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 ROCKSWOLD
LIAL
HORNSBY
A GRAPHICAL APPROACH TO
Get the Most Out of
MyLab Math
PRECALCULUS
MyLabTM Math is the world’s leading online tutorial and
WITH LIMITS
assessment program designed to help you learn and succeed in
your mathematics course. MyLab Math courses provide you with:

PRECALCULUS
A GRAPHICAL APPROACH TO
WITH
S Personalized learning experiences
S Interactive practice with immediate feedback HORNSBY
and just-in-time learning aids
LIAL
S Multimedia learning resources

LIMITS
S Complete eText, accessible anywhere with the ROCKSWOLD
Pearson eText app

MyLab Math is available for this textbook.

To learn more, visit pearson.com/mylab/math.
7TH EDITION

www.pearson.com
7TH
EDITION
 Contents vii

5.3 Rational Equations, Inequalities, Models, 6.4 Logarithmic Functions   410

and Applications   318 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions • Finding an
Solving Rational Equations and Inequalities Inverse of an Exponential Function • A Logarithmic
• Models and Applications of Rational Functions Model
• Inverse Variation • Combined and Joint Variation
6.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
• Rate of Work
and Inequalities   420
Reviewing Basic Concepts Exponential Equations and Inequalities (Type 2)
(Sections 5.1–5.3)   335 • Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities
Unifying Rational Functions   336 • Equations Involving Exponentials and Logarithms
• Formulas Involving Exponentials and Logarithms
5.4 Functions Defined by Powers
and Roots   338 Unifying Logarithmic Functions   430
Power and Root Functions • Modeling Using Power 6.6 Further Applications and Modeling
n
Functions • Graphs of f (x) = 2ax + b • Graphing with Exponential and Logarithmic
Circles and Horizontal Parabolas Using Root Functions Functions  432
5.5 Equations, Inequalities, and Applications Physical Science Applications • Financial and Other
Involving Root Functions   350 Applications • Modeling Data with Exponential and
Equations and Inequalities • An Application of Root Logarithmic Functions
Functions Reviewing Basic Concepts
Reviewing Basic Concepts (Sections 6.4–6.6)   445
(Sections 5.4–5.5)   361 Summary Exercises on Functions: Domains,
Unifying Root Functions   362 Defining Equations, and Composition   446
Finding the Domain of a Function: A Summary
Summary  364
• Determining Whether an Equation Defines y as
Review Exercises   366 a Function of x • Composite Functions and Their
Test  369 Domains
Summary  451
Review Exercises   454
6 Inverse, Exponential, and
Test  458
Logarithmic Functions 371
6.1 Inverse Functions   372
Inverse Operations • One-to-One Functions • Inverse
7 Systems and Matrices 460
Functions and Their Graphs • Equations of Inverse
7.1 Systems of Equations   461
Functions • An Application of Inverse Functions to
Linear Systems • Substitution Method • Elimination
Cryptography
Method • Special Systems • Nonlinear Systems
6.2 Exponential Functions   383 • Applications of Systems
Real-Number Exponents • Graphs of Exponential
7.2 Solution of Linear Systems
Functions • Exponential Equations (Type 1)
in Three Variables   474
• Compound Interest • The Number e and
Geometric Considerations • Analytic Solution of
Continuous Compounding • An Application of
Systems in Three Variables • Applications of Systems
­Exponential Functions
• Fitting Data Using a System
Unifying Exponential Functions   397
7.3 Solution of Linear Systems by Row
6.3 Logarithms and Their Properties   399 Transformations  484
Definition of Logarithm • Common Logarithms Matrix Row Transformations • Row Echelon Method
• Natural Logarithms • Properties of Logarithms (Gaussian Elimination) • Reduced Row Echelon
• Change-of-Base Rule Method • Special Cases • An Application of ­Matrices
Reviewing Basic Concepts Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 6.1–6.3)   409 (Sections 7.1–7.3)   499

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 viii Contents

7.4 Matrix Properties and Operations   499 8.4 Introduction to Parametric

Terminology of Matrices • Operations on Matrices Equations  598
• Applying Matrix Algebra Introduction • Graphs of Parametric Equations and
Their Rectangular Equivalents • Alternative Forms of
7.5 Determinants and Cramer’s Rule   512
Parametric Equations • An Application of Parametric
Determinants of 2 : 2 Matrices • Determinants of
Equations
Larger Matrices • Derivation of Cramer’s Rule
• Using Cramer’s Rule to Solve Systems Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 8.3–8.4)   604
7.6 Solution of Linear Systems by Matrix
Summary  604
Inverses  522
Identity Matrices • Multiplicative Inverses of Square Review Exercises   607
Matrices • Using Determinants to Find Inverses Test  609
• Solving Linear Systems Using Inverse Matrices
• Fitting Data Using a System
Reviewing Basic Concepts 9 The Unit Circle
(Sections 7.4–7.6)   533 and the Functions
7.7 Systems of Inequalities and Linear of Trigonometry 611
Programming  534
Solving Linear Inequalities • Solving Systems of 9.1 Angles, Arcs, and Their Measures   612
Inequalities • Linear Programming Basic Terminology • Degree Measure • Standard
Position and Coterminal Angles • Radian Measure
7.8 Partial Fractions   545
• Arc Lengths and Areas of Sectors • Linear and
Decomposition of Rational Expressions • Distinct
Angular Speed
Linear Factors • Repeated Linear Factors • Distinct
Linear and Quadratic Factors • Repeated Quadratic 9.2 The Unit Circle and Its Functions   628
Factors Trigonometric (Circular) Functions • Using a
Reviewing Basic Concepts Calculator to Find Function Values • Exact Function
p p p
(Sections 7.7–7.8)   552 Values for , , and
4 6 3
Summary  553
Reviewing Basic Concepts
Review Exercises   556 (Sections 9.1–9.2)   638
Test  559
9.3 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine
Functions  639

8 Conic Sections, Nonlinear

Periodic Functions • Graph of the Sine Function
• Graph of the Cosine Function • Graphing
Systems, and Parametric Techniques, Amplitude, and Period • Translations
Equations 561 and Transformations • Determining a Trigonometric
Model Using Curve Fitting
8.1 Circles Revisited and Parabolas   562 9.4 Graphs of the Other Circular
Conic Sections • Equations and Graphs of Circles Functions  659
• Equations and Graphs of Parabolas • Translations Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions
of Parabolas • An Application of Parabolas • Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions
8.2 Ellipses and Hyperbolas   575 Reviewing Basic Concepts
Equations and Graphs of Ellipses • Translations of (Sections 9.3–9.4)   672
Ellipses • An Application of Ellipses • Equations and
9.5 Functions of Angles and Fundamental
Graphs of Hyperbolas • Translations of Hyperbolas
Identities  672
Reviewing Basic Concepts Trigonometric Functions • Function Values of
(Sections 8.1–8.2)   587 ­Quadrantal Angles • Reciprocal Identities • Signs
8.3 The Conic Sections and Nonlinear and Ranges of Function Values • Pythagorean
Systems  587 ­Identities • Quotient Identities • An Application of
Characteristics • Identifying Conic Sections Trigonometric Functions
• Eccentricity • Nonlinear Systems

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 Contents ix

9.6 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions   685 10.6 Trigonometric Equations

Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions and Inequalities (II)   787
• Trigonometric Function Values of Special Angles Equations and Inequalities Involving Multiple-Number
• Cofunction Identities • Reference Angles • Special Identities • Equations and Inequalities Involving Half-
Angles as Reference Angles • Finding Function Number Identities • Applications of Trigonometric
­Values with a Calculator • Finding Angle Measures Equations
• Function Values as Lengths of Line Segments Reviewing Basic Concepts
9.7 Applications of Right Triangles   700 (Sections 10.5–10.6)   795
Significant Digits • Solving Triangles • Angles of Unifying Trigonometric Functions   796
Elevation or Depression • Bearing • An Application Summary  798
about Airport Runway Numbers • Further
Review Exercises   800
­Applications of Trigonometric Functions
Test  803
9.8 Harmonic Motion   713
Simple Harmonic Motion • Damped Oscillatory
Motion
Reviewing Basic Concepts
11 Applications of Trigonometry
(Sections 9.5–9.8)   718
and Vectors 805
Summary  719 11.1 The Law of Sines   806
Review Exercises   723 Congruency and Oblique Triangles • Derivation
Test  727 of the Law of Sines • Using the Law of Sines
• Ambiguous Case

11.2 The Law of Cosines and Area

10 Trigonometric Identities Formulas  819
and Equations 729 Derivation of the Law of Cosines • Using the Law of
Cosines • Area Formulas
10.1 Trigonometric Identities   730 11.3 Vectors and Their Applications   830
Fundamental Identities • Using the Fundamental Basic Terminology • Interpretations of Vectors
Identities • Verifying Identities • Operations with Vectors • Dot Product and the
10.2 Sum and Difference Identities   741 Angle between Vectors • Applications of Vectors
Cosine Sum and Difference Identities • Sine and Reviewing Basic Concepts
Tangent Sum and Difference Identities (Sections 11.1–11.3)   844
Reviewing Basic Concepts 11.4 Trigonometric (Polar) Form of
(Sections 10.1–10.2)   750 Complex Numbers  845
10.3 Further Identities   750 The Complex Plane and Vector Representation
Double-Number Identities • Product-to-Sum and • Trigonometric (Polar) Form • Products of Complex
Sum-to-Product Identities • Half-Number Identities Numbers in Trigonometric Form • Quotients of
Complex Numbers in Trigonometric Form
10.4 The Inverse Circular Functions   763
Review of Inverse Functions • Inverse Sine Function 11.5 Powers and Roots of Complex
• Inverse Cosine Function • Inverse Tangent Function Numbers  854
• Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions • Inverse Powers of Complex Numbers (De Moivre’s Theorem)
Function Values as Angles • An Application • Roots of Complex Numbers

Reviewing Basic Concepts Reviewing Basic Concepts

(Sections 10.3–10.4)   778 (Sections 11.4–11.5)   860

10.5 Trigonometric Equations and 11.6 Polar Equations and Graphs   860
Inequalities (I)   779 Polar Coordinate System • Graphs of Polar
Equations and Inequalities Solvable by Linear Equations • Classifying Polar Equations • Converting
Methods • Equations and Inequalities Solvable Equations
by Quadratic Methods • Using Trigonometric
Identities to Solve Equations

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 x Contents

11.7 More Parametric Equations   870

Parametric Graphing Revisited • Parametric 13 Limits, Derivatives, and
Equations with Trigonometric Functions • The Definite Integrals 955
Cycloid • Applications of Parametric Equations
Reviewing Basic Concepts 13.1 An Introduction to Limits   956
(Sections 11.6–11.7)   878 Limit of a Function • Finding Limits of Various Types
Summary  878 of Functions • Limits That Do Not Exist

Review Exercises   881 13.2 Techniques for Calculating Limits   964

Test  883 Rules for Limits • Limits Involving Trigonometric
Functions

13.3 One-Sided Limits and Limits Involving

12 Further Topics in Infinity  971
Algebra 885 Right- and Left-Hand Limits • Infinity as a Limit
• Limits as x Approaches { ∞
12.1 Sequences and Series   886 Reviewing Basic Concepts
Sequences • Series and Summation Notation (Sections 13.1–13.3)   980
• Summation Properties
13.4 Tangent Lines and Derivatives   981
12.2 Arithmetic Sequences and Series   896 The Tangent Line as a Limit of Secant Lines
Arithmetic Sequences • Arithmetic Series • Derivative of a Function • Interpretation of the
Derivative as a Rate of Change • Marginal Concept
12.3 Geometric Sequences and Series   904
in Economics
Geometric Sequences • Geometric Series • Infinite
Geometric Series • Annuities 13.5 Area and the Definite Integral   993
Reviewing Basic Concepts Areas by Approximation • The Definite Integral
(Sections 12.1–12.3)   914 Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 13.4–13.5)   1000
12.4 Counting Theory   914
Fundamental Principle of Counting • n-Factorial Summary  1000
• Permutations • Combinations • Distinguishing Review Exercises   1002
between Permutations and Combinations Test  1005
12.5 The Binomial Theorem   923
A Binomial Expansion Pattern • Pascal’s Triangle
• Binomial Coefficients • The Binomial Theorem R Review: Basic Algebraic
• r th Term of a Binomial Expansion Concepts 1007
Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 12.4–12.5)   930 R.1 Review of Sets   1008
Vocabulary and Symbols • Finite and Infinite Sets
12.6 Mathematical Induction   930 • Subsets and Venn Diagrams • Complement of a Set
Proof by Mathematical Induction • Proving
• Union and Intersection of Sets
Statements • Generalized Principle of Mathematical
Induction • Proof of the Binomial Theorem R.2 Review of Exponents and
Polynomials  1013
12.7 Probability  937 Rules for Exponents • Terminology for Polynomials
Basic Concepts • Complements and Venn Diagrams
• Adding and Subtracting Polynomials • Multiplying
• Odds • Union of Two Events • Binomial Probability
Polynomials
Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 12.6–12.7)   947 R.3 Review of Factoring   1019
Factoring Out the Greatest Common Factor
Summary  948
• Factoring by Grouping • Factoring Trinomials
Review Exercises   952 • Factoring Special Products • Factoring by
Test  954 ­Substitution

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 10 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 Contents xi

R.4 Review of Rational Expressions   1025 Appendix A: Geometry Formulas   1049

Domain of a Rational Expression • Lowest Terms
of a Rational Expression • Multiplying and Dividing Appendix B: Vectors in Space   1051
Rational Expressions • Adding and Subtracting Appendix C: Polar Form of Conic
Rational Expressions • Complex Fractions
Sections  1056
R.5 Review of Negative and Rational
Exponents  1033 Appendix D: Rotation of Axes   1060
Negative Exponents and the Quotient Rule Answers to Selected Exercises   A-1
• Rational Exponents
Photo Credits  C-1
R.6 Review of Radicals   1039
Radical Notation • Rules for Radicals • Simplifying Index  I-1
Radicals • Operations with Radicals • Rationalizing
Denominators
Test  1046

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 11 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 Preface

Although A Graphical Approach to Precalculus with Limits: A Unit Circle Approach

has evolved significantly from earlier editions, it retains the strengths of those edi-
tions and provides new and relevant opportunities for students and instructors alike.
We realize that today’s classroom experience is evolving and that technology-based
teaching and learning aids have become essential to address the ever-changing needs
of instructors and students. As a result, we have worked to provide support for all
classroom types—traditional, hybrid, and online. In the seventh edition, text and
online materials are more tightly integrated than ever before. This enhances flexibility
and ease of use for instructors and increases success for students. See pages xviii–xx
for descriptions of these materials.
This text incorporates an open design, helpful features, careful explanations of
topics, and a comprehensive package of supplements and study aids. We continue
to offer an Annotated Instructor’s Edition, in which answers to both even- and odd-
numbered exercises are provided either beside the exercises (if space permits) or in
the back of the text for the instructor.
A Graphical Approach to Precalculus with Limits: A Unit Circle Approach was
one of the first texts to reorganize the typical table of contents to maximize the use of
graphs to support solutions of equations and inequalities. It maintains its unique table
of contents and functions-based approach (as outlined in the Foreword and in front
of the text) and includes additional components to build skills, address critical think-
ing, and give students a wealth of opportunities to solve applications and make use of
technology to support traditional analytic solutions.
This text is part of a series that also includes the following titles:
●● A Graphical Approach to College Algebra, Seventh Edition, by Hornsby,
Lial, and Rockswold
●● A Graphical Approach to Algebra and Trigonometry, Seventh Edition, by
Hornsby, Lial, and Rockswold
The book is written to accommodate students who have access to graphing calcula-
tors. We have chosen to use screens from the TI-84 Plus C emulator. However, we
do not include specific keystroke instructions because of the wide variety of models
available. Students should refer to the guides provided with their calculators for spe-
cific information.

New to This Edition

There are many places in the text where we have refined individual presentations and
added examples, exercises, and applications based on reviewer feedback. The changes
you may notice include the following:
●● A NEW recurring feature is titled Unifying Functions. ­Following discussion
of each of the important functions (for example, Unifying Linear Functions
on page 67), we present a concise summary that covers Analyzing the Graph,
­Solving an Equation, Solving an Inequality, and Solving an Application. This
feature reinforces the general approach of the text. Accompanying videos are
embedded in the eText and assessment questions are available in MyLab Math.

xii

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 12 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 Preface xiii

●● Applications have been updated throughout the text in such areas as

organic food sales, video-on-demand, active Twitter users, worldwide
­WhatsApp usage, U.S. Snapchat users, top social networks, wearable technol-
ogy, fast-food restaurant and advertising revenue, world records in track, college
enrollment, poverty-level income cutoffs, health care expenditures, online sales,
airport runway designations, online gaming revenue, population, vehicle sales,
and pollutant emissions.
●● Graphing calculator screens have been updated using the TI-84 Plus C
­emulator, often employing pedagogical color.
●● Chapter 1 New Technology Note explaining the equivalence of different
function notation styles; updated examples throughout.
●● Chapter 2 More discussion about the constant function; more exercises
that determine whether a function is odd or even; additional discussion,
examples, and exercises about the order in which to apply combinations
of transformations; the difference quotient and average rate of change; com-
posite functions and their domains; additional examples of graphical solu-
tions to equations and inequalities; a new subsection on error tolerances with
examples and exercises; more graphing of absolute value functions by hand;
a new example and exercises related to piecewise-defined functions.
(Note: Chapter 3 from the previous edition has been divided into two
­chapters at the suggestion of reviewers. In the seventh edition, Chapter 3
consists of former Sections 3.1–3.4, and Chapter 4 consists of former
­Sections 3.5–3.8.)
●● Chapter 3 Additional exercises on quotients of complex numbers; a new
subsection on “A Quadratic Relation: The Circle” (this gives the instructor
the option to cover circles and completing the square to find the center and
radius earlier than in previous editions); new examples and exercises have
been added throughout; exercises on complex numbers and exercises on
circles have been added to the end-of-chapter Summary and Test.
●● Chapter 4 Introduces the terms upper bound and lower bound; updated
examples and exercises appear throughout; additional exercises on polynomial
function behavior.
●● Chapter 5 A new example about analyzing graphs of rational functions;
new exercises where asymptotes are described using limit notation; new
examples and exercises where rational functions are graphed by hand; new
examples in which rational inequalities are solved; additional discussion
about graphing circles with a calculator; new exercises that involve solving
radical inequalities.
●● Chapter 6 Applications of logarithms with bases other than e and 10 have
been supplemented with discussion of modern calculator capabilities of
computing them directly (the change-of-base rule is still covered); a new
example on modeling the number of monthly active Twitter accounts; new
discussion, example, and exercises on modeling with logistic functions.
●● Chapter 7 Additional exercises that provide practice in solving systems of
equations; more investment examples and applications; new coverage of
systems that have infinitely many solutions; many new examples and exer-
cises in which systems are solved by hand using row transformations; more
discussion and exercises that involve solving rational inequalities; a new
example and exercises about partial fraction decomposition.
●● Chapter 8 An example using parametric equations for an object in motion
has been expanded; new exercises for parametric graphs have been included.

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 13 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 xiv Preface

●● Chapter 9 A new subsection that discusses the real life application of

­airport runways, including an example and exercises; new examples of
finding trigonometric function values using reference angles, finding angle
measures by hand, evaluating trigonometric functions involving triangles,
evaluating circular functions, and analyzing damped harmonic motion; new
and additional exercises related to clock hands and angular velocity, rational-
izing the denominator, reference angles, evaluating inverse trigonometric
functions, solving triangles, finding exact values of trigonometric functions,
writing equations of given graphs, modeling real data, damped harmonic
motion, music, and function values as lengths of line segments.
●● Chapter 10 A complete revision of the material covering the inverse cotan-
gent, inverse secant, and inverse cosecant functions, including new Function
Capsules; new Concept Check exercises, including matching exercises; addi-
tional exercises related to solving trigonometric equations.
●● Chapter 11 New Concept Check exercises and a new Discussing Concept
feature; rewording to make identities and trigonometry, in general, more
accessible; additional graphing calculator explanations and solutions involv-
ing polar coordinates; new exercises involving whether a triangle with the
given conditions exists; additional exercises involving plotting complex
numbers in the complex plane.
●● Chapter 12 New exercises in solving inequalities that involve both
sequences and series; new examples and exercises about mathematical
induction; more discussion and exercises about odds in gambling.
●● Chapter 13 New examples covering limits at points of discontinuity, limits of
square root functions, finding the equation of a tangent line and graphing it, inter-
preting the derivative in an application; new exercises involving limits at points
of discontinuity, rational and trigonometric functions, both full and one-sided
limits of square root, logarithmic, absolute value, and exponential functions; new
exercises requiring equations of tangent lines, interpretation of the derivative, and
evaluating a definite integral geometrically; two new Discussing Concepts.
●● Chapter R (formerly called “Reference,” now called “Review”) A section
on Review of Sets has been added.

Features
We are pleased to offer the following enhanced features:

Chapter Openers Chapter openers provide a chapter outline and a brief discus-
sion related to the chapter content.

Enhanced Examples We have replaced some examples and have included many
new examples in this edition. We have also polished solutions and incorporated more
explanatory comments and pointers.

Hand-Drawn Graphs We have incorporated many graphs featuring a “hand-

drawn” style that simulates how a student might actually sketch a graph on grid paper.
Accompanying videos are available in the MyLab Math multimedia library.

Dual-Solution Format Selected examples continue to provide side-by-side ana-

lytic and graphing calculator solutions, to connect traditional analytic methods for
solving problems with graphical methods of solution or support. NEW! Embedded
links in the eText enable students to launch a pop-up GeoGebra graphing calculator
for these examples (see icon to left).

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 14 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 Preface xv

Pointers Comments with pointers (bubbles) provide students with on-the-spot

explanations, reminders, and warnings about common pitfalls.

Highlighted Section and Figure References Within the text we use boldface
type when referring to numbered sections and exercises (e.g., Section 2.1, Exercises
15–20). We also use a corresponding font when referring to numbered figures (e.g.,
FIGURE 1). We thank Gerald M. Kiser of Woodbury (New Jersey) High School for this
latter suggestion.

Figures and Photos Today’s students are more visually oriented than ever. As a
result, we have made a concerted effort to provide more figures, diagrams, tables, and
graphs, including the “hand-drawn” style of graphs, whenever possible. And we often
provide photos to accompany applications in examples and exercises.

Function Capsules These special boxes offer a comprehensive, visual introduc-

tion to each class of function and serve as an excellent resource for reference and
review. Each capsule includes traditional and calculator graphs and a calculator table
of values, as well as the domain, range, and other specific information about the func-
tion. Abbreviated versions of function capsules are provided on the inside back cover
of the text.

What Went Wrong? This popular feature explores errors that students often
make when using graphing technology and provides an avenue for instructors to
highlight and discuss such errors. Answers are included on the same page as the
“What Went Wrong?” boxes. Accompanying videos are available in the MyLab Math
multimedia library.

Cautions and Notes These features warn students of common errors and empha-
size important ideas throughout the exposition.

Looking Ahead to Calculus These margin notes provide glimpses into how the
algebraic topics the students are currently studying are used in calculus.

Algebra Reviews This feature, which appears in the margin of the text, provides
“just in time” review by indicating where students can find additional help with
important topics from algebra.

Technology Notes Also appearing in the margin, these notes provide tips on how
to use graphing calculators more effectively.

Discussing Concepts These activities appear within the exposition or in the

margins and offer material on important concepts for instructors and students to inves-
tigate or discuss in class.

Exercise Sets We have taken special care to respond to the suggestions of users
and reviewers and have added hundreds of new exercises to this edition on the basis
of their feedback. The text continues to provide students with ample opportunities to
practice, apply, connect, and extend concepts and skills. We have included writing
exercises as well as multiple-choice, matching, true/false, and completion prob-
lems. Exercises marked CONCEPT CHECK focus on mathematical thinking and concep-
tual understanding, while those marked CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS are intended to be
solved without the use of a calculator.

Relating Concepts These groups of exercises appear in selected exercise sets. They
link topics together and highlight relationships among various concepts and skills. All
answers to these problems appear in the answer section at the back of the student text.

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 15 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 xvi Preface

Reviewing Basic Concepts These sets of exercises appear every two or three
sections and give students an opportunity to review and check their understanding of
the material in preceding sections. All answers to these problems are included in the
answer section.

Chapter Review Material One of the most popular features of the text, each end-
of-chapter Summary features a section-by-section list of Key Terms and Symbols, in
addition to Key Concepts. A comprehensive set of Chapter Review Exercises and a
Chapter Test are also included.

Acknowledgments
Previous editions of this text were published after thousands of hours of work, not only
by the authors, but also by reviewers, instructors, students, answer checkers, and editors.
To these individuals and to all those who have worked in some way on this text over the
years, we are most grateful for your contributions. We could not have done it without you.
We especially wish to thank the following individuals who provided valuable
input to this and previous editions of the text.

Judy Ahrens, Pellissippi State Technical College Cheryl Kane, University of Nebraska
Randall Allbritton, Daytona Beach Community Mike Keller, St. John’s River Community College
College M. R. Khadivi, Jackson State University
Jamie Ashby, Texarkana College Rosemary Kradel, Lehigh Carbon Community College
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Gloria Bass, Mercer University Sharon Hawkins MacKendrick, New Mexico State Uni-
Pat Bassett, Palm Beach Atlantic University versity at Grants
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Campus Mary Merchant, Cedar Valley College
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Daniel Biles, Western Kentucky University Peggy Miller, University of Nebraska at Kearney
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Faye Childress, Central Piedmont Community College Lloyd Moyo, Henderson State University
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Patricia Dueck, Scottsdale Community College Mary Anne Petruska, Pensacola State College
Mickle Duggan, East Central University Susan Pfeifer, Butler County Community College,
Douglas Dunbar, Northwest Florida State College ­Andover
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Donna Fatheree, University of Louisiana at Lafayette Charles Roberts, Mercer University
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Linda Fosnaugh, Midwestern State University Alicia Schlintz, Meredith College
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Henry Graves, Trident Technical College Mike Shirazi, Germanna Community College
Kim Gregor, Delaware Technical Community College Jed Soifer, Atlantic Cape Community College
Susan Hiatt, Polk State College, Lakeland Campus Betty Swift, Cerritos College
Sandee House, Georgia Perimeter College Julie Tarr, Pima Community College
Teresa Houston, Jackson State University Jennifer Walsh, Daytona Beach Community College
W. H. Howland, University of St. Thomas (Houston) Robert Woods, Broome Community College
Ana Jimenez, Pima Community College Fred Worth, Henderson State University
Tuesday J. Johnson, New Mexico State University Kevin Yokoyama, College of the Redwoods

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 16 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 Preface xvii

Over the years we have come to rely on an extensive team of experienced professionals at
Pearson: Anne Kelly, Chelsea Kharakozova, Kathy Manley, Ashley Gordon, Joe Vetere,
Peggy Lucas, Stacey Sveum, Megan Burns, and Marielle Guiney. Thank you to everyone.
We thank Jessica Rockswold, who provided invaluable support and assistance
throughout all phases of writing and production. Terry Krieger deserves special rec-
ognition for his work with the answers and accuracy checking. Thanks are also due
Carol Merrigan for her valuable help as project manager. Finally, we thank Paul
­Lorczak, Hal Whipple, Dave Atwood, Jack Hornsby, and Mark Rockswold for check-
ing answers and page proofs. As an author team, we are committed to providing the
best possible text to help instructors teach effectively and help students succeed.
John Hornsby
Gary Rockswold

A01_LIAL8236_07_AIE_FM_i-xx.indd 17 27/11/17 3:33 PM

 xviii

MyLab™ Math Online Course for A Graphical

Approach to Precalculus with Limits: A Unit
Circle Approach 7th edition by Hornsby, Lial,
and Rockswold (access code required)
MyLab Math is available to accompany Pearson’s market-leading text offer-
ings. To give students a consistent tone, voice, and teaching method, each text’s
flavor and approach is tightly integrated throughout the accompanying MyLab
Math course, making learning the material as seamless as possible.

Visualization and Conceptual Understanding

New! Unifying Functions
feature appears after the introduction of
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It provides a concise summary of the
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Related Application.

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 xix

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 xx

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Instructor Resources with this text, includes a thoughtful mix of question
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Instructor’s Solutions Manual
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By David Atwood, Rochester Community and Techni-
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cal College
This manual provides complete solutions to all text
exercises.

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This manual provides detailed solutions to odd-
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The PowerPoint lecture slides feature presentations as well as to all Relating Concepts, Reviewing Basic
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Video Program
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 1
Linear Functions, Equations,
and Inequalities
A map is an example of a plane
in which points can be located
with rectangular coordinates,
such as those provided by the
Global Positioning System (GPS).
Two cities can be represented by
points on the map, and the short-
est distance between them is
the measure of the line segment
joining them. (This is the source
of the saying “as the crow flies. ”)
The segment is a portion of the
unique straight line on which the
points lie. These and other con-
cepts associated with lines are
fundamental to the study of lin-
ear functions, the ­subject of this
chapter.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

1.1 Real Numbers and the

Rectangular Coordinate
System

1.2 Introduction to
Relations and Functions

1.3 Linear Functions

1.4 Equations of Lines and

Linear Models

1.5 Linear Equations and

Inequalities

1.6 Applications of Linear

Functions

M01_LIAL9328_07_AIE_C01_001-087.indd 1 25/07/17 2:31 PM

 2 CHAPTER 1 Linear Functions, Equations, and Inequalities

1.1 Real Numbers and the Rectangular Coordinate System

Sets of Real Numbers • The Rectangular Coordinate System • Viewing Windows • Approximations of Real Numbers • Distance and
Midpoint Formulas

Sets of Real Numbers

In the first two chapters of this text, we study real numbers. Real numbers are those
that can be represented by points on a number line and can be expressed as decimal
numerals. There are several important sets of numbers included within the real n­ umber
system. We use set notation to describe them. The elements of the set are either listed
or described using set-builder notation.

NOTE Set-builder notation is used in the following table in the final three sets
described. We read the description for rational numbers as “the set of all p divided
by q such that p and q are integers and q is not equal to 0. ”

Sets of Numbers
Set Description Examples
Natural Numbers 51, 2, 3, 4, c6 1, 45, 127, 103
Whole Numbers 50, 1, 2, 3, 4, c6 0, 86, 345, 23
Integers 5 c, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, c6 0, - 5, - 102, 99

Rational Numbers 5 pq 0 p and q are integers, q ≠ 0 6 5

0, - 6 , - 2,
22
7
, 0.5
3
Irrational Numbers 5x  x is not rational6 22, p, - 27
2
Real Numbers 5x  x is a decimal number6 - 26, p, 3 , 245, 0.41

Origin Whole numbers consist of the natural numbers and 0. Integers consist of the
whole numbers and the negatives of the natural numbers. The result of dividing two
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
integers (with a nonzero divisor) is a rational number, or fraction. Rational numbers
Real number line with the origin plotted include the integers. For example, the integer - 3 is a rational number because it can
-3
FIGURE 1 be written as 1 . Every rational number can be written as a repeating or terminating
2
decimal. For example, 0.6 = 0.66666 crepresents the rational number 3 .
Real numbers consist of both rational and irrational numbers and can be shown
pictorially—that is, graphed—on a number line. The point on a number line corre-
sponding to 0 is called the origin. See FIGURE 1. Numbers that lie to the right of 0 are
positive numbers, and those that lie to the left of 0 are negative numbers. The number
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 is neither positive nor negative.
Graph of the set of real numbers
Every real number corresponds to one and only one point on the number line,
FIGURE 2
and each point corresponds to one and only one real number. This correspondence is
called a coordinate system. The number associated with a given point is called the
coordinate of the point. The set of all real numbers is graphed in FIGURE 2.
Irrational numbers cannot be represented by quotients of integers or by repeating
3
or terminating decimals. Examples of irrational numbers include 23, 25, 2 10, and
2 5
–
3 2 5 220. If a is a natural number but 2a is not a natural number, then 2a is an irrational
–1 0 1 2 3 4 number. Another irrational number is p, which is approximately equal to 3.14159. In
FIGURE 3 the irrational and rational numbers in the set 5 - , 0, 22, 25, p, 4 6 are
2 2
Graph of –
3, 0, 2, 5, 4 3
FIGURE 3 located on a number line.

M01_LIAL9328_07_AIE_C01_001-087.indd 2 17/10/17 10:24 AM

 1.1 Real Numbers and the Rectangular Coordinate System 3

y-axis
The Rectangular Coordinate System
Quadrant Quadrant Two number lines at right angles, intersecting at their origins, form a two-dimensional
II I rectangular coordinate system. This rectangular coordinate system is also called the
P(a, b) b
Cartesian coordinate system, named for René Descartes (1596–1650). The number
x-axis
a 0 Origin lines intersect at the origin of the system, designated 0. The horizontal number line is
called the x-axis, and the vertical number line is called the y-axis. On the x-axis, posi-
Quadrant Quadrant
III IV tive numbers are located to the right of the origin, with negative numbers to the left. On
the y-axis, positive numbers are located above the origin, with negative numbers below.
Rectangular coordinate The plane into which the coordinate system is introduced is the coordinate plane,
system
or xy-plane. The x-axis and y-axis divide the plane into four regions, or quadrants, as
FIGURE 4
shown in FIGURE 4. The points on the x-axis or y-axis belong to no quadrant.
y Each point P in the xy-plane corresponds to a unique ordered pair (a, b) of real
numbers. We call a the x-coordinate and b the y-coordinate of point P. The point
B(–5, 6) A(3, 4) P corresponding to the ordered pair (a, b) is often written as P(a, b), as in FIGURE 4,
and referred to as “the point (a, b).” FIGURE 5 illustrates how to plot the point A(3, 4).
4 Additional points are labeled B–E. The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
x
0 3
E(–3, 0)
Viewing Windows
D(4, – 3)
C(–2, – 4)
The rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system extends indefinitely in all directions.
We can show only a portion of such a system in a text figure. Similar limitations occur
Plotting points in the xy-plane
with the viewing “window” on a calculator screen. FIGURE 6 shows a calculator screen
FIGURE 5
that has been set to have a minimum x-value of - 10, a maximum x-value of 10, a
minimum y-value of - 10, and a maximum y-value of 10. The tick marks on the axes
have been set to be 1 unit apart. This is the standard viewing window.
10
To convey information about a viewing window, we use the following
abbreviations.
210 10 Xmin: minimum value of x Ymin: minimum value of y
Xmax: maximum value of x Ymax: maximum value of y
210
Xscl: scale (distance between Yscl: scale (distance between
tick marks) on the x-axis tick marks) on the y-axis
Standard viewing window
FIGURE 6
To further condense this information, we use the following symbolism, which gives
viewing information for the window in FIGURE 6.
Xmin Xmax Ymin Ymax

3 - 10, 104 by 3 - 10, 104

Xscl = 1    Yscl = 1
FIGURE 7 shows several other viewing windows. Notice that FIGURES 7(b) and 7(c)
look exactly alike, and unless we know what the settings are, we have no way of dis-
TECHNOLOGY NOTE
tinguishing between them. In FIGURE 7(b) Xscl = 2.5, while in FIGURE 7(c) Xscl = 25.
The same is true for Yscl in both.
In this text we use screen
captures from the TI-84 Plus C.
You should consult your owner’s 4.1 10 100

guide to see how to set the

viewing window on your screen.
26.6 6.6 210 10 2100 100
Remember that different settings
will result in different views of
graphs.
24.1
   210
   2100

3 - 6.6, 6.6 4 by 3 - 4.1, 4.1 4 3 - 10, 10 4 by 3 - 10, 10 4 3- 100, 100 4 by 3- 100, 100 4
Decimal viewing window
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7

M01_LIAL9328_07_AIE_C01_001-087.indd 3 12/08/17 2:57 PM

 4 CHAPTER 1 Linear Functions, Equations, and Inequalities

WHAT WENT WRONG?

A student learning how to use a graphing calculator could not understand why the
tick marks on the graph were so close together, as seen in FIGURE A, while those
on a friend’s calculator were not, as seen in FIGURE B.

40 40

260 60 260 60

240 240

Xscl = 1, Yscl = 1 Xscl = 10, Yscl = 10

FIGURE A FIGURE B

What Went Wrong? How can the student correct the problem in FIGURE A so
that the axes look like those in FIGURE B?

Approximations of Real Numbers

3
Although calculators have the capability to express numbers like 22, 2 5, and p to
many decimal places, we often require that answers be rounded. The following table
reviews rounding numbers to the nearest tenth, hundredth, or thousandth.

TI-84 Plus C Rounding Numbers

FIGURE 8
Number Nearest Tenth Nearest Hundredth Nearest Thousandth
  1.3782   1.4   1.38   1.378
201.6666 201.7 201.67 201.667
  0.0819   0.1   0.08   0.082

FIGURE 9
In FIGURE 8, the TI-84 Plus C graphing calculator is set to round values to the near-
est hundredth (two decimal places). In FIGURE 9, the numbers from the preceding table
are rounded to the nearest hundredth.
The symbol ≈ indicates that two expressions are approximately equal. For
example, p ? 3.14, but p 3 3.14 because p = 3.141592653. cWhen using p
in calculations, be sure to use the built-in key for p rather than 3.14. See FIGURE 10.

FIGURE 10 Answer to What Went Wrong?

Because Xscl = 1 and Yscl = 1 in FIGURE A, there are 120 tick marks along the x-axis and 80 tick marks along
the y-axis. The resolution of the graphing calculator screen is such that these tick marks are nearly indistinguish-
able. The values for Xscl and Yscl need to be larger, equal to 10, as in FIGURE B.

M01_LIAL9328_07_AIE_C01_001-087.indd 4 28/07/17 3:31 PM

 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
course, and the wind is very fresh, clew down and clew up, and reef
as before directed.

All the reefs are taken in the same way except the close reef. In
close reefing, pass your earing under the yard, up abaft and over,
and down through the cringle. Pass all your turns in the same
manner; and bring the reef-band well under the yard in knotting, so
as to cover the other reefs.

As soon as the men are off the yard, let go the reef-tackles,
clewlines, buntlines, and topgallant sheets; man the halyards, let go
the lee brace, slack off the weather one, and hoist away. When well
up, trim the yard by the braces, and haul out the bowlines. A reefed
sail should never be braced quite sharp up, and if there is a heavy
sea and the vessel pitches badly, ease the braces a little, that the
yard may play freely, and do not haul the leech too taut.

To reef a Course.—As a course generally has no reef-tackle, you must

clew it up as for furling, according to the directions before given,
except that the clews are not hauled chock up. Lay out on the yard
and haul out the earings, and knot the points as for the first reef of
a topsail, seeing them clear of the topsail sheets. If a long course of
bad weather is anticipated, as in doubling the southern capes, or
crossing the Atlantic in winter, reef-tackles are rove for the courses.

If there are any studdingsail booms on the lower or topsail yards,

they must be triced up before reefing.

To turn out Reefs.—For a topsail, haul taut the reef-tackles and

buntlines, settle a little on the halyards, if necessary; lay aloft, and
cast off all the reef-points, beginning at the bunt and laying out. Be
careful to cast all off before slacking up the earing; for, when there is
more than one reef, a point may be easily left, if care is not taken.
Have one hand at each earing, cast off all the turns but enough to
hold it, and when both earings are ready, ease off both together.
Pass the end of the earing through the cringle next above its own,
and make it fast slack to its own part by a bowline knot. Lay in off
the yard, let go reef-tackles, clewlines, buntlines, and topgallant
sheets; overhaul them in the top and hoist away, slacking the braces
and trimming the yard. The reefs of a course are turned out a good
deal in the same manner; slacking up the sheet and tack, if
necessary, and, when the earings are cast off, let go clew-garnets,
buntlines and leechlines, board the tack, and haul aft the sheet.

To set a Topgallant Studdingsail.—This sail is always set from the top;

the sail, together with the tack and halyards in two coils, being kept
in the top. If there is but one hand aloft, take the end of the
halyards aloft, abaft everything, and reeve it up through the block at
the topgallant mast-head, and down through the sheave-hole or
block at the topgallant yard-arm, abaft the sheet, and bring it into
the top, forward of the rigging, and make it fast to the forward
shroud. Take the end of your tack out on the topsail yard, under the
brace, reeve it up through the block at the end of the topgallant
studdingsail boom, bring it in over the brace, overhauling a plenty of
it so as to let the boom go out, and hitch it to the topmast rigging
while you rig your boom out. Cast off the heel-lashing and rig your
boom out to the mark, slue the boom with the block up and make
fast round the yard. (The easiest way of passing the boom-lashing is
to take it over the yard and put a bight up between the head-rope
and yard; then take the end back over the yard and boom and
through the bight, and haul taut. This may be done twice, if
necessary, and then hitch it round all parts, between the boom and
the yard.) The boom being rigged out and fast, take the end of your
tack down into the top and hitch it to the forward shroud. Then take
the coil of the tack and throw the other end down on deck, outside
of the rigging and backstays. (It is well, in throwing the coil down, to
keep hold of the bight with one hand, for otherwise, if they should
miss it on deck, you will have to rig in your boom.) Throw down the
hauling end of your halyards abaft and inside everything. Now get
your sail clear for sending out. Lay the yard across the top, forward
of the rigging, with the outer end out. Bend your halyards to the
yard by a fisherman's bend, about one third of the way out. Take
your tack under the yard and bend it by a sheet-bend to the outer
clew, and pay down the sheet and downhaul through the lubber-
hole. All being clear for hoisting, sway away on the halyards on
deck, the men in the top guying the sail by the sheet and downhaul,
the latter being hauled taut enough to keep the outer clew up to the
inner yard-arm. (Sometimes it is well to make up the downhaul as is
done with the downhaul of the topmast studdingsail.) When the sail
is above the brace, haul out on the tack, sway the yard chock up by
the halyards, and trim the sheet down. Make the end of the
downhaul fast slack.

A weather topgallant or topmast studdingsail should be set abaft the

sail, and a lee one forward of the sail. Therefore, in setting a lee
topgallant studdingsail, it is well to send it out of the top with a turn
in it, that is, with the inner yard-arm slued forward and out, so that
when the tack and sheet are hauled upon, the inner yard-arm will
swing forward of the topgallant sail. [4]

Small sized vessels have no downhaul to the topgallant

studdingsails. This saves confusion, and is very well if the sail is
small.

To take in a Topgallant Studdingsail.—Let go the tack and clew up the

downhaul, dipping the yard abaft the leech of the topgallant sail, if it
is forward. Lower away handsomely on the halyards, hauling down
on the sheet and downhaul. When the yard is below the topsail
brace, lower roundly and haul into the top, forward of the rigging.

If the sail is taken in temporarily, stand the yard up and down and
becket it to the middle topmast shroud; make the sail up, hitch the
bight of the tack and halyards to the forward shroud, and haul up
the sheet and downhaul. If everything is to be stowed away,
unreeve the tack and halyards, and coil them away separately in the
top; also coil away the sheets and downhaul, and stop all the coils
down by hitches passed through the slats of the top. Rig the boom
in and make it fast to the tye. Sometimes the halyards are unrove
from the yard-arm and rounded up to the span-block, with a knot in
their end.

To set a Topmast Studdingsail.—The topmast studdingsail halyards are

generally kept coiled away in the top. Take the end up, reeve it up
through the span-block at the cap, and out through the block at the
topsail yard-arm, and pay the end down to the forecastle, forward of
the yard and outside the bowline. Pay the hauling end down through
the lubber-hole. Reeve your lower halyards. These are usually kept
coiled away in the top, with the pennant, which hooks to the cap of
the lower mast. Hook the pennant, reeve the halyards up through
the pennant block, out through the block on the boom-end, and pay
the end down to the forecastle. Pay the hauling end down forward of
the top. (Some vessels keep their top-mast studdingsail tacks coiled
away at the yard-arm, and hitched down to the boom and yard. This
is a clumsy practice, and saves no time or trouble. The best way is
to unreeve them whenever the boom is to be rigged in, and coil
them away in the bow of the long-boat, or elsewhere. There is no
more trouble, and less liability to confusion, in reeving them afresh,
than in coiling them away and clearing again on the yard-arms.)
Carry your tack outside the backstays and lower rigging, clear of
everything, out upon the lower yard under the brace; reeve it
forward through the tack-block at the boom-end, first sluing the
block up, and pay the end down forward of the yard. Rig the boom
out to the mark and lash it. Get the studdingsail on the forecastle
clear for setting. Bend the halyards to the yard, about one half of the
way out. Hitch the end of the downhaul over the inner yard-arm by
the eye in its end, reeve it through the lizard on the outer leech, and
through the block at the outer clew abaft the sail. Bend the tack to
the outer clew, and take a turn with the sheet. Clew the yard down
by the downhaul, and make the downhaul up just clear of the block,
by a catspaw doubled and the bight of the running part shoved
through the bight of all the parts, so that hauling on it may clear it
and let the yard go up. Hoist on the halyards until the sail is above
the lower yard, guying it by the sheet and downhaul, then haul out
on the tack until the clew is chock out to the boom-end, hoist on the
halyards, jerking the downhaul clear, and trim down the sheet.

To take in a Topmast Studdingsail.—Lower away handsomely on the

halyards, clewing the yard down to the outer clew by the downhaul.
Slack up the tack, and lower away on the halyards, hauling down
well on the sheet and downhaul, till the sail is in upon the forecastle.
The sail may be made up on the forecastle, and the end of the tack
and halyards made fast forward, if it is to be soon set again. If not,
cast off all, unreeve your tack, hauling from aft, and coil it away.
Unreeve the halyards, or round them up to the block at the mast-
head with a knot in their end. Rig the boom in, and lash it to the
slings.

To set a lower Studdingsail.—Before rigging out the top-mast

studdingsail boom, the lower halyards should always be rove, as
before directed. Reeve the inner halyards out through a small single
block under the slings of the lower yard, and through another about
two thirds of the way out, and pay the end down upon the forecastle
for bending. Get the studdingsail clear, bend the outer halyards to
the yard, and the inner halyards to the inner cringle at the head of
the sail. Reeve the outhaul through the block at the swinging-boom-
end, and bend the forward end to the outer clew of the sail. Hook
the topping-lift and forward guy to the boom, and top up on it. Haul
on the forward guy, and ease off the after one, slacking away a little
on the topping-lift, until the boom is trimmed by the lower yard;
then make fast the guys and lift. Haul well taut the fore lift and
brace, and belay. Take a turn with one sheet, hoist away on the
outer halyards, and when about one third up, clear the downhaul,
haul chock out on the outhaul, and hoist well up by the halyards,
which will serve as a lift to the topmast studdingsail boom; and then
set taut on the inner halyards and trim down the sheet. The practice
now is, and it is found most convenient, to set the sail before rigging
out the boom; then clap on the outhaul and forward guy, and trim
the boom by the lower yard.

To take in a lower Studdingsail.—Let go the outhaul, and haul on the

clewline till the outer clew is up to the yard. Then lower away the
outer halyards, and haul in on the sheet and clewline. When the sail
is in over the rail, lower away the inner halyards. If the booms are to
be rigged in, cast off all the gear; making the bending end of the
outhaul fast in-board, and unreeving the outer and inner halyards, or
running the outer up to the pennant block, and the inner up to the
yard block, with knots in their ends. Ease off the forward guy with a
turn, haul in on the after guy, topping well up by the lift, and get the
boom alongside. Rig in the topmast studdingsail boom before
unreeving the outer halyards. It is a convenient practice, when the
swinging boom is alongside, to hook the topping-lift to a becket or
thimble at the turning in of the fore swifter, and the forward guy to a
strap and thimble on the spritsail yard.

In strong winds it is well to have a boom-brace-pennant fitted to the

topmast studdingsail boom-end with a single block, making a whip
purchase, the hauling part leading to the gangway, and belaying at
the same pin with the tack; or else, the brace may lead to the
gangway, and the tack be brought in through blocks on the yard,
and lead down on deck, beside the mast. The former mode is more
usual.

The topmast studdingsail is sometimes made with a reef in it, to be

carried with a single reefed topsail; in which case it is reefed on deck
to the yard and sent out as before.
 CHAPTER X.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF WORKING A SHIP.

Action of the water upon the rudder. Headway. Sternway. Action of the wind upon
the sails. Head-sails. After-sails. Centre of gravity or rotation. Turning a ship
to or from the wind.

A ship is acted upon principally by the rudder and sails. When the
rudder is fore-and-aft, that is, on a line with the keel, the water runs
by it, and it has no effect upon the ship's direction. When it is
changed from a right line to one side or the other, the water strikes
against it, and forces the stern in an opposite direction. For instance,
if the helm is put to the starboard, the rudder is put off the line of
the keel, to port. This sends the stern off to the starboard, and, of
course, the ship turning on her centre of gravity, her head goes in an
opposite direction, to port. If the helm is put to port, the reverse will
follow, and the ship's head will turn off her course to starboard.
Therefore the helm is always put in the opposite direction from that
in which the ship's head is to be moved.

Moving the rudder from a right line has the effect of deadening the
ship's way more or less, according as it is put at a greater or less
angle with the keel. A ship should therefore be so balanced by her
sails that a slight change of her helm may answer the purpose.

If a vessel is going astern, and the rudder is turned off from the line
of the keel, the water, striking against the back of the rudder, pushes
the stern off in the same direction in which the rudder is turned. For
instance, if sternway is on her, and the helm is put to the starboard,
the rudder turns to port, the water forces the stern in the same
direction, and the ship's head goes off to the starboard. Therefore,
when sternway is on a vessel, put the helm in the same direction in
which the head is to be turned.

A current or tide running astern, that is, when the ship's head is
toward it, will have the same effect on the rudder as if the ship were
going ahead; and when it runs forward, it will be the same as
though the ship were going astern.

It will now be well to show how the sails act upon a ship, with
reference to her centre of rotation. Suppose a vessel to be rigged
with three sails, one in the forward part, one at the centre, and the
third at the after part, and her left or larboard side to be presented
to the wind, which we will suppose to be abeam, or at right angles
with the keel. If the head sail only were set, the effect would be that
the wind would send the vessel a little ahead and off to the
starboard on her centre of rotation, so as to bring her stern slowly
round to the wind. If the after sail only were set, the vessel would
shoot ahead a little, her stern would go off to the starboard and her
head come up into the wind. If only the centre sail were set, the
effect would be the same as if all three of the sails were set, and she
would go ahead in a straight line. So far, we have supposed the sails
to be set full; that is, with their tacks forward and their sheets aft. If
they were all set aback, the vessel would go astern nearly, if the
rudder were kept steady, in a straight line. If the head sail only is set
and aback, she will go astern and round upon her axis, with her
head from the wind, much quicker than if full. So, if the after sail
alone were set and aback, she would go astern, and her head would
come suddenly into the wind.

These principles of the wind acting upon the sails, and the water
upon the rudder, are the foundation of the whole science of working
a ship. In large vessels the sails are numerous, but they may all be
reduced to three classes, viz., head sails, or those which are forward
of the centre of gravity or rotation, having a tendency to send the
ship's head off from the wind; after sails, or those abaft the centre
of rotation, and which send the stern off and the head toward the
wind; and lastly, centre sails, which act equally on each side the
centre of rotation, and do not turn the ship off her course one way
or the other. These classes of sails, if set aback, tend to stop the
headway and send the ship astern, and also to turn her off her
course in the same direction as when set full, but with more rapidity.
The further a sail is from the centre of rotation, the greater is its
tendency to send the ship off from the line of her keel. Accordingly,
a jib is the strongest head sail, and a spanker the strongest after
sail.

The centre of rotation is not necessarily at the centre of the ship. On

the contrary, as vessels are now built, it may not be much abaft that
part of the deck to which the main tack is boarded. For the main
breadth, or dead-flat, being there, the greatest cavity will also be
there, and of course the principal weight of the cargo should centre
there, as being the strongest part. Therefore the centre of rotation
will greatly depend upon proper stowage. If the ship is much by the
stern, the centre of rotation will be carried aft, and if by the head, it
will be carried forward. The cause of this is, that when loaded down
by the stern, her after sails have but little effect to move her stern
against the water, and a very slight action upon the forward sails will
send her head off to leeward, as she is there light and high in the
air. Accordingly, to keep her in a straight line, the press of sail is
required to be further aft, or, in other words, the centre of rotation is
further aft. If a ship is loaded down by the head, the opposite results
follow, and more head and less after sail is necessary.

A ship should be so stowed, and have her sails so trimmed, that she
may be balanced as much as possible, and not be obliged to carry
her helm much off the line of her keel, which tends to deaden her
way. If a ship is stowed in her best sailing trim, and it is found, when
on a wind, that her head tends to windward, obliging her to carry a
strong weather helm, it may be remedied by taking in some after
sail, or adding head sail. So, if she carries a lee helm, that is, if her
head tends to fly off from the wind, it is remedied by taking in head
or adding after sail. Sometimes a ship is made to carry a weather
helm by having too much head sail set aloft. For, if she lies much
over on a wind, the square sails forward have a tendency to press
her downwards and raise her proportionally abaft, so that she meets
great resistance from the water to leeward under her bows, while
her stern, being light, is easily carried off; which, of course, requires
her to carry a weather helm.

The general rules, then, for turning a ship, are these: to bring her
head to the wind,—put the helm to leeward, and bring the wind to
act as much as possible on the after sails, and as little as possible on
the head sails. This may be done without taking in any sail, by
letting go the head sheets, so that those sails may lose their wind,
and by pointing the head yards to the wind, so as to keep the head
sails shaking. At the same time keep the after sails full, and flatten
in the spanker sheet; or, if this is not sufficient, the after sails may
be braced aback, which will send the stern off and the head to
windward. But as this makes back sails of them, and tends to send
the vessel astern, there should be either head or centre sails enough
filled to counteract this and keep headway upon her. On the other
hand, to turn the head off from the wind, put the helm to windward,
shiver the after sails, and flatten in the head sheets. Brace the head
yards aback if necessary, being careful not to let her lose headway if
it can be avoided.

The vessel may be assisted very much in going off or coming to, by
setting or taking in the jib and spanker; which, if the latter is fitted
with brails, are easily handled.
 CHAPTER XI.

TACKING, WEARING, BOXING, &C.

Tacking without fore-reaching. Tacking against a heavy sea. Hauling off all. To trim
the yards. Flattening in. Missing stays. Wearing—under courses—under a
mainsail—under bare poles. Box-hauling—short round. Club-hauling. Drifting
in a tide-way. Backing and filling in do. Clubbing in do.

Tacking.—Have the ship so suited with sails that she may steer
herself as nearly as possible, and come to with a small helm. Keep
her a good full, so that she may have plenty of headway. Ready,
About! Send all hands to their stations. The chief mate and one,
two, or more of the best men, according to the size of the vessel, on
the forecastle, to work the head sheets and bowlines and the fore
tack; two or more good men (one usually a petty officer, or an older
and trusty seaman) to work the main tack and bowline. The second
mate sees the lee fore and main braces clear and ready for letting
go, and stands by to let go the lee main braces, which may all be
belayed to one pin. Put one hand to let go the weather cross-jack
braces, and others to haul in to leeward; the cook works the fore
sheet, and the steward the main; station one or more at the spanker
sheet and guys; and the rest at the weather main braces.

Ease the helm down gradually; Helm's a-lee! and let go the jib sheet
and fore sheets. As soon as the wind is parallel with the yards,
blowing directly upon the leeches of the square sails, so that all is
shaking, Raise tacks and sheets! and let go the fore and main tacks
and main sheet, keeping the fore and main bowline fast. As soon as
her head is within a point or a point and a half of the wind, Mainsail
haul! let go the lee main and weather cross-jack braces, and swing
the after yards round. While she is head to the wind, and the after
sails are becalmed by the head sails, get the main tack down and
sheet aft, and right your helm, using it afterwards as her coming to
or falling off requires. As soon as she passes the direction of the
wind, shift your jib sheets over the stays, and when the after sails
take full, or when she brings the wind four points on the other bow,
and you are sure of paying off sufficiently, Let go and haul! brace
round the head yards briskly, down fore tack and aft the sheet,
brace sharp up and haul your bowlines out, and trim down your
head sheets.

It is best to haul the mainsail just before you get the wind right
ahead, for then the wind, striking the weather leeches of the after
sails, forces them round almost without the braces, and you will
have time to brace up and get your tack down and sheet aft, when
she has payed off on the other side.

If she falls off too rapidly while swinging your head yards, so as to
bring the wind abeam or abaft, 'Vast bracing! Ease off head sheets
and put your helm a-lee; and as she comes up, meet her and brace
sharp up. If, on the other hand, (as sometimes happens with vessels
which carry a strong weather helm,) she does not fall off after the
after sails take, be careful not to haul your head yards until she is
fully round; and if she should fly up into the wind, let go the main
sheet, and, if necessary, brail up the spanker and shiver the cross-
jack yards.

In staying, be careful to right your helm before she loses headway.

To tack without Fore-reaching, as in a narrow channel, when you are

afraid to keep headway. If she comes slowly up to windward, haul
down the jib and get your spanker-boom well over to windward. As
you raise tacks and sheets, let go the lee fore topsail brace, being
careful to brace up again as soon as she takes aback. Also, hoist the
jib, and trim down, if necessary, as soon as she takes on the other
side.
Tacking against a heavy Head Sea.—You are under short sail, there is a
heavy head sea, and you doubt whether she will stay against it. Haul
down the fore topmast staysail, ease down the helm, and raise fore
sheet. When within about a point of the wind's eye, let go main tack
and sheet, lee braces and after bowlines, and Mainsail haul! If she
loses her headway at this time, shift your helm. As soon as she
brings the wind on the other bow, she will fall off rapidly by reason
of her sternway, therefore shift your helm again to meet her, and Let
go and haul! at once. Brace about the head yards, but keep the
weather braces in, to moderate her falling off. When she gets
headway, right the helm, and as she comes up to the wind, brace up
and haul aft.

Tacking by hauling off all.—This can be done only in a smooth sea,

with a light working breeze, a smart vessel and strong crew. Man all
the braces. Let her come up head to the wind, and fall off on the
other tack, shifting the helm if she gathers sternway. When you get
the wind about five points on the other bow, Haul off all! let go all
the braces and bowlines and swing all the yards at once. Right the
helm, board tacks and haul aft sheets, brace up and haul out.

To trim the Yards when close-hauled.—In smooth water, with a light

breeze, brace the lower yards sharp up, and trim the upper yards
each a trifle in abaft the one below it. If you have a pretty stiff
breeze, brace the topsail yard in about half a point more than the
lower yard, and the topgallant yard half a point more than the
topsail yard, and so on. If you have a strong breeze and a topping
sea, and especially if reduced to short sail, brace in your lower yards
a little, and the others proportionally. This will prevent the vessel
going off bodily to leeward; and if she labors heavily, the play of the
mast would otherwise carry away the braces and sheets, or spring
the yards.

Missing Stays.—If after getting head to the wind she comes to a

stand and begins to fall off before you have hauled your main yard,
flatten in your jib sheets, board fore tack, and haul aft fore sheet;
also ease off spanker sheet, or brail up the spanker, if necessary.
When she is full again, trim the jib and spanker sheets, and when
she has recovered sufficient headway, try it again. If, after coming
head to the wind, and after the after yards are swung, she loses
headway and refuses to go round, or begins to fall off on the same
tack on which she was before, and you have shifted the helm
without effect, haul up the mainsail and spanker, square the after
yards, shift your helm again a-lee, so as to assist her in falling off,
and brace round the head yards so as to box her off. As she fills on
her former tack, brace up the after yards, brace round the head
yards, sharp up all, board tacks, haul out and haul aft.

Wearing.—Haul up the mainsail and spanker, put the helm up, and,
as she goes off, brace in the after yards. If there is a light breeze,
the rule is to keep the mizzen topsail lifting, and the main topsail
full. This will keep sufficient headway on her, and at the same time
enable her to fall off. But if you have a good breeze and she goes off
fast, keep both the main and mizzen topsails lifting. As she goes
round, bringing the wind on her quarter and aft, follow the wind
with your after yards, keeping the mizzen topsail lifting, and the
main either lifting or full, as is best. After a vessel has fallen off
much, the less headway she has the better, provided she has
enough to give her steerage. When you have the wind aft, raise fore
tack and sheet, square in the head yards, and haul down the jib. As
she brings the wind on the other quarter, brace sharp up the after
yards, haul out the spanker, and set the mainsail. As she comes to
on the other tack, brace up the head yards, keeping the sails full,
board fore tack and aft the sheet, hoist the jib, and meet her with
the helm.

To wear under Courses.—Square the cross-jack yards, ease off main

bowline and tack, and haul up the weather clew of the mainsail.
Ease off the main sheet, and haul up the lee clew, and the buntlines
and leechlines. Square the main yards and put the helm a-weather.
As she falls off, let go the fore bowline, ease off the fore sheet, and
brace in the fore yard. When she gets before the wind, board the
fore and main tacks on the other side, and haul aft the main sheet,
but keep the weather braces in. As she comes to on the other side,
ease the helm, trim down the fore sheet, brace up and haul out.

To wear under a Mainsail.—Vessels lying-to under this sail generally

wear by hoisting the fore topmast staysail, or some other head sail.
If this cannot be done, brace the cross-jack yards to the wind, and,
if necessary, send down the mizzen topmast and the cross-jack yard.
Brace the head yards full. Take an opportunity when she has
headway, and will fall off, to put the helm up. Ease off the main
sheet, and, as she falls off, brace in the main yard a little. When the
wind is abaft the beam, raise the main tack. When she is dead
before it, get the other main tack down as far as possible; and when
she has the wind on the other quarter, ease the helm, haul aft the
sheet, and brace up.

To wear under bare Poles.—Some vessels, which are well down by the
stern, will wear in this situation, by merely pointing the after yards
to the wind, or sending down the mizzen topmast and the cross-jack
yard, and filling the head yards; but vessels in good trim will not do
this. To assist the vessel, veer a good scope of hawser out of the lee
quarter, with a buoy, or something for a stop-water, attached to the
end. As the ship sags off to leeward, the buoy will be to windward,
and will tend to bring the stern round to the wind. When she is
before it, haul the hawser aboard.

Box-hauling.—Put the helm down, light up the head sheets and slack
the lee braces, to deaden her way. As she comes to the wind, raise
tacks and sheets, and haul up the mainsail and spanker. As soon as
she comes head to the wind and loses her headway, square the after
yards, brace the head yards sharp aback, and flatten in the head
sheets. The helm, being put down to bring her up, will now pay her
off, as she has sternway on. As she goes off, keep the after sails
lifting, and square in the head yards. As soon as the sails on the
foremast give her headway, shift the helm. When she gets the wind
on the other quarter, haul down the jib, haul out the spanker, set the
mainsail, and brace the after yards sharp up. As she comes to on the
other tack, brace up the head yards, meet her with the helm, and
set the jib.

Box-hauling short round; sometimes called wearing short round.—

Haul up the mainsail and spanker, put the helm hard a-weather,
square the after yards, brace the head yards sharp aback, and
flatten in the head sheets. As she gathers sternway, shift the helm.
After this, proceed as in box-hauling by the former method. The first
mode is preferable when you wish to stop headway as soon as
possible; as a vessel under good way will range ahead some
distance after the sails are all thrown flat aback.

Few merchant vessels are strongly enough manned to perform these

evolutions; but they are often of service, as they turn a vessel round
quicker on her heel, and will stop her from fore-reaching when near
in shore or when close aboard another vessel.

Club-hauling.—This method of going about is resorted to when on a

lee shore, and the vessel can neither be tacked nor box-hauled.
Cock-bill your lee anchor, get a hawser on it for a spring, and lead it
to the lee quarter; range your cable, and unshackle it abaft the
windlass. Helm's a-lee! and Raise tacks and sheets! as for going in
stays. The moment she loses headway, let go the anchor and
Mainsail haul! As soon as the anchor brings her head to the wind, let
the chain cable go, holding on to the spring; and when the after
sails take full, cast off or cut the spring, and Let go and haul!

Drifting in a Tide-way.—As a vessel is deeper aft than forward, her

stern will always tend to drift faster than her head. If the current is
setting out of a river or harbor, and the wind the opposite way, or
only partly across the current, you may work out by tacking from
shore to shore; or you may let her drift out, broadside to the
current; or, keeping her head to the current by sufficient sail, you
may let her drift out stern first; or, lastly, you may club her down. If
the wind is partly across the current, cast to windward. If you work
down by tacking, and the wind is at all across the current, be careful
of the lee shore, and stay in season, since, if you miss stays, you
may not be able to save yourself by wearing or box-hauling, as you
might on the weather shore. If the channel is very narrow, or there
are many vessels at anchor, the safest way is to bring her head to
the current, brace the yards full, and keep only sail enough to give
her steerage, that you may sheer from side to side. If there is room
enough, you will drift more rapidly by bringing her broadside to the
current, keeping the topsails shaking, and counteract the force of
the current upon the stern by having the spanker full and the helm
a-lee. You can at any time shoot her ahead, back her astern, or
bring her head to the current, by filling the head yards, taking in the
spanker, and setting the jib; filling the after yards, taking in the jib,
and setting the spanker; or by bracing all aback.

Backing and filling in a Tide-way.—Counter-brace your yards as in

lying-to, and drift down broadside to the current. Fill away and shoot
ahead, or throw all aback and force her astern, as occasion may
require. When you approach the shore on either side, fill away till
she gets sufficient headway, and put her in stays or wear her round.

Clubbing in a Tide-way.—Drift down with your anchor under your foot,

heaving in or paying out on your cable as you wish to increase or
deaden her way. Have a spring on your cable, so as to present a
broadside to the current. This method is a troublesome and
dangerous one, and rarely resorted to. An anchor will seldom drag
clear, through the whole operation.
 CHAPTER XII.

GALES OF WIND, LYING-TO, GETTING ABACK, BY THE LEE, &C.

Lying-to.—choice of sails. Scudding. Heave-to after scudding. Taken aback.

Chappelling. Broaching-to. By the lee.

Lying-to.—The best single sail to lie-to under, is generally thought to

be a close-reefed maintopsail. The fore or the main spencer (sails
which are used very much now instead of main and mizzen staysails)
may be used to advantage, according as a ship requires sail more
before or abaft the centre of gravity. If a ship will bear more than
one sail, it is thought best to separate the pressure. Then set the
fore and main spencers; or (if she carries staysails instead) the main
and mizzen staysail; or, if she is easier under lofty sail, the fore and
main topsails close-reefed. A close-reefed main topsail, with three
lower storm staysails; or, with the two spencers, fore topmast
staysail, and reefed spanker, is considered a good arrangement for
lying-to. If the fore topmast staysail and balance-reefed spanker can
be added to the two close-reefed topsails, she will keep some way,
will go less to leeward, and can be easily wore round. Close-reefed
topsails are used much more now for lying-to than the courses. As
ships are now built, with the centre of gravity farther forward, and
the foremast stepped more aft, they will lie-to under head sail better
than formerly. Some vessels, which are well down by the stern, will
lie-to under a reefed foresail, as this tends to press her down
forward; whereas, if she had much after sail, she would have all the
lateral resistance of the water aft, and would come up to the wind.
In carrying most head or after sail, you must be determined by the
trim of the vessel, her tendency to come to or go off, and as to
whether the sail you use will act as a lifting or a burying sail.
A topsail has an advantage over a spencer or lower staysail for lying-
to, since it steadies the ship better, and counteracts the heavy
weather roll, which a vessel will give under low and small fore-and-
aft sails.

Scudding.—The most approved sail for scudding is the close-reefed

maintopsail, with a reefed foresail. The course alone might get
becalmed under the lee of a high sea, and the vessel, losing her
way, would be overtaken by the sea from aft; whereas the topsail
will always give her way enough and lift her. The foresail is of use in
case she should be brought by the lee. Many officers recommend
that the fore topmast staysail, or fore storm staysail, should always
be set in scudding, to pay her off if she should broach-to, and with
the sheets hauled flat aft.

It has been thought that with the wind quartering and a heavy sea,
a vessel is more under command with a close-reefed foretopsail and
maintopmast staysail. The foretopmast staysail may also be hoisted.
If the ship flies off and gets by the lee, the foretopsail is soon braced
about, and, with the maintopmast staysail sheet shifted to the other
side, the headway is not lost.

To heave-to after Scudding.—Secure everything about decks, and

watch a smooth time. Suppose her to be scudding under a close-
reefed maintopsail and reefed foresail; haul up the foresail, put the
helm down, brace up the after yards, and set the mizzen staysail. As
she comes to, set the main staysail, meet her with the helm, brace
up the head-yards, and set the fore or foretopmast staysail.

If your vessel labors much, ease the lee braces and the halyards,
that everything may work fairly aloft, and let her have a plenty of
helm, to come to and fall off freely with the sea. The helmsman will
often let the wheel fly off to leeward, taking care to meet her easily
and in season. The sails should be so arranged as to require little of
the rudder.
Taken aback.—It will frequently happen, when sailing close-hauled,
especially in light winds, from a shift of wind, from its dying away, or
from inattention, that the ship will come up into the wind, shaking
the square sails forward. In this case, it will often be sufficient to put
the helm hard up, flatten in the head sheets, or haul their bights to
windward, and haul up the spanker. If this will not recover her, and
she continues to come to, box her off. Raise fore tack and sheet,
haul up the spanker and mainsail, brace the head-yards aback, haul
the jib sheets to windward, and haul out the lee bowlines. When the
after sails fill, Let go and haul! This manœuvre of boxing can only be
performed in good weather and light winds, as it usually gives a
vessel sternway.

If the wind has got round upon the other bow, and it is too late for
box-hauling, square the yards fore and aft, keeping your helm so as
to pay her off under sternway; and, as the sails fill, keep the after
yards shaking, and haul up the spanker and mainsail, squaring the
head-yards, and shifting your helm as she gathers headway.

Chappelling.—This operation is performed when, instead of coming to,

you are taken aback in light winds. Put the helm up, if she has
headway, haul up the mainsail and spanker, and square the after
yards. Shift the helm as she gathers sternway, and when the after
sails fill, and she gathers headway, shift your helm again. When she
brings the wind aft, brace up the after yards, get the main tack
down and sheet aft, and haul out the spanker as soon as it will take.
The head braces are not touched, but the yards remain braced as
before. The former mode of wearing, by squaring the head-yards
when the after sails are full, has great advantages over chappelling,
as the vessel will go off faster when the wind is abeam and abaft,
and will come to quicker when the wind gets on the other side.

Broaching-to.—This is when a vessel is scudding, and comes up into

the wind and gets aback. For such an accident, the foretopmast
staysail is set, which will act as an off-sail, so that by keeping the
helm up, with the maintopsail (if set) braced into the wind, she will
pay off again without getting sternway. If the close-reefed
foretopsail is carried instead of the main, it can be easily filled.

Brought by the Lee.—This is when a vessel is scudding with the wind

quartering, and falls off so as to bring the wind on the other side,
laying the sails aback. This is more likely to occur than broaching-to,
especially in a heavy sea. Suppose the vessel to be scudding under a
close-reefed maintopsail and reefed foresail, with the wind on her
larboard quarter. She falls off suddenly and brings the wind on the
starboard quarter, laying all aback. Put your helm hard a-starboard,
raise fore tack and sheet, and fill the foresail, shivering the
maintopsail. When she brings the wind aft again, meet her with the
helm, and trim the yards for her course.
 CHAPTER XIII.

ACCIDENTS.

On beam-ends. Losing a rudder. A squall. A man overboard. Collision. Rules for

vessels passing one another.

On Beam-Ends.—A vessel is usually thrown upon her beam-ends by a

sudden squall taking her, when under a press of sail, and shifting the
ballast. She must be righted, if possible, without cutting away the
masts. For, beside sacrificing them, the object can seldom be
accomplished in that way, if the ballast and cargo have shifted. Carry
a hawser from the lee quarter, with spars and other good stop-
waters bent to it. As the ship drifts well to leeward, the hawser will
bring her stern to the wind; but it may not cast her on the other
side. If a spring can be got upon the hawser from the lee bow, and
hauled upon, and the stern fast let go, this will bring the wind to act
upon the flat part of the deck and pay her stern off, and assist the
spring, when the sails may be trimmed to help her in righting. If she
can be brought head to the wind, and the sails be taken aback, she
may cast on the other tack. When there is anchoring ground, the
practice is to let go the lee anchor, which may take the sails aback
and cast her. Then the ballast and cargo may be righted.

If there is no anchoring ground, a vessel may still be kept head to

the wind, by paying a chain cable out of the lee hawse-hole; or by
bending a hawser to a large spar, which may be kept broadside-to
by a span, to the centre of which the hawser is bent. The same
operation may be applied to a vessel overset, and is preferable to
wearing by a hawser. Make fast the hawser forward to the lee bow,
carry the other end aft to windward and bend it to the spar, and
launch the spar overboard. By this means, or by letting go an
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