dimensional space whose axes are the
state variables.
 This is a new term and is illustrated in Figure 3.3, where
the state variables are assumed to be a resistor voltage,
, and a capacitor voltage, .
 These variables form the axes of the state space.
 A trajectory can be thought of as being mapped out by the
state vector, ( ), for a range of . Also shown is the state
vector at the particular time = 4.
Figure 3.3: Graphic
 State equations: A set of simultaneous, first-order representation of state space
differential equations with variables, where the and a state vector
variables to be solved are the state variables
 Output equation: The algebraic equation that expresses
the output variables of a system as linear combinations of
the state variables and the inputs.

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 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
 Now that the definitions have been formally stated, we define the state-space
representation of a system.
 A system is represented in state space by the following equations:

for ≥ and initial conditions, ( ), where

= state vector
̇ = derivative of the state vector with respect to time
= output vector
= input or control vector
= system matrix
= input matrix
= output matrix
= feedforward matrix

THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

 Equation (3.18) is called the state equation, and the vector , the state vector, contains
the state variables. Equation (3.18) can be solved for the state variables,
 Equation (3.19) is called the output equation. This equation is used to calculate any
other system variables. This representation of a system provides complete knowledge of
all variables of the system at any ≥ .

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 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
 As an example, for a linear, time-invariant, second-order system with a single input ( ),
the state equations could take on the following form:

 Where and are the state variables. If there is a single output, the output equation
could take on the following form:

 The choice of state variables for a given system is not unique. The requirement in
choosing the state variables is that they be linearly independent and that a minimum
number of them be chosen.

APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

 Now we apply the state-space formulation to the representation of more complicated
physical systems.
 The first step in representing a system is to select the state vector, which must be
chosen according to the following considerations:
1. A minimum number of state variables must be selected as components of the state
vector. This minimum number of state variables is sufficient to describe completely the
state of the system.
2. The components of the state vector (that is, this minimum number of state variables)
must be linearly independent.

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 APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
 Let us review and clarify these statement.
Linearly Independent State Variables
 The components of the state vector must be linearly independent.
 For example, following the definition of linear independence, if , , and are
chosen as state variables, but = 5 + 4 , then is not linearly independent of
and will yield the value of .
 Variables and their successive derivatives are linearly independent.
 For example, the voltage across an inductor, , is linearly independent of the current
through the inductor, , since = ⁄ .
 Thus, cannot be evaluated as a linear combination of the current, .

APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

Minimum Number of State Variables
 How do we know the minimum number of state variables to select?
 Typically, the minimum number required equals the order of the differential equation
describing the system.
 For example, if a third-order differential equation describes the system, then three
simultaneous, first-order differential equations are required along with three state
variables.
 From the perspective of the transfer function, the order of the differential equation is
the order of the denominator of the transfer function after canceling common factors in
the numerator and denominator.
 In most cases, another way to determine the number of state variables is to count the
number of independent energy-storage elements in the system.
 The number of these energy-storage elements equals the order of the differential
equation and the number of state variables.
 In Figure 3.2 there are two energy-storage elements, the capacitor and the inductor.
 Hence, two state variables and two state equations are required for the system.

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 APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
Minimum Number of State Variables
 If too few state variables are selected, it may be impossible to write particular output
equations, since some system variables cannot be written as a linear combination of the
reduced number of state variables.
 In many cases, it may be impossible even to complete the writing of the state equations,
since the derivatives of the state variables cannot be expressed as linear combinations
of the reduced number of state variables.
 If you select the minimum number of state variables but they are not linearly
independent, at best you may not be able to solve for all other system variables.
 At worst you may not be able to complete the writing of the state equations.

APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

Minimum Number of State Variables
 Often the state vector includes more than the minimum number of state variables
required.
 Two possible cases exist. Often state variables are chosen to be physical variables of a
system, such as position and velocity in a mechanical system.
 Cases arise where these variables, although linearly independent, are also decoupled.
 That is, some linearly independent variables are not required in order to solve for any of
the other linearly independent variables or any other dependent system variable.
 Consider the case of a mass and viscous damper whose differential equation is
⁄ + = ( ), where is the velocity of the mass.
 Since this is a first-order equation, one state equation is all that is required to define this
system in state space with velocity as the state variable.
 Also, since there is only one energy-storage element, mass, only one state variable is
required to represent this system in state space.
 However, the mass also has an associated position, which is linearly independent of
velocity.

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 APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
Minimum Number of State Variables
 If we want to include position in the state vector along with velocity, then we add
position as a state variable that is linearly independent of the other state variable,
velocity.
 Figure 3.4 illustrates what is happening. The first block is the transfer function
equivalent to ( )⁄ + = ( ).
 The second block shows that we integrate the output velocity to yield output
displacement (see Table 2.2, Item 10).
 Thus, if we want displacement as an output, the denominator, or characteristic
equation, has increased in order to 2, the product of the two transfer functions.
 Many times, the writing of the state equations is simplified by including additional state
variables.

Figure 3.4: Block diagram of a mass and damper

APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

Minimum Number of State Variables
 Another case that increases the size of the state vector arises when the added variable
is not linearly independent of the other members of the state vector.
 This usually occurs when a variable is selected as a state variable but its dependence on
the other state variables is not immediately apparent.
 For example, energy-storage elements may be used to select the state variables, and the
dependence of the variable associated with one energy-storage element on the
variables of other energy-storage elements may not be recognized.
 Thus, the dimension of the system matrix is increased unnecessarily, and the solution
for the state vector.
 Also, adding dependent state variables affects the designer’s ability to use state-space
methods for design.

Figure 3.4: Block diagram of a mass and damper

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 APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
Minimum Number of State Variables
 We saw in previous section that the state-space representation is not unique.
 The following example demonstrates one technique for selecting state variables and
representing a system in state space.
 Our approach is to write the simple derivative equation for each energy-storage
element and solve for each derivative term as a linear combination of any of the system
variables and the input that are present in the equation.
 Next we select each differentiated variable as a state variable.
 Then we express all other system variables in the equations in terms of the state
variables and the input.
 Finally, we write the output variables as linear combinations of the state variables and
the input.

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