PARVATHAREDDY BABUL REDDY

VISVODAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Approved by AICTE and
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
KAVALI – 524201, S.P.S.R Nellore Dist., A.P.
India, Ph: 08626-243930

Department of CSE-AI & CSE-IOT

Necessity of Power Grid or Grid:

Electric power cannot be stored in huge quantity & it has to be utilized as and
when it is generated. Hence depending upon the demand for electric power
raised by the consumers in the power grid, the power generating stations
should be able to cater the needs of the consumers by achieving a fine balance
between supply and demand of electric power.
Power grid:
Power grid is an inter connected network of various power generating stations
(Thermal, Hydel, Nuclear, Natural gas, Wind mills etc.), various Transmission
lines (400kv, 220kv, 132kv ,33kv) and various distribution systems (11kv,
6.6kv,230v 1phase ,440v /415v 3phase) and various consumers (Domestic,
Industrial , commercial, Agricultural, Electric traction etc).
 Whenever the demand for power raises, we have to raise the generation.
If there is no such possibility due to non-availability of fuel like coal
/natural gas or water (in case of hydel power projects) etc., we have no
other go except ‘cutting down the demand’ itself.
 Whenever the demand for power goes down, we have to limit the
generation to the tune of demand by unloading the power generators.
 All in all, the supply and demand for electric power should always match,
otherwise the “GRID FREQUENCY “gets disturbed.
 Architecture of Traditional or Existing Electric Grid:

Traditional grid has centralized bulk generation, heavy reliance on coal and oil,
limited automation, limited situational awareness, consumers lack data to
manage energy usage in one-way flow of electricity.
The disadvantages of traditional grid are
 Over strained and interregional bulk power transfer is limited
 Cannot fully support the integration of renewable energy
 Low reliability of power and outages
 Fluctuating Power quality
 Lack of Consumer Discipline
  Increasing levels of Green house gases
 Almost Zero Customer Participation
 Low billing and collection
 Less Efficiency

A Smart Grid is an electricity Network based on Digital Technology that is

used to supply electricity to consumers via Two-Way Digital Communication.
This system allows for monitoring, analysis, control and communication within
the supply chain to help improve efficiency, reduce the energy consumption
and cost and maximize the transparency and reliability of the energy supply
chain.
Benefits of smart grid:
• Self-Healing :A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine
problems and quickly recovers if they occur, minimizing downtime and
financial loss.
• Resists Attack: A smart grid has security built in from the ground up.
• Motivates and Includes the Consumer: A smart grid gives all consumers
industrial, commercial, and residential-visibility in to real-time pricing,
and affords them the opportunity to choose the volume of consumption
and price that best suits their needs.
• Reduction in AT & C losses
• Reduction in CO2 Emission
• Enabling Energy Audit
• Reduction in Cost Billing
• Remote Load Control
• Shifting of Peak requirement to non-peak time [Peak Shaving]
• Integration of Renewable Energy
• Clean Energy Development.
• Provides Power Quality
• Optimizes Assets and Operates Efficiently
• Safety, Reliable and Efficient
 • Improved National Security
• Improved Environmental Conditions
• Improved Economic Growth
Advantages of Smart Grid:
• Improved Reliability
• Higher asset utilization
• Better integration of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and
renewable energy
• Reduced operating costs for utilities
• Increased efficiency and conservation
• Lower greenhouse gas (GHG) and other emissions

Architecture of Smart Grid as per NIST

Domain Actors in the Domain

The end users of electricity. May also store, and manage the use of
Customers energy. Traditionally, three customer types are discussed, each with its
own domain: residential, commercial, and industrial.

Markets The operators and participants in electricity markets.

Service
The organizations providing services to electrical customers and utilities.
Providers

Operations The managers of the movement of electricity.

 The generators of electricity in bulk quantities. May also store energy for
Bulk Generation
later distribution.

The carriers of bulk electricity over long distances. May also store and
Transmission
generate electricity.

The distributors of electricity to and from customers. May also store and
Distribution
generate electricity.

Functions of smart Grid Components:

• The areas of application of smart grids include: smart meters’
integration, demand management, smart integration of generated energy,
administration of storage and renewable resources, using systems that
continuously provide and use data from an energy network.
• Smart Devices Interface Component:
Smart devices for monitoring and control form part of the generation
components real-time information processes. These resources need to be
seamlessly integrated in the operation of both centrally distributed and district
energy systems.
 • Storage Component
Due to the variability of renewable energy and the disjoint between peak
availability and peak consumption, it is important to find ways to store the
generated energy for later use.
• Transmission Subsystem Component
• The transmission system that interconnects all major substation and
load centers is the backbone of an integrated power system.
• Transmission lines must tolerate dynamic changes in load and
contingency without service disruptions.
• Monitoring and Control Technology Component:
• Intelligent transmission systems/assets include a smart intelligent
network, self- monitoring and self-healing, and the adaptability and
predictability of generation and demand robust enough to handle
congestion, instability, and reliability issues.
• This new resilient grid has to withstand and be reliable to provide real -
time changes in its use.
• Intelligent Grid Distribution Subsystem Component
• The distribution system is the final stage in the transmission of power to
end users. Primary feeders at this voltage level supply small industrial
customers and secondary distribution feeders supply residential and
commercial customers.
• At the distribution level, intelligent support schemes will have monitoring
capabilities for automation using smart meters, communication links
between consumers and utility control, energy management components,
and AMI
• Demand Side Management Component
• DSM options provide reduced emissions in fuel production, lower costs,
and contribute to reliability of generation. These options have an overall
impact on the utility load curve.
• Demand side management options and energy efficiency options
developed for effective means of modifying the consumer demand to cut
operating expenses from expensive generators and defer capacity
addition.
Smart Grid drivers:
• Increasing demand:Information and communications technology,
Measurement and control Demand response, Advanced metering
infrastructure (AMI)
• High Aggregate Technical &Non-Technical, Losses:18%-62%
• Ageing Assets: Transformers, Feeders etc.,
• Grid to carry more power: Need for, Reliability and greater
Security
• Billing and collections: Profitability of distribution companies
• Energy mix: Need for Renewable Energy [Hydro Power, Solar
Thermal Energy, Wind, Biomass, Biogas to reduce carbon footprint
• Deliver sustainable energy: Voltage & VAR control, Resource
planning, analysis, and forecasting tools, Fault Detection,
Identification, and Restoration (FDIR)
• Increased efficiency: Direct load control, distributed energy
resources, Distributed energy resources integration, Energy
storage, Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)
• Empower consumers: Consumer education and awareness,
Residential consumer energy management, Information and
communications technology
• Improve reliability: System wide monitoring, Measurement and
control, Distributed energy resources, Distributed energy resources
integration, Energy storage, Advanced metering infrastructure
(AMI)
Benefits of Smart Grid:
• Self-Healing :A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine
problems and quickly recovers if they occur, minimizing downtime and
financial loss.
• Resists Attack: A smart grid has security built in from the ground up.
• Motivates and Includes the Consumer: A smart grid gives all consumers
industrial, commercial, and residential-visibility in to real-time pricing,
and affords them the opportunity to choose the volume of consumption
and price that best suits their needs.
 • Reduction in AT & C losses
• Reduction in CO2 Emission
• Enabling Energy Audit
• Reduction in Cost Billing
• Remote Load Control
• Shifting of Peak requirement to non-peak time [Peak Shaving]
• Integration of Renewable Energy
• Clean Energy Development.
• ProvidesPower Quality
• Optimizes Assets and Operates Efficiently
• Safety, Reliable and Efficient
• Improved National Security
• Improved Environmental Conditions
• Improved Economic Growth
Advantages of Smart Grid:
• Improved Reliability
• Higher asset utilization
• Better integration of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and
renewable energy
• Reduced operating costs for utilities
• Increased efficiency and conservation
• Lower greenhouse gas (GHG) and other emissions

Smart Grid Initiatives in India:

National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) was established by Government of
India in 2015 to plan and monitor implementation of policies and
programmes related to Smart Grid activities in India.
Overview of smart grid technology or New Technologies for Smart Grid:
• Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): AMI is architecture for
automated, two-way communication between a smart utility meter with
an IP address and a utility company.
• Demand Response (DR): Demand response is a change in the power
consumption of an electric utility customer to better match the demand
for power with the supply.
• Distribution Automation (DA): It optimises a utility‘s operations and
directly improves the reliability of its distribution power system.
• Electric Vehicles (EV): Electric Vehicles are being introduced in the
market as an option for transportation so as to eliminate Carbon Foot
Prints, etc.,
• Distributed Generation (DG): Distributed generation (also known as
Distributed Energy) refers to power generation at the point of
consumption.
• System Efficiency Improvement: By adopting Smart Sensors, AMI,
IED‘s, Automated control schemes, etc., enables cost reduction and
improves the system Efficiency
• Self-Healing: A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine
problems and quickly recovers if they occur, minimizing downtime and
financial loss.
• Cyber security: Cyber Security is the body of technologies, processes
and practices designed to protect networks, Computers, Programs and
Data from attack, damage or unauthorized access.
• Distributed Storage: Energy storage to facilitate greater flexibility and
reliability of the power system.
 Architecture of Smart Substation:
• Conventionally a substation employs CBs, protection relays, VTs and
CTs which are wired collectively using copper cables.
• With advances in digital technology, communications and
standards, this is now changing to what is known as the smart
substation in which, the workstations, protection devices and low level
transducers are connected together on an optical fiber communications
backbone.
• The substation system architecture is divided into three levels;
• (i) the station level where operations, engineering
functions and reporting take place,
• (ii) the bay level where system protection and control functions are
implemented
• (iii) the process level where signals From VTs, CTs and
other transducer are transmitted

Smart substation consists of several key components and elements

(1) Protection, monitoring and control devices (IED)
Primary devices (tap-changers, protection relays, VTs, CTs, etc.) in the
smart substation
 are implemented as IEDS.
IED is a key component for substation integration and automation.
These devices can communication with each other and with higher
level smart substation control via the IEC 61850 optical network. It is
implemented to meet compliance necessities and save money. EDS
control CBs, voltage regulators and capacitor bank switches.
Typical applications of IEDS in smart substation includes
 DR
 power fault reporting in the event of failures
 low-voltage stabilization
 asset management
 record load curves for future planning
 integrated automatic transformer monitoring
 automatically reconfigure the network in case of a fault.
(2) Sensors
Sensors are used to collect data from power equipment at the substation
yard such as CBs, transformers and power lines. Conventional copper-
wired analog apparatus are replaced by optical apparatus with fiber-
based sensors in smart substation for monitoring and metering. Single
sensor might serve different types of IEDS through a process bus
Advantages of fiber-based sensors includes
 higher accuracy,
 reduced size and weight
 higher performance
 high bandwidth
 wide dynamic range
 safe and environment friendly
 No saturation
 less maintenance.
(3)Station and process bus
Exchange of signals between the bay level IED and station control, the
bay level IED and transducers, devices and system equipment are
carried by station bus and process bus respectively. This provides a
 better reliability for main substations as compared to a single bus. The
station and process bus systems are usually implemented using
Ethernet switches (external or built into the IED), connected together in a
ring configuration.
(4) Supervisory control and data acquisition
SCADA is a system or a combination of systems that gathers data from
different sensors at a station or in other remote locations and then sends
these data to a central computer system, which then manages and
controls the data and controls devices in the field remotely. Control and
data acquisition equipment comprises of a system with at least one
master station, a communications system and one or more RTUS.
SCADA system has operator graphical user interface (GUI),engineering
applications that act on historian software, data and other
components.
(5) GPS time clock
The accurate time keeping is an important requirement of smart
substation. This guarantee the protection functions operate within the
required times and synchronizes smart substation in different locations
so that event and operation logs can be compared and trip events
analyzed. The preferred approach to achieving this is by the use of a GPS
clock to transmit time synchronization signals to the IED, using simple
network time protocol (SNTP).
(6) Electronic fiber optic CTs and VTs
A growing trend in the smart substation is the use of optical current and
voltage transducers (sometimes called non-conventional instrument
transformers-NCIT). These devices operate by measuring changes in the
optical performance of fibers in the presence of electric and magnetic
fields. The transducers are able to measure both current and voltage. As
the signals are generated and transmitted using optical fiber, transducer
signals are not subject to voltage drop issues and electromagnetic
interference which can affect conventional equipment. Optical
transducers also tend to be smaller, have improved linearcharacteristics
and more accurately reproduce the primary signal.
Master stations
A master station comprises of a computer system which is
responsible for communicating with the field equipment and includes an
HMI in the control room or elsewhere.
The major components of a master station are (i) data acquisition servers
that interface
with the field devices through the communications system, (ii) real-time
data servers,
(iii) application server, (iv) historical server and (v) operator workstations
with an HMI. Hardware components in a master station are connected
through one or more LANS.
Different types of master stations are (i) SCADA master station, (ii)
SCADA master station with AGC, (iii) EMS, (iv) DMS and (vi) FA system.
The primary functions of SCADA master station are (i) data
acquisition, (ii) user interface, (iii) remote control, (iv) report
writer and historical data analysis.
The primary functions of SCADA master station with AGC are (i)
economic dispatch,
(ii) AGC and (iii) interchange transaction scheduling.
The primary functions of EMS are (i) state estimation,(ii) optimal power
flow, (iii) contingency analysis, (iv) three phase balanced operator power
flow, (v) dispatcher training simulator and (vi)network
configuration/topology processor.
The primary functions of DMS are (i) interface to consumer information
system, (ii) three phase unbalanced operator power flow, (iii) interface to
outage management,(iv) interface to automate mapping/facilities
management and (v) map series graphics.
The primary functions of FA system are (i) two-way distribution
communications, (ii) load management, (iii) voltage reduction, (iv) fault
identification/fault isolation/service restoration,(v) short-term load
forecasting and (vi) power factor control.
 UNIT-II: SMART GRID MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY:
Introduction, standards for information exchange, monitoring, smart
meters and measurement technologies, WAMS, PMUs, GIS and Google
mapping tools and Multi-agent systems technology.

INTRODUCTION:
Interoperability:
It is defined as the capability of two or more networks, systems, devices, applications, or
components to work together, and to exchange and readily use information securely,
effectively, and with little or no inconvenience to the user.
(OR)
Interoperability is the capability of two or more components, devices, systems or applications
to exchange and use data securely. It enables utilities to integrate multiple different
technologies with the assurance that they will work together and mitigate the risk of
obsolescence.

The smart grid will be a system of interoperable systems; that is, different systems will be
able to exchange meaningful, actionable information in support of the safe, secure, efficient,
and reliable operations of the grid. As the number of devices and systems used on the
electrical grid continue to multiply, the interoperability requirements become more complex
and the path to achieving interoperability becomes more challenging. Modern energy systems
rely on an increasing array of sophisticated controls and information exchanges which are
managed across diverse operational and economic systems.

Interoperability is therefore key to maximizing the benefits of technology investments. The

Smart Grid Interoperability Panel (SGIP) develops and maintains a catalog of standards
relevant to smart grid implementations and convenes members from across the spectrum of
smart grid stakeholders to build consensus in the standards-making process. The SGIP
coordinates closely with the GWAC and standards setting organizations internationally.

STANDARDS FOR INFORMATION EXCHANGE, MONITORING:

The standards are basically written agreements containing the technical or other precise
criteria that may contain rules, guidelines and definitions of characteristics. Standards
are necessary for achieving and ensuring safe, secure, efficient, and reliable exchanges of
meaningful and actionable information between devices. We have many standards, but
broadly there are FIVE major areas where the standards are very essential for smart grid
1. Interconnection of distributed energy resources
2. Wide area situation awareness (WASA)
3. Substation protection and automation
4. Time synchronization
5. Cyber security
Smart Grid Standards related to Interconnection of DER’s:

IEEE1547:
It is the series of standards that provides the criteria and requirements for the interconnection
of distributed energy resources into the power grid. It provides requirements relevant to the
performance, operation, testing, safety, and maintenance of the interconnection.
 IEEE 1547.1 : It provides the test procedures for equipment interconnecting these DERs
to the electric system. Describes the testing of the interconnection in order to determine
whether or not it conforms to standards.
 IEEE 1547.2 provides a technical background on the standard.
 IEEE P1547.3, details cyber security guidelines.
 IEEE 1547.4 is a guide for the design, operation, and integration of conforming systems.
 IEEE 1547.6 describes practices for secondary network interconnections.
 IEEE 1547.7 provides distribution impact studies for distributed resource
interconnection.
 IEEE P1547.9 details energy storage guidelines

IEC 61850 7 420: It defines the communication and controlling interference for all the DER
devices. It is basically communication protocol packets or standards or rules and regulations.
Wide area monitoring/ assessment system standards:
The aim of this particular standard is to monitor and display of power system components
and performance. The goal of this particular module or standards to understand and
ultimately optimize the management power network components, behaviour, and
performance and to anticipate, prevent or respond to problems before disruptions that can
arise.
Here there are some standards

IEEE C37.118-2005: This is basically designed for PMU measurement and requirements for
steady state measurement. This standard provides a steady state testing and allows this Total
Vector Errors within 1 percent in various steady state scenarios.
IEEE C37.118.1: Tells about the measurement definitions and requirements
IEEE C37.118.2: Tells about the data communication and structures

IEC 6 1 8 5 0 -90-5: The technical report on IEC 61850-90-5 includes five major sections.
 Use cases
 Communication requirements
 Data modelling
 Communication configuration mapping
 Cyber security mechanism.
Substation protection and automation standards:
The modules/standards designed for substation protection and automation are
 IEEE 1379
 IEC 61850
 IEC /IEEE 60255-24

IEEE 1379: It recommends practice for data communication between Remote Terminal
Units (RTU’s) and Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED’s)

IEC 61850: It defines communication protocols with various system IED’s.

IEC 61850 is an open standard for Ethernet communication within substations. It is a

function-based standard which ensures interoperability of substation equipment. The
functions are divided into:
1. System support functions: network management, time synchronisation and physical
device self-checking;
2. System configuration or maintenance functions: software management, configuration
management, settings and test modes;
3. Operational or control functions: parameter set switching, alarm management and fault
record retrievals;
4. Process automation functions: protection, interlocking and load shedding.

IEC /IEEE 60255-24: This standard proposes Common Format for Transient Data Exchange
(COMFTDE). It also provides a common format for the Data files and exchange medium
needed for the interchange of various types of fault, test or simulation data.

Time Synchronization Standards:

IRIG-B: The Inter Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG-B) time protocol is widely used by
electric utilities, industrials, and others to ensure precise time synchronization of power
system devices, such as breakers, relays and meters. The Inter Range Instrumentation
Group (IRIG-B) time code is currently widely used as time synchronization Protocol in
substation automation system. It allows time synchronization accuracy up to 1μs.

IEEE 1588: It is designed to synchronize distributed clocks with an accuracy of sub micro
seconds, across packet switched communication network with relatively low network and
commuting capacity.
Cyber Security Standards:
IEC 62351: IEC 62351 is the current standard for security in energy management systems an
associated data exchange. It describes measures to comply with the four major requirements
for secure data communications / data processing: confidentiality, data integrity,
authentication and non-repudiation

IEEE 1686: In this standards are defined the functions and features to be provided in
substation intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) to accommodate critical infrastructure
protection programs.This standard also addresses the security regarding the access, operation,
configuration, firmware revision, and data retrieval from an IED. The standard is applicable
to any IED where the user requires “security, accountability, and auditability in the
configuration and maintenance of the IED”. It provides the safe guard; audit mechanism,
alarm indications provided by the developer of IED with regard to all the activities associated
with operation, configuration and data retrieval from an IED.

Smart Meters
Smart meters are electronic measurement devices used by utilities to communicate
information for billing customers and operating their electric systems. It is usually an
electronic device that records consumption of electric energy in intervals of an hour or less
and communicates that information at least daily back to the utility for monitoring and billing
purposes. Smart meters enable two-way communication between the meter and the central
system. Unlike home energy monitors, smart meters can gather data for remote reporting.
Such an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) differs from traditional automatic meter
reading (AMR) in that it enables two-way communications with the meter.

Smart meters are considered to be the backbone of Smart Grid deployment — the first move
into two-way communication between power providers and their customers. Smart meters
provide better real-time information to utilities about the quality of power supply and the
customer demand for electricity and gas at any given moment. Based on actual deployments
of smart meters globally, those benefits translate into more reliable service, streamlined
billing, and reduced power loss. For consumers, use of smart meters makes understanding
their consumption information easier, can help them better manage their costs, and removes
the inconveniences associated with switching suppliers. More importantly, smart meters
promote energy conservation. Smart Metering offers consumers, suppliers, network
operators, generators and regulators a wide range of useful tools and services enabling
ultimately a smarter energy world.

Generally, Smart Metering technologies consist of several different technical components

which may vary according to the specific market conditions in different Member States, but
the majority includes the following features:

1. Accurate measurement and transmission of electricity, gas, water or heat consumption data
2. Provision of a two-way information gateway and communication infrastructure between
the meters and relevant parties and their systems, for:
  Raising awareness and empowering the consumer through delivery of actual
consumption data Improving Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and
services, including automated billing/invoicing based on detailed metering data
 Managing energy networks/grids better by shifting or reducing energy consumption,
e.g. through Demand Side Management (DSM)
 Encouraging decentralized, micro-generation of energy, thus transforming the
consumer into an energy producer (Prosumer) 

Features of Smart Meter

Accuracy in meter reading:
In case of electromechanical/electronic meters, the meter readings have to be read by a
representative of the utility.
Smart meters automatically transmit the readings to the connected utility.
Data Recording:
Conventional meters only record the electricity consumption of a system, and not how and
when the electricity is used.
Smart meters record real-time data corresponding to the electricity consumption. It means
that they also record the time and patterns of electricity consumption
Real time tracking:
The consumers can go online and check out their electricity usage patterns and make changes
to their consumption accordingly. In this way, smart meters offer a strong control to the
consumers over their usage.
Automatic outage detection:
A person having a conventional meter has to call the utility whenever there is a power outage
whereas in case of smart meters, there is automatic outage detection as they are constantly
synchronised with the electric grid.
Better service:
As smart meters are directly connected to the utility, it becomes much simpler to
connect/disconnect power for a particular house/property, saving the need of a technician
going to the house in person and connect/disconnect the supply.

Benefits of Smart Meters

For utility companies:

➢ Easy to match energy consumption and generation in both peak time and low time
.
➢ Smart meter can easily connect or disconnect the service .
➢ Customers can pay through internet by reading the meter themselves so the labour
cost is highly reduced.
➢ Misprint during billing should completely reduced.
➢ No more energy theft.
For customers: -
➢ They should aware about the energy uses so that they can reduce their consumption.
➢ Real time pricing encourage people to adjust their consumption habit.
➢ Payment options like prepaid etc .
➢ A survey says this system reduce the energy consumption by 7 – 9 %.
➢ This is a win-win situation for both utility and customer.

SMART METERS: AN OVERVIEW OF THE HARDWARE

The replacement of electro-mechanical meters with electronic meters offers several benefits
Electronic meters not only can measure instantaneous power and the amount of energy
consumed over time but also other parameters such as power factor, reactive power, voltage
and frequency, with high accuracy. Data can be measured and stored at specific intervals.
Moreover, electronic meters are not sensitive to external magnets or orientation of the meter
itself, so they are more tamper proof and more reliable. Early electronic meters had a display
to show energy consumption but were read manually for billing purposes. More recently
electronic meters with two-way communications have been introduced.
Fig. 2.1 provides a general functional block diagram of a smart meter.

Figure 2.1: Functional block diagram of smart meter

In the smart meter architecture has been split into five sections:
 Signal acquisition
 Signal conditioning
 Analogue to Digital Conversion (ADC)
 Computation
 Communication.
1. Signal Acquisition
A core function of the smart meter is to acquire system parameters accurately and
continuously for subsequent computation and communication. The fundamental electrical
parameters required are the magnitude and frequency of the voltage and the magnitude and
phase displacement (relative to the voltage) of current. Other parameters such as the power
factor, the active/reactive power, and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) are computed using
these fundamental quantities. Current and voltage sensors measure the current into the
premises (load) and the voltage at the point of supply. In low-cost meters the measuring
circuits are connected directly to the power lines, typically using a current-sensing shunt
resistor on the current input channel and a resistive voltage divider on the voltage input
channel
2.Signal Conditioning

The signal conditioning stage involves the preparation of the input signals for the next step in
the process, ADC. The signal conditioning stage may include addition/subtraction,
attenuation/amplification and filtering. When it comes to physical implementation, the signal
conditioning stages can be realized as discrete elements or combined with the ADC as part of
an Integrated Circuit. Alternatively the stages can be built into System on a Chip‘architecture
with a number of other functions. In many circumstances the input signal will require
attenuation, amplification or the addition/subtraction of an offset such that its maximum
magnitude lies within the limits of the inputs for the ADC stage. To avoid inaccuracy due to
aliasing, it is necessary to remove components of the input signal above the Nyquist
frequency.

3. Analog to Digital Conversion

Current and voltage signals obtained from the sensors are first sampled and then digitized to
be processed by the metering software. Since there are two signals (current and voltage) in a
single phase meter, if a single ADC is used, a multiplexer is required to send the signals in
turn to the 57 ADC. The ADC converts analogue signals coming from the sensors into a
digital form. As the number of levels available for analogue to digital conversion is limited,
the ADC conversion always appears in discrete form. There are many established methods
for conversion of an analogue input signal to a digital output. The majority of the methods
involve an arrangement of comparators and registers with a synchronizing clock impulse. The
most common ADCs for metering use the successive approximation and the sigma-delta
method.

4. Computation

The computation requirements are split into arithmetic operations on input signals, time
stamping of data, preparation of data for communication or output peripherals, handling of
routines associated with irregular input (such as payment, tamper detection), storage of data,
system updates and coordinating different functions. The block diagram shown in Fig. 2.2
shows different functional blocks associated with the computation functions of a smart meter.

Figure 2.2: Different functional blocks associated with the computation functions of a smart
meter.
Due to the relatively large number of arithmetic operations required for the derivation of the
parameters, a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is used. In addition to routine arithmetic
operations, a meter deals with a large number of other procedures (that is, payment, tamper
detection, system updates, user interactions) as well as other routine tasks (for example, the
communication of billing information). Therefore, a high degree of parallelism (the ability to
58 perform multiple tasks, involving the same data sets, simultaneously) and/or buffering (the
ability to temporarily pause arithmetical operations so that other needs can be attended to) is
required. ) For computation, volatile memory (where information is lost on loss of power
supply) and nonvolatile memory is needed.

Volatile memory is used for temporary storage of data to support the processors) as
operations are undertaken. The amount of volatile memory used depends on the quantity, rate
and complexity of computation and the rate of communication to/from ports. A certain
amount of non-volatile memory is typically required to store specific information, such as the
unit serial number and maintenance access key codes. Additionally data related to energy
consumption should be retained until successful communication to the billing company has
been achieved.

5. Communication

Smart meters employ a wide range of network adapters for communication purposes. The
wired options include the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), power line carrier,
cable modems and Ethernet. The wireless options include ZigBee, infrared, and
GSM/GPRS/CDMA Cellular.

Measurement Technologies
1. WAMS
Wide-area measurement systems (WAMS) in smart grid can be defined as a system that
captures measurements in the power grid over a wide area and across traditional control
boundaries, and then uses those measurements to improve grid stability and events through
wide-area situational awareness and advanced analysis.
(or)
Wide area measurement system (WAMS) refers to a measurement system composed of
strategically placed time-synchronized sensors (which are PMUs) which can monitor the
current status of a critical area in real-time. Wide-Area Measurement Systems (WAMS) are
being installed on many transmission systems to supplement traditional SCADA. They
measure the magnitudes and phase angle of busbar voltages as well as current flows through
transmission circuits. This information, measured over a wide area, is transmitted to the
Control Centre and is used for:

1. Power system state estimation: Since the phasor data is synchronised, the magnitudes and
phase angles of voltages at all busbars in the grid can be estimated using a state
estimation algorithm. These estimates can then be used to predict possible voltage and
angle instabilities as well as to estimate system damping and vulnerability to small-signal
oscillation.
2. Power system monitoring and warning: The phasor data allows the operating conditions
of the power system to be monitored on a real-time basis, system stability to be assessed
and warnings generated.
3. Power system event analysis: Synchronised phasor data of high accuracy is available
before and after a fault or other network incident. This enables the system operators to
study the causes and effects of faults and take countermeasures against subsequent
events.

A configuration of the WAMPAC is shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Simplified representation of WAMPAC system

The PMU (or synchrophasor) measurements collected from the different part of the network
and state estimation are used for online stability analysis. When an event occurs, its location,
time, magnitude (total capacity of generator or transmission lines outage) and type (generator
outage or transmission line outage) are first identified. Real-time visualisation of the event
allows it to be replayed several seconds after it occurs. The future system condition is then
analysed using the information that has been gathered. An on-line stability assessment
algorithm continuously assesses the system to check whether the system is still stable and
how quickly the system would collapse if it became unstable. If instability is predicted, then
the necessary corrective actions to correct the problem or to avert system collapse are taken.
BENEFITS OF WAMS
Following are some of the benefits of synchrophasors technology:
(i) The Operators are additionally provided with online information at the right
time for improved power system operation.
(ii) With real time information on angular separation between the buses and its
voltages, transmission load ability in lines may be increased considerably,
Therefore more power can be transmitted on existing lines and construction of
new lines can be deferred and also resulting in better utilization of the existing
transmission system/assets.
(iii) Early detection of critical conditions in the grid and accordingly taking
corrective operational measures to avert grid disturbance.
 (iv) Detection of power system oscillation by Synchrophasor technology would
enable tuning of PSS/ voltage stabilizer and thereby healthy operation of the
machines for a longer period.
(v) Improved knowledge of the power system conditions and corrective actions
prevents excessive or unnecessary load shedding.
(vi) The relay operation characteristic can be validated in real time.
(vii) According to the behaviour of the real time system dynamics measured
&monitored by the technology, Defence Plan/ Islanding scheme(s) can be
designed to avert grid collapse.
(viii) The technology will provide more intelligence on network security and help
to improve and maintain the robustness of the grid.
(ix) Objectives of secure, safe, reliable and smart grid operation will be achievable
through WAMs technology

Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs)

A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the magnitude and phase
angle of an electrical phasor quantity (such as voltage or current) in the electric grid using a
common time source for synchronization. Time synchronization is usually provided by GPS
and allows synchronized real time measurements of multiple remote points on the grid.
PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in quick succession and
reconstructing the phasor quantity, made up of an angle measurement and a magnitude
measurement. The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor. These time
synchronized measurements are important because if the grid’s supply and demand are not
perfectly matched, frequency imbalances can cause stress on the grid, which is a potential
cause for power outages. Figure 2.3 shows voltage synchrophasors at the two ends of an
inductive transmission line.

Figure 2.3: Waveforms and phasors of busbar voltages

The sinusoidal waveform of the voltage is expressed as:

Vi (t) = Vm-i sin (ωt + φi)
Where:
i is the bus number at each end of the line (1 or 2)
Vm-i is the peak value.
The voltage synchrophasor is given by Vi = Vm-i ejφi = √2Vrms-iejφi
Where Vrms-i is the rms value of the voltage magnitude.
PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid. PMUs provide up to 60
measurements per second, which is much more than the typical one measurement every 2 to 4
seconds provided by conventional SCADA systems. PMUs have a big advantage over
traditional means of collecting data because all PMU data is time-stamped using Global
Positioning System (GPS) data. This means that data collected across a grid is all
synchronized by using the same exact method of associating time with data. For this reason,
PMUs are sometimes called synchrophasors.
Therefore, PMUs equip utilities with enhanced monitoring and control capabilities and are
considered to be one of the most important measuring devices in the future of power systems.
The block diagram of PMU is shown in figure 2.4

.
Figure2.4: Block Diagram for Phasor Measurement Unit

Main Components of PMU

1. Analog Inputs
2. GPS receiver
3. Phase locked oscillator
4. A/D converter
5. Anti-aliasing filters
6. Phasor micro-processor
7. Modem

1 Analog Inputs
Current and potential transformers are employed at substation for measurement of voltage
and current. The analog inputs to the PMU are the voltages and currents obtained from the
secondary winding of potential and current transformers.
2. Anti-aliasing filters
Anti-aliasing filter is an analog low pass filter which is used to filter out those components
from the actual signal whose frequencies are greater than or equal to half of nyquist rate to
get the sampled waveform. Nyquist rate is equal to twice the highest frequency component of
input analog signal. If anti aliasing filters are not used, error will be introduced in the
estimated phasor
3 A/D Converter
Quantization of the input involves in ADC that introduces a small amount of error. The
output of ADC is a sequence of digital values that convert a continuous time and amplitude
analog signal to a discrete time and discrete amplitude signal. It is therefore required to define
the rate at which new digital values are sampled from the analog signal. The rate of new
values at which digital values are sampled is called the sampling rate of the converter.
 4 Global Positioning System
The synchronized time is given by GPS uses the high accuracy clock from satellite
technology. Without GPS providing the synchronized time, it is hard to monitor whole grid at
the same time. The GPS satellites provide a very accurate time synchronization signal,
available, via an antenna input, throughout the power system. This means that that voltage
and current recordings from different substations can be directly displayed on the same time
axis and in the same phasor diagram.
5 Phasor micro-processor
The microprocessor calculates positive- sequence estimates of all the current and voltage
signals using the DFT techniques. Certain other estimates of interest are frequency and rate of
change of frequency measured locally, and these also are included in the output of the PMU.
10 The timestamp is created from two of the signals derived from the GPS receiver. The
time-stamp identifies the identity of the “universal time coordinated (UTC) second and the
instant defining the boundary of one of the power frequency periods.
PMUs provide a detailed and accurate view of power quality across a wide geographic grid.
The data collected tells the system operator if the voltage, current, and frequency are staying
within specified tolerances. The capability is used in multiple ways:
 To improve the accuracy of modelling system conditions
 To predict and detect stress and instability on the grid
 To provide information for event analysis after a disturbance has occurred
 To identify inefficiencies
 To predict and manage line congestion

PHASOR DATA CONCENTRATOR UNIT (PDC)

The PDC and the super PDC (SPDC) are important elements of the overall PMU system
organization. The devices at next level of the hierarchy are commonly known as phasor data
concentrators (PDCs). Typical function of the PDCs is to gather data from several PMUs,
reject bad data, align the time –stamps, and create a coherent record of simultaneously
recorded data from a wider part of the power system. There are local storage facilities in the
PDCs, as well as application functions which need the PMU data available at the PDC. This
can be made available by the PDCs to the local applications in real time.

GIS AND GOOGLE MAPPING TOOLS

GIS is useful for managing traditional electric transmission and distribution and telecom
networks. It can also help to manage information about utility assets for data collection and
maintenance.

Google ’ s free downloadable Google Earth software offers geographical contextual

information in an updated user - friendly platform that facilitates inquiry - based study and
analysis. Users can create and share many types of dynamically - updating data over the
Internet. Keyhole Markup Language (KML) allows them to overlay basic data types such as
images, point data, lines, and polygons. Through satellite imagery, maps are available from
space to street - level. The integration of GIS with Google Earth or other mapping tools will
aid in understanding the relationship of the grid network to its surroundings, for example,
determining the optimal location of rights of way, placement of sensors and poles, and so on.
GIS technology will provide partial context to operators and planners, for example, real -
time sensors that collect the data needed to reconfigure networks for reducing outages and
equipment failures.

The trends in the development of the electric power system and the expectation of future
demand suggest the following needs:

 Reducing outage time

 Preventing power theft which causes significant unaccounted losses
 Effective system for collection and billing system
 Expanding services for customers
 Effective asset management
 Improving reliability such as SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration Index)
and SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index) for distribution networks
 Improving analysis of customer complaint logs
 Enhancing load flow power quality analysis and fault study for current and anticipated
problems
 Scheduling of actions such as load shedding and vegetation control

MULTIAGENT SYSTEMS (MAS) TECHNOLOGY

MAS are a computational system in which several agents cooperate to achieve a desired task.
The performance of MAS can be decided by the interactions among various agents. Agents
cooperate to achieve more than if they act individually. Increasingly, MAS are the
preferential choice for developing distributed systems. The development of monitoring and
measurement schemes within the smart grid environment can be enhanced through the use of
MAS architecture (Fig. 2.5).

Figure 2.5: Simplified multiagent architecture.

As an example, MAS have been utilized as a detection and diagnosis device and in system
monitoring. Such architectures utilize a collection of agents such as Arbitrator Agents (AA),
System Monitoring Agents (SMA), Fault Detection Agents (FDA), Diagnosis Agents (DA), a
Judgment Index Agent (JIA), and a Scheduling Agent (SA). Information passes between the
agents about the appropriate actions to be taken. When implemented, the process repeats
itself to constantly monitor the system so that management of system conditions can be
implemented instantaneously.

Multiagent Systems for Smart Grid Implementation explains that a smart grid integrates
advanced sensing technologies, control methods, and integrated communications into the
present electricity grid at both transmission and distribution levels. The smart grid is expected
to have the following key characteristics:

 self - healing
 consumer friendly
 attack resistant
 provide power quality for 21st - century needs
 accommodate all generation and storage options
 enable markets
 optimize assets and operate efficiently
Central to the operation of any power system is its control architecture consisting of hardware
and software protocols for exchanging system status and control signals. In conventional
electric power systems, this is accomplished by SCADA. Current trends to control and
monitor system operations are moving toward the use of MAS. A multiagent system is a
combination of several agents working in collaboration pursuing assigned tasks to achieve the
overall goal of the system. The multiagent system has become an increasingly powerful tool
in developing complex systems that take advantages of agent properties: autonomy, sociality,
reactivity and pro activity. The multiagent system is autonomous in that they operate without
human interventions. The multiagent system is sociable in that they interact with other agents
via some kind of agent communication language. The agents also perceive and react to their
environment. Lastly, the multiagent system is proactive in that they are able to exhibit goal
oriented behaviour by taking initiatives.

Multiagent Specifications
In this section, the specifications of a control agent, a distributed energy resource (DER)
agent, a user agent, and a database agent in the Intelligent Distributed Autonomous Power
System (IDAPS) MAS are defined.
1. Control agent: responsibilities include monitoring system voltage and frequency to detect
contingency situations or grid failures, and sending signals to the main circuit breaker to
isolate the IDAPS microgrid from the utility when an upstream outage is detected; receiving
electricity price ($/kWh) signal from the main grid, which may be obtained from AMI, and
publishing them to the IDAPS entities
2. DER agent: responsibilities include storing associated DER information, monitoring and
controlling DER power levels and connect/disconnect status; DER information to be stored
may include DER identification number, type (solar cells, microturbines, fuel cells), power
rating (kW), local fuel availability, cost function or price at which users agree to sell, DER
availability, that is, planned maintenance schedule
3. User agent: acts as a customer gateway that makes features of an IDAPS microgrid
accessible to users; responsibilities include providing users with real - time information on
entities residing in the IDAPS system; monitors electricity consumption by each critical and
noncritical load; allows users to control the status of loads based on user ’ s predefined
priority
4. Database agent: serves as a data access point for other agents as well as users;
responsibilities include storing system information, recording messages and data shared
among agents.
Multiagent Technique

An agent of a MAS may be defi ned as an entity with attributes considered useful in a
particular domain. In this framework, an agent is an information processor that performs
autonomous actions based on information. Common agent attributes include:

 Autonomy: goal - directedness, proactive and self - starting behaviour

 Collaborative behaviour: the ability to work with other agents to achieve a common
goal
 Knowledge - level communication ability: the ability to communicate with other
agents with language resembling human speech acts rather than typical symbol - level
program - to - program protocols
 Reactivity: the ability to selectively sense and act
 Temporal continuity: persistence of identity and state over long periods

MAS can be characterized by:

 Each agent has incomplete capabilities to solve a problem

 No global system control
 Decentralized data
 Asynchronous computation

For instance, the system outage of a ship could be caused by an internal system error or any
external contingency from battle. To pursue the best ship performance, it is very important to
restore the electric power supply as much as possible. When a fault occurs on the ship power
system, the protection systems will isolate the fault from the remaining power grid. Then the
system should restore the electric power to a target configuration after the outage. An
example of MAS architecture in action is a power failure on board a ship that is caused by an
internal system error, an external contingency from battle, and so on. Clearly, the goal is
rapid restoration of the onboard power supply; hence, when a fault occurs, the protection
system will isolate the fault, allowing the system to restore power to a target configuration
after the outage.