UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Unit-1
Choice of motor, type of electric drives, starting and running characteristics, speed
control, temperature rise, particular applications of electric drives, types of industrial
loads, continuous, intermittent and variable loads, load equalization

Electric Drives
Introduction:

Motor control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications

such as transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine
tools, fans, pumps, robots, and washing machines. Systems employed for motion
control are called drives and may employ any of the prime movers. Drives employing
electric motors are known as electric drives.

Nowadays, in electric power stations generating large amounts of electric energy for
agriculture, industry, domestic needs, and electrified traction facilities and in driving all
kinds of working machines, electric motor is essential, which is the predominant type of
drive so the term electric drive being applied to it.

Electric drive becomes more popular because of its simplicity, reliability,

cleanliness, easiness, and smooth control. Both AC and DC motors are used as electric
drives; however, the AC system is preferred because:

1. It is cheaper.
2. It can be easily transmitted with low-line losses.
3. It can be easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within prescribed limits.
4. It is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of power.
In spite of the advantages of AC motor, sometimes DC motor is used because:

1. In some processes, such as electrochemical and battery charging, DC is the only type of
power that is suitable.
2. The speed control of DC motors is easy rather than AC; thus, for variable speed
applications such as lift and Ward Leonard system, the DC motors are preferred.
3. DC series motor is suited for traction work because of high starting torque.

Block Diagram of Electric Drive

Source

1-φ and 3-φ, 50-Hz AC supplies are readily available in most locations. Very low
power drives are generally fed from 1-φ source; however, the high power drives are
powered from 3-φsource; some of the drives are powered from a battery

Ex: Fork lifts trucks and milk vans.

Fig. Block diagram of electric drive

Power modulator
Power modulator performs the following functions:
1. It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor is impart speed−torque
characteristics required by the load.
2. It regulates source and motor currents within permissible values, such as
starting, braking, and speed reversal conditions.
3. Selects the mode of operation of motor, i.e., motoring or braking. o Converts source
energy in the form suitable to the motor

Electrical motors

Motors commonly used in electric drives are DC motors, induction motors,

synchronous motors, blushless DC motors, stepper motors, and switched reluctance
motors, etc. In olden days, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for
constant speed drives but not for variable speed drives, because of poor efficiency and are
too expensive. But in nowadays, AC motors employed in variable speed drives due to the
development of semiconductors employing SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs, and GTOs
Load

It is usually a machinery, such as fans, pumps, robots, and washing machines,

designed to perform a given task, usually load requirements, can be specified in terms of
speed and torque demands
Control unit

Control unit controls the function of power modulator. The nature of control unit
for a particular drive depends on the type of power modulator used. When semiconductor
converters are used, the control unit will consists of firing circuits. Microprocessors also
used when sophisticated control is required.

Sensing unit

Sensing unit consists of speed sensor or current sensor. The sensing of speed is
required for the implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. Speed is usually
sensed using tachometers coupled to the motor shaft. Current sensing is required for the
implementation of current limit control.

Advantages of electric drives

There are a number of inherent advantages that the electric drive

possesses over the other forms of conventional drives are:

1. It is cleaner, as there are no flue gases, etc.

2. It is more economical.
3. They have flexible control characteristics.
4. There is no need to store fuel or transportation.
5. It requires less maintenance.
6. Do not pollute environment
7. It is the reliable source of drive.
8. The electrical energy can be easily transmitted by using transmission lines over long
distances.
9. Available in wide range of torque, speed, and power.
10 High efficiency.
11. Electric braking system is much superior and economical.
12. Smooth speed control is easy.
13. They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
14 They can operate in all the quadrants of speed torque plane.
15. Being compactness, they require less space.
16. They can be controlled remotely.

Disadvantages of electric drives

1. The non-availability of drive on the failure of electrical power supply.

2. It cannot be employed in distant places where electric power supply is not available
Types of Electric Drives

Depending on the type of equipment used to run the electric motors in

industrial purpose, they may be classified into three types. They are:
1. Group drives.
2. Individual drives.
3. Multi-motor drives.
Group drives

Electric drive that is used to drive one or more than two machines from line shaft
through belts and pulleys is known as group drive. It is also sometimes called the line shaft
drive. This drive is economical in the consideration of the cost of motor and control gear.
A single motor of large capacity cost is less than the total cost of a number of small motors
of the same total capacity. In switch over from non-electric drive to electric drive, the
simplest way is to replace the engine by means of motor and retaining the rest of power
transmission system
Advantages

1. The cost of installation is less. For example, if the power requirement of each machine
is 10 HP and there are five machines in the group, then the cost of five motors will be more
than one 50-HP motor.
2. If it is operated at rated load, the efficiency and power factor of large group drive motor
will be high.
3. The maintenance cost of single large capacity motor is less than number of small
capacity motors.
4. It is used for the processes where the stoppage of one operation necessitates the
stoppages of sequence of operations as in case of textile mills.
5. It has overload capacity.
Disadvantage
Even though group drive has above advantages, it suffers from the following
disadvantages.
1. If there is any fault in the main motor, all the machines connected to the motor will fail
to operate; thereby, paralyzing a part of industry until the fault is removed.
2. It is not possible to install any machine at a distant place.
3. The possibility of the installation of additional machines in an existing industry is
limited
4. The level of noise produced at the work site is quite large.
5. The speed control of different machines using belts and pulleys is difficult.
6. The flexibility of layout is lost due to line shaft, belts, and pulleys
Individual drive

In individual drive, a single electric motor is used to drive one individual

machine. Such a drive is very common in most of the industries.

Advantages

1. It is more clean and safety.

2. Machines can be located at convenient places.
3. If there is a fault in one motor, the output and operation of the other motors will not be
effected.
4. The continuity in the production of the industry is ensured to a higher degree.
5. Individual drive is preferred for new factories, as it causes some saving in the cost.

Disadvantage
1. Initial cost will be high.
2. Power loss is high
Multi-motor drive

In multi-motor drives, several separate motors are provided for

operating different parts of the same machine.
Ex: In traveling cranes, three motors are used for hoisting, long travel, and cross-travel
motions. Multi-motor drive is used in complicated metal cutting machine tools, rolling
mills, paper making machines, etc.

Choice of Motors

The selection of the driving motor for a given service depends upon the conditions
under which it has to operate. Due to the universal adoption of electric drive, it has become
necessary for the manufacturer to manufacture motors of various designs according to the
suitability and the use in various designs according to the suitability and the use in various
classes of industry. This has resulted into numerous types of motors. For this reason, the
selection of motor itself has become an important and tedious process. The conditions
under which an electric motor has to operate and the type of load it has to handle,
determine its selection.
While selecting a motor, the following factors must be taken into consideration
Cost:

a) Initial cost and

b) Running cost.
.Electric characteristics:

1. Starting characteristics,
2. Running characteristics,
3. Speed control characteristics, and
4. Braking characteristics.
Mechanical characteristics:

1. Type enclosure and bearings,

2. Arrangement for the transmission of power,
3. Noise, and
4. Cooling.
Size and vetting of motors:
1. Requirements for continuous, Intermittent, or variable load cycle and
2. Overload capacity.

Type of drive:

1. The drive is for one or more machines and

2. The type of transmission through gears, belts, etc.

Nature of supply.

Characteristics of Dc Motor

The performance and, therefore, suitability of a DC motor are determined from its
characteristics. The important characteristics of DC motor are
1. Torque vs. armature current characteristics (T vs. Ia):

This characteristic curve gives relation between torque developed in the armature
(T) and armature current (Ia). This is also known as electrical characteristic.
Speed vs. armature current characteristics (N vs. Ia):

This characteristic curve gives relation between speed (N) and armature current
(Ia).This is also known as speed characteristics.
Output (HP) vs. armature current characteristics (HP vs. Ia):

The horse power of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque, so its characteristics
follows shaft torque characteristic.

Speed vs. characteristics (N vs. T):

This characteristic gives relation between speed (N) and torque (T) developed in the
armature. This curve may be derived from the two characteristics mentioned in
characteristics (i) and (ii) above.
Characteristics (i), (ii), and (iii) are called starting characteristics, and (iv) is known
as running characteristics.
While discussing motor characteristics, the following relations should always be kept in
mind

where Ta is the torque developed in the armature in N-m, Ia is the armature current in
ampere, Eb is the back emf in volts, and φ is the flux in weber

Characteristics of shunt motor

The field winding connected across the armature terminals called as shunt motor
as shown in Fig... Rated voltage is applied across the field and armature terminals

Fig. DC shunt motor

Starting characteristics

The study of starting characteristics of a motor is essential to know the starting

torque necessary to accelerate the motor from standstill position is also to require to
overcome the static friction and the standstill load or, to provide load torque.
Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia)

In the expression for the torque of a DC motor, torque is directly proportional to

the product of flux per pole (φ) and armature current (Ia):
Since, in case of a DC shunt motor, the flux per pole (φ) is considered to be constant.

T ∝ Ia.

So, the torque is proportional to armature current and is practically a straight line passing
through the origin as shown if Fig.

Fig. Torque vs. armature current characteristics

To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of
armature current at starting. This may damage the motor, hence DC shunt motors can
develop moderate starting torque and hence suitable for such applications where starting
torque requirement is moderate.

Speed vs. armature current (N Vs Ia)

In shunt motor, the applied voltage ‘ V' is kept constant, the field current will remain
constant, and hence the flux will have maximum value on no load due to the armature
reaction; if load on the motor increases, the flux will be slightly decrease. By neglecting
the armature reaction, the flux is almost constant.

From the speed equation of DC shunt motor:

 Where Eb = V − IaRa

Since, for DC shunt motor, the flux per pole is considered to be constant

So, as the load on the motor increases, the armature current increases and hence IaRa drop
also increases. For constant supply, the voltage (V-IaRa) decreases and hence the speed
reduces
Hence, as armature current increases, the speed of the DC motor
decreases. The variation of speed with armature current is shown in Fig.

Fig Speed vs. armature current characteristics

Output vs. armature current

The output of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque. If the armature current
increases, the output of the motor gradually increases. The variation of output with the
armature current is shown in Fig
 Fig. Armature current and HP characteristic
Running characteristics
Speed-torque characteristics (N vs. T)

These characteristics can be derived from its staring characteristics of (i) and (ii).
During the steady-state operation of the motor, the voltage equation of the armature
circuit is given by:

where V is the applied voltage, Eb is the back emf of motor, Ia is the armature current, and
Rais the armature resistance.
The back emf of motor can be expressed as:
Eb ∝φ N ∴Eb = K φ N,

where K is the constant,

Substituting Eb from Equation (8.3) in above equation:

The torque of the motor is directly proportional to product of flux and armature current.

Substitute Equation (8.6) in Equation (8.4), we get:

Since, the shunt motor flux is constant, the speed of the motor is:
Where K1 = Kφ

When V and Ra are kept constant, the speed torque characteristic is a straight line.

If the load on the motor increases, thus the torque increases and hence the speed of
the motor decreases. The characteristic curve can be drawn from the

Fig Speed and torque characteristics

Characteristics of DC series motor

In case of series motor, the field windings are connected in series with
armature terminals as shown in Fig.1.7 Since, the field winding is connected in
series with the armature winding, the load current (IL) is equals to the armature
current (Ia) or the series field current (Ise).
 Fig. 1.7 DC series motor

IL=Ia=Ise

Starting characteristics
Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia)

In case of DC motors, torque is directly proportional to the product of flux per pole (φ) and
armature current (Ia).
T ∝ φ Ia .

Up to the saturation point, the flux is proportional to the field current and hence the
armature current:
i.e., φ ∝ Ise ∝ Ia.
Therefore, the torque is proportional to the square of the armature current.

Hence, the curve drawn in Fig. 1.8; the torque and the armature currents are
parabolas, up to saturation point. After saturation, the flux (φ) is almost independent of
the excitation current and so the torque is proportional to the armature current, i.e., T ∝
Ia. Hence the characteristics become a straight line. The variation of torque with the
armature current is shown in Fig. 1.8.
 Fig. 1.8 Torque and armature current

Speed vs. armature current

From the speed equation of DC series motor, the speed is directly proportional to
the back emf and is inversely proportional to flux:

i.e. .,
Where Eb = V − IaRse.

When the armature current increases, the voltage drop in the armature resistance
and the field resistance increases, but under the normal conditions, the voltage drop is
small and it is negligible. Hence, V = Eb and it is constant:

This relation shows the variation of speed with the armature current and it will be
rectangular hyperbola, which is shown in Fig. 1.9.
 Fig. 1.9 Speed and armature current

Running characteristics

Speed-torque characteristics

These characteristics can be derived its starting characteristics. It is also known as

mechanical characteristic.
In case of series motors:
∝ ϕIa ∝Ia2

As the torque of a DC machine is directly proportional to armature current and flux, the
speed will be inversely proportional to the square root of the torque, i.e., from the above
two relations:

But at higher loads, the flux becomes saturated and the torque will be proportional to
armature current, so the speed can be represented as

The speed–torque characteristics of a DC series motor is shown in Fig. 1.10.

 Fig. 1.10 Speed–torque characteristics
Hence, the series motors are best suited for services where the motor is directly coupled to
the load such as whose speed falls with the increase in load torque

Characteristics of DC compound wound motors

Compound motors have both series. If the series field excitation aids with the shunt
excitation, then the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. If the series field
opposes the shunt field excitation, it is known as differential compound motor.

The characteristics of such motors lie in between shunt and series motors.

Cumulative-compound motor

Since, the series field aids with the shunt field winding, the flux is increased, as
load is applied to the motor, and due to this reason, the motor speed slightly decreases.
Such machines are used where series characteristics are required. Due to the shunt field,
the winding speed will not become excessively high, but due to the series field winding, it
will be able to take heavy loads.

Compound wound motors have the greatest application with loads that require
high starting torques or pulsating load.

Differential-compound motors

In this motor, the series field opposes the shunt field and the flux is decreased, as
load is applied to the motor. This results in the motor speed that is almost constant or
even increasing with increase in load. The speed-armature current and the torque–
armature current characteristics of both the cumulative and the differential compound
motors are shown in Figs. 1.11 and 1.12.

Fig. Speed and armature current characteristics Fig Torque and armature current characteristics

Three-Phase Induction Motor

Three-phase induction motors are simple in design, rugged in construction with the
absence of commentator, and reliable in service. Besides this, they have low initial cost,
simple maintenance, easy operation, and simple control gear for starting and speed
control.

The speed–torque characteristics of the induction motor are quite important in the
selection of the induction motor drive. These characteristics can be effectively determined
by means of the equivalent circuit of the induction motor. The simplified equivalent circuit
of induction motor is shown in Fig. 1.13.
 Fig. Equivalent circuit of induction motor

In Fig. 1.13, V is the applied voltage per phase, R1 and X1 are the stator resistance and
leakage reactance per phase, are the rotor resistance and leakage reactance per
phase, R0and X0 are the resistance and reactance per phase of the magnetizing
branch, and is the rotor current per phase.
From the equivalent circuit of induction motor, as shown in Fig. 1.13, the rotor current
referred to the stator is given by:

If the induction motor is rotating at slip is then:

Induced emf of rotor = SE2. Rotor resistance = R2. Rotor reactance = SX2.

Rotor current /phase, .

Torque equation

The torque produced in the induction motor is mainly depends on the magnitude
of rotor current, the power factor of the rotor circuit, and the part of rotating magnetic
field that interacts with the rotor.

Substituting the values of I2 and cos φ2 in Equation (8.13):

Where ‘K’ is proportionality constant and is proved to be for the three-
phase induction motor.

Where Ns is synchronous speed in rps at standstill slip S = 1; therefore, the expression for
starting torque may be obtained by putting S = 1

Condition for maximum torque

The torque developed by the motor under running condition mainly depends on
slip at which motor is running.

Therefore, the torque will be maximum when

By differentiating torque w.r.t. ‘S' we get:

Equation (8.17) reveals that the slip ‘Sm’ at which maximum torque will be
developed by the induction motor.

From Eq. (8.14), the maximum torque corresponding to slip Sm = R2/X2 is given by:

Torque ratios

The performance of motor is estimated in terms of the ratios of different torques such as
full-load, starting, and maximum torques.
Ratio of full-load torque to maximum torque
Let,

Sf = full-load slip of the motor

Sm = slip corresponding to maximum torque .

According to the torque, the equation of motor is:

Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque

From Equations (8.16) and (8.18):

Torque–speed and torque–slip characteristics

The torque–speed and torque–slip characteristics are shown in Fig. 8.14 (a) and (b).
According to the torque equation of motor:
 Fig. (a) Torque-speed characteristics and (b) torque–slip characteristics
But for constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant:

From the above expression, it is evident that, when torque is zero, slip S = 0 in low-slip
region, slip is very very small, so that (SX2) is so small compared to R2; hence, it can be
neglected

Therefore, torque T is proportional to slip ‘S’ if rotor resistance R2 is constant. That is

speeds nearer to synchronous speeds, the torque–speed, and torque–slip curves are
approximately straight lines.

In high-slip region, the slip value approaches to unity. Here, it can be assumed that is
very small as compared to (SX2)2; hence, it can be neglected.

When slip increases, the torque increases to its maximum value when S = R2/X2.
The maximum torque is also known as pullout or breakdown torque. Beyond this, if slip
further increases torque is inversely proportional to slip if R2 and X2 are constant.

This means that the torque–speed and the torque–slip curves are approximately
straight lines. Figure 8.14 (a) and (b) shows the torque speed and the torque–slip curves
for the different values of rotor resistance.
Speed Control of Dc Motors

In practical applications, a motor may be required to perform a number of desirable

jobs conforming different load conditions and speed requirements. The availability of DC
motors to adjustment of their operating speed over wide ranges and by a variety of
methods is one of the important reasons for the strong competitive position of DC
machinery in the industrial applications.

The natures of speed control required by different industrial drives are:

1. Some drives require a continuously variable speed over the range from zero to full speed,
such drives are known as variable-speed drives.
2. Some drives require only two to three fixed speeds over a region, such drives are known
as multi-speed drives.
3. In some cases, speed is needed for adjusting or setting up the work on driven machine
only for a few revolutions per minute. Such a speed is known as creeping speed.

For example, crane or hoist requires same torque at all speeds, while a fan or
centrifugal pump requires a torque proportional to the square of the speed. For most of
the drives, however, a control of speed within ±25% of the normal speed is required.

The speed and torque of a DC motor can be expressed by the following relationships.

Where V is the terminal voltage in volts, Ia is th armature current in ampere, Ra is the

armature resistance in ohm, φ is the flux per pole in wb, TV is the speed of DC motor in
rpm, and T is the torque in N-m.

Therefore, the speed of DC motors can be regulated by varying φ, R, or V. The speed of

DC motors can be controlled by the following methods:
 1. Field control or flux control method.
2. Armature control method.
3. Applied voltage control

Speed control of DC shunt motors

Speed of DC shunt motor can be controlled by varying the flux, armature resistance, and
applied voltage to the armature terminals.
Various methods of controlling the speed of the shunt motor is given as follows.

Field control method

The speed adjustment of the DC shunt motors by field control may be obtained by one of
the following methods.
1. Field rehostatic control method.
2. Reluctance control method.
3. Field voltage control
Field-rehostatic control method

In this method, speed control is obtained by controlling the field current or flux by
means of a variable resistance inserted in series with the shunt filed winding. The external
resistance (Re) connected in series with the field winding is shown as shunt field regulator.
The method of regulating the speed by varying the flux or field current in the shunt field
winding is known as flux control method. Circuit diagram illustrating the speed control
of a shunt motor is shown in Fig. .
 Fig. Field-rehostatic control of shunt motor
The variation of external resistance 'Re’ in the filed reduces the field current and
hence the flux 'φ' also reduces. The reduction in flux will also results in an increase in the
speed. For DC shunt motor, speed is inversely proportional to field flux (φ). Since in this
method of speed control, flux can be only reduced. Consequently, the motor runs at a
speed higher than the normal speed. For this reason, this method of speed control is used
to give motor speeds above normal or to correct for a fall in speed due to load.

Reluctance control

In this method of speed control, the motor must be constructed with special
mechanical features so that the reluctance of the magnetic circuit can be changed, which
makes the motor more expensive. Hence, the variable reluctance type of motor is seldom
used.

Field voltage control

This method requires a variable voltage for the field circuit; such a variable supply
can be obtained by means of an adjustable electronic rectifier.
Armature control method of DC shunt motor

Armature control method of DC shunt motor

The speed adjustment of the DC shunt motors by armature control may be obtained by one
of the following methods.
1. Armature rehostatic control method.
2. Armature diverter method or potential divider method.

Armature rheostat control method

 In armature or rehostatic control method of speed, a variable rehostatic or
resistance connected in series with the armature is known as controller resistance. The
circuit diagram of the armature control method is shown in Fig. 8.16.

Fig. Armature rheostatic control of shunt motor

The speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the armature. Voltage
across the armature can be controlled by changing resistance connected in series with it.
As the controller resistance is increased, the potential difference across the armature is
decreased thereby decreasing the armature speed. There is a particular load current at
which the speed would be zero is called stating current. The main disadvantage of this
method is speed up to zero is not possible, as it requires large rheostat in series with the
armature that is practically impossible.

Armature diverter method or potential divider method

The main disadvantage of the above method can be overcome by connecting a
rheostat in a potential divider arrangement as shown in Fig. 1.17
 Fig. Potential divider method of shunt motor

When the variable rheostat is at minimum position, the voltage across the
armature is zero. If rheostat is moved toward maximum position, the voltage
across the armature increases then speed also increases. The variation of speed
with the armature voltage is shown in Fig.

Fig. Speed-voltage characteristics

Speed control of DC series motor

The speed control of DC series motor can be obtained by changing the series field
current, flux, or voltage applied across the armature. The methods of the speed control of
the series motor are:
1. Field control method.
2. Armature control method.

Field control method

In the series motor, the variation of flux can be brought about by diverting the
current flowing through the series field winding by any one of the following methods.
Field diverter's method
 In this method, the series field winding is shunted by a variable resistor ‘R’ known
as series field diverter. Any desired amount of current can be passed through the diverter
by adjusting its resistance. Hence, the flux can be controlled, i.e., decreased, and
consequently the speed of the motor is increased.

The arrangement of field diverter and the speed-armature current

characteristics with change in resistance ‘R’ is shown in Figs. (a) and (b).

Fig. (a) Field diverter method of speed control and (b) Speed-current characteristics

Armature diverter method

In this method, the armature of the motor is shunted with an external variable resistance
(R) as shown in Fig. is known as armature diverter.
 Fig. Armature diverter method of speed control

For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced due to armature diverter
then flux (φ) must increase (∴ T ∝ Ia). So that, the motor reacts by drawing more current
from the supply. So, the current through field winding increase, so the flux increases and
the speed of the motor reduces.

This method of speed control is used to have the speed below the normal value.

Tapped filed method

In this method, the flux change is achieved by providing a number of tapings from the field
winding, which are brought out side as shown in Fig. 8.21.

Fig. Tapped field speed control

As shown in Fig. 8.21, the selector switch ‘SW’ is provided to select number of turns. So,
the net mmf will change. This will cause the change in the speed of DC series motor.
This method is used in electric traction.
Series-parallel connection of field coils
 In this method of speed control, several speeds can be obtained by grouping the
several field coils as shown in Figs. (a) and (b). This method is used generally in case of
fan motors.

Fig. Series–parallel connection of field winding

If the field coils are arranged in series, or parallel, the mmf produced by the coils changes;
hence, the flux produced also changes. Hence, the speed is controlled.

Armature control method

Armature resistance control method is the most common method employed for
DC series motor. The arrangement and speed-current characteristics of series motor is
shown in Figs. (a) and (b).

Fig. (a) Armature control method and (b) Speed-current characteristics

By increasing the resistance in series with the armature, voltage drop across this
resistance occurs. So that, the voltage applied across the armature terminals can
be decreased. As the speed is directly proportional to the voltage across the
armature, the speed reduces.

Ward–Leonard method of speed control

The speed control of DC motor accomplished by means of an adjustable voltage

generator is called the Ward−Leonard system. If it is desired to have wide and very
sensitive speed control, then this system is more generally used. The system is as shown in
Fig...

Fig. Ward−Leonard speed control system

In Fig., R is the potential divider, M1 is the main motor whose speed is to be

Controlled is the separately excited generator that feeds the armature of the motor M1, M2
is the driving motor that drive generator and main motor, and S is a double-throw switch.
As shown in Fig. 8.24, M1 is the main motor whose speed control is required. The field
winding of this motor is permanently connected to DC supply and armature is fed from
variable voltage so that the motor can run at any desired speed. To provide this variable,
the voltage motor generator set is used, in which the generator is directly coupled to a
constant speed motor. The field circuit of this generator is separately excited from the
available DC supply through a reversing switch and a potential divider ‘R’ so that its
excitation can be varied from zero to maximum in both the directions. Thus, the generator
output voltage can be varied from zero to maximum value. The polarity of generating
voltage will be reversed with the help of reversing switch; thus, the change of the direction
of the motor M1 can be achieved.

This system is commonly employed for elevators, hoists, and main drive in
steel mills, as this method can give unlimited speed control in either direction. Since the
generator voltage can be varied gradually from zero, no extra starting equipment is
required to start up the main motor smoothly. The important feature of the Ward–Leonard
system is its regenerative action. The modified Ward–Leonard is called Ward–Leonard–
Ilgner system in which a flywheel is used in addition to motor-generator set, whose
function is to reduce fluctuations in the power demand from the supply circuit. When the
main motor M1 becomes suddenly overloaded, the driving motor M2 slows down, thus
allowing the inertia of the flywheel to supply a part of the overload. However, when the
load is suddenly thrown of the main motorM1, then M2 speeds up thereby again stores
energy in the flywheel.

Advantages of Ward–Leonard system

1. A wide range of speed from standstill to high speed in either direction.

2. Starting without any extra starting equipment.
3. Extremely good speed regulation at any speed.

Disadvantages

1. High capital cost due to the motor generator set.

2. The efficiency of this method is not so high

Speed Control of Induction Motors

A three-phase induction motor is practically a constant-speed motor as the DC

shunt motor. The speed control of DC shunt motor can be achieved easily, but it is difficult
to achieve the smooth speed control of the induction motor because the performance of
the induction motor in terms of its power factor, efficiency, etc. gets adversely effected.
We know that for the induction motor:
The speed of motor N = Ns (1−S)

From the above two relations:

The speed of the induction motor can be changed either by changing its synchronous speed
(Ns) or by changing the slip and also the parameters R2 and E2 are changed then to keep
torque constant for constant load condition, slip will change, and then its speed gets
effected.

Thus, the following methods are used for controlling the speed of the three-phase
induction motors.
From stator side
1. Supply frequency control.
2. Supply voltage control
3. Controlling the number of stator poles

From rotor side

1. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
2. Cascade control.

Stator side control

Thus, following any one method is used for controlling the speed of the three-phase
induction motors on stator side.

Speed control by varying the supply frequency

This method is impractical for most applications because the frequency of the supply
system must remain fixed. The synchronous speed is given by:

Thus, by controlling the supply frequency, the synchronous speed can be controlled over
a wide range that gives the smooth speed control of the induction motor. Hence, in this
method, variable voltage and frequency is achieved by using converter and inverter circuit
as shown in Fig...

Fig. Electronic circuit for variable frequency

Rectifier converts normal AC supply to constant DC voltage. This DC supply is then given
to inverter that converts constant DC to variable AC voltage and frequency.

Supply voltage control

This is a slip-control method with constant frequency variable supply voltage. In this
method, the voltage applied to the stator is varied.

We know that:

But, at standstill, rotor-induced emf depends on the supply voltage.

i.e., E2 ∝ V.

In the operating region of an induction motor or for low-slip region (SX2) << R2.
Rotor resistance is constant; therefore:

From the above relation, if the supply voltage ‘V ’ is reduced below the rated value torque
developed by the induction motor reduce. But, so as to maintain the torque constant for
constant load, it is necessary to increase the slip thereby decreasing the speed of induction
motor.

This method of speed control is simple, low initial cost, and has low maintenance cost, but
it has limited use because, the operation at voltage is restricted by magnetic saturation and
also large change in voltage is required for relatively for small change in speed.

Speed control by changing the number of poles

In this method, it is possible to have one or two speeds, one double of the other which is
generally obtained by changing the number of poles. It is also called as pole-changing
method. Changing the number of poles is simply affected by changing the connections of
stator winding with the help of simple switches. Due to this number of stator poles gets
changed, in the ratio 2:1. Hence, either of the two speeds can be selected.

Consider the single phase of a certain three-phase winding when the supply is
across the two terminals and the third is kept open, as shown in Fig.
 Fig. Eight-pole winding

Let the conductors which are carrying current in upward direction from South Pole, while
the conductors which carry current in downward direction from north polarity. The
distribution of current is as shown in Fig. 8.26 due to these eight poles get formed.

Now, the two terminals 1 and 2 which the supply was given earlier are joined together and
supply is given to the common point of the first two terminals and the third terminal, on
observing the direction of current, it will be found that total eight poles are changed to four
poles only as shown in Fig. so that, the speed now will be double of the previous value.

Fig. Four-pole winding

Control on rotor side

The following method is used for controlling the speed of three-phase induction
motors on rotor side.
Cascade control

Multiple speeds are derived and motors are sometimes operated in tandem or cascade. If
two motors are to be mechanically coupled together, one of the machines must be phase-
wound motor while the other can be a squirrel-cage motor. The first is connected to the
mains in the usual way, while that of the second stator is fed from the rotor winding of
the first, as shown in Fig..

Fig. Cascade control of induction motor

When two motors are operated in tandem, they may be running in the same direction, or
the phase rotation of one motor may be reversed, thus tending to make it in reverse
direction. In both the cases, the set will run after it is started, but in the latter case, no
starting torque is developed so that this connection is rarely used.

If P1 and P2 be the number poles of both the machines, then the synchronous speed of the
set is depending on total number of poles P1 + P2 in the first case and P1 − P2 in the second.
If the number of poles of the two motors is not equal; four speeds possible: two for tandem
operation and one for each motor separately.

Let ‘P1’ be the poles of main motor and ‘P2’ be the poles of the auxiliary motor.
If ‘S’ is the slip, the actual rotating speed of the motor is

But, for the induction motor, the frequency of the rotor current is ‘S’ times of supply
frequency.

Frequency fr = Sf. (8.25)

Let, fr1 be the frequency of the rotor current of the main motor and the frequency of the
rotor current of the auxiliary motor is fr2 then:

The speed of the main motor

The speed of the auxiliary motor.

As fr1 is so small, so fr2 will be very small; so that, it can be neglected.

Since, the two motors are coupled together:

Substituting fr1 from above equation in Equation (8.27), we get:

Equation (8.28) relation shows that the speed of the set is that of a single machine having
the number of poles equal to the sum of the numbers of poles of the two machines. Hence,
the set can give four different speeds. If it is required to have the speeds above the normal,
the torque of the second motor is reversed by simply changing two of the leads of the
second. This is known as differential cascading

Rating of Motor

The selection of motor for particular drive application based on the size of motor depends
upon the following two factors:

1. Maximum temperature raise for a given load.

2. Maximum torque required.

The size of motor and its rating are mainly dependent upon the raise in temperature. The
temperature raise in turn depends upon the type of insulation used.
Temperature raise of motor
The various losses takes place in any motor will be converted into heat. The heat
thus produced will increase the temperature of various parts of the motor. The increase in
temperature is mainly dependent on the following two factors:

1. Amount of heat developed internally at uniform rate.

2. The amount of heat dissipated from the surface of the motor.
In fact, the continuous rating of a machine is that rating for which the final
temperature raise is equal to or just below the permissible value of the temperature raise
for the insulating material used in protection of motor windings. When the machine is
overloaded for such a long time that its final temperature raise exceeds the permissible
limit, it is likely to be damaged. Sometimes, it will results immediate breakdown of
insulating material which will cause a sudden short circuit in the motor, which may also
lead to a fire. Since temperature raise is one of the chief features in fixing the size of motor.
The temperature raise will be high in the beginning and will decrease gradually with the
passage of time and finally the temperature of the motor attains a steady-state value. At
this point, the heat produced and dissipated will be equal.

The above circumstances make the heating calculations very complex and practically
impossible unless certain assumptions are made as:
1. Heat developed, i.e., losses remains constant during temperature raise.
2. The heat dissipation is directly proportional to the difference in the temperature of
motor and cooling medium, i.e., Newton's law of cooling hold's good.
3. The temperature of cooling medium remains unchanged.
4. The motor is assumed to be a homogeneous mass having the same and uniform
temperature in all parts. It implies high thermal conductivity.
5. For the determination of an expression for the temperature raise of an electrical machine
after time‘t’ seconds from the instance of switching it on.

Let P is the electrical power converted into heat (W or J/sec), M is the mass of active parts
of motor (kg), S is the specific heat of material (J/kg/°C), O is the temperature raise above
the cooling medium or ambient temperature (°C), A is the surface area of cooling, (m2),
θf is the final temperature raise with constant load (°C), and λ is the coefficient of cooling
or the rate of heat dissipation (W/m2/°C raise).

Now, let us assume that the machine attains a temperature raise of θ°C above
ambient temperature after ‘t’ seconds of switching on the machine and further
raise of temperature by dθ in very small time ‘dt’ seconds.

The rate at which the loss takes place or the heat is absorbed by the motor

The rate at which heat is dissipated = Aθλ J/sec.

But, the rate at which the electrical power converted into heat = the rate at which the heat
is absorbed + the rate at which the heat dissipated by the motor.

Integrating the Equation (8.30):

Where K is the integration constant.

Initially, at time t = 0 sec, temperature raise θ = 0°C.

By substituting t = 0 and θ = 0 in Equation (8.31), we get the integration constant (K):

Substituting the value of ‘K’ in Equation (8.31), we get:

By applying exponential on both side, we get

When‘t’ is infinity, ‘θ’ approaches to its final steady-state temperature ‘θf’. So, by
substituting = ∞ and θ = θf in Equation (8.33), we get:

Substituting in Equation (8.33), we get:

where is known as heating time constant of motor.
The above relation is the equation of temperature rise with time. The temperature raise
time curve or heating curve is exponential in nature as shown in Fig.
From the equation of temperature raise:

Fig. Heating curve

At t = Th, θ = θf [1 − e−1]
θ = 0.632 θf.

Thus, heating time constant can be defined as follows:

The heating time constant is the time taken by the machine to attain 63.2% of its final
steady temperature raise (θf).
The heating time constant of the conventional electrical machines is usually within the
range of 0.5–3 for 4 h.
Cooling of motor

Let us assume, if the supply to the motor is switched off, after attaining the final steady
temperature raise of ‘θf”, the motor starts cooling. When the machine is switched off, no
heat is produced, therefore:

Heat absorbed + heat dissipated = 0

Where λ = heat dissipation during cooling of motor

Integrating the Equation (8.37):

where K1 is the integration constant.

The value of K1 is obtained by using the initial conditions, when t = 0 and θ = θf, we get:

Substituting Equation (8.39) in Equation (8.38):

Applying exponentials on both side λ

where is known as cooling time constant.

The above relation is the equation of cooling of motor. The cooling curve is exponentially
decaying in nature as shown in Fig.
 Fig. Cooling curve

From the cooling equation, at time t = Tc:

We have θ = θf (e−1)
θ = 0.368θf.

Thus, we can define the cooling time constant as:

The cooling time constant is defined as the time required cooling the machine down to
36.8% of the initial temperature raise above the ambient temperature.

The heating and cooling curves follows an exponential law. Heating time constant and
cooling time constant may be different for the same machine and also the cooling time
constant of rotating machine is larger than its heating time constant, due to poorer
ventilation conditions when the machine cools.

Figure (a) and (b) shows the heating and cooling curves of a motor for short-time and
intermittent loads.

Fig. (a) Short-time load motor (b) intermittent-time load motor

Types of Loads
While selecting a motor, in addition to the information of
load−speed−torque characteristics, the variation of load torque, losses, and temperature
raise with time is also needed. In case the load and torque verses time variation is periodic
and repetitive, such one cycle of variation of load with time is known as load or duty cycle.
The various types of loads that occur in industrial practice can be classified depending
upon their variation with time and duty cycle, which can be specified by the load diagram.
Figure shows the typical duty cycle or load cycle which will give the variation of load with
time and also the type of load.

Fig. Duty cycle or load cycle

Classification of loads with respect to time

The loads are classified with respect to time as follows.

Continuous and constant loads

The loads on the motor operate for a long time under the same conditions.

Ex: fan, compressors, conveyors, centrifugal pumps, etc.

Continuous and variable loads

The load on the motor operates repetitively for a longer duration but varies continuously
over a period.
Ex: metal cutting lathes, hoist winches, conveyors, etc.

Pulsating loads
The load on the motor which can be viewed as constant torque superimposed by
pulsations.
Ex: tile looms, reciprocating pumps, certain type of loads with crankshaft, frame saws,
etc.

Impact loads

The load on the motor having regular and repetitive load peaks or pulses, i.e., load
increases to a maximum level suddenly.
Ex: rolling mills, shearing machines, etc.

Short-time intermittent loads

The load on the motor occurs periodically in identically duty cycle, each duty cycle having
a period of application of load and rest.
Ex: Roller trains, cranes, hoisting mechanisms, etc.

Short-time loads

The load on the motor occurs periodically remains constant for short time and then
remains idle or off for longer time.

Ex: servomotors, motor–generator sets, used for charging batteries, drilling machines,
etc.

Classification of loads with respect to duty cycle

There are three basic classifications of duties of an electric motor. They are:

Continuous duty cycle.

Short-time duty cycle.

Intermittent duty cycle.

Continuous duty cycle

Continuous duty is the duty when the on-period is so long that the motor attains a steady-
state temperature raise. The motor so selected should be able to withstand momentary
overload capacity. This type of motors will have high efficiency because they will be
operating almost at its full load and also have good power factor.

There are mainly two types of continuous duty cycle. They are:

Continuous duty at constant load cycle.

Continuous duty at variable load cycle.

In continuous duty with constant load cycle, the load torque remains constant for a
sufficiently longer period. The variation of torque against time for continuous duty is
shown in Fig

Fig. Continuous duty with constant load

Ex: Conveyors, compressors, fan, etc. in which continuous duty at constant load occurs.

In continuous duty with variable load cycle, the load on the motor is not constant, but it
has several phases in one cycle. The variation of load against time for variable load cycle
is shown in Fig. The selection of motor for this type of duty involves thermal calculation,
which is a difficult task. The motors operating for such type of duties will have poor
efficiency and also poor power factor.
 Fig. Continuous duty with variable load

The selection of motor for this type of duty may be based on average power or average
current method.

Short-time duty

In this type of duty, the load occurs on the motor during a small interval and the remains
idle for long time to re-establish the equality of temperature with the cooling medium. The
variation of the load against time for short-time duty is shown in Fig.

Fig. Load cycle for short time duty

Usually, such type of short-time duty occurs in bridges, lock gates, and some other
household appliances such as mixes.

Intermittent duty

The duty in which load on the motor varies periodically in a sequence of identical
cycles shown in Fig. in which motor is loaded for sometimes ‘ton’ and shut off for a period
of ‘toff’

Fig. Load cycle for intermittent duty

Motor heats during ‘on’ period ‘ton’ and cools down during ‘off’ period ‘toff’. The ratio of ‘ton’
to (ton + toff) is known as duty ratio.

Maximum temperature attained with intermittent loading can be obtained by using the
temperature raise and cooling equations of motor, and is given as follows.

Let θh, θn1, θh2, …θhn–1 be the temperature raise and be the fall in temperature for ‘n’
times intermittency.

Let t1 be the duration of heating in second, t2 be the duration of cooling in second, τn be

the heating time constant in second, τC be the cooling time constant in second, and θf be
the maximum permissible temperature raise of motor.
 Substituting Equation (8.41) in Equation (8.42):

We get θC = θf (1 − ex)ey. (8.43)

Similarly, for the next intermittent loading:

Similarly, for the next ‘on’ and ‘off’ periods:

 Similarly, for ‘n’ times intermittency:

As n → ∞ both enx and eny will be zero, as x and y are negative. If ‘θm’ be the maximum
temperature with intermittent loading then:

By substituting x and y values in the above equations

Load Equalization
 The load fluctuations take place in many of the industrial drives such as
rolling mills, planning machines presses, and reciprocating pumps, where the load on the
motor varies widely within a span of few seconds. The sudden and peak load requires very
large current from the supply results high voltage drop in the system or alternately would
require very large size of cables. It is very essential to smooth out fluctuating load is known
as ‘load equalization’. The load equalization involves the storage of energy during the off-
peak period and gives out during the peak load period.

Load equalization process is commonly achieved by means of a flywheel. A flywheel is

nothing but a big wheel that is mounted on the same shaft of motor, if the speed of the
motor is not to be reversed or a heavy rotating body that acts as a reservoir for absorbing
and redistributing stored energy is also known as flywheel.

Function of flywheel
To operate the flywheel efficiently, the driving motor should have
drooping speed characteristics. The various models of flywheel are shown in Fig. (a) and
(b). During the light load, the acceleration of the flywheel is increased and it stores the
kinetic energy and at the time of peak load, the flywheel slows down and the stored kinetic
energy is given out to the load; so that, the demand of the load from the motor or supply
is reduced.

Fig. Flywheel
It is necessary that the motor used for load equalization should have drooping
characteristics. The flywheel is not used with motors having constant speed for example
synchronous motor. The torque developed by the motor and the load torque required as
well as the speed variations with time are shown in Fig. .

Fig. Motor torque, load torque, and speed variations against time

Flywheel calculations
Let us consider a flywheel is attached to a variable speed motor to achieve load
equalization.

Let TL be the load torque (assumed constant during particular interval) in N-m.
TM is the motor torque in N-m, TF is the flywheel torque in N-m, T0 is the no-load
torque in N-m, ω0 is the motor speed on no-load in rad/sec, ω is the motor speed
at any instant in rad/sec, and Jis the moment of inertia of flywheel in kg-m2.
= (ω0 − ω) = motor slip.

Case (i): Let us consider that the load on the motor is increasing; during this
period, the flywheel will decelerate and impart its stored kinetic energy to the
load. The torque required to be supplied by the motor:
 TM = TL − TF. (8.50)
The kinetic energy given by the flywheel when its speed reduced from ω0 to ω is:

Then, Equation (8.51) becomes:

KE = JωS. (8.52)

The power given out by the flywheel = the rate of change of the energy given up by the
flywheel.

By substituting Equation (8.54) in Equation (8.50), we get:

If the slip, i.e., drop in speed limited to 10%, then the slip is proportional to the motor
torque:
i.e., S ∝ TM

Integrating the Equation (8.56):

where C is proportionality constant.

At time t = 0, the motor torque will be equals to the no-load torque:

i.e., at t = 0, TM = T0. (8.58)

The value of ‘C’ can be determined by using the initial conditions. Substituting Equation
(8.58) in Equation (8.57):

C = −loge (TL − T0).

Substituting ‘C’ value in Equation (8.57):

Applying exponentials on both sides:

Case (ii): Now consider that the load is totally removed or decreasing, the motor starts
accelerating and so the KE is stored by the flywheel. Hence, the flywheel regains its normal
speed; therefore, the slip decreases, i.e., is negative. Now, motor torque will be:

But

Substitute Equation (8.62) in Equation (8.61):

We know that S ∝ TM
 Integrating on both sides

Where ‘C2’ is integration constant.

The value of constant can be obtained by substituting the initial conditions in Equation
(8.64).

By substituting ‘C2’ in Equation (8.64), we get

Applying exponentials on both sides:

 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
UNIT – II

A) ELECTRIC HEATING
Advantages and methods of electric heating, resistance heating induction heating and dielectric
heating.
B) ELECTRIC WELDING
Electric welding, resistance and arc welding, electric welding equipment, comparison between
A.C. and D.C. Welding.

Electric Heating:

Introduction:

Heat plays a major role in everyday life. All heating requirements in domestic purposes
such as cooking, room heater, immersion water heaters, and electric toasters and also in
industrial purposes such as welding, melting of metals, tempering, hardening, and drying can be
met easily by electric heating, over the other forms of conventional heating. Heat and electricity
are interchangeable. Heat also can be produced by passing the current through material to be
heated. This is called electric heating; there are various methods of heating a material but electric
heating is considered far superior compared to the heat produced by coal, oil, and natural gas.

Advantages Of Electric Heating

The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:

(i) Economical

Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not require much skilled persons; therefore,
maintenance cost is less.

(ii) Cleanliness

Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the electric heating, it keeps surroundings
cleanly.

1
(iii) Pollution free

As there are no flue gases in the electric heating, atmosphere around is pollution free; no need of
providing space for their exit.

(iv) Ease of control

In this heating, temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately either manually or
automatically.

(v) Uniform heating

With electric heating, the substance can be heated uniformly, throughout whether it may
be conducting or non-conducting material.

(vi) High efficiency

In non-electric heating, only 40–60% of heat is utilized but in electric heating 75–100% of
heat can be successfully utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very high.

(vii) Automatic protection

Protection against over current and overheating can be provided by using fast control devices.

(viii) Heating of non-conducting materials

The heat developed in the non-conducting materials such as wood and porcelain is possible only
through the electric heating.

(ix) Better working conditions

No irritating noise is produced with electric heating and also radiating losses are low.

(x) Less floor area

Due to the compactness of electric furnace, floor area required is less.

2
(xi) High temperature

High temperature can be obtained by the electric heating except the ability of the material to
withstand the heat.

(xii) Safety
The electric heating is quite safe.

Modes Of Transfer Of Heat

The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the temperature
gradient takes place by any of the following methods:

1. Conduction,
2. Convection,
3. Radiation.

Conduction

In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part without the movement
in the molecules of substance. The rate of the conduction of heat along the substance depends
upon the temperature gradient.

The amount of heat passed through a cubic body with two parallel faces with thickness ‘t’
meters, having the cross-sectional area of ‘A’ square meters and the temperature of its two
faces T1°C and T2°C, during ‘T’ hours is given by:

3
Where k is the coefficient of the thermal conductivity for the material and it is measured
in MJ/m3/°C/hr.

Ex: Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.

Convection

In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of substance or fluid
due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of heat depends mainly on the
difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.

Ex: Immersion water heater.

The mount of heat absorbed by the water from heater through convection depends mainly
upon the temperature of heating element and also depends partly on the position of the heater.

Heat dissipation is given by the following expression.

= a (T1 – T2)b W/m2,

where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the constants whose values are depend upon the heating surface
and T1and T2 are the temperatures of heating element and fluid in °C, respectively.

Radiation

In this mode, the heat transfers from source to the substance to be heated without heating the
medium in between. It is dependent on surface.
Ex: Solar heaters.

The rate of heat dissipation through radiation is given by Stefan's Law.

Where T1 is the temperature of the source in kelvin, T2 is the temperature of the substance to
be heated in kelvin, and k is the radiant efficiency:

4
 =1, for single element

0.5–0.8, for several elements

e = emissivity = 1, for black body

0.9, for resistance heating element.

From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to the difference of fourth power of
the temperature, so it is very efficient heating at high temperature.

Essential Requirements Of Good Heating Element:

The materials used for heating element should have the following properties:

High-specific resistance
Material should have high-specific resistance so that small length of wire may
be required to provide given amount of heat.
High-melting point
It should have high-melting point so that it can withstand for high temperature, a
small increase in temperature will not destroy the element.

Low temperature coefficient of resistance

From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to fourth powers of the
temperatures, it is very efficient heating at high temperature.

For accurate temperature control, the variation of resistance with the operating
temperature should be very low. This can be obtained only if the material has
low temperature coefficient of resistance
Free from oxidation
The element material should not be oxidized when it is subjected to high temperatures;
otherwise the formation of oxidized layers will shorten its life.
High-mechanical strength
The material should have high-mechanical strength and should withstand
for mechanical vibrations.

5
 Non-corrosive
The element should not corrode when exposed to atmosphere or any other chemical
fumes.
Economical

The cost of material should not be so high

Material For Heating Elements

The selection of a material for heating element is depending upon the service conditions
such as maximum operating temperature and the amount of charge to be heated, but no single
element will not satisfy all the requirements of the heating elements. The materials normally
used as heating elements are either alloys of nickel–chromium, nickel–chromium–iron, nickel–
chromium–aluminum, or nickel–copper.

Nickel–chromium–iron alloy is cheaper when compared to simple nickel–chromium alloy.

The use of iron in the alloy reduces the cost of final product but, reduces the life of the alloy, as
it gets oxidized soon. We have different types of alloys for heating elements. Table 4.1 gives the
relevant properties of some of the commercial heating elements.

Table: Properties of some heating elements

6
 The properties of some commercial heating element materials commonly employed for low
and medium temperatures up to 1,200°C are Ni–Cr and an alloy of Ni–Cr–Fe composition of
these alloys are given Above Table For operating temperatures above 1,200°C, the heating
elements are made up of silicon carbide, molybdenum, tungsten, and graphite. (Ni–Cu alloy is
frequently used for heating elements operating at low temperatures. Its most important property
is that it has virtually zero resistance and temperature coefficient.)

Causes of Failure of Heating Elements

Heating element may fail due to any one of the following reasons.

1. Formation of hot spots.

2. Oxidation of the element and intermittency of operation.
3. Embrittlement caused by gain growth.
4. Contamination and corrosion.

Methods of Electric Heating

Heat can be generated by passing the current through a resistance or induced currents. The
initiation of an arc between two electrodes also develops heat. The bombardment by some heat
energy particles such as α, γ, β, and x-rays or accelerating ion can produce heat on a surface.

Electric heating can be broadly classified as follows.

(i) Direct resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through the charge (or) substance to
be heated. This principle of heating is employed in electrode boiler.

(ii) Indirect resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through a wire or high-resistance heating
element, the heat so developed is transferred to charge from the heating element by convection or
radiation. This method of heating is employed in immersion water heaters

7
 Fig. Classification of electrical heating

Infrared (or) radiant heating

In this method of heating, the heat energy is transferred from source (incandescent lamp) and
focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of electromagnetic radiations. Normally,
this method is used for drying clothes in the textile industry and to dry the wet paints on an
object.

Direct arc heating

In this method, by striking the arc between the charge and the electrode or electrodes, the heat so
developed is directly conducted and taken by the charge. The furnace operating on this principle
is known as direct arc furnaces. The main application of this type of heating is production of
steel.

8
Indirect arc heating

In this method, arc is established between the two electrodes, the heat so developed is transferred to
the charge (or) substance by radiation. The furnaces operating on this principle are known as indirect
arc furnaces. This method is generally used in the melting of non-ferrous metals.

Direct induction heating

In this method of heating, the currents are induced by electromagnetic action in the charge to
be heated. These induced currents are used to melt the charge in induction furnace.

Indirect induction heating

In this method, eddy currents are induced in the heating element by electromagnetic action.
Thus, the developed heat in the heating element is transferred to the body (or) charge to be
heated by radiation (or) convection. This principle of heating is employed in induction furnaces
used for the heat treatment of metals.

Dielectric heating

In this method of electric heating, the heat developed in a non-metallic material due to
inter-atomic friction, known as dielectric loss. This principle of heating usually employed
for preheating of plastic performs, baking foundry cores, etc.

Resistance Heating:

When the electric current is made to pass through a high-resistive body (or) substance, a power
loss takes place in it, which results in the form of heat energy, i.e., resistance heating is passed
upon the I2R effect. This method of heating has wide applications such as drying, baking of
potteries, commercial and domestic cooking, and the heat treatment of metals such as annealing
and hardening. In oven where wire resistances are employed for heating, temperature up to about
1,000°C can be obtained.

9
 The resistance heating is further classified as:

1.Direct resistance heating,

2. Indirect resistance heating, and

3. Infrared (or) radiant heating

Direct Resistance Heating

In this method, electrodes are immersed in a material or charge to be heated. The

charge may be in the form of powder, pieces, or liquid. The electrodes are connected to AC or
DC supply as shown in Fig. 1.1 In case of DC or 1-φ AC, two electrodes are immersed and
three electrodes are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in case of availability of
3-φsupply. When metal pieces are to be heated, the powder of lightly resistive is sprinkled over
the surface of the charge (or) pieces to avoid direct short circuit. The current flows through the
charge and heat is produced in the charge itself. So, this method has high efficiency. As the
current in this case is not variable, so that automatic temperature control is not possible. This
method of heating is employed in salt bath furnace and electrode boiler for heating water

Fig 2.1 Direct resistance heating

10
(i) Salt bath furnace

This type of furnace consists of a bath and containing some salt such as molten sodium
chloride and two electrodes immersed in it.

Such salt have a fusing point of about 1,000–1,500°C depending upon the type of salt used.
When the current is passed between the electrodes immersed in the salt, heat is developed and
the temperature of the salt bath may be increased. Such an arrangement is known as a salt bath
furnace.

In this bath, the material or job to be heated is dipped. The electrodes should be carefully
immersed in the bath in such a way that the current flows through the salt and not through the job
being heated. As DC will cause electrolysis so, low-voltage AC up to 20 V and current up to
3,000 A is adopted depending upon the type of furnaces.

The resistance of the salt decreases with increase in the temperature of the salt, therefore,
in order to maintain the constant power input, the voltage can be controlled by providing a tap
changing transformer. The control of power input is also affected by varying the depth of
immersion and the distance between the electrodes.

Fig 2.2 Salt Bath Furnace

11
(ii) Electrode boiler:

It is used to heat the water by immersing three electrodes in a tank as shown in Fig. 1.3
This is based on the principle that when the electric current passed through the water produces
heat due to the resistance offered by it. For DC supply, it results in a lot of evolution of H 2 at
negative electrode and O2 at positive electrode. Whereas AC supply hardly results in any
evolution of gas, but heats the water. Electrode boiler tank is earthed solidly and connected to
the ground. A circuit breaker is usually incorporated to make and break all poles simultaneously
and an over current protective device is provided in each conductor feeding an electrode.

Fig. 2.3 Electrode boiler

Indirect resistance heating

In the indirect resistance heating method, high current is passed through the heating
element. In case of industrial heating, sometimes the heating element is placed in a cylinder
which is surrounded by the charge placed in a jacket is known as heating chamber is shown in
Fig. 1.4. The heat is proportional to power loss produced in the heating element is delivered to
the charge by one or more of the modes of the transfer of heat viz. conduction, convection, and
radiation. This arrangement provides uniform temperature and automatic temperature control.
Generally, this method of heating is used in immersion water heaters, room heaters, and the
resistance ovens used in domestic and commercial cooling and salt bath furnace.

12
 Fig. 2.4 Indirect resistance heating

Resistance ovens

According to the operating temperatures, the resistance furnaces may be classified into
various types. Low-temperature heating chamber with the provision for ventilation is called as
oven. For drying varnish coating, the hardening of synthetic materials, and commercial and
domestic heating, etc., the resistance ovens are employed. The operating temperature of medium
temperature furnaces is between 300°C and 1,050°C. These are employed for the melting of non-
ferrous metals, stove (annealing), etc. Furnaces operating at temperature between 1,050°C and
1,350°C are known as high-temperature furnaces. These furnaces are employed for hardening
applications. A simple resistance oven is shown in Fig. 1.5

Fig. 2.5 Resistance oven

13
Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating elements are placed as shown
in the Fig.2.5 the inner surface of the heating chamber is made to suit the character of the
charge and the type of furnace or oven. The type of insulation used for heating chamber is
determined by the maximum temperature of the heating chamber.

Efficiency and losses of resistance ovens

The heat produced in the heating elements, not only raises the temperature of the charge
to desired value, but also used to overcome the losses occurring due to:

1. Heat used in raising the temperature of oven (or) furnace.

2. Heat used in raising the temperature of containers (or) carriers,
3. Heat conducted through the walls.
4. Heat loss due to the opening of oven door.

The efficiency of the resistance oven lies in between 60% and 80%.

Infrared or radiant heating

In this method of heating, the heat transfer takes place from the source to the body to be
heated through radiation, for low and medium temperature applications. Whereas in resistance
ovens, the heat transfers to the charge partly by convection and partly by radiation. In the
radiant heating, the heating element consists of tungsten filament lamps together with reflector
and to direct all the heat on the charge. Tungsten filament lamps are operating at 2,300°C
instead of 3,000°C to give greater portion of infrared radiation and a longer life. The radiant
heating is mainly used for drying enamel or painted surfaces. The high concentration of the
radiant energy enables the heat to penetrate the coating of paint or enamel to a depth sufficient
to dry it out without wasting energy in the body of the work piece.

The main advantage of the radiant heating is that the heat absorption remains
approximately constant whatever the charge temperature, whereas with the ordinary oven the
heat absorption falls off very considerably as the temperature of the charge raises. The lamp
ratings used are usually between 250 and 1,000 W and are operating at voltage of 115 V in
order to ensure a robust filament.

14
Temperature control of Resistance Heating:

To control the temperature of a resistance heating at certain selected points in a furnace or oven,
as per certain limits, such control may be required in order to hold the temperature constant or to
vary it in accordance with a pre-determined cycle and it can be carried out by hand or
automatically.

In resistance furnaces, the heat developed depends upon I2 R t (or) t. Therefore, the
temperature of the furnaces can be controlled either by:

1. Changing the resistance of elements.

2. Changing the applied voltage to the elements (or) current passing through the elements.
3. Changing the ratio of the on-and-off times of the supply.

Voltage across the furnace can be controlled by changing the transformer tapings.
Auto transformer or induction regulator can also be used for variable voltage supply. In
addition to the above, voltage can be controlled by using a series resistance so that some
voltage dropped across this series resistor. But this method is not economical as the power is
continuously wasted in controlling the resistance. Hence, this method is limited to small
furnaces. An on-off switch can be employed to control the temperature. The time for which
the oven is connected to the supply and the time for which it is disconnected from supply will
determine the temperature.

Temperature can be controlled by providing various combinations of groups of

resistances used in the furnace and is given as follows:

(i) Variable number of elements

If ‘R’ be the resistance of one element and ‘n’ be the number of elements are connected
in parallel, so that the equivalent resistance is R/n.

Heat developed in the furnace is:

15
i.e., if the number of elements connected in parallel increases, the heat developed in the furnace
also increased. This method does not provide uniform heating unless elements not in use are
well distributed.

(ii) Series parallel (or) star delta arrangement of elements

If the available supply is single phase, the heating elements can be connected in series for
the low temperatures and connected in parallel for the high temperature by means of a
series— parallel switch.

In case, if the available supply is three phase, the heating elements can be connected in star
for the low temperature and in delta for the high temperatures by using star—delta switch.

High-Frequency Heating

The main difference between the power-frequency and the high-frequency heating is
that in the conventional methods, the heat is transferred either by conduction convection or by
radiation, but in the high-frequency heating methods, the electromagnetic energy converted
into the heat energy inside the material.

The high-frequency heating can be applied to two types of materials. The heating of the
conducting materials, such as Ferro-magnetic and non-Ferro-magnetic, is known as induction
heating. The process of heating of the insulating materials is known as dielectric heating

The heat transfer by the conventional method is very low of the order of 0.5–20 W/sq.
cm. And, the heat transfer rate by the high-frequency heating either by induction or by
dielectric heating is as much as 10,000 W/sq. cm. Thus, the high-frequency heating is most
importance for tremendous speed of production.

16
Induction Heating

The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the electromagnetic
action in the material to be heated. To develop sufficient amount of heat, the resistance of the
 V2 

material must be low  Powerdrawn   which is possible only with the metals, and the
 R 
voltage must be higher, which can be obtained by employing higher flux and higher frequency.
Therefore, the magnetic materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials due to their high
permeability.

In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider a circular disc to
be heated carrying a current of ‘I’ amps at a frequency ‘f’ Hz. As shown in Fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.6 Induction heating

Heat developed in the disc is depending upon the following factors.

1. Primary coil current.

2. The number of the turns of the coil.
3. Supply frequency.
4. The magnetic coupling between the coil and the disc.
5. The high electrical resistivity of the disc.

17
If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to eddy current loss,
whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis loss in addition to eddy current loss.
Both hysteresis and eddy current loss are depended upon frequency, but at high-frequency
hysteresis, loss is very small as compared to eddy currents.

The depth of penetration of induced currents into the disc is given by:

Where ρ is the specific resistance in Ω-cm, f is the frequency in Hz, and μ is the permeability
of the charge.

There are basically two types of induction furnaces and they are:
1. Core type or low-frequency induction furnace.
2. Coreless type or high-frequency induction furnace.

Core type furnace

The operating principle of the core type furnace is the electromagnetic induction. This furnace
is operating just like a transformer. It is further classified as:

Direct core type.

1. Vertical core type.
2. Indirect core type.

18
 (i) Direct core type induction furnace:
The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be heated forms
single-turn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron core as
shown in Fig. 2.7

Fig. 2.7 Direct core type furnace

The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which contains the charge to
be melted in the form of an annular ring. This type of furnace has the following characteristics:

1. This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically interlinked with primary
winding, which is energized from an AC source. The magnetic coupling between primary and
secondary is very weak; it results in high leakage reactance and low pf. To overcome the
increase in leakage reactance, the furnace should be operated at low frequency of the order of
10 Hz.

2. When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes open circuited thereby
cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace, the molten metal has to be taken in
the hearth to keep the secondary as short circuit.

3. Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence and severe stirring action
in the molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is also necessary to operate the furnace at low
frequency.

19
4. In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator set (or) frequency
changer is to be provided, which involves the extra cost.

5. The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical
viewpoint.

6. If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-electromagnetic forces
in the molten metal and hence adjacent molecules repel each other, as they are in the same
direction. The repulsion may cause the interruption of secondary circuit (formation of
bubbles and voids); this effect is known as pinch effect. The pinch effect is also dependent
on frequency; at low frequency, this effect is negligible, and so it is necessary to operate the
furnace at low frequency.

(ii) Vertical core type induction furnace

It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of the
disadvantages mentioned above. This type of furnace consists of a vertical core instead of
horizontal core as shown in Fig.2.8 It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

Fig. 2.8 Vertical core type furnace (Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace)

20
 Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the main body of
the crucible. The leakage reactance is comparatively low and the power factor is high as the
magnetic coupling is high compared to direct core type.

There is a tendency of molten metal to accumulate at the bottom that keeps the secondary
completed for a vertical core type furnace as it consists of narrow V-shaped channel.

The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the type charge used. Clay lining is
used for yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is used for red brass.

The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which can be removed for
admitting the charge. Necessary hydraulic arrangements are usually made for tilting the furnace
to take out the molten metal. Even though it is having complicated construction, it is operating
at power factor of the order of 0.8–0.83. This furnace is normally used for the melting and
refining of brass and non-ferrous metals.

Advantages

1. Accurate temperature control and reduced metal losses.

2. Absence of crucibles.
3. Consistent performance and simple control.
4. It is operating at high power factor.
5. Pinch effect can be avoided.

ii) Indirect core type furnace

This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple induction
furnace with the absence of core is shown in Fig. 2.9. The secondary winding itself forms the
walls of the container or furnace and an iron core links both primary and secondary windings.

The heat produced in the secondary winding is transmitted to the charge by radiation. An
oven of this type is in direct competition with ordinary resistance oven.

21
 Fig. 2.9 Indirect core type furnace

It consists of a magnetic circuit AB is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside the
chamber of the furnace. This magnetic circuit loses its magnetic properties at certain temperature
and regains them again when it is cooled to the same temperature.

When the oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases
many times and the inductive effect decreases thereby cutting off the supply heat. Thus, the

Temperature of the furnace can be effectively controlled. The magnetic circuit ‘AB’ is
detachable type that can be replaced by the other magnetic circuits having critical temperatures
ranging between 400°C and 1,000°C. The furnace operates at a pf of around 0.8.

The main advantage of such furnace is wide variation of temperature control is possible.

22
Coreless type induction furnace

It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown in Fig. 2.10. In this furnace, heat
developed in the charge due to eddy currents flowing through it.

Fig. 2.10 Coreless induction furnace

The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed within a
coil that forms primary of the transformer. The furnace also contains a conducting or non-
conducting container that acts as secondary.

If the container is made up of conducting material, charge can be conducting or non-

conducting; whereas, if the container is made up of non-conducting material, charge
taken should have conducting properties.

When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up by these coils
induce the eddy currents in the charge. The direction of the resultant eddy current is in a
direction opposite to the current in the primary coil. These currents heat the charge to melting
point and they also set up electromagnetic forces that produce a stirring action to the charge.

23
The eddy currents developed in any magnetic circuit are given as: We ∝ Bm2f2,
Where Bm is the maximum flux density (tesla), f is the frequency in (Hz), and We is the
eddy current loss (watts).

In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is no core. Hence, the primary
supply should have high frequency for compensating the low flux density.

If it is operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it results copper loss, thereby
increasing the temperature of the primary winding. This necessitates in artificial cooling. The
coil, therefore, is made of hollow copper tube through which cold water is circulated.

Minimum stray magnetic field is maintained when designing coreless furnace, otherwise
there will be considerable eddy current loss.

The selection of a suitable frequency of the primary current can be given by

penetration formula. According to this:

where’d’ is the thickness up to which current in the metal has penetrated, ‘ρ’ is the resistivity in
Ω-cm,'μ’ is the permeability of the material, and ‘f’ is the frequency in Hz.

For the efficient operation, the ratio of the diameter of the charge (d) to the depth of the
penetration of currents (t) should be more than ‘6’, therefore let us take:

Substitute above in Equation.

24
Following are the advantages of coreless furnace over the other furnaces:

1. Ease of control.
2. Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.
3. The eddy currents in the charge itself results in automatic stirring.
4. The cost is less for the erection and operation.
5. It can be used for heating and melting.
6. Any shape of crucible can be used.
7. It is suitable for intermittent operation.

Dielectric Heating

When non-metallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, and china glass are
subjected to high-voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses, and due to interatomic
friction caused by the repeated deformation and the rotation of atomic structure (polarization),
heat is produced. This is known as dielectric loss. This dielectric loss in insulators corresponds
to hysteresis loss in Ferro-magnetic materials. This loss is due to the reversal of magnetism or
magneto molecular friction. These losses developed in a material that has to be heated.

An atom of any material is neutral, since the central positive charge is equals to the negative
charge. So that, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide as long as there is no
external field is applied, as shown in Fig. (a). When this atom is subjected to the influence of
the electric field, the positive charge of the nucleus is acted upon by some force in the direction
of negative charges in the opposite direction. Therefore, the effective centers of both positive
and negative charges no longer coincident as shown in Fig. (b). The electric charge of an atom
equivalent to Fig.(b) is shown in Fig. (c).

25
 Fig 2.11 Polarization

This gives raise to an electric dipole moment equal to P = q d, where d is the distance
between the two centers and q is the charge on the nucleus.

Now, the atom is said to be polarized atom. If we apply alternating voltage across the
capacitor plate, we will get alternating electric field

Electric dipoles will also try to change their orientation according to the direction of the
impressed electric field. In doing so, some energy will be wasted as inter-atomic friction, which
is called dielectric loss.

As there is no perfect conductor, so there is no perfect insulator. All the dielectric

materials can be represented by a parallel combination of a leakage resistor ‘R’ and a
capacitor ‘C’ as shown in Fig. 2.12 (a) and (b).

Fig 2.12 Dielectric heating

If an AC voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, an electric current flows; total

current ‘I’ supposed to be made up of two components IC and IR, where IC is the capacitive
current leading the applied voltage by 90° and IR is in phase with applied voltage as shown in
Fig. 2.12 (c).

26
 .

where ‘V' is the applied voltage in volts, ‘f’ is the supply frequency in Hz, ɛ0 is the absolute
permittivity of the medium = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m, ɛr is the relative permittivity of the medium =
1 for free space, A is the area of the plate or electrode (m2), d is the thickness of the dielectric
medium, and δ is the loss angle in radian.

From Equation (4.14):

Normally frequency used for dielectric heating is in the range of 1–40 MHz. The use of high
voltage is also limited due to the breakdown voltage of thin dielectric that is to be heated,
under normal conditions; the voltage gradient used is limited to 18 kV/cm.

The advantages of the dielectric heating

1. The heating of the non-conducting materials is very rapid.

2. The uniform heating of material is possible.
3. Heat is produced in the whole mass of the material.

27
The applications of the dielectric heating

1. The drying of paper, wood, etc.

2. The gluing of wood.
3. The heat-sealing of plastic sheets.
4. The heating for the general processing such as coffee roasting and chocolate industry.
5. The heating for the dehydration such as milk, cream, and vegetables.
6. The preparation of thermoplastic resins.
7. The heating of bones and tissues.
8 Diathermy, i.e., the heat treatment for certain body pains and diseases, etc.
9 The sterilization of absorbent cotton, bandages, etc.
10. The processing of rubber, synthetic materials, chemicals,

Short Questions and Answers

1. Give any two advantages of electric heating.

Ans: 1. Electric heating equipment is cheaper; it does not require much skilled
Persons so maintenance cost is less.
2. In this heating, the temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately
either Manually or automatically.
2. What are the modes of the transfer of heat?
Ans: The modes of the transfer of heat are:
Conduction.
Convection.
Radiation.

3. What is an oven?
Ans: Oven is mean that a low-temperature heating chamber with provision for ventilation.
4. Define conduction.
Ans: The process of heat transfers from one part of a substance to another part
without movement in the molecules of substance. The rate of conduction of heat
along the substance depends upon temperature gradient.
5. Define convection.
Ans: The process of heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of a substance
or a fluid due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of the heat
depends mainly on the difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.

28
 6. Define radiation.
Ans: The process of heat transfers from the source to the substance to be heated
without heating the medium in between the source and the substance.

7. What are the essentials requirements of heating elements?

Ans: The materials used for heating element should have:
High-specific resistance.

High-melting point.

High-mechanical strength.

Free from oxidation.

8. What is the Stefan's formula for heat dissipation?

Ans: Stefan’s law for heat dissipation is:

9. What are the causes of the failure of the heating elements?

Ans: The failure of the heating element may cause due to:

The formation of hotspots.

The oxidation of the element and the intermittency of operation.
The embitterment caused by gain growth
Contamination and corrosion.

10. What is meant by resistance heating?

Ans: The process of heating the charge or substance by the heat produced due to
the resistance offered by the charge or heating element.

11. What is meant by induction heating?

Ans: The process of heating the material due to the heat developed by the currents
induced in the material by electromagnetic induction process.

29
12. What is meant by dielectric heating?
Ans: The process of heating non-metallic materials, i.e., the insulators such as wood,
Plastics, and china clay due to the heat developed in the material when they are
Subjected to high voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses and due to
Inter-atomic friction caused by the repeated deformation and rotation of atomic
Structure.

13. What are the various losses occurring in resistance oven?

Ans: The heat produced in the heating elements, not only raises the temperature of charge to
desired value, but also used to overcome the losses occurring due to:
The heat used in raising the temperature of oven (or) furnace.
The heat used in raising the temperature of containers (or) carriers.
The heat conducted through the walls.
The heat loss due to the opening of oven door.

14. List out various methods of controlling the temperature of resistance heating.
Ans: The temperature of the furnaces can be controlled either by:
Varying the resistance of elements.
Varying the applied voltage to the elements or the current flowing
through the elements
Varying the ratio of the on-and-off times of supply.

15. What are the types of arc furnaces?

Ans: There are two types of arc furnaces and they are:
Direct arc furnace.
Indirect arc furnace
16. What is the condition for the maximum power output of electric arc furnace?
Ans: The condition for the maximum power output of electric arc furnace is:

30
17. What is pinch effect?
Ans: The formation of bubbles and voids in the charge to be heated by the electromagnetic
induction due to high-electromagnetic forces, which causes the interruption of secondary
circuit. This effect is known as pinch effect.

18. What is high-frequency eddy current heating?

Ans: The process of heating any material by the heat developed due to the conversion of
electromagnetic energy into heat energy.

19. How amount of heat is controlled in high-frequency eddy current heating?

Ans: The amount of heat is controlled by controlling the supply frequency and the flux
density in high-frequency eddy current heating.

31
Electric Welding

Introduction

Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal or non-metal together by heating
them to their melting point. Filler metal may or may not be used to join two pieces. The physical
and mechanical properties of a material to be welded such as melting temperature, density,
thermal conductivity, and tensile strength take an important role in welding. Depending upon
how the heat applied is created; we get different types of welding such as thermal welding, gas
welding, and electric welding. Here in this chapter, we will discuss only about the electric
welding and some introduction to other modern welding techniques. Welding is nowadays
extensively used in automobile industry, pipe-line fabrication in thermal power plants, machine
repair work, machine frames, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages Of Welding

Some of the advantages of welding are:

Welding is the most economical method to permanently join two

metal parts.
1. It provides design flexibility.
2. Welding equipment is not so costly.
3. It joins all the commercial metals.
4. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined by welding.
5. Portable welding equipment are available.

Some of the disadvantages of welding are:

1. Welding gives out harmful radiations and fumes.

2. Welding needs internal inspection.
3. If welding is not done carefully, it may result in the distortion of work piece.
4. Skilled welding is necessary to produce good welding.

32
Electric Welding

It is defined as the process of joining two metal pieces, in which the electrical energy is used to
generate heat at the point of welding in order to melt the joint.

The classification of electric welding process is shown in fig.

Fig. 2.13 Classification of electric welding

The selection of proper welding process depends on the following factors.

1. The type of metal to be joined.

2. The techniques of welding adopted.
3.The cost of equipment used.
4. The nature of products to be fabricate

33
Resistance Welding

Resistance welding is the process of joining two metals together by the heat produced due to the
resistance offered to the flow of electric current at the junctions of two metals. The heat
produced by the resistance to the flow of current is given by:

H = I2Rt,

Where I is the current through the electrodes, R is the contact resistance of the interface, and
tis the time for which current flows.

Here, the total resistance offered to the flow of current is made up of:

1. The resistance of current path in the work.

2. The resistance between the contact surfaces of the parts being welded.
3. The resistance between electrodes and the surface of parts being welded.

In this process of welding, the heat developed at the contact area between the pieces to
be welded reduces the metal to plastic state or liquid state, then the pieces are pressed under
high mechanical pressure to complete the weld. The electrical voltage input to the welding
varies in between 4 and 12 V depending upon area, thickness, composition, etc. and usually
power ranges from about 60 to 180 W for each sq. mm of area

Any desired combination of voltage and current can be obtained by means of a suitable
transformer in AC; hence, AC is found to be most suitable for the resistance welding. The
magnitude of current is controlled by changing the primary voltage of the welding transformer,
which can be done by using an auto-transformer or a tap-changing transformer. Automatic
arrangements are provided to switch off the supply after a pre-determined time from applying
the pressure, why because the duration of the current flow through the work is very important in
the resistance welding.

34
 The electrical circuit diagram for the resistance welding is shown in 2.14 This method of
welding consists of a tap-changing transformer, a clamping device for holding the metal pieces,
and some sort of mechanical arrangement for forcing the pieces to form a complete weld.

Fig 2.14 Electric circuit for resistance welding

Advantages

1. Welding process is rapid and simple.

2. Localized heating is possible, if required.
3. No need of using filler metal.
4. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
5. Comparatively lesser skill is required.
6. Maintenance cost is less.
7 It can be employed for mass production.

However, the resistance welding has got some drawbacks and they are:

1. Initial cost is very high.

2. High maintenance cost.
3. The work piece with heavier thickness cannot be welded, since it requires high input
current.

35
Applications

1. It is used by many industries manufacturing products made up of thinner gauge metals.

2. It is used for the manufacturing of tubes and smaller structural sections.

Types of resistance welding:

Depending upon the method of weld obtained and the type of electrodes used, the
resistance welding is classified as:

1. Spot welding.
2. Seam welding.
3. Projection welding.
4. Butt welding.

(i) Spot welding

Spot welding means the joining of two metal sheets and fusing them together between copper
electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of heavy electric current passed through
the electrodes as shown in Fig.2.15.

This type of joint formed by the spot welding provides mechanical strength and not
air or water tight, for such welding it is necessary to localize the welding current and to apply
sufficient pressure on the sheet to be welded. The electrodes are made up of copper or copper
alloy and are water cooled. The welding current varies widely depending upon the thickness and
composition of the plates. It varies from 1,000 to 10,000 A, and voltage between the electrodes is
usually less than 2 V. The period of the flow of current varies widely depending upon the
thickness of sheets to be joined. A step-down transformer is used to reduce a high-voltage and
low-current supply to low-voltage and high-current supply required. Since the heat developed
being proportional to the product of welding time and square of the current. Good weld can be
obtained by low currents for longer duration and high currents for shorter duration; longer
welding time usually produces stronger weld but it involves high energy expenditure, electrode
maintenance, and lot of distortion of work piece

36
 Fig. 2.15 Spot welding

When voltage applied across the electrode, the flow of current will generate heat at the three
junctions, i.e., heat developed, between the two electrode tips and work piece, between the two
work pieces to be joined as shown in Fig. 2.15 The generation of heat at junctions 1 and 3 will
effect electrode sticking and melt through holes, the prevention of electrode striking is achieved
by:

Using water-cooled electrodes shown in Fig. 2.15 By avoiding the heating of junction’s 1
and 3 electrodes in which cold water circulated continuously as shown in Fig. 2.14 The
material used for electrode should have high electrical and thermal conductivity. Spot welding
is widely used for automatic welding process, for joining automobile parts, joining and
fabricating sheet metal structure, etc.

Fig. 2.15 Water cooled electrode

37
(ii) Seam welding

Seam welding is nothing but the series of continuous spot welding. If number spots obtained
by spot welding are placed very closely that they can overlap, it gives rise to seam welding.

In this welding, continuous spot welds can be formed by using wheel type or roller
electrodes instead of tipped electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.16

Fig. 2.16 Seam welding

Seam welding is obtained by keeping the job under electrodes. When these wheel type
electrodes travel over the metal pieces which are under pressure, the current passing between
them heats the two metal pieces to the plastic state and results into continuous spot welds.

In this welding, the contact area of electrodes should be small, which will localize the
current pressure to the welding point. After forming weld at one point, the weld so obtained can
be cooled by splashing water over the job by using cooling jets.

In general, it is not satisfactory to make a continuous weld, for which the flow of continuous
current build up high heat that causes burning and wrapping of the metal piece. To avoid this
difficulty, an interrupter is provided on the circuit which turns on supply for a period sufficient
to heat the welding point. The series of weld spots depends upon the number of welding current
pulses.

38
 The two forms of welding currents are shown in Fig. 2.17 (a) and (b).

Fig. 2.17 Welding current

Welding cannot be made satisfactorily by using uninterrupted or un-modulated current,

which builds up high heat as the welding progress; this will over heat the work piece and cause
distortion.

Seam welding is very important, as it provides leak proof joints. It is usually employed in
welding of pressure tanks, transformers, condensers, evaporators, air craft tanks,
refrigerators, varnish containers, etc.

(iii) Projection welding

It is a modified form of the spot welding. In the projection welding, both current and pressure are
localized to the welding points as in the spot welding. But the only difference in the projection
welding is the high mechanical pressure applied on the metal pieces to be welded, after the
formation of weld. The electrodes used for such welding are flat metal plates known as platens.

39
The two pieces of base metal to be weld are held together in between the two platens, one
is movable and the other is fixed, as shown in Fig. 2.18.

Fig. 2.18 Projection welding

One of the two pieces of metal is run through a machine that makes the bumps or
projections of required shape and size in the metal. As current flows through the two metal
parts to be welded, which heat up and melt. These weld points soon reach the plastic state, and
the projection touches the metal then force applied by the two flat electrodes forms the
complete weld.

The projection welding needs no protective atmosphere as in the spot welding to produce
successful results. This welding process reduces the amount of current and pressure in order to
join two metal surfaces, so that there is less chance of distortion of the surrounding areas of
the weld zone. Due to this reason, it has been incorporated into many manufacturing process.

The projection welding has the following advantages over the spot welding.

Simplicity in welding process.

1. It is easy to weld some of the parts where the spot welding is not possible.
2. It is possible to join several welding points.
3 Welds are located automatically by the position of projection.
4 As the electrodes used in the projection welding are flat type, the contact area over
the projection is sufficient.

40
 This type of welding is usually employed on punched, formed, or stamped parts
where the projection automatically exists. The projection welding is particularly employed
for mass production work, i.e., welding of refrigerators, condensers, crossed wire welding,
refrigerator racks, grills, etc.
(iv) Butt welding

Butt welding is similar to the spot welding; however, the only difference is, in butt welding,
instead of electrodes the metal parts that are to be joined or butted together are connected to
the supply.

The three basic types of the butt welding process are:

1. Upset butt welding.

2. Flash butt welding.

3. Percussion butt welding.

(a) Upset butt welding

In upset welding, the two metal parts to be welded are joined end to end and are
connected across the secondary of a welding transformer as shown in Fig. 2.19

Fig. 2.19 Upset butt welding

41
 Due to the contact resistance of the metals to be welded, heating effect is generated in this
welding. When current is made to flow through the two electrodes, heat will develop due to the
contact resistance of the two pieces and then melts. By applying high mechanical pressure either
manually or by toggle mechanism, the two metal pieces are pressed. When jaw-type electrodes
are used that introduce the high currents without treating any hot spot on the job.

This type of welding is usually employed for welding of rods, pipes, and wires and for joining
metal parts end to end.

(b) Flash butt welding

Flash butt welding is a combination of resistance, arc, and pressure welding. This method of
welding is mainly used in the production welding. A simple flash butt welding arrangement is
shown in Fig. 2.20

Fig. 2.20 Flash butt welding

In this method of welding, the two pieces to be welded are brought very nearer to each other
under light mechanical pressure. These two pieces are placed in a conducting movable clamps.
When high current is passed through the two metal pieces and they are separated by some
distance, then arc established between them. This arc or flashing is allowed till the ends of the
work pieces reach melting temperature, the supply will be switched off and the pieces are

42
rapidly brought together under light pressure. As the pieces are moved together, the fused metal
and slag come out of the joint making a good solid joint.
Following are the advantages of the flash butt welding over the upset welding.

1. Less requirement of power.

2. When the surfaces being joined, it requires only less attention.

3. Weld obtained is so clean and pure; due to the foreign metals appearing on the surfaces
will burn due to flash or arc.

(c) Percussion welding

It is a form of the flash butt welding, where high current of short duration is employed
using stored energy principle. This is a self-timing spot welding method.

Percussion welding arrangement consists of one fixed holder and the other one is movable.
The pieces to be welded are held apart, with the help of two holders, when the movable clamp is
released, it moves rapidly carrying the piece to be welded. There is a sudden discharge of
electrical energy, which establishes an arc between the two surfaces and heating them to their
melting temperature, when the two pieces are separated by a distance of 1.5 mm apart. As the
pieces come in contact with each other under heavy pressure, the arc is extinguished due to the
percussion blow of the two parts and the force between them affects the weld. The percussion
welding can be obtained in two methods; one is capacitor energy storage system and the other is
magnetic energy storage system. The capacitor discharge circuit for percussion welding is
shown in Fig. 2.21

43
 Fig. 2.21 Capacitor discharge circuit for percussion welding

The capacitor ‘C’ is charged to about 3,000 V from a controlled rectifier. The capacitor is
connected to the primary of welding transformer through the switch and will discharge. This
discharge will produce high transient current in the secondary to join the two metal pieces.

Percussion welding is difficult to obtain uniform flashing of the metal part areas of the cross-
section greater than 3 sq. cm. Advantage of this welding is so fast, extremely shallow of heating
is obtained with a span of about 0.1 sec. It can be used for welding a large number of dissimilar
metals
Applications
1. It is useful for welding satellite tips to tools, sliver contact tips to copper, cast
iron to steel, etc.
2. Commonly used for electrical contacts.
3. The metals such as copper alloys, aluminum alloys, and nickel alloys are percussion
welded.

44
.

Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc welding is the process of joining two metallic pieces or melting of metal is
obtained due to the heat developed by an arc struck between an electrode and the metal to be
welded or between the two electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.22

Fig.2.22 Arrangement of electric welding equipment

In this process, an electric arc is produced by bringing two conductors (electrode and
metal piece) connected to a suitable source of electric current, momentarily in contact and
then separated by a small gap, arc blows due to the ionization and give intense heat.

The heat so developed is utilized to melt the part of work piece and filler metal and thus
forms the weld.

In this method of welding, no mechanical pressure is employed; therefore, this type of

welding is also known as 'non-pressure welding’.

The length of the arc required for welding depends upon the following factors:

1. The surface coating and the type of electrodes used.

2 The position of welding.
3 The amount of current used.

45
 Electric arc welding is extensively used for the joining of metal parts, the repair of fractured
casting, and the fillings by the deposition of new metal on base metal, etc.

Various types of electric arc welding are:

Carbon arc welding.

Metal arc welding.
Atomic hydrogen arc welding.
Inert gas metal arc welding.
Submerged arc welding.

Carbon arc welding

It is one of the processes of arc welding in which arc is struck between two carbon electrodes
or the carbon electrode and the base metal. The simple arrangement of the carbon arc welding
is shown in Fig. 2.23.

Fig. 2.23 Carbon arc welding

In this process of welding, the electrodes are placed in an electrode holder used as negative
electrode and the base metal being welded as positive. Unless, the electrode is negative relative
to the work, due to high temperature, there is a tendency of the particles of carbon will fuse
and mix up with the base metal, which causes brittleness; DC is preferred for carbon arc
welding since there is no fixed polarity maintained in case of AC.

46
 In the carbon arc welding, carbon or graphite rods are used as electrode. Due to longer life
and low resistance, graphite electrodes are used, and thus capable of conducting more current.
The arc produced between electrode and base metal; heat the metal to the melting temperature,
on the negative electrode is 3,200°C and on the positive electrode is 3,900°C.

This process of welding is normally employed where addition of filler metal is not required.
The carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of the arc can be easily varied. One
major problem with carbon arc is its instability which can be overcome by using an inductor in
the electrode of 2.5-cm diameter and with the current of about of 500–800 A employed to
deposit large amount of filler metal on the base metal.

Filler metal and flux may not be used depending upon the type of joint and material to
be welded.

Advantages

1. The heat developed during the welding can be easily controlled by adjusting the length of
the arc.
2. It is quite clean, simple, and less expensive when compared to other welding process.
3 Easily adoptable for automation.
4 Both the ferrous and the non-ferrous metals can be welded.

Disadvantages

1. Input current required in this welding, for the work piece to rise its temperature to
melting/welding temperature, is approximately double the metal arc welding.
2. In case of the ferrous metal, there is a chance of disintegrating the carbon at high
temperature and transfer to the weld, which causes harder weld deposit and brittlement.
3. A separate filler rod has to be used if any filler metal is required.

47
Applications

1. It can be employed for the welding of stainless steel with thinner gauges.
2. Useful for the welding of thin high-grade nickel alloys and for galvanized sheets
using copper silicon manganese alloy filler metal.

Metal arc welding

In metal arc welding, the electrodes used must be of the same metal as that of the work-piece to
be welded. The electrode itself forms the filler metal. An electric arc is stuck by bringing the
electrode connected to a suitable source of electric current, momentarily in contract with the
work pieces to be welded and withdrawn apart. The circuit diagram for the metal arc welding is
shown in Fig. 2.24

Fig. 2.24 Metal arc welding

The arc produced between the work piece and the electrode results high temperature of
the order of about 2,400°C at negative metal electrode and 2,600°C at positive base metal or
work piece.

This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as well as the tip of the electrode, then
the electrode melts and deposited over the surface of the work piece, forms complete weld.

Both AC and DC can be used for the metal arc welding. The voltage required for the DC
metal arc welding is about 50–60 V and for the AC metal arc welding is about 80–90 V

48
 In order to maintain the voltage drop across the arc less than 13 V, the arc length should be
kept as small as possible, otherwise the weld will be brittle. The current required for the
welding varies from 10 to 500 A depending upon the type of work to be welded.

The main disadvantage in the DC metal arc welding is the presence of arc blow, i.e., distortion of
arc stream from the intended path due to the magnetic forces of the non-uniform magnetic field
with AC arc blow is considerably reduced. For obtaining good weld, the flux-coated electrodes
must be used, so the metal which is melted is covered with slag produces a non-oxidizing gas or
a molten slag to cover the weld, and also stabilizes the arc

Atomic hydrogen arc welding

In atomic hydrogen arc welding, shown in Fig.2.24, the heat for the welding process is
produced from an electric arc struck between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of
hydrogen. Here, hydrogen serves mainly two functions; one acts as a protective screen for the arc
and the other acts as a cooling agent for the glowing tungsten electrode tips. As the hydrogen gas
passes through the arc, the hydrogen molecules are broken up into atoms, absorbs heat from the
glowing tungsten electrodes so that these are cooled

Fig. 2.24Atomic hydrogen arc welding

49
 But, when the atoms of hydrogen recombine into molecules outside the arc, a large amount of
heat is liberated. This extra heat is added to the intense heat of arc, which produces a
temperature of about 4,000°C that is sufficient to melt the surfaces to be welded, together with
the filler rod if used. Moreover hydrogen includes oxygen and some other gases that might
combine with the molten metal and forms oxides and other impurities. Hydrogen also removes
oxides from the surface of work piece. Thus, this process is capable of producing strong,
uniform, smooth, and ductile welds.

In the atomic hydrogen arc welding, the arc is maintained between the two non-consumable
tungsten electrodes under a pressure of about 0.5 kg/cm2. In order to obtain equal consumption
of electrodes, AC supply is used. Arc currents up to 150 A can be used. High voltage about 300
V is applied for this welding through a transformer. For striking the arc between the electrodes
the open circuit voltage required varies from 80 to 100 V.

As the atomic hydrogen welding is too expensive, it is usually employed for welding
alloy steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, etc.

Inert gas metal arc welding

It is a gas-shielded metal arc welding, in which an electric arc is stuck between tungsten
electrode and work piece to be welded. Filler metal may be introduced separately into the arc if
required. A welding gun, which carries a nozzle, through this nozzle, inert gas such as beryllium
or argon is blown around the arc and onto the weld, as shown in Fig. 2.25. As both beryllium and
argon are chemically inert, so the molten metal is protected from the action of the atmosphere by
an envelope of chemically reducing or inert gas.

50
 Fig. 2.25 Inert gas metal are welding

As molten metal has an affinity for oxygen and nitrogen, if exposed to the atmosphere, thereby
forming their oxides and nitrides, which makes weld leaky and brittle.

Thus, several methods of shielding have been employed. With the use of flux coating
electrodes or by pumping, the inert gases around the arc produces a slag that floats on the top
of molten metal and produces an envelope of inert gas around the arc and the weld.

Advantages

1.Flux is not required since inert gas envelope protects the molten metal without
forming oxides and nitrates so the weld is smooth, uniform, and ductile
2. Distortion of the work is minimum because the concentration of heat is possible.

Applications

1. The welding is employed for light alloys, stainless steel, etc.

2. The welding of non-ferrous metal such as copper, aluminum, etc.

51
Submerged Arc Welding

It is an arc welding process, in which the arc column is established between above
metal electrode and the work piece. Electric arc and molten pool are shielded by blanket of
granular flux on the work piece. Initially to start an arc, short circuit path is provided by
introducing steel wool between the welding electrode and the work piece. This is due to the
coated flux material, when cold it is non-conductor of the electricity but in molten state, it is
highly conductive. Welding zone is shielded by a blanket of flux, so that the arc is not
visible. Hence, it is known as 'submerged arc welding’. The arc so produced, melts the
electrode, parent the metal and the coated flux, which forms a protective envelope around
both the arc and the molten metal.

As the arc in progress, the melted electrode metal forms globules and mix up with the
molten base metal, so that the weld is completed. In this welding, the electrode is completely
covered by flux. The flux may be made of silica, metal oxides, and other compounds fused
together and then crushed to proper size. Therefore, the welding takes place without spark,
smoke, ash, etc. Thus, there is no need of providing protective shields, smoke collectors, and
ventilating systems. Figure 2.26 shows the filling of parent metal by the submerged arc welding.

Fig. 2.26 Submerged arc welding

Voltage required for the submerged arc welding varies from 25 to 40 V. Current employed
for welding depends upon the dimensions of the work piece. Normally, if DC supply is used
employing current ranging from 600 to 1,000 A, the current for AC is usually 2,000 A.

52
Advantages

1. Deep penetration with high-quality weld is possible.

2. Job with heavy thickness can be welded.
3. The weld so obtained has good ductility, impact strength, high corrosion resistance, etc.
4. The submerged arc welding can be done manually or automatically.

Applications

1. The submerged arc welding is widely used in the heavy steel plant fabrication work.
2. It can be employed for welding high strength steel, corrosion resistance steel, and low
carbon steel.
3. It is also used in the ship-building industry for splicing and fabricating subassemblies,
manufacture of vessels, tanks, etc.

Electric Welding Equipment

Electric welding accessories required to carry out proper welding operation are:

1. Electric welding power sets.

2. Electrode holder to hold the electrodes.
3. Welding cable for connecting electrode and work piece to the supply.
4. Face screen with colored glass.
5. Chipping hammers to remove slag from molten weld
6. Wire brush to clean the weld.
7. Earth clamp and protective clothing.

53
Comparison between Resistance And Arc Welding

Resistance welding Arc welding

1 The source of supply is AC only. The source of supply is either AC (1-φ or 3-φ) or DC.

The head developed is mainly due The heat developed is mainly due to the striking of arc
2 to the between
Flow of contact resistance. Electrodes or an electrode and the work piece.

The temperature attained by the work The temperature of the arc is so high, so proper care
3 piece should be taken
is not so high. during the welding.

No external pressure is required hence the welding

4 External pressure is required. equipment is more
Simple and easy to control.

Filler metal is not required to join Suitable filler electrodes are necessary to get proper
5 two welding strength.
Metal pieces.

It cannot be used for repair work; it It is not suitable for mass production. It is most suitable for
6 is repair
Suitable for mass production. Works and where more metal is to be deposited.

7 The power consumption is low. The power consumption is high.

8 The operating power factor is low. The operating power factor is high.

Bar, roller, or flat type electrodes are Bare or coated electrodes are used (consumable or non-
9 used consumable).
(not consumable).

54
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC WELDING

AC welding DC welding

1. Motor generator set or rectifier is required

in case of the availability of AC Supply Only transformer is required.

2 The cost of the equipment is high. The cost of the equipment is cheap.

3 Arc stability is more. Arc stability is less.

4 The heat produced is uniform. The heat produced is not uniform.

5 Both bare and coated electrodes can be used. Only coated electrodes should be used.

The power factor is low. So, the capacitors are

6 The operating power factor is high. necessary
to improve the power factor.

7 It is safer since no load voltage is low. It is dangerous since no load voltage is high.

The electric energy consumption is 5–10 The electrical energy consumption is 3–4
8 kWh/kg of kWh/kg of
deposited metal. deposited metal

Arc blow occurs due to the presence of non- Arc blow will not occur due to the uniform
9 uniform magnetic
magnetic field. field.

10 The efficiency is low due to the rotating The efficiency is high due to the absence of
parts. rotating parts.

55
 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
UNIT – III

Introduction, terms used in illumination–Laws of illumination–Polar curves–

Integrating sphere–Sources of light

Fundamentals of Illumination
Introduction
Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the principles
of light control as applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting
but also to understand outdoor applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting.
Nowadays, the electrically produced light is preferred to the other source of illumination
because of an account of its cleanliness, ease of control, steady light output, low cost, and
reliability. The best illumination is that it produces no strain on the eyes. Apart from its
esthetic and decorative aspects, good lighting has a strictly utilitarian value in reducing the
fatigue of the workers, protecting their health, increasing production, etc. The science of
illumination engineering is therefore becoming of major importance.

Nature of light

Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human eye is
capable of receiving it. Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human
being ultimately depend upon the light.

Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by such
bodies depends upon their temperature. A hot body about 500–800°C becomes a red hot
and about 2,500–3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While the body is red-hot, the
wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the energy available in the
form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from red-hot to white-
hot state, the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range
of the wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves varying from 0.0004 to
0.00075 mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10–10 mm).

1
The eye discriminates between different wavelengths in this range by the sensation of color. The
whole of the energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose. Radiations of very short
wavelength varying from 0.0000156 × 10–6m to 0.001 × 10–6 m are not in the visible range are
called as rontgen or x-rays, which are having the property of penetrating through opaque bodies.

Terms Used In Illumination

The following terms are generally used in illumination.

Color:
The energy radiation of the heated body is monochromatic, i.e. the radiation of
only one wavelength emits specific color. The wavelength of visible light lies between
4,000 and 7,500 Å. The color of the radiation corresponding to the wavelength is shown
in Fig. 3.1

Fig 3.1 Wavelength

Relative sensitivity:

The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different wavelengths
varies from person to person, and also varies with age. The average relative
sensitivity is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 The average relative sensitivity

2
The eye is most sensitive for a wavelength of 5,500 Å. So that, the relative sensitivity
according to this wavelength is taken as unity. Referred from Fig. 3.1, blue and violet
corresponding to the short wavelengths and red to the long wavelengths, orange,
yellow, and green being in the middle of the visible region of wavelength. The color
corresponding to 5,500 Å is not suitable for most of the applications since yellowish
green. The relative sensitivity at any particular wavelength (λ) is known as relative
luminous factor (Kλ).

Light:
It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to
watt-hours, which denoted by the symbol ‘Q’.

Luminous flux:
It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from a
luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in lumens.
Ex: Suppose the luminous body is an incandescent lamp.
The total electrical power input to the lamp is not converted to luminous flux,
some of the power lost through conduction, convection, and radiation, etc. A fraction of
the remaining radiant flux is in the form of light wave’s lies in between the visual range of
wavelength, i.e. between 4,000 and 7,000 Å, as shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig 3.3 Flux diagram

3
Radiant efficiency:
When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is produced
to I2R loss, which increases its temperature of the conductor. At low temperature,
conductor radiates energy in the form of heat waves, but at very high temperatures,
radiated energy will be in the form of light as well as heat waves.

‘Radiant efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces
sensation of vision to the total energy radiated out by the luminous body’

Plane angle
A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines
(Fig. 3.4). It is denoted by the Greek letter ‘θ’ (theta) and is usually measured in degrees
or radians.

Fig. 3.4 Plane angle

One radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length by an arc
of a circle whose length is equals to the radius of the circle

4
Solid angle
Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the
point (Fig. 3.5). It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in steradian

Fig 3.5. Solid angle

Relationship between plane angle and solid angle

Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height ‘h’ and radius
of the sphere ‘r’ as shown in Fig. 3.6. The surface area of the curved surface of the spherical
segment ABC = 2πrh. From the Fig. 3.6:

Fig 3.6. Sectional view for solid angle

5
 BD = OB – OD

From the Equation (6.3), the curve shows the variation of solid angle with plane angle
is shown in Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7 Relation between solid angle and plane angle

6
Luminous intensity

Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the luminous flux emitted by

the source per unit solid angle (Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8 Luminous flux emitting from the source

It is denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is usually measured in ‘candela’.

Let ‘F’ be the luminous flux crossing a spherical segment of solid angle ‘ω’. Then

Luminous intensity lumen/steradian or candela.

Lumen:

It is the unit of luminous flux

It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power per
unit solid angle in all directions.

Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.

Lumen = CP × ω

Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.

Candle power (CP)

The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines emitted by that source in
a unit solid angle.

7
Illumination

Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.
It is usually denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m2
or meter candle or foot candle.

Lux or meter candle

It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m and a

source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of sphere.
Foot candle

It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the illumination of the inside of a

sphere of radius 1 foot, and a source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of it.

We know that 1 lux = 1 foot candle = 1 lumen/(ft)2

Brightness

Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity pen unit surface area of
the projected surface in the given direction. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘L’.

If the luminous intensity of source be ‘I’ candela on an area A, then the projected
area is Acos θ.

8
The unit of brightness is candela/m2 or candela/cm2 or candela/(ft)2.

Relation between I, E, and L

Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters, at the center a
source of 1 CP, and luminous intensity I candela

Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP)

MHCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions
in horizontal plane.

Mean spherical candle power (MSCP)

MSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in all
planes.

Mean hemispherical candle power (MHSCP)

MHSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions above
or below the horizontal plane.

9
Reduction factor

Reduction factor of the source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean spherical candle
power to its mean horizontal candle power.

Lamp efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the
source to its electrical power input in watts.

It is expressed in lumen/W.

Specific consumption

It is defined as the ratio of electric power input to its average candle power.

Space to height ratio

It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the height of

their mounting

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor

It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens reaching the working plane to the
total number of lumens emitting from source.

10
Maintenance factor

It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to

the illumination when everything is clean.

Its value is always less than 1, and it will be around 0.8. This is due to the
accumulation of dust, dirt, and smoke on the lamps that emit less light than that they
emit when they are so clean. Frequent cleaning of lamp will improve the maintenance
factor.

Depreciation factor

It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained

illumination on the working plane.

Its values is always more than 1.

Waste light factor

When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the sources of light, there is

certain amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves; the wastage of light is
taken into account depending upon the type of area to be illuminated. Its value for
rectangular area is 1.2 and for irregular area is 1.5 and objects such as statues,
monuments, etc.

Absorption factor

Normally, when the atmosphere is full of smoke and fumes, there is a possibility
of absorption of light. Hence, the total lumens available after absorption to the total
lumens emitted by the lamp are known as absorption factor

11
Reflection factor or coefficient of reflection

When light rays impinge on a surface, it is reflected from the surface at an

angle of incidence shown in Fig. 3.9. A portion of incident light is absorbed by the
surface.

Fig. 3.9 Reflected ray

The ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident
on it is known as reflection factor.

Its value will be always less than 1.

Beam factor

It is defined as the ratio of ‘lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens

given out by lamps’. Its value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into
account for the absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp.

Laws of Illumination

Mainly there are two laws of illumination.

1. Inverse square law.

2. Lambert's cosine law

12
 .

Inverse square law

This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of distance between the surface and a point source’.

Proof:

Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux
emitting from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2, and A3 square
meters, which are separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source
respectively as shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Inverse square law

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity × solid angle

Illumination 'E1' on the surface area 'A1' is:

13
Similarly, illumination 'E2' on the surface area A2 is:

and illumination ‘E3’ on the surface area A3 is:

From Equations (6.5), (6.6), and (6.7)

Hence, from Equation (6.8), illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the
square of distance between the surface and the source.

Lambert's cosine law

This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional
to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux

Proof:

While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is
inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown in Fig. 3.11.

14
 Fig. 3.11 Lambert's cosine law

Let

PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.

RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source
‘O’.

Therefore, from Fig. 3.11:

15
From Fig. 3.11(b):

Substituting’s’ from the above equation in Equation (6.10):

Where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height
of source from the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela.

Hence, Equation (6.11) is also known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the
‘illumination at any point on a surface is dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle
between line of flux and normal at that point’.

Note:

*From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is
only applicable for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's
cosine law is applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the line of
flux

16
Polar Curves

The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined using the intensity
distribution curve. Till now we assumed that the luminous intensity or the candle power
from a source is distributed uniformly over the surrounding surface. But due to its s not
uniform in all directions. The luminous intensity or the distribution of the light can
be represented with the help of the polar curves.

The polar curves are drawn by taking luminous intensities in various

directions at an equal angular displacement in the sphere. A radial ordinate pointing
in any particular direction on a polar curve represents the luminous intensity of the
source when it is viewed from that direction. Accordingly, there are two different
types of polar curves and they are:
(i) A curve is plotted between the candle power and the angular position, if the
luminous intensity, i.e., candle power is measured in the horizontal plane about the
vertical axis, called 'horizontal polar curve’.

(ii) A curve is plotted between the candle power, if it is measured in the vertical
plane and the angular position is known as 'vertical polar curve’.

Figure 3.12 shows the typical polar curves for an ordinary lamp.

Fig 3.12 Polar curves

17
 Depression at 180° in the vertical polar curve is due to the lamp
holder. Slight depression at 0° in horizontal polar curve is because of coiled
coil filament.

Polar curves are used to determine the actual illumination of a surface by

employing the candle power in that particular direction as read from the vertical polar
curve. These are also used to determine mean horizontal candle power (MHCP) and
mean spherical candle power (MSCP).

The mean horizontal candle power of a lamp can be determined from the
horizontal polar curve by considering the mean value of all the candle powers in a
horizontal direction.

The mean spherical candle power of a symmetrical source of a light can be

found out from the polar curve by means of a Rousseau's construction.

Rousseau's construction

Let us consider a vertical polar curve is in the form of two lobes

symmetrical about XOX1 axis. A simple Rousseau's curve is shown in Fig.
3.13.

Fig. 3.13 Rousseau's curve

18
Rules for constructing the Rousseau's curve are as follows:

1. Draw a circle with any convenient radius and with ‘O’ as center.

2. Draw a line 'AF’ parallel to the axis XOX1 and is equal to the diameter of the circle.

3. Draw any line ‘OPQ' in such a way that the line meeting the circle at point ‘Q’. Now let
the projection be ‘R’ onto the parallel line 'AF’.

4. Erect an ordinate at ‘R’ as, RB = OP.

5. Now from this line 'AF' ordinate equals to the corresponding radius on the polar curve
are setup such as SC = OM, TD = ON, and so on.

6. The curve ABC DEFA so obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau's curve.

The mean ordinate of this curve gives the mean spherical candle power (MSCP) of
the lamp having polar curve given in Fig. 3.13.

The mean ordinate of the curve:

The area under the Rousseau's curve can be determined by Simpson's rule.

In this method, the application of suitable voltage, known as ignition voltage,

across the two electrodes results in a discharge through the gas, this is accompanied by
electromagnetic radiation.

Here, candle power, i.e., the color intensity of the light emitted depends upon the
nature of the gas. These sources do not depend on the temperature for higher
efficiencies.

Ex: Neon lamp, sodium vapor lamp, mercury vapor lamp, and florescent lamp.

19
 Integrating sphere:-

It is a source of apparatus which is now commonly employed for measuremts of

mean spherical candle power. In this method the sphere is used to measure the total
flux radiated by the lamp, which when divided by 4π gives as m.s.c.p. Since in this
method the flux radiated in all directions is taken into account, so this method is better
than that described in which it was assumed that the candle power distribution is same
in all vertical planes, an assumption which may not always be justifiable.

The integrating sphere consists of a hallow sphere whose diameter is large

compared to the lamp to be tested having a smooth inner surface with a uniform coating
of white paint. If the lamp is hung inside the sphere, the light is so diffused an uniform
illumination is produced over the whole surface. A small window of translucent glass
provided at one side of the sphere is illuminated by reflecting light from the inner
surface of the sphere. The small screen is inserted in between the lamp and window in
order to prevent the light from the lamp reaching the window directly.

Fig 3.14 Integrating Sphere

20
Sources of Light:

Light is the prime factor in the human life, as all the activities of human being
ultimately depend upon the light. The natural source of light is the ‘Sun’, which emits
both heat and light energy at a very tremendous rate. Where there is no natural light,
artificial light is made. The artificial lighting produced by electricity is playing important
role due to its cleanliness, ease of control, reliability etc. in a boarder sense, the different
methods of producing light by electricity may be divided into the following groups

1. Arc lamps: - Electric discharge through air gives intense light. This principle is
utilized in arc lamps.

2. High temperature: - Oil and gas lamps and incandescent filament type lamps,
which emit light when heated to high temperature.

3. Gaseous discharge lamps: - Under certain conditions it is possible to pass

electric current through a gas or metal vapour, which is accompanied by visible
radiation. Sodium and mercury vapour lamps operate on this principle.

4. Fluorescent type lamps:- Certain materials, when exposed to ultra violet rays,
the absorbed energy into the radiation of longer wave length lying within the visible
range. This principle is employed in fluorescent lamps.

Short Questions and Answers

1. What is light?

It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous
to watt-hours, which denoted by the symbol ‘Q’.
2. Write the expression that shows the relation between solid angle and plane angle.

21
3. States the inverse square law of illumination.

This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional

to the square of distance between the surface and a point source’.

4. States the Lambert's cosine law of illumination.

This law states that ‘illumination, E at any pint on a surface is directly

proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and
the line of flux’.
5. Define the MSCP.

It is defined as the mean of the candle power of the source in all directions
in horizontal plane.
6. Define the MHCP.

It is defined as the mean of the candle power of the source in all directions
in all planes.

7. Define the MHSCP.

It is defined as the mean of the candle power of the source in all directions
above or below the horizontal plane.

8. What is the need of polar curves?

The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined from the

intensity distribution curve. But the luminous intensity or the candle power
of any practical lamp is not uniform in all directions due to its unsymmetrical
shape. The luminous intensity or the distribution of such sources can be
determined by polar curves.

22
 9. List out the types of photometers used for the photometric measurements.

The photometer heads that are most common in use are:

Bunsen grease spot photometer.

Lumer–Brodhun photometer.

Flicker photometer.

10. What is photometry?

Photometry means the measurement of the candle power or the luminous

intensity of a given source. The candle power of any test source is measured
with the comparison of a standard source.

List out the various photocells used for photometric measurements.

Generally used photocells for photometric measurements are:

photo voltaic cell and

photo emissive cell.

The photo voltaic cell is most widely used one because of its simplicity and
associated circuits.

11. Define plane angle.

A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two

converging lines. It is denoted by the Greek letter 'θ' (theta) and is usually
measured in degrees or radians.

23
12. Define solid angle.

Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and
meeting at the point. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’, and is measured in
steradian.

13. Define luminous flux.

It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second
from a luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in lumens
14. Define luminous intensity.

Luminous intensity in a given dissection is defined as the luminous

flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle.

15. Define illumination.

Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit
area.

16. Define lamp efficiency.

It is defined as the ratio of total luminous flux emitting from the source to its
electrical power input in watts.

24
25
 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

UNIT – IV
Discharge lamps, MV and SV lamps – Comparison between tungsten filament
lamps and fluorescent tubes–Basic principles of light control– Types and design of
lighting and flood lighting–LED lighting

Introduction

Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in
a day, it is very difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is necessary
to have substitute for natural light. Light from incandescent bodies produced
electrically, which playing important role in everyday life due to its controlled output,
reliability, and cleanliness nowadays; various sources are producing artificial light. Each
source has its own characteristics and specific importance.
Types of Sources of Illumination

Usually in a broad sense, based upon the way of producing the light by
electricity, the sources of light are classified into following four types.
Electric arc lamps

The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and
provides intense light.

Incandescent lamps

When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit
light that falls in the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are
operating on this principle.

Gaseous discharge lamps

When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it

produces visible radiation by discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and
mercury vapor lamps operate on this principle.

1
Fluorescent lamps

Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the
absorbed energy into visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This
principle is employed in fluorescent lamps.

Arc Lamps

In arc lamps, the electrodes are in contact with each other and are separated by
some distance apart; the electric current is made to flow through these two electrodes.
The discharge is allowed to take place in the atmosphere where there are the
production of a very intense light and a considerable amount of UV radiation, when an
arc is struck between two electrodes.

The arcs maintain current and is very efficient source of light. They are used in
search lights, projection lamps, and other special purpose lamps such as those in
flash cameras.
Generally, used arc lamps are:
Carbon arc lamp,
Flame arc lamp, and
Magnetic arc lamp.

Carbon arc lamp

Carbon arc lamp consists of two hard rod-type electrodes made up of carbon.
Two electrodes are placed end to end and are connected to the DC supply. The
positive electrode is of a large size than that of the negative electrode. The carbon
electrodes used with AC supply are of the same size as that of the DC supply. The DC
supply across the two electrodes must not be less than 45 V. When electric current
passes through the electrodes are in contact and then withdrawn apart about 2–3
mm an arc is established between the two rods.

2
 The two edges of the rods becomes incandescence due to the high resistance
offered by rods as shown in Fig. 4.1 by transfer of carbon particles from one rod to
the other. It is observed that carbon particles transfer from the positive rod to the
negative one. So that the positive electrode gets consumed earlier than the negative
electrode. Hence, the positive electrode is of twice the diameter than that of the
negative electrode.

Fig 4.1 Carbon arc lamp

In case of AC supply, the rate of consumption of the two electrodes is same;

therefore, the cross-section of the two electrodes is same. A resistance ‘R’ is connected
in series with the electrode for stabilizing the arc. As current increases, the vaporizing
rate of carbon increases, which decreases the resistance so much, then voltage drop
across the arc decreases. So, to maintain the arc between the two electrodes, series
resistance should be necessarily connected.
For maintaining the arc, the necessary voltage required is:

V = (39 + 2.8 l ) V,

where l is the length of the arc. The voltage drop across the arc is 60 V, the
temperature of the positive electrode is 3,500 – 4,200°C, and the temperature of the
negative electrode is 2,500°C. The luminous efficiency of such lamps is 9–12
lumens/W. This low luminous efficiency is due to the service resistance provided in
DC supply while in case of AC supply, an inductor is used in place of a resistor. In
carbon arc lamps, 85% of the light is given out by the positive electrode, 10% of the
light is given out by the negative electrodes, and 5% of the light is given out by the air.

3
Flame arc lamp

The electrodes used in flame arc lamp are made up of 85% of carbon and 15% of
fluoride. This fluoride is also known as flame material; it has the efficient property that
radiates light energy from high heated arc stream. Generally, the core type electrodes
are used and the cavities are filled with fluoride. The principle of operation of the flame
arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. When the arc is established between the
electrodes, both fluoride and carbon get vaporized and give out very high luminous
intensities. The color output of the flame arc lamps depends upon the flame materials.
The luminous efficiency of such lamp is 8 lumens/W. A simple flame arc lamp is shown
in Fig. 4.2. Resistance is connected in service with the electrodes to stabilize the arc.

Fig. 4.2 Flame arc lamp

Magnetic arc lamp

The principle of the operation of the magnetic arc lamp is similar to the carbon
arc lamp. This lamp consists of positive electrode that is made up of copper and
negative electrode that is made up of magnetic oxide of iron. Light energy radiated out
when the arc is struck between the two electrodes. These are rarely used lamps.

4
Incandescent Lamp

These lamps are temperature-dependent sources. When electric current is made

to flow through a fine metallic wire, which is known as filament, its temperature
increases. At low temperatures, it emits only heat energy, but at very high temperature,
the metallic wire emits both heat and light energy. These incandescent lamps are also
known as temperature radiators.

Choice of material for filament

The materials commonly used as filament for incandescent lamps are carbon, tantalum,
tungsten, and osmium.
The materials used for the filament of the incandescent lamp have the following
properties.
1. The melting point of the filament material should be high.
2. The temperature coefficient of the material should be low.
3. It should be high resistive material.
4. The material should possess good mechanical strength to withstand
Vibrations.
5. The material should be ductile.

Comparisons of carbon, osmium, tantalum, and tungsten used for making the
filament
Carbon

1. Carbon has high melting point of 3,500°C; even though, its melting point is high,
carbon starts disintegration at very fast rate beyond its working temperature of
1,800°C.
2. Its resistance decreases with increase in temperature, i.e., its temperature
coefficient of resistivity is negative, so that it draws more current from the
Supply. The temperature coefficient (α) is –0.0002 to – 0.0008.

5
 3. The efficiency of carbon filament lamp is low; because of its low operating tem
perature, large electrical input is required. The commercial efficiency of
Carbon lamp is 3 – 4.5 lumens/W approximately.
4. Carbon has high resistivity (ρ), which is about 1,000–7,000 μΩ-cm and its
Density is 1.7–3.5.

Osmium

1. The melting point of osmium is 2,600°C.

2. It is very rare and expensive metal
3. The average efficiency of osmium lamp is 5 lumens/W.
Tantalum

1. The melting point of tantalum is 3,000°C.

2. Resistivity (ρ) is 12.5 μΩ-cm.
3. The main drawback of the negative temperature coefficient of carbon is
overcome in tantalum. It has positive temperature coefficient (α) and its
value is 0.0036.
4. The density of tantalum is 16.6.
5. The efficiency of tantalum lamp is 2 lumens/W.

Tungsten

1. The working temperature of tungsten is 2,500–3,000°C.

2. Its resistance at working temperature is about 12–15 times the cold resistance.
3. It has positive temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.0045.
4. Its resistivity is 5.6 12.5 μΩ-cm.
5. The density of tungsten is 19.3.
6 The efficiency of tantalum when working at 2,000°C is 18 lumens/W.
7. Its vapor pressure is low when compared to carbon.

6
Construction

Figure 4.3 shows the construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent
lamp. It consists of an evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided
with two pins to insert the bulb into the socket. The inner side of the bulb consists of a
tungsten filament and the support wires are made of molybdenum to hold the filament
in proper position. A glass button is provided in which the support wires are inserted. A
stem tube forms an air-tight seal around the filament whenever the glass is melted.

Fig. 4.3 Incandescent lamp

7
Operation

When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten
filament, its temperature increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both
heat and light radiations, which fall in the visible region. The maximum temperature at
which the filament can be worked without oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e., beyond this
temperature, the tungsten filament blackens the inside of the bulb. The tungsten
filament lamps can be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be attained by
inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen with small quantity of organ. But if gas is
inserted instead of vacuum in the inner side of the bulb, the heat of the lamp is
conducted away and it reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of heat by
conduction and convection, as far as possible, the filament should be so wound that it
takes very little space. This is achieved by using a single-coil filament instead of a
straight wire filament as shown in Fig.4.4(a)
This single-coil filament is used in vacuum bulbs up to 25 W and gas filled bulbs
from 300 to 1,000 W.

Fig. 4.4 various filaments used in incandescent lamps

On further development of the incandescent lamps, the shortening of the length of

the filament was achieved by adopting a coiled coil or a double coil filament as shown in
Fig. 4.4(b). The use of coiled coil filament not only improves the efficiency of the lamp
but also reduces the number of filament supports and thus simplified interior
construction because the double coil reduces the filament mounting length in the ratio
of 1:25 as compared to the straight wire filaments.

8
 Usually, the tungsten filament lamp suffers from ‘aging effect’, the output of the
light an incandescent lamp decreases as the lamp ages. The output of the light of the
lamp decreases due to two reasons.

1. At very high temperature, the vaporization of filament decreases the coil

diameter so that resistance of the filament increases and hence its draws less
current from the supply, so the temperature of the filament and the light output of
the bulb decrease.
1. The current drawn from the mains and the power consumed by the filament
decrease, which decrease the efficiency of the lamp with the passage of time.
In addition, the evaporation of the filament at high temperature blackens the
inside of the bulb.

The effects of voltage variations

The variations in normal supply voltages will affect the operating characteristics
of incandescent lamps. The performance characteristic of an incandescent lamp, when
it is subjected to voltage other than normal voltage, is shown in Fig.4.5.

Fig 4.5 Performance characteristics of incandescent lamp

9
 With an increase in the voltage owing to the increase in the temperature,
the luminous output of the incandescent lamps, and the efficiency and power
consumption, but its life span decreases.

The depreciation in the light output is around 15% over the useful life of the lamp.
The above-stated factors are related to the variations of voltage are given as:
1. Lumens output ∝ (voltage)3.55.
2. Power consumption ∝ (voltage)1.55.
3. Luminous efficiency ∝ (voltage)2.
4. Life ∝ (voltage)–13 (for vacuum lamps).
5. Life ∝ (voltage)–14 (for gas filled lamps).

The advantages of the incandescent lamps

1. These lamps are available in various shapes and sizes.

2. These are operating at unity power factor.
3. These lamps are not affected by surrounding air temperature.
4. Different colored light output can be obtained by using different colored glasses.

Limitations
The incandescent lamp suffers from the following drawbacks:
1. Low efficiency.
2. Colored light can be obtained by using different colored glass enclosures only.

Discharge Lamps

Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the

incandescent lamp. The main principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge
lamp is illustrated as below.

10
 In all discharge lamps, an electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor,
which produces its illuminance. Normally, at high pressures and atmospheric
conditions, all the gases are poor conductors of electricity. But on application of
sufficient voltage across the two electrodes, these ionized gases produce
electromagnetic radiation. In the process of producing light by gaseous conduction, the
most commonly used elements are neon, sodium, and mercury. The wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation depends upon the nature of gas and the gaseous pressure
used inside the lamp. A simple discharge lamp is shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig 4.6 Discharge lamps

The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the

phenomenon of excitation and ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two
electrodes of a discharge tube.

When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential,
gas or metal vapor starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two
electrodes. Volt–ampere characteristics of the arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge
lamp possess a negative resistance characteristics. A choke or ballast is provided to
limit high currents to a safe value. Here, the choke serves two functions.

1. It provides ignition voltage initially.

2. Limits high currents.

11
 The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps
so that all the discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the
power factor. The nature of the gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color
affected of light.
Types of discharge lamps

Generally used discharge lamps are of two types.

They are:
1.The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place
through the gas or vapor present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium
vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas, sodium vapor lamp, and mercury vapor lamp.
2. The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated
inside the walls of the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the
vapor produces UV radiation, then the invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and
radiates light energy falls in the visible region. This UV light causes fluorescence in
certain phosphor materials, such lamps are known as fluorescent lamps

Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.

In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.

Drawbacks
The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers;
therefore, the lamp circuitry is complex.
2. High initial cost
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.

12
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have
negative resistance characteristics.

Neon Discharge Lamp

This is a cold cathode lamp, in which no filament is used to heat the electrode for
starting. Neon lamp consists of two electrodes placed at the two ends of a long discharge
tube is shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig 4.7 Neon lamps

The discharge tube is filled with neon gas. A low voltage of 150 V on DC or 110 V
on AC is impressed across the two electrodes; the discharge takes place through the
neon gas that emits light or electromagnetic radiation reddish in color. The sizes of
electrodes used are equal for both AC and DC supplies. On DC, neon glow appear
nearer to the negative electrode; therefore, the negative electrode is made larger in size.
Neon lamp electric circuit consists of a transformer with high leakage reactance in
order to stabilize the arc. Capacitor is used to improve the power factor. Neon lamp
efficiency is approximately 15–40 lumens/W. The power consumption of the neon
lamp is 5 W.

13
 If the helium gas is used instead of neon, pinkish white light is obtained. These
lamps are used as night lamps and as indicator lamps and used for the determination of
the polarity of DC mains and for advertising purpose.

Sodium Vapor Lamp

A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor
discharge lamp consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask,
to keep the temperature of the tube within the working region. The inner U-tube
consists of two oxide-coated electrodes, which are sealed with the ends. These
electrodes are connected to a pin type base construction of sodium vapor lamp is shown
in Fig 4.8 Sodium vapor lamp

14
 This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so that the length of the lamp
should be more. In order to get the desired length, it is made in the form of a U-
shaped tube. This long U-tube consists of a small amount of neon gas and metallic
sodium. At the time of start, the neon gas vaporizes and develops sufficient heat to
vaporize metallic sodium in the U-shaped tube.

Working

Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner
tube. When sufficient voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge
starts in the inert gas, i.e., neon; it operates as a low-pressure neon lamp with pink
color. The temperature of the lamp increases gradually and the metallic sodium
vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the monochromatic yellow light. This
lamp takes 10–15 min to give its full light output. The yellowish output of the lamp
makes the object appears gray.

In order to start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-
W lamps. These voltages can be obtained from a high reactance transformer or an auto
transformer. The operating power factor of the lamp is very poor, so that a capacitor is
placed to improve the power factor to above 0.8. More care should be taken while
replacing the inner tube, if it is broken, then sodium comes in contact with the
moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly
so, to spread out the sodium well along the tube.

The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W.

Normally, these lamps are manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The
normal operating temperatures of these lamps are 300°C. In general, the average life
of the sodium vapor lamp is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are not affected by voltage
variation

15
 Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:
1. The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
2 The filament breaks or burns out.
3. All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.
4. The life of the lamp increases due to aging.
The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are
mainly used for highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor
lighting, etc.

High-Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp

The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the
pressure, voltage, temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral
quality and the efficiency of the lamp.
Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high
pressures.

MA type lamp

It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the

Construction of sodium vapor lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in
Fig. 4.9
MA type lamp consists of a long discharge tube in ‘U’ shape and is made up of hard
glass or quartz. This discharge tube is enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass. To
prevent the heat loss from the inner bulb, by convection, the gap between the two
tubes is completely evacuated. The inner tube contains two main electrodes and an
auxiliary starting electrode, which is connected through a high resistance of about 50
kΩ. It also contains a small quantity of argon gas and mercury. The two main

16
electrodes are tungsten coils coated with electron emitting material (such as thorium
metal).

Fig.4.9 MA type lamp

Working

Initially, the tube is cold and hence the mercury is in condensed form.
Initially, when supply is given to the lamp, argon gas present between the main and
the auxiliary electrodes gets ionized, and an arc is established, and then discharge
takes place through argon for few minutes between the main and the auxiliary
electrodes. As a result, discharge takes place through argon for few minutes in
between the main and the auxiliary electrodes. The discharge can be controlled by
using high resistance that is inserted in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After

17
 few minutes, the argon gas, as a whole, gets ionized between the two main
electrodes. Hence, the discharge shifts from the auxiliary electrode to the two main
electrodes. During the discharge process, heat is produced and this heat is
sufficient to vaporize the mercury. As a result, the pressure inside the discharge
tube becomes high and the voltage drop across the two main electrodes will
increases from 20 to 150 V. After 5–7 min, the lamp starts and gives its full output.

Initially, the discharge through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through
the mercury vapors is greenish blue light; here, choke is provided to limit high
currents and capacitor is to improve the power factor of the lamp.

If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the vapor pressure be
reduced before it will start. It takes approximately 3 – 4 min. The operating temperature
of the inner discharge tube is about 600°C. The efficiency of this type of lamp is 30–40
lumens/W. These lamps are manufactured in 250 and 400 W ratings for use on 200–
250 V on AC supply.

Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports, shopping
centers, railway yards, etc

MAT type lamp

This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and
500 W rating for use on AC as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type
lamp is similar to the MA type lamp except the outer tube being empty; it consists of
tungsten filament so that at the time of starting, it works as a tungsten filament lamp.
Here, the filament itself acts as a choke or ballast to limit the high currents to safer
value. When the supply is switched on, it works as a tungsten filament lamp, its full
output is given by the outer tube. At this time, the temperature of the inner discharge
tube increases gradually, the argon gas present in it starts ionizing in the discharge
tube at any particular temperature is attained then thermal switch gets opened, and
the part of the filament is detached and voltage across the discharge tube increases.
Now, the discharge takes place through the mercury vapor. Useful color effect can be

18
obtained by this lamp. This is because of the combination of light emitted form the
filament and blue radiations from the discharge tube. In this type of lamp, capacitor
is not required since the overall power factor of the lamp is 0.95; this is because the
filament itself acts as resistance. Fig. 4.10 shows the construction of MAT type lamp.

Fig.4.10 MAT type lamp

19
MB type lamp

The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for
the MB type lamp is about 5 -cm long and is made up of quartz material. It has three
electrodes; two main and one auxiliary electrodes. There are three electrodes present
in the MB type lamp, namely two main electrodes and one auxiliary electrode.
Relatively, very high pressure is maintained inside the discharge tube and it is about
5–10 times greater than atmospheric pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl glass
material so as to withstand high temperatures. We can use these tubes in any position,
because they are made up of special glass material.

The working principle of the MB type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp. These
lamps are manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use in AC as well as DC supplies.
An MB type lamp consists a bayonet cap with three pins, so it may not be used in an
ordinary sense. A choke coil and a capacitor are necessary for working with these types
of lamps.

Schematic representation of MB type lamp is shown in Fig. 4.11.

Fig 4.11. MB type lamp

20
Fluorescent Lamp (Low-Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp)

Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the

construction and working of the fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.

Construction

It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the
bulb; it is made in the form of a long tube. The tube consists of two spiral tungsten
electrode coated with electron emissive material and are placed at the two edges of long
tube. The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and certain amount of mercury, at a
pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The construction of fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig.
4.12. Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they
produce an objectionable colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the
inside of the tube with fluorescent powders. They are in the form of solids, which are
usually knows as phosphors.

Fig. Fluorescent lamp

21
 A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode
glow lamp with bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the
electrodes directly across the supply at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series
that acts as ballast when the lamp is running, and it provides a voltage impulse for starting.
A capacitor of 4μF is connected across the starter in order to improve the power factor.

Working

At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the
mercury is in the form of globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals
are open circuited and full supply voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low
resistance of electrodes and choke coil. The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which
establishes an arc with a starting glow. This glow warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow
starts gets short circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come in series and are connected
across the supply voltage. Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons
due to the flow of current through them. These electrons collide with the argon atoms
present in the long tube discharge that takes place through the argon gas. So, in the
beginning, the lamp starts conduction with argon gas as the temperature increases, the
mercury changes into vapor form and takes over the conduction of current. In the
meantime, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling down.
As a result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the series circuit. A very
high voltage around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter terminals
in the series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced voltage
is quite sufficient to break down the long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide with
argon and mercury vapor atoms. The excited atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which
will not fall in the visible region
Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-
emission of light of different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the
emission is called as luminescence.

22
 This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:
Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the
excitation will present.
In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known as
Fluorescent lamp.
Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light of different colors
as given in Table. .

Table Colors of light

Phosphor material Color effect

1. Zinc silicate Green

2. Calcium tungstate Green

3. Magnesium tungstate Bluish while

4. Cadmium silicate Yellowish pink

5. Zinc beryllium silicate Yellowish while

6. Cadmium borate Pink

Advantages of fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp has the following advantages:

1. High efficiency.
2. The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
3. The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
4 Less chances of glare.
5. These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be
Unsatisfactory.

23
Disadvantages:
1. The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
2. The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low
ambient temperature
3. Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic
humming and may cause disturbance.
4. The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.

Stroboscopic effect

We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero
two times in a cycle’. For 50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a
discharge lamp will be extinguished twice in a cycle and 100 times per second (for
50-Hz supply). A human eye cannot identify this extinguish phenomenon, because of
the persistence of vision. If this light falls upon a moving object, the object appearing
like slow moving or fast moving or moving in reverse direction, sometimes
stationary. This effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the light of the lamp. This
effect is called as ‘stroboscopic effect’.

This effect can be avoided by employing any of the two techniques listed below.
If we have three-phase supply, then the fluorescent lamps that are adjacent should
be fed from different phases. Then, no two lamps will not be in same phase at zero
instant of AC supply, so light is present at any instant. If the available supply is
Single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in Fig.4.13, we can eliminate
Stroboscopic effect.

Twin tube circuit is also known as lead–lag circuit. Here two tubes are
connected in parallel. One of the two tubes provided with a capacitor in series
with the choke coil. The current through the lamps is almost 90° out of phase and
under these conditions, the light output of one of the lamps is at maximum.
Moreover, the overall power factor of lamps is unity. In this lead–lag

24
arrangement, one of the lamps is operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with
capacitor, is operating at 0.5 leading.

In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on the
operating conditions, the lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr.
It is recommended to replace a lamp after 4,000–5,000 of its working hours.

Fig. Lead–lag circuit

25
Comparison between Tungsten Filament Lamps and Fluorescent Lamps
Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp

1. Initial cost is less. 1. Initial cost is more.

2. Fluctuation in supply voltage has less effect on light 2. Fluctuations in supply voltage has comparatively
output, as the variations in voltage are absorbed in choke. more effect on the light output.

3. It radiates the light; the color of which resembles the 3. It does not give light close to the natural light.
natural light.

4. It works on AC as well as DC. 4. Change of supply needs additional equipment.

5. The luminous efficiency of the lamp is high that is about 5. The luminous efficiency is poor, which is about 8–
8 – 40 lumens/W. 10 lumen/W.

6. Different color lights can be obtained by using different 6. Different color lights can be obtained by using
colored glasses. different composition of fluorescent powder.

7. Brightness of the lamp is more. 7. Brightness of the lamp is less.

8. The reduction in light output of the lamp is comparatively 8. The reduction in light output of the lamp is
high, with the time. comparatively low, with the lamp.

9. The working temperature is about 2,000°C. 9. The working temperature is about 50°C.

10. The normal working life is 1,000 hr. 10. The normal working life is 5,000–7,500 hr.

11. No stroboscopic effect. 11. Stroboscopic effect is present.

12. These lamps are widely used for domestic, industrial, 12. They find wide application in domestic, industrial,
and street lighting. and floodlighting.

13. The luminous efficiency increases with the increase in 13. The luminous efficiency increase with the increase
the voltage of the lamp. in voltage and the increase in the length of tube.

26
Basic Principles of Light Control

When light strikes the surface of an object, based on the properties of that
surface, some portion of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted
through the medium of the surface, and the remaining is absorbed.

The method of light control is used to change the direction of light through
large angle. There are four light control methods. They are:
1.reflection,
2.refraction,
3.riffusion, and
4. Absorption.
Reflection

The light falling on the surface, whole of the light will not absorbed or
transmitted through the surface, but some of the light is reflected back, at an
angle equals to the angle of incidence. The ratio of reflected light energy to the
incident light energy is known as reflection factor. The two basic types of
reflection are:
1. mirror or specular reflection and
2. Diffuse reflection.
Specular reflection

When whole of the light falling on a smooth surfaces will be reflected back at an
angle equal to the angle of incidence. Such a reflection is known as specular reflection.
With such reflection, observer will be able to see the light source but not the
illuminated surface. Most of the surfaces causing the specular reflection are silvered
mirrors, highly polished metal surfaces. Specular reflection is shown in Fig. 4.14.

27
 Fig. 4.14 Specular reflection

A surface that is almost free from reflection is called a matt surface.

Diffuse reflection

When the light ray falling on any surface, it is scattered in all directions
irrespective of the angle of incidence. Such type of reflector is known as diffuse
reflection and is shown in Fig. 4.14 Most of the surfaces causing the diffuse reflection
are rough or matt surfaces such as blotting paper, frosted glass, plaster, etc

Fig. 4.14 Diffuse reflection

In this reflection, observer will be able to see the illuminated surface but not the light
source.

28
Refraction

When a beam of light passes through two different mediums having different
densities, the light ray will be reflected. This phenomenon is known as refraction.
Figure 4.15 shows the refraction of light ray from dense medium to rare medium
where μ1 andμ2 are the refractive indices of two medium, θ is the angle of incidence,
and α is the angle of reflection.

Fig. 4.15 Refraction

The angle of light ray with normal is comparatively less in dense medium
than in rare medium
Diffusion

When a ray of light falling on a surface is reflected in all possible directions, so

that such surface appears luminous from all possible directions. This can be achieved
with a diffusing glass screen introduced between the observer and the light source. The
normally employed diffusing glasses are opal glass and frosted glass. Both are ordinary
glasses, but frosted glass is an ordinary glass coated with crystalline substance.
Although frosted glass is cheaper than opal glass, the disadvantage of frosted
glass is, it collects more dust particles and it is difficult to clean.

29
Absorption
In some of the cases, whole of the light emitted by tungsten filament lamp will
be excessive, so that it is necessary to avoid that the amount of unwanted wavelengths
without interference. This can be achieved by using a special bluish colored glass for
the filament lamp to absorb the unwanted radiation.

Types of Lighting Schemes

Usually, with the reflector and some special diffusing screens, it is possible to
control the distribution of light emitted from lamps up to some extent. A good lighting
scheme results in an attractive and commanding presence of objects and enhances the
architectural style of the interior of a building. Depending upon the requirements and
the way of light reaching the surface, lighting schemes are classified as follows:

1.direct lighting,
2.semidirect lighting,
3.indirect lighting,
4.semi-indirect lighting, and
5. General lighting.

Direct lighting schemes

Direct lighting scheme is most widely used for interior lighting scheme. In this
scheme, by using deep reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the
lamp. This scheme is more efficient but it suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence,
while designing such schemes, all the possibilities that will cause glare on the eye have
to be eliminated. It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.

Semi direct lighting schemes

In semi direct lighting scheme, about 60–90% of lamps luminous flux is made
to fall downward directly by using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to

30
illuminate the walls and ceiling. This type of light scheme is employed in rooms with
high ceiling. Glare can be avoided by employing diffusing globes. This scheme will
improve not only the brightness but also the efficiency.

Indirect lighting schemes

In this lighting scheme, 90% of total light is thrown upwards to the ceiling. In
such scheme, the ceiling acts as the lighting source and glare is reduced to minimum.

This system provides shadow less illumination, which is very useful for drawing offices
and in workshops where large machines and other difficulties would cause trouble
some shadows if direct lighting schemes were used.

Semi-indirect lighting schemes

In semi-indirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of light from the lamp is

thrown upwards to the ceiling and the remaining luminous flux reaches the working
surface. Glare will be completely eliminated with such type of lighting scheme. This
scheme is widely preferred for indoor lighting decoration purpose.

General lighting scheme

This scheme of lighting use diffusing glasses to produce the equal illumination
in all directions. Mounting height of the source should be much above eye level to
avoid glare. Lamp fittings of various lighting schemes are shown in Fig. 4.16.

Fig 4.16 Lighting Schemes

31
 Design of Lighting Schemes
The lighting scheme should be such that:
1. It should be able to provide sufficient illumination.
2. It should be able to provide the uniform distribution of light
Throughout the working plane.
3. It should be able to produce the light of suitable color.
4. It should be able to avoid glare and hard shadows as much as possible.

While designing a lighting scheme, the following factors should be taken into
consideration.
1. Illumination level.
2. The size of the room.
3. The mounting height and the space of fitting.

Floodlighting

Floodlighting means flooding of large surface areas with light from powerful
projectors. A special reflector and housing is employed in floodlighting in order to
concentrate the light emitted from the lamp into a relatively narrow beam, which is
known as floodlight projector. This projector consists of a reflecting surface that may
be a silvered glass or chromium plate or stainless steel. The efficiency of silvered glass
and polished metal are 85–90% and 70%, respectively. Usually metal reflectors are
robust; therefore, they can be preferred. An important application of illumination
engineering is the floodlighting of large and open areas. It is necessary to employ
floodlighting to serve one or more of the following purposes.

32
.

33
 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
UNIT – V

System of electric traction and track electrification. Review of existing electric

traction systems in India. Special features of traction motor, Mechanics of train
movement. Speed-time curves for different services – trapezoidal and quadrilateral
speed time curves.

Electric Traction-I
Introduction

The system that causes the propulsion of a vehicle in which that driving force
or tractive force is obtained from various devices such as electric motors, steam
engine drives, diesel engine dives, etc. is known as traction system.
Traction system may be broadly classified into two types. They are electric-
traction systems, which use electrical energy, and non-electric traction system,
which does not use electrical energy for the propulsion of vehicle.

Requirements of ideal traction system

Normally, no single traction system fulfills the requirements of ideal traction system,
why because each traction system has its merits and suffers from its own demerits, in
the fields of applications.

The requirements of ideal traction systems are:

1.Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive effort in
order to have rapid acceleration.
2. The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
3. Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.
4. Equipment required for traction system should be minimum with high
efficiency.
5. It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.

1
 6. Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should be in such a way
to cause minimum wear on the break shoe.
7. Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable of withstanding
overloads.
8. Interference to the communication lines should be eliminated while the
locomotive running along the track.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Traction

Advantages of electric traction:

1. Electric traction system is more clean and easy to handle.

2. No need of storage of coal and water that in turn reduces the maintenance cost as
well as the saving of high-grade coal.
3. Electric energy drawn from the supply distribution system is sufficient to
maintain the common necessities of locomotives such as fans and lights;
therefore, there is no need of providing additional generators.
4. The maintenance and running costs are comparatively low
5. The speed control of the electric motor is easy.
6. Regenerative braking is possible so that the energy can be fed back to the
supply system during the braking period.
7. In electric traction system, in addition to the mechanical braking, electrical
braking can also be used that reduces the wear on the brake shoes, wheels, etc.
8. Electrically operated vehicles can withstand for overloads, as the system is
capable of drawing more energy from the system.
Drawbacks electric traction

1. Electric traction system involves high erection cost of power system.

2.Interference causes to the communication lines due to the overhead distribution
networks.
3. The failure of power supply brings whole traction system to stand still.
4. In an electric traction system, the electrically operated vehicles have to move only on the
electrified routes.
5. Additional equipment should be needed for the provision of regenerative braking, it
will increase the overall cost of installation

2
Review of Existing Electric Traction System in India

In olden days, first traction system was introduced by Britain in 1890 (600-V DC
track). Electrification system was employed for the first traction vehicle. This traction
system was introduced in India in the year 1925 and the first traction system employed
in India was from Bombay VT to Igatpuri and Pune, with 1,500-V DC supply. This DC
supply can be obtained for traction from substations equipped with rotary converters.
Development in the rectifiers leads to the replacement of rotary converters by mercury
arc rectifiers. But nowadays further development in the technology of semiconductors,
these mercury arc valves are replaced by solid-state semiconductors devices due to fast
traction system was introduced on 3,000-V DC. Further development in research on
traction system by French international railways was suggested that, based on relative
merits and demerits, it is advantageous to prefer to AC rather than DC both financially
and operationally.
Thus, Indian railways was introduced on 52-kV, 50-Hz single-phase AC system in 1957;
this system of track electrification leads to the reduction of the cost of overhead,
locomotive equipment, etc. Various systems employed for track electrification are
shown in Table.

Table Track electrification systems

3
System of Traction

Traction system is normally classified into two types based on the type of
energy given as input to drive the system and they are:

Non-electric traction system

Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which do not
involve the use of electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle known
as electric traction system.
Ex: Direct steam engine drive and direct internal combustion engine
drive.
Electric traction system

Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which involves the
use of electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle, known as electric
traction system.
Based upon the type of sources used to feed electric supply for traction
system, electric traction may be classified into two groups:
1. Self-contained locomotives.
2. Electric vehicle fed from the distribution networks.
Self-contained locomotives

In this type, the locomotives or vehicles themselves having a capability of

generating electrical energy for traction purpose. Examples for such type of
locomotives are:
Steam electric drive
In steam electric locomotives, the steam turbine is employed for driving a
generator used to feed the electric motors. Such types of locomotives are not generally
used for traction because of some mechanical difficulties and maintenance problems.
Diesel electric trains
A few locomotives employing diesel engine coupled to DC generator used to
feed the electric motors producing necessary propelling torque. Diesel engine is a
variable high-speed type that feeds the self- or separately excited DC generator. The
excitation for generator can be supplied from any auxiliary devices and battery.

4
 Generally, this type of traction system is suggested in the areas where coal
and steam tractions are not available. The advantages and disadvantages of the
diesel engine drive are given below:

Advantages

1. As these are no overhead distribution system, initial cost low.

2. Easy speed control is possible.
3. Power loss in speed control is very low
4. Time taken to bring the locomotive into service is less.
5. In this system, high acceleration and braking retardation can be obtained
compared to steam locomotives.
6. The overall efficiency is high compared to steam locomotives.

Disadvantages

1. The overloading capability of the diesel engine is less.

2. The running and maintenance costs are high.
3. The regenerative braking cannot be employed for the diesel engine drives.

Petrol electric traction

This system of traction is used in road vehicles such as heavy Lorries and
buses. These vehicles are capable of handling overloads. At the same time, this
system provides fine and smooth control so that they can run along roads

without any jerking.

Battery drives

In this drive, the locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power to

DC motors employed for driving the vehicle. This type of drives can be
preferred for frequently operated services such as local delivery goods traction
in industrial works and mines, etc. This is due to the unreliability of supply
source to feed the electric motors.

5
Electric vehicles fed from distribution network

Vehicles in electrical traction system that receives power from overhead

distribution network fed or substations with suitable spacing. Based on the
available supply, these groups of vehicles are further subdivided into:
1. System operating with DC supply. Ex: tramways, trolley buses, and railways.
2. System operating with AC supply. Ex: railways.

Systems operating with DC supply

In case if the available supply is DC, then the necessary propelling power can
be obtained for the vehicles from DC system such as tram ways, trolley buses, and
railways.

Tramways:
Tramways are similar to the ordinary buses and cars but only the difference is
they are able to run only along the track. Operating power supply for the tramways is
500-V DC tramways are fed from single overhead conductor acts as positive polarity
that is fed at suitable points from either power station or substations and the track rail
acts as return conductor.

The equipment used in tramways is similar to that used in railways but with
small output not more than 40–50 kW. Usually, the tramways are provided with two
driving axels to control the speed of the vehicles from either ends. The main drawback
of tramways is they have to run along the guided routes only. Rehostatic and
mechanical braking’s can be applied to tramways. Mechanical brakes can be applied at
low speeds for providing better saturation where electric braking is ineffective, during
the normal service. The erection and maintenance costs of tramways are high since

the cost of overhead distribution structure is costlier and sometimes, it may cause
a source of danger to other road users.

6
Trolley buses:

The main drawback of tramways is, running along the track is avoided in case of
trolley buses. These are electrically operated vehicles, and are fed usually 600-V DC
from two overhead conductors, by means of two collectors. Even though overhead
distribution structure is costlier, the trolley buses are advantageous because, they
eliminate the necessity of track in the roadways.

In case of trolley buses, rehostatic braking is employed, due to high adhesion

between roads and rubber types. A DC compound motor is employed in trolley
buses.

System of Track Electrification

Nowadays, based on the available supply, the track electrification system

are categorized into.

1. DC system.
2. Single-phase AC system.
3. Three-phase AC system.
4. Composite system.
DC system

In this system of traction, the electric motors employed for getting

necessary propelling torque should be selected in such a way that they
should be able to operate on DC supply. Examples for such vehicles
operating based on DC system are tramways and trolley buses. Usually, DC
series motors are preferred for tramways and trolley buses even though DC
compound motors are available where regenerative braking is desired. The
operating voltages of vehicles for DC track electrification system are 600,
750, 1,500, and 3,000 V. Direct current at 600–750 V is universally
employed for tramways in the urban areas and for many suburban and main

7
line railways, 1,500–3,000 V is used. In some cases, DC supply for traction motor can
be obtained from substations equipped with rotary converters to convert AC power to
DC. These substations receive AC power from 3-φ high-voltage line or single-phase
overhead distribution network. The operating voltage for traction purpose can be
justified by the spacing between stations and the type of traction motors available.
Theses substations are usually automatic and remote controlled and they are so costlier
since they involve rotary converting equipment. The DC system is preferred for
suburban services and road transport where stops are frequent and distance between
the stops is small.

Single-phase AC system

In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors are

used for getting the necessary propelling power. The distribution network
employed for such traction systems is normally 15–25 kV at reduced
frequency of 163⅔ Hz or 25 Hz. The main reason of operating at reduced
frequencies is AC series motors that are more efficient and show better
performance at low frequency. These high voltages are stepped down to
suitable low voltage of 300–400 V by means of step-down transformer.
Low frequency can be obtained from normal supply frequency with the
help of frequency converter. Low-frequency operation of overhead
transmission line reduces the line reactance and hence the voltage drops
directly and single-phase AC system is mainly preferred for main line
services where the cost of overhead structure is not much importance
moreover rapid acceleration and retardation is not required for suburban
services.

8
Three-phase AC system

In this system of track electrification, 3-φ induction motors are employed for
getting the necessary propelling power. The operating voltage of induction motors is
normally 3,000–3,600-V AC at either normal supply frequency or 16⅔-Hz frequency.

Usually 3-φ induction motors are preferable because they have simple and robust
construction, high operating efficiency, provision of regenerative braking without
placing any additional equipment, and better performance at both normal and seduced
frequencies. In addition to the above advantages, the induction motors suffer from
some drawbacks; they are low-starting torque, high-starting current, and the absence of
speed control. The main disadvantage of such track electrification system is high cost of
overhead distribution structure. This distribution system consists of two overhead wires
and track rail for the third phase and receives power either directly from the generating
station or through transformer substation.

Three-phase AC system is mainly adopted for the services where the output
power required is high and regeneration of electrical energy is possible.

Composite system
As the above track electrification system have their own merits and demerits,1-
AC system is preferable in the view of distribution cost and distribution voltage can be
stepped up to high voltage with the use of transformers, which reduces the transmission
losses. Whereas in DC system, DC series motors have most desirable features and for 3-
φ system, 3-φ induction motor has the advantage of automatic regenerative braking. So,
it is necessary to combine the advantages of the DC/AC and 3-φ/1-φ systems. The above
cause leads to the evolution of composite system.

9
 Composite systems are of two types.
1. Single-phase to DC system.
2. Single-phase to three-phase system or kando system.

Single-phase to DC system

In this system, the advantages of both 1-φ and DC systems are combined to get
high voltage for distribution in order to reduce the losses that can be achieved with 1-φ
distribution networks, and DC series motor is employed for producing the necessary
propelling torque. Finally, 1-φ AC distribution network results minimum cost with high
transmission efficiency and DC series motor is ideally suited for traction purpose.
Normal operating voltage employed of distribution is 25 kV at normal frequency of 50
Hz. This track electrification is employed in India.

Single-phase to 3-φ system or kando system

In this system, 1-φ AC system is preferred for distribution network. Since

single-phase overhead distribution system is cheap and 3-φ induction motors are
employed as traction motor because of their simple, robust construction, and the
provision of automatic regenerative braking.

The voltage used for the distribution network is about 15–25 kV at 50 Hz. This 1-φ
supply is converted to 3-φ supply through the help of the phase converters and high
voltage is stepped down transformers to feed the 3-φ induction motors. Frequency
converters are also employed to get high-starting torque and to achieve better speed
control with the variable supply frequency.

10
 Comparison between D.C Traction and D.C Traction:

Factor DC Traction AC Traction

Cost D.C Motors are Cheaper A.C Series motors are Expensive

Efficiency It is more Efficient Less Efficient

Maintence It requires Less Maintence It requires More Maintence

Acceleration It is Capable of giving high It is capable of giving less

acceleration Acceleration

Speed Control The Speed control of d.c series motor Wide range of speed control is
is limited possible

Interface D.C systems Causes less interference It will produce more

with communication lines Interference with
communication lines

Regerative Braking Regerative braking is more efficient Regerative Braking is Less

In d.c series motor Efficient In A.C series motor

Over Head Distribution Over Head Distribution Over Head Distribution

System It is less costly in DC system System is Costlier In AC System

Torque Torque developed by the DC series The Starting and Running

motor is less torque developed by the AC
Series motor is more

Substations The No.Of substations Required for The No.of Substations required
A given track distance on Dc traction in Ac traction is less
Is more

11
Special Features of Traction Motors
The general features of the electric motors used for traction purpose are
1. Mechanical features.
2. Electrical features.

Mechanical features

1. A traction motor must be mechanically strong and robust and it should be

capable of withstanding severe mechanical vibrations.
2. The traction motor should be completely enclosed type when placed
beneath the locomotive to protect against dirt, dust, mud, etc.
3. In overall dimensions, the traction motor must have small diameter, to
arrange easily beneath the motor coach.
4. A traction motor must have minimum weight so the weight of
locomotive will decrease. Hence, the load carrying capability of the
motor will increase.

Electrical features

High-starting torque

A traction motor must have high-starting torque, which is required to start the
motor on load during the starting conditions in urban and suburban services.

Speed control

The speed control of the traction motor must be simple and easy. This is necessary for
the frequent starting and stopping of the motor in traction purpose.

12
Dynamic and regenerative braking

Traction motors should be able to provide easy simple rehostatic and regenerative
braking subjected to higher voltages so that system must have the capability of
withstanding voltage fluctuations.

Temperature

The traction motor should have the capability of withstanding high temperatures
during transient conditions.

Overload capacity

The traction motor should have the capability of handling excessive overloads.

Parallel running

In traction work, more number of motors need to run in parallel to carry more load.
Therefore, the traction motor should have such speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics and those motors may share the total load almost equally.

Commutation

Traction motor should have the feature of better commutation, to avoid the
sparking at the brushes and commutator segments.

Traction Motors

No single motor can have all the electrical operating features required for
traction. In earlier days, DC motor is suited for traction because of the high-starting
torque and having the capability of handling overloads. In addition to the above
characteristics, the speed control of the DC motor is very complicated through
semiconductor switches. So that, the motor must be designed for high base speed
initially by reducing the number of turns in the field winding. But this will decrease the

13
torque developed per ampere at the time of staring. And regenerative braking is also
complicated in DC series motor; so that, the separately excited motors can be preferred
over the series motor because their speed control is possible through semi-controlled
converters. And also dynamic and regenerative braking in separately excited DC motor
is simple and efficient

DC compound motors are also preferred for traction applications since it is

having advantageous features than series and separately excited motors. But
nowadays squirrel cage induction and synchronous motors are widely used for
traction because of the availability of reliable variable frequency semiconductor
inverters. The squirrel cage induction motor has several advantages over the DC
motors.
They are:
1. Robust construction.
2. Highly reliable.
3. maintenance and low cost.
4. High efficiency.

Synchronous motor features lie in between the squirrel cage induction motor and the
DC motor. The main advantages of the synchronous motor over the squirrel cage
induction motor are:
1. The synchronous motors can be operated at leading power by varying
the field excitation.
2. Load commutated thyristor inverter is used in synchronous motors as
compared to forced commutation thyristor inverter in squirrel cage
induction motors.

Even though such forced commutation reduces the weight and volume of induction
motor, the synchronous motor is less expensive

14
1. DC series motor

From the construction and operating characteristics of the DC series motor,

it is widely suitable for traction purpose. Following features of series motor make it
suitable for traction.

1. DC series motor is having high-starting torque and having the capability of

handling overloads that is essential for traction drives.
2. These motors are having simple and robust construction.
3. The speed control of the series motor is easy by series parallel control.
4. Spark less commutation is possible, because the increase in armature current
increases the load torque and decreases the speed so that the emf induced in the coils
undergoing commutation.
5. Series motor flux is proportional to armature current and torque. But armature
current is independent of voltage fluctuations. Hence, the motor is unaffected by the
variations in supply voltage.

We know that:

But the power output of the motor is proportional to the product of torque
and speed.

Motor output TN T

15
 That is motor input drawn from the source is proportional to the square
root of the torque. Hence, the series motor is having self-retaining
property.

6. If more than one motor are to be run in parallel, their speed–torque and
current–torque characteristics must not have wide variation, which may result
in the unequal wear of driving wheels.

2 DC shunt motor

From the characteristics of DC shunt motor, it is not suitable for traction purpose,
due to the following reasons:

1. DC shunt motor is a constant speed motor but for traction purpose, the
speed of the motor should vary with service conditions.
2.In case of DC shunt motor, the power output is independent of speed and is
proportional to torque. In case of DC series motor, the power output is
proportional to So that, for a given load torque, the shunt motor has to draw
more power from the supply than series motor.
3. For shunt motor, the torque developed is proportional to armature current (T
∝ Ia). So for a given load torque motor has to draw more current from the
supply.
4. The flux developed by shunt motor is proportional to shunt field current and

hence supply voltage. . But the torque developed is proportional

to φsh and Ia. Hence, the torque developed by the shunt motor is affected
by small variations in supply voltage.
5. If two shunt motors are running in parallel, their speed–torque and speed–
current characteristics must be flat and same. Otherwise, the currents drawn
by the motor from the supply mains will be different and cause to unequal
sharing of load.

16
3. AC series motor

Practically, AC series motor is best suited for the traction purpose due to high-
starting torque (Fig. 5.1). When DC series motor is fed from AC supply, it works but
not satisfactorily due to some of the following reasons:

1. If DC series motor is fed from AC supply, both the field and the armature
currents reverse for every half cycle. Hence, unidirectional torque is developed
at double frequency.
2. Alternating flux developed by the field winding causes excessive eddy current
loss, which will cause the heating of the motor. Hence, the operating efficiency
of the motor will decrease.
3. Field winding inductance will result abnormal voltage drop and low power
factor that leads to the poor performance of the motor.
4. Induced emf and currents flowing through the armature coils undergoing
commutation will cause sparking at the brushes and commutator segments.

Fig. AC series motor

17
 Hence, some modifications are necessary for the satisfactory operation of the
DC series motor on the AC supply and they are as follows:

1.In order to reduce the inductive reactance of the series field, the field
Winding of AC series motor must be designed for few turns.
2. The decrease in the number of turns of the field winding reduces the load
torque, i.e., if field turns decrease, its mmf decrease and then flux, which will
increase the speed, and hence the torque will decrease. But in order to
maintain constant load torque, it is necessary to increase the armature turns
proportionately.
3. If the armature turns increase, the inductive reactance of the armature
would increase, which can be neutralized by providing the compensating
winding.
4. Magnetic circuit of an AC series motor should be laminated to reduce
eddy current losses.
5. Series motor should be operating at low voltage because high voltage low
current supply would require large number of turns to produce given flux.
6. Motor should be operating at low frequency, because inductive reactance is
proportional to the frequency. So, at low frequency, the inductive reactance of
the field winding decreases

The operating characteristics of the AC series motor are similar to the DC series
motor. Weight of an AC series motor is one and a half to two times that of a DC series
motor. And operating voltage is limited to 300 V. They can be built up to the size of
several hundred kW for traction work.

At the time of starting operation, the power factor is low; so that, for a given current,
the torque developed by the AC motor is less compared to the DC motor. Thus, the AC
series motor is not suitable for suburban services with frequent stops and preferred for
main line service where high acceleration is not required.

18
Three-phase induction motor

The three-phase induction motors are generally preferred for traction purpose due
to the following advantages.

1. Simple and robust construction.

2. Trouble-free operation.
3. The absence of commutator.
4. Less maintenance.
5. Simple and automatic regeneration.
6. High efficiency.

Three-phase induction motor also suffer from the following drawbacks.

1. Low-starting torque.
2. High-starting current and complicated speed control system.
3. It is difficult to employ three-phase induction motor for a multiple-unit system
used for propelling a heavy train.

Three-phase induction motor draws less current when the motor is started at
low frequencies. When a three-phase induction motor is used, the cost of overhead
distribution system increases and it consists of two overhead conductors and track rail
for the third phase to feed power to locomotive, which is a complicated overhead
structure and if any person comes in contact with the third rail, it may cause danger to
him or her. This drawback can be overcome by employing kando system. In this

system, 1-supply from the overhead distribution structure is converted to 3-φ

supply by using phase converters and is fed to 3-φinduction motor. The speed
controller of induction motor becomes smooth and easy with the use of
thyristorized inverter circuits to get variable frequency supply that can be used to
control the speed of three-phase induction motor.

19
 Nowadays, by overcoming the drawbacks of three-phase induction motor, it can
be used for traction purpose.

Linear induction motor

It is a special type of induction motor that gives linear motion instead of

rotational motion, as in the case of a conventional motor. In case of linear induction
motor, both the movement of field and the movement of the conductors are linear.
A linear induction motor consists of 3-φ distributed field winding placed in slots,
and secondary is nothing but a conducting plate made up of either copper or aluminum
as shown in Fig.5.2 .

Fig Linear induction motor

20
 The field system may be either single primary or double primary system. In
single primary system, a ferro magnetic plate is placed on the other side of the copper
plate; it is necessary to provide low reluctance path for the magnetic flux. When primary
is excited by 3-φ AC supply, according to mutual induction, the induced currents are
flowing through secondary and ferro magnetic plate. Now, the ferro magnetic plate
energized and attracted toward the primary causes to unequal air gap between primary
and secondary as shown in Fig. 9.2(a). This drawback can be overcome by double
primary system as shown in Fig. 9.2(b). In this system, two primaries are placed on both
the sides of secondary, which will be shorter in length compared to the other depending
upon the use of the motor.

When the operating distance is large, the length of the primary is made shorter
than the secondary because it is not economical to place very large 3-φ primary.
Generally, the short secondary form of system is preferred for limited operating
distance, as shown in

When 3-φ primary winding is excited by giving 3-φ AC supply, magnetic field is
developed rotating at linear synchronous speed, Vs.

The linear synchronous speed is given by:

Vs = 2τ f m/s,

where τ is the pole pitch in m and f is the supply frequency in hertzs.

Note: here, the synchronous speed does not depend upon the number of poles but
depends upon the pole pitch and the supply frequency.

21
 1. Short single primary.

2. Short double primary.

3. Short secondary.

The flux developed by the field winding pulls the rotor same as to the direction of the
magnetic field linearly, which will reduce relative speed between field and rotor plate. If
the speed of the rotor plate is equal to the magnetic field, then the field would be
stationary when viewed from the rotor plate. If rotor plate is rotating at a speed more
than linear synchronous, the direction of a force would be reversed, which causes
regenerative braking.

The slip of the linear induction motor is given by:

where ‘V ’ is the actual speed of the rotor plate.

The speed–torque (tractive effort) characteristics is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 Torque–speed characteristics

22
 Therefore, force or tractive effort is given by:

Where ‘P2’ is the actual power supply to the rotor.

Advantages

1. Simple in construction.
2. Low initial cost.
3. Maintenance cost is low.
4. Maximum speed is not limited due centrifugal forces.
5. Better power to weight ratio.

Disadvantages

1. High cost of providing collector system.

2. Poor efficiency and low power factor, due to high currents drawn by the motor
because of large air gap.

Applications

Linear induction motor are generally used in:

1. High-speed rail traction.

2. Trolley cars and metallic belt conveyors.
3. Electromagnetic pumps.

Synchronous motor

The synchronous motor is one type of AC motor working based upon the
principle of magnetic lacking. It is a constant speed motor running from no-load to full
load.

23
 The construction of the synchronous motor is similar to the AC generator;
armature winding is excited by giving three-phase AC supply and field winding is
excited by giving DC supply. The synchronous motor can be operated at leading and
lagging power factors by varying field excitation.

The synchronous motor can be widely used various applications because of

constant speed from no-load to full load.
1. High efficiency.
2 Low-initial cost.
3. Power factor improvement of three-phase AC industrial circuits.

Mechanics of train movement

Essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in Fig. 5.4. The
armature of the driving motor has a pinion of diameter d' attached to it. The tractive
effort at the edge of the pinion is transferred to the driving wheel by means of a
gearwheel

24
Let the driving motor exert a torque T in Nm. Tractive effort at the edge of pinion is
given by the equation

where d is diameter of gearwheel in meters, D is diameter of driving wheel in

meters and 1 is the-efficiency of transmission, y is the gear ratio and is equal to d'
d The maximum frictional force between the driving wheel and the track = µW where µ
is the coefficient of adhesion between the driving wheel and the track and W is the
weight of the train on the driving axles (called adhesive weight).
Slipping will not take place unless tractive effort F > µW. For motion of trains without
slipping tractive effort F should be less than or at the most equal to pt W but in no case
greater than in, W. The magnitude of the tractive effort that can be employed for
propulsion, therefore, depends upon the weight coming over the driving wheels and the
coefficient of adhesion between the driving wheel and the track.

25
Speed-time curves for different services

The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be most conveniently
studied by means of speed-time and speed-distance curves, which show respectively the
speed at different time instants after the start of run and the speed at different distances
from the starting point. Of the two, the speed-time curve is generally the more useful.
The curve drawn between speed and time, taking speed on km/hour) on the Y-axis and
time (in seconds or minutes) on X-axis, is known as speed-time curve. The speed-time
curve provides complete information of the motion of the train. This curve gives the
speed at various time instants after the start of run directly. Slope of the curve at any
point gives the acceleration at the corresponding instant or speed. The area covered by
the curve, the time axis and the ordinates

Fig 5.5 Typical speed-time curve for main line service

26
 Constant acceleration

During this period, the traction motor accelerate from rest. The curve ‘OA’
represents the constant accelerating period. During the instant 0 to T1, the current is
maintained approximately constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually
increased by cutting out the starting resistance slowly moving from one notch to the
other. Thus, current taken by the motor and the tractive efforts are practically constant
and therefore acceleration remains constant during this period. Hence, this period is
also called as notch up accelerating period or rehostatic accelerating period. Typical
value of acceleration lies between 0.5 and 1 kmph. Acceleration is denoted with the
symbol ‘α’.

Acceleration on speed-curve

During the running period from T1 to T2, the voltage across the motor remains
constant and the current starts decreasing, this is because cut out at the instant ‘T1’.
According to the characteristics of motor, its speed increases with the decrease in the
current and finally the current taken by the motor remains constant. But, at the same
time, even though train accelerates, the acceleration decreases with the increase in
speed. Finally, the acceleration reaches to zero for certain speed, at which the tractive
effort excreted by the motor is exactly equals to the train resistance. This is also known
as decreasing accelerating period. This period is shown by the curve ‘AB’

Free-running or constant-speed period

The train runs freely during the period T2 to T3 at the speed attained by the train
at the instant ‘T2’. During this speed, the motor draws constant power from the supply
lines. This period is shown by the curve BC.

27
.

Coasting period

This period is from T3 to T4, i.e., from C to D. At the instant ‘T3’ power supply
to the traction, the motor will be cut off and the speed falls on account of friction,
wind age resistance, etc. During this period, the train runs due to the momentum
attained at that particular instant. The rate of the decrease of the speed during
coasting period is known as coasting retardation. Usually, it is denoted with the
symbol ‘βc’.

Braking period

Braking period is from T4 to T5, i.e., from D to E. At the end of the coasting
period, i.e., at ‘T4’ brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period, the
speed of the train decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero. In main line service, the
free-running period will be more, the starting and braking periods are very negligible,
since the distance between the stops for the main line service is more than 10 km.

Types Of Services:
There are three types of passenger services which traction system has to cater for
namely urban, suburban and main line services.

Main Line Service:

1. The distance between two stations in this service is more than 10kms. The most
important requirements of main line railway service are:
2.High speed.
3. Minimum cost of overhead structure.
4. Acceleration and retardation are not so important for main line service.

Single phase system is preferred for this type of service on account of the
advantages:
1.By employing 1-phase system, the cost of overhead structure can be reduced as the no.
of conductors are less.

28
2. Also because of the possibility of employing high voltages for distribution, the size of
conductor is reduced thereby the spacing between adjacent substations is increased.
3. The equipment’s required, in a.c substation are cheaper and efficient and their
running and maintenance costs are low.

Sub-Urban Line Service:

Distance between two stations in this service is between 1-8 kms. The most important
requirements of this type of service are:
Rapid acceleration and retardation as frequent stopping and starting is
required.
The voltage fluctuations should not affect the working of motors.
No interference to communication lines running along the track.
D.C system can fulfill all of the above requirements and has the following
advantages.
Advantages:
Under similar conditions, the energy consumption in d.c system is less as
compared with that in a.c system.
For exerting the same torque, current required is d.c system is less than
that in a.c system.
The d.c locomotive and motor coach equipment is lighter in weight.
Cheaper in initial as well as in maintenance cost and more efficient.

Disadvantages:
Due to low voltage employed for distribution purpose, the current required
is high and therefore the section of conductor required is large.
The spacing of substations required is less and number of substation
required is more.
Substations are more costly as converting machinery is required. in of
substation is less.
Additional equipment such as negative booster etc. is required for keeping

29
 the voltage of return rail within limits.
Urban Service:
Distance between consecutive stops is less than 1 km. The most important nt of
urban service are:
Relatively high average speed so that a good frequency of train is made
available.
High values of acceleration and retardation are maintained with a short
period of coasting in order to obtain reasonable saving on energy
consumption.

Speed–time curve for suburban service

In suburban service, the distance between two adjacent stops for electric
train is lying between 1 and 8 km. In this service, the distance between stops is
more than the urban service and smaller than the main line service. The typical
speed–time curve for suburban service is shown in Fig. 5.6

Fig. 5.6 Typical speed–time curve for suburban service

30
 The speed–time curve for urban service consists of three distinct periods. They are:

1. Acceleration.
2. Coasting.
3. Retardation.

For this service, there is no free-running period. The coasting period is comparatively
longer since the distance between two stops is more. Braking or retardation period is
comparatively small. It requires relatively high values of acceleration and retardation.
Typical acceleration and retardation values are lying between 1.5 and 4 kmphp and 3
and 4 kmphp, respectively.

Speed–time curve for urban or city service

The speed–time curve urban or city service is almost similar to suburban

service and is shown in Fig. 5.7.

Fig 5.7 Typical speed–time curve for urban service

In this service also, there is no free-running period. The distance between two
stop is less about 1 km. Hence, relatively short coasting and longer braking period is
required.

31
 The relative values of acceleration and retardation are high to achieve moderately
high average between the stops. Here, the small coasting period is included to save the
energy consumption. The acceleration for the urban service lies between 1.6 and 4
kmphp. The coasting retardation is about 0.15 kmphp and the braking retardation is

lying between 3 and 5 kmphp. Some typical values of various services are shown
in Table. 5.1

Simplified Trapezoidal and Quadrilateral Speed Time Curves

Simplified speed–time curves gives the relationship between acceleration,

retardation average speed, and the distance between the stop, which are needed to
estimate the performance of a service at different schedule speeds. So that, the actual
speed–time curves for the main line, urban, and suburban services are approximated to
some from of the simplified curves. These curves may be of either trapezoidal or
quadrilateral shape.

32
Analysis of trapezoidal speed–time curve

Trapezoidal speed–time curve can be approximated from the actual speed–time

curves of different services by assuming that:
1. The acceleration and retardation periods of the simplified curve is kept same as
to that of the actual curve.
2. The running and coasting periods of the actual speed–time curve are
replaced by the constant periods.
This known as trapezoidal approximation, a simplified trapezoidal speed–time
curve is shown in fig, 5.8

Fig. Trapezoidal speed–time curve

Calculations from the trapezoidal speed–time curve

Let D be the distance between the stops in km, T be the actual running time of train in
second, α be the acceleration in km/h/sec, β be the retardation in km/h/sec, Vm be the
maximum or the crest speed of train in km/h, and Va be the average speed of train in
km/h. From the Fig. 5.9

33
Area under the trapezoidal speed–time curve gives the total distance between the two
stops (D).

The distance between the stops (D) = area under triangle OAE + area of
rectangle ABDE + area of triangle DBC

The distance travelled during acceleration + distance travelled during free-

running period + distance travelled during retardation.

Now:

The distance travelled during acceleration = average speed during accelerating

period × time for acceleration

34
The distance travelled during free-running period = average speed × time of free
running

The distance travelled during retardation period = average speed × time for
retardation

The distance between the two stops is:

35
 Solving quadratic Equation (10.5), we get:

By considering positive sign, we will get high values of crest speed, which is
practically not possible, so negative sign should be considered:

Analysis of quadrilateral speed–time curve

Quadrilateral speed–time curve for urban and suburban services for which the
distance between two stops is less. The assumption for simplified quadrilateral speed–
time curve is the initial acceleration and coasting retardation periods are extended,
and there is no free-running period. Simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is
shown in Fig. 5.9.

Fig.5.9 Quadrilateral speed–time curve

36
 Let V1 be the speed at the end of accelerating period in km/h, V2 be the speed at the
end of coasting retardation period in km/h, and βc be the coasting retardation in
km/h/sec.

Time for acceleration,

Time for coasting period,

Time period for braking retardation period,

Total distance travelled during the running period D:

the area of triangle PQU + the area of rectangle UQRS + the area of
triangle TRS.

the distance travelled during acceleration + the distance travelled during

coasting retardation + the distance travelled during breaking retardation.

But, the distance travelled during acceleration = average speed × time for
acceleration

The distance travelled during coasting retardation =

The distance travelled during breaking retardation = average speed × time for
breaking retardation

37
Total distance travelled:

38
 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
UNIT – VI

Calculations of tractive effort, power, specific energy consumption for given run, effect
of varying acceleration and braking retardation, adhesive weight and braking
retardation adhesive weight and coefficient of adhesion

Tractive Effort (Ft)

It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel

the train is known as ‘tractive effort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive
effort is a vector quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It is
measured in newton.

The net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a
locomotive or a train to run on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:

1. Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).

2. To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
3. To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).

Mechanics of train movement

The essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in Fig. 6.1.

The electric locomotive consists of pinion and gear wheel meshed with the traction
motor and the wheel of the locomotive. Here, the gear wheel transfers the tractive effort
at the edge of the pinion to the driving wheel.

1
 Fig. Driving mechanism of electric locomotives

Let T is the torque exerted by the motor in N-m, Fp is tractive effort at the edge
of the pinion in Newton, Ft is the tractive effort at the wheel, D is the diameter of the
driving wheel, d1 and d2 are the diameter of pinion and gear wheel, respectively, and η
is the efficiency of the power transmission for the motor to the driving axle.

The tractive effort at the edge of the pinion transferred to the wheel of locomotive is:

2
Tractive effort required for propulsion of train

From Equation (10.8), the tractive effort required for train propulsion is:

Where Fa is the force required for linear and angular acceleration, Fg is the
force required to overcome the gravity, and Fr is the force required to overcome the
resistance to the motion.

Force required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa)

According to the fundamental law of acceleration, the force required to accelerate the
motion of the body is given by:

Force = Mass × acceleration

F = ma.

Let the weight of train be ‘W ’ tons being accelerated at ‘α’ kmphps:

Equation (10.12) holds good only if the accelerating body has no rotating parts.
Owing to the fact that the train has rotating parts such as motor armature, wheels,
axels, and gear system. The weight of the body being accelerated including the
rotating parts is known as effective weight or accelerating weight. It is denoted with
‘We’. The accelerating weight ‘(We)’ is much higher (about 8–15%) than the dead

3
weight (W) of the train. Hence, these parts need to be given angular acceleration at
the same time as the whole train is accelerated in linear direction.
The tractive effort required-for linear and angular acceleration is:

Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance (Fr)

When the train is running at uniform speed on a level track, it has to

overcome the opposing force due to the surface friction, i.e., the friction at various
parts of the rolling stock, the fraction at the track, and also due to the wind
resistance. The magnitude of the frictional resistance depends upon the shape, size,
and condition of the track and the velocity of the train, etc.

Let ‘r’ is the specific train resistance in N/ton of the dead weight and ‘W’ is the dead
weight in ton.

Tractive effort required to overcome the effect of gravity (Fg)

When the train is moving on up gradient as shown in Fig. 6.2, the gravity component of
the dead weight opposes the motion of the train in upward direction. In order to
prevent this opposition, the tractive effort should be acting in upward direction.
The tractive effort required to overcome the effect of gravity:

Now, from the Fig. 10.7:

4
 Fig. 6.2 Train moving on up gradient

From Equations (10.15) and (10.16):

+ve sign for the train is moving on up gradient.

–ve sign for the train is moving on down gradient.

This is due to when the train is moving on up a gradient, the tractive effort
showing Equation (10.17)will be required to oppose the force due to gravitational
force, but while going down the gradient, the same force will be added to the total
tractive effort.
The total tractive effort required for the propulsion of train Ft = Fa + Fr ± Fg:

5
Power output from the driving axle

Let Ft is the tractive effort in N and ν is the speed of train in kmph.

The power output (P) = rate of work done

If ‘ν’ is in m/s, then P = Ft × ν W.

If ‘η’ is the efficiency of the gear transmission, then the power output of

motors,:

Specific Energy Consumption

The energy input to the motors is called the energy consumption. This is the
energy consumed by various parts of the train for its propulsion. The energy drawn
from the distribution system should be equals to the energy consumed by the
various parts of the train and the quantity of the energy required for lighting,
heating, control, and braking. This quantity of energy consumed by the various
parts of train per ton per kilometer is known as specific energy consumption. It is
expressed in watt hours per ton per km.

6
 Determination of specific energy output from simplified speed–time curve

Energy output is the energy required for the propulsion of a train or vehicle
is mainly for accelerating the rest to velocity ‘Vm’, which is the energy required to
overcome the gradient and track resistance to motion.

1. Energy required for accelerating the train from rest to its crest speed ‘Vm'

2. Energy required for overcoming the gradient and tracking resistance to

motion

Energy required for overcoming the gradient and tracking resistance:

7
where Ft′ is the tractive effort required to overcome the gradient and track
resistance, W is the dead weight of train, r is the track resistance, and G is the
percentage gradient.

8
Factors affecting the specific energy consumption

Factors that affect the specific energy consumption are given as follows.

Distance between stations

From equation specific energy consumption is inversely proportional to the

distance between stations. Greater the distance between stops is, the lesser will be the
specific energy consumption. The typical values of the specific energy consumption is
less for the main line service of 20–30 W-hr/ton-km and high for the urban and
suburban services of 50–60 W-hr/ton-km.

Acceleration and retardation

For a given schedule speed, the specific energy consumption will accordingly
be less for more acceleration and retardation.

Maximum speed

For a given distance between the stops, the specific energy consumption
increases with the increase in the speed of train.

Gradient and train resistance

From the specific energy consumption, it is clear that both gradient and train
resistance are proportional to the specific energy consumption. Normally, the
coefficient of adhesion will be affected by the running of train, parentage gradient,
condition of track, etc. for the wet and greasy track conditions. The value of the
coefficient of adhesion is much higher compared to dry and sandy conditions.

9
Important Definitions

1 Dead weight

It is the total weight of train to be propelled by the locomotive. It is denoted

by ‘W’.
2 Accelerating weight

It is the effective weight of train that has angular acceleration due to the rotational
inertia including the dead weight of the train. It is denoted by ‘We’.

This effective train is also known as accelerating weight. The effective weight of the
train will be more than the dead weight. Normally, it is taken as 5–10% of more than
the dead weight.

3 Adhesive weight

The total weight to be carried out on the drive in wheels of a locomotive is

known as adhesive weight.

4 Coefficient of adhesion

It is defined as the ratio of the tractive effort required to propel the wheel
of a locomotive to its adhesive weight.
Ft ∝ W

μW,

where Ft is the tractive effort and W is the adhesive weight.

10
Effect of Varying Acceleration And Braking Retardation on Specific Energy
Consumption
For a given schedule speed, the factors which affect the specific energy consumptions
are:
1. The distance between stops: The greater the distance the smaller will be the
specific energy consumption i.e., for suburban service it is higher as compared to the
main line service. Typical values for the two services are 60 and 25 hr per ton-Km
respectively.
2. The acceleration and retardation: For a given run and a given schedule speed,
the specific energy consumption is lower, the higher the acceleration and retardation
since with a longer coasting period can be obtained and for a smaller period the supply
is switched on.
3. The maximum speed: From the expression for specific energy consumption it is
clear that this quantity increases with increase in maximum speed.
4. Gradient: The higher the gradient of the track more will be the energy consumption
even though part of energy during this period can be fed back to the system through
regenerative braking when the train is moving down the gradient.
5. Train resistance: In general higher the train resistance higher will be the specific
energy consumption.
6. Type of train equipment: The higher the overall efficiency of the train equipment
the lesser will be the specific energy consumption for a particular specific energy output
at the axles

11
Adhesive Weight and Braking Retardation
1. Dead Weight: The total weight of locomotive and train to be pulled by the
locomotive is known as dead weight.
2. Accelerating Weight: The dead weight of the train i.e., the weight of locomotive
and train can be considered to be divided into two parts.
a) The weight, which requires angular acceleration such as weight of wheels, axles, gears
etc.
b) The weight, which requires linear acceleration. Hence the effective weight, which is
greater than dead weight is called the accelerating weight. Accelerating weight is taken
5 to 10 per cent more than dead weight.

Coefficient of Adhesion:
Greater the torque exerted by the traction motor, greater is the tractive effort at
the driving wheels. This relation holds good only up to certain extent beyond which any
increase in motor torque does not increase the tractive effort but causes driving wheels
to slip. There is a maximum value of tractive effort at which driving wheels will not slip.
It depends upon the dead weight (adhesive weight) over the driving axles

FW (or ) F   aW

If F is in Newton’s, and W is in tonnes, equation can be

F= 1000  a W x 9.81
 a is a co-efficient of adhesion
a
1.A certain minimum weight of locomotive is required to haul a train.
2.The maximum allowable weight on each driving axle is limited by the
strength of the track bridges.
3.D.C. motors are light in weight. It is desirable to place the whole of the
locomotive weight on driving wheels to obtain the required tractive effort
4.The weight of the electrical equipment used in a.c. locomotives higher, so the

12
required tractive effort can be obtained by placing only a portion of the weight
on the driving wheels and supporting the rest on the trailing axles.
5. The value of coefficient of adhesion is affected by the speed of the train and
the conditions of the rails. The higher the speed, smaller is the coefficient of
adhesion.
6. If rails are wet and greasy, the coefficient of adhesion is much lower as
compared to when they are dry and sandy.
7. During starting, if the tractive effort varies, the maximum value of the tractive
effort must be less than the product of adhesive weight and the coefficient of
adhesion. This means the more uniform the tractive effort during starting and
initial accelerating periods, the heavier will be the train which can be operated
by a locomotive of given adhesive weight.
8.The starting of traction motors either by series parallel method or by rheostatic
method or by tap changing method is inferior to the method where applied
voltage is smoothly and continuously varied such as by means of grid control
in vacuum tubes or by gate control in the case of silicon controlled rectifiers

13
 UNIT-5

Need for Energy storage system

Energy storage can reduce high demand, and those cost savings could be passed on to
customers. Community resiliency is essential in both rural and urban settings. Energy storage can
help meet peak energy demands in densely populated cities, reducing strain on the grid and
minimizing spikes in electricity costs.

Types

Pumped Storage Hydro Power Plant

  Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH), or pumped hydroelectric energy storage (PHES),
is a type of hydroelectric energy storage used by electric power systems for load
balancing.
 Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a
configuration of two water reservoirs at different elevations that can generate power as
water moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine.
 The system also requires power as it pumps water back into the upper reservoir
(recharge). PSH acts similarly to a giant battery, because it can store power and then
release it when needed
 Under normal conditions the plant will function simply as a conventional hydropower
plant but with output regulated, so that most is supplied during periods of peak demand
rather than operating as a base-load plant.
 In order to qualify as pumped storage, such a plant must also be equipped with pumps
that can pump water from the lower reservoir back into the main reservoir when water
levels are low and surplus power is available.
 Such plants are called on-stream integral pumped storage plants or pump-back pumped
storage plants.

Fly Wheel Energy storage System

A flywheel is a device used to store energy when the supply of energy is more than the
requirement, and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy is more than the
supply.

In case of steam engines, internal combustion engines, reciprocating compressors and

pumps, the energy is developed during one stroke and the engine has to run for the whole cycle
on this energy.

The excess energy developed during power stroke is absorbed by the flywheel and
releases it to the crankshaft during other strokes in which no energy is developed, thus rotating
the crankshaft at a uniform speed.
 Hence a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine
Flywheel absorbs mechanical energy by increasing its angular velocity and delivers energy by
decreasing its angular velocity.

This stored energy is supplied to the engine shaft during other non-power strokes of the
engine. In this way a flywheel smoothens the energy flow to the crank shaft and reduces the
variations in engine speed.

Few important applications of a flywheel are:

, Steam engines
 Compressors
 Two-stroke and four-stroke cycle engines, etc
. As energy absorbing device in regenerative braking systems for trains & automobile.
Compressed energy storage system
A whole CAES system has the following primary components: (1) compressors; (2) expanders;
(3) air reservoirs; (4) combustor; (5) motor/generator; (6) controlling system; (7) other auxiliary
equipment, such as fuel tanks, pipe connection and so on. Compressors, expanders and air
reservoirs play decisive croles in the whole CAES system

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a promising energy storage technology that can lower
costs for customers and reduce greenhouse gas emissions through a greater integration of
renewable energy sources.

To generate electricity, the cold, compressed air has to be heated as it expands, which requires
fuel. SustainX's technology greatly reduces this heat loss. It compresses air by using electricity to
drive pistons inside cylinders. To release energy, expanding air drives the pistons in reverse,
which drives a generator.

Electric Double Layer Capacitor

Generally capacitors are constructed with a dielectric placed between opposed electrodes, functioning
as capacitors by accumulating charges in the dielectric material.

On the other hand, Electric Double Layer Capacitors have no visible dielectric in a general sense but
utilize the state referred to as the electric double layer, which is developed naturally on the interface
between substances, as the function of dielectric.

The Electric Double Layer represents the state in which positive and negative charges exist at a very
short distance on the boundary where contact occurs between two different substances (e.g. solid and
liquid). By externally applying a voltage below a certain voltage to the boundary, higher charges can be
accumulated.

Accordingly, charge and discharge of electric double layer capacitors utilize adsorption and desorption
of ions to the ionic adsorption layer (Electric Double Layer) formed on the electrode surface of the
activated carbon used for electrodes.

Applying DC voltage externally across the electrodes of the Electric Double Layer allows almost no
passage of current up to a certain voltage, exhibiting a condition like insulation. However, the
application of voltages exceeding the certain voltage causes electrolysis to occur in the electrolyte,
resulting in abrupt passage of current.
This voltage determines the resistance of voltage of an Electric Double Layer Capacitor. We use an
organic electrolyte and its standard electrolysis occurs at the voltage of about 2.5 to 3V.

Advantages

1. Small size and capacitance in farads (F) available by utilizing the activated carbon electrode with
a large surface area
2. No special charging circuit and constrains during discharge are required.
3. No effect on the life through overcharging and overdischarging
4. Environmentally clean energy

Disadvantages

1. The life is limited due to the use of electrolyte.

2. Series connection is required when used with a low resistance of voltage at a high voltage.

3. Cannot be used in AC circuits due to high internal resistance unlike aluminum electrolytic capacitors.

Super Conducting Magnetic Coil

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is a novel technology that stores

electricity from the grid within the magnetic field of a coil comprised of superconducting wire
with near-zero loss of energy.
  Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is a method of energy storage based
on the fact that a current will continue to flow in a superconductor even after the voltage
across it has been removed.

 When the superconductor coil is cooled below its superconducting critical temperature it
has negligible resistance, hence current will continue to flow (even after a voltage source
is disconnected).

 The energy is stored in the form of a magnetic field generated by the current in the
superconducting coil.

 It can be released by discharging the coil. The coils are usually made of niobiumtitane
(NbTi) filaments which has a critical temperature of around 9K. As SMES stores
electrical current the only conversion involved with the process is the conversion from
AC to DC.

 Hence the efficiencies of SMES systems are very high. SMES can switch from full
discharge to full charge very quickly and visa versa.

 It has negligible deterioration due to cycling. However, SMES has a high self-discharge
rate due to the energy expenditure of cooling via cryogenic liquid and mechanical
stability problems.

The magnetic energy stored in a conducting coil is given by:

E=1/2 LI2

Where I is the current in amperes and L is the inductance in henries.

They are used in many voltage stability and power quality applications,
Thermal storage Systems

TES systems are divided in three types: sensible heat, latent heat, and thermo chemical

– Sensible Heat storage system

 SHS is the simplest method based on storing thermal energy by heating or cooling a liquid or
solid storage medium (e.g., water, sand, molten salts, or rocks), with water being the cheapest
option. The most popular and commercial heat storage medium is water, which has a number of
residential and industrial applications.

The most popular and commercial heat storage medium is water, which has a number of
residential and industrial applications. Underground storage of sensible heat in both liquid and
solid media is also used for typically large-scale applications. SHS has two main advantages: it is
cheap and without the risks associated with the use of toxic materials

Latent heat

The most common sensible storage material are water and rocks. On the other
hand, latent storage is mainly dependent on phase change from solid to liquid
and vice versa. Phase change materials (PCMs) change their phase at constant
temperature.

The latent heat thermal storage system is described by the scientists as able to
accumulate significant amounts of thermal energy to use when heating is needed. The
system is based on a special kind of phase change material (PCM) related to bio-based
paraffin, with a melting point at 74 C..
Battery storage systems
 Comparison of Energy stooges systems

Applications of energy Storage