ROLE OF RESERVOIR OPERATION IN SUSTAINABLE

WATER SUPPLY TO SUBAK IRRIGATION SCHEMES

IN YEH HO RIVER BASIN

Mawiti Infantri Yekti

Thesis committee

Promotor
Prof. Dr E. Schultz
Emeritus Professor of Land and Water Development
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
Delft, the Netherlands

Co-promotors
Prof. Dr I Nyoman Norken
Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, Udayana University
Bali, Indonesia

Dr László Hayde
Chair group Land and Water Development
Department of Water Sciences and Engineering
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
Delft, the Netherlands

Other members
Prof. Dr R. Uijlenhoet, Wageningen University & Research
Prof. Dr N.C. van de Giesen, Delft University of Technology
Prof. Dr I Wayan Windia, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia
Prof. Dr P. van der Zaag, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands

This research was conducted under the auspices of the SENSE Research School for Socio-
Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment
 ROLE OF RESERVOIR OPERATION
IN SUSTAINABLE WATER SUPPLY
TO SUBAK IRRIGATION SCHEMES
IN YEH HO RIVER BASIN

Thesis

submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of

the Academic Board of Wageningen University and
the Academic Board of the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
for the degree of doctor
to be defended in public
on Thursday 1 June, 2017 at 11:30 a.m.
in Delft, the Netherlands

by

Mawiti Infantri Yekti

Born in Jember, Indonesia
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

 2017, Mawiti Infantri Yekti

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18174/404538
Table of contents

Table of contents .............................................................................................................. v

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... ix
1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 1
2 Background and objectives ........................................................................................ 7
2.1 Profile of the region.......................................................................................... 7
2.2 Water resources .............................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 World water resources ........................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Water resources in Indonesia ................................................................ 13
2.2.3 Water management in Indonesia ........................................................... 14
2.2.4 Water resources in Bali ......................................................................... 16
2.3 Definition of Subak irrigation schemes.......................................................... 17
2.4 Subak schemes ............................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Paddy terraces ....................................................................................... 19
2.4.2 Subak irrigation system ......................................................................... 21
2.5 Subak cultivation area .................................................................................... 23
2.6 Previous studies on water management of Subak irrigation schemes............ 23
2.7 Problem description........................................................................................ 26
2.8 Objectives ....................................................................................................... 29
2.8.1 Research questions ................................................................................ 29
2.8.2 Hypotheses ............................................................................................ 29
2.8.3 Research objectives ............................................................................... 31
3 Development of Subak irrigation schemes: learning from experiences of
ancient Subak schemes for participatory irrigation system management in Bali .... 33
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Method and discussion ................................................................................... 36
3.2.1 PIM in irrigation system operation and maintenance ........................... 39
3.2.2 PIM with respect to socio-culture and economics of agriculture .......... 45
3.2.3 PIM in light of a religious community .................................................. 51
3.3 Result and conclusion..................................................................................... 54
vi Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

4 Subak in the south of Bali: discharge analysis for a system approach to river
basin development with Subak irrigation schemes as a culture heritage ................ 57
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 57
4.2 Study of a river basin ..................................................................................... 57
4.3 Managed flow approach in Yeh Ho River Basin ........................................... 59
4.4 Method and material....................................................................................... 59
4.5 Results and discussion.................................................................................... 62
4.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 73
5 Hydrology and hydraulic approaches: irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation
schemes, a farmer's perspective over a thousand years........................................... 77
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 77
5.2 Methodology .................................................................................................. 78
5.2.1 Observation of the water balance in a paddy terraces block ................. 80
5.3 Results and discussion.................................................................................... 80
5.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 87
6 Model simulations and optimisation technique ....................................................... 89
6.1 Model categorization ...................................................................................... 89
6.2 Modelling of Subak schemes related to Tri Hita Karana philosophy ........... 91
6.3 Multiple purpose reservoir operation ............................................................. 92
6.4 Scenario analysis in Subak schemes .............................................................. 92
6.5 Simulations with the RIBASIM model .......................................................... 94
6.6 Application aspects of the RIBASIM model ................................................. 95
6.7 Yeh Ho River system as input in the RIBASIM model ................................. 97
7 Scenario analysis ................................................................................................... 101
7.1 Hydrologic and hydraulic analysis ............................................................... 101
7.1.1 Analysis of rainfall data: dependable rainfall and effective rainfall ... 102
7.1.2 Streamflow analysis ............................................................................ 104
7.1.3 Potential evapotranspiration ................................................................ 104
7.1.4 Reservoir water surface losses and gains ............................................ 105
7.1.5 Other reservoir losses and gains .......................................................... 106
7.1.6 Reservoir elevation/storage/area relationship ..................................... 106
Table of contents vii

7.1.7 Flow routing in the reservoir and hydraulic profile of outlets ............ 107
7.1.8 Evaluation of reservoir lifetime based on sedimentation .................... 107
7.2 Advanced irrigation node in RIBASIM ....................................................... 108
7.2.1 Schematization of the irrigated area .................................................... 109
7.2.2 Interactive graphical cropping plan editor .......................................... 111
7.2.3 Simulation of a cropping plan ............................................................. 113
7.2.4 Soil moisture characteristics ............................................................... 114
7.2.5 Crop water requirement in a paddy terraces block.............................. 118
7.2.6 Computation of command area water demand, actual field water
balance and effective irrigation water supply ..................................... 122
7.3 Results of economic evaluation of storage allocation .................................. 125
7.3.1 Pricing of paddy productivity.............................................................. 125
7.3.2 Pricing of domestic water.................................................................... 126
7.4 Scenario analysis, simulation and optimisation of Yeh Ho River Basin ..... 129
7.4.1 Simulation of the first scenario ........................................................... 131
7.4.2 Simulation of the second scenario....................................................... 136
7.4.3 Simulation of the third scenario .......................................................... 140
7.4.4 Simulation of the fourth scenario ........................................................ 145
7.4.5 Simulation of the fifth scenario ........................................................... 149
7.5 Summary of the simulation and optimisation of Yeh Ho River Basin ........ 155
7.5.1 Utilisation of hydraulic structures ....................................................... 155
7.5.2 Verification of the model .................................................................... 156
8 Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 159
8.1 Recommendations for river basin development ........................................... 159
8.1.1 Telaga Tunjung Reservoir operation based on Subak cropping
patterns ................................................................................................ 160
8.1.2 Operation and maintenance of the Subak irrigation systems .............. 161
9 References.............................................................................................................. 163
viii Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

APPENDICES
A. Abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................. 175
B. Symbols ................................................................................................................. 177
C. Surface runoff analysis as inflow to the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir ..................... 179
D. Analysis of rainfall data ......................................................................................... 181
E. Reference evapotranspiration ................................................................................ 183
F. Hydraulic profile of outlets .................................................................................... 195
G. Reservoir and its hydraulic structures.................................................................... 197
H. Information on reservoir sedimentation................................................................. 199
I. Infiltration and percolation .................................................................................... 203
J. Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block ........................................ 205
K. Graphs of scenario simulations with RIBASIM .................................................... 225
L. Summary ................................................................................................................ 235
M. Samenvatting ......................................................................................................... 241
N. About the author .................................................................................................... 247
Acknowledgements

A PhD study is like a study of life itself. I started to look for a PhD scholarship by
downloading the guideline of the PhD booklet at the Nuffic website in 2004. I had a
dream that after being married and giving birth to two babies, I would pursue my study at
a higher level. Before being married I had one request to my ex boyfriend that is now my
husband. I did not want to have a big house, jewellery, or anything else material but just
one thing, his permission to continue my study. I met him when I was a lecturer at
Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia. The reason was simple, while I am a teacher I
should have more knowledge to share with my students. As well when in the bachelor
study I had a dream to study in the centre of water engineering science, the Netherlands,
where is the best non-gravity drainage system in the world.
In the PhD rules of the Netherlands Fellowship Programme (NFP), it is described
that to become a PhD student at UNESCO-IHE, you should be graduated or have a master
degree from UNESCO-IHE, or other institution in the Netherlands. Then I applied for a
master study scholarship two times (2003 and 2004). Unfortunately, I did not pass it. Then
in 2007, I got a NFP fellowship for a short course at UNESCO-IHE.
Furthermore, in 2009, I was awarded a scholarship from the Indonesian
Government, and I had registered already in the University of Wollongong, New South
Wales, Australia. At the same time, my father was sick, and he asked me to accompany
him for 21 days in the hospital, because he should have a surgery in his spinal column.
Because of this I cancelled my starting time to study in Australia. Afterwards I had the
plan that I would start the study in 2010. Unfortunately, at this year, I cancelled again my
planning, because my parents went to Mecca. I relied on my parents to accompany my
children when I am studying abroad. My reason was natural, as a mother and a wife I
should manage the household first, even though in reality there can be unpredictable
developments. I just tried to manage it best.
Based on cancellation of starting times of my study, I thought deeply that I should
change the type of study, from full time to a sandwich study. Then I applied for an NFP
fellowship in early 2010. At that time, I finished all the administration and finances of the
Indonesian Government Scholarship, which I had received after the announcement in
x Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

2009. I tried hard, in the middle of 2010 the announcement of NFP came on. I was
awarded it and then I started my study in February 2011. I am very thankful that I had the
opportunity of the best moments in life.
During the study, I went through, with many struggles coming unpredictable, even
when I tried to obey the requirements of my supervisor and the instructions of the PhD
guideline. A very challenging process, I cannot explain them one by one here, but these
efforts sometimes made my spirit decreasing. As well, the dilemma came on from my
family that my mother was sick from March until May 2015 in Indonesia. At the same
time, I had to manage and write my draft PhD thesis in Delft. Then, she passed away on
15 May 2015. It was a hard time for me after losing her. Conversely, I accepted all
struggles as learning process of life and PhD life itself.
Thank you very much I dedicate to my promotor Prof. Dr. Bart Schultz for his
patience and thoughtful supervision of me during the PhD study. I am thankful that Prof.
Dr. I. Nyoman Norken and Dr. László Hayde are my co-promotors. As well, I am thankful
to Ir. W.N.M. van der Krogt, Ass. Prof. Ioana Popescu, Ass. Prof. Andreja Jonoski, Mrs.
Claire Taylor, Dr. Krishna Prasad and Dr. Suryadi for their time to discuss with me.
Additionally, not forgetting, I am grateful to the UNESCO-IHE staff that gave me the
uniqueness of familiarity. I am very thankful to Ms. Jolanda Boots, based on her
professionalism to take care of my PhD administration.
A big gratitude is given to I Made Semada as Leader of Subak Agung Yeh Ho River
Basin (Pekaseh Subak Agung Yeh Ho) for giving all his indigenous knowledge of how to
maintain social-religious, traditional technology in water distribution and maintenance,
and traditional agro-economic elements in Subak irrigation schemes. Also thank you to Ni
Kade Puspitasari, female staff of Public Works at the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir office,
who supported me to collect the daily data in the paddy terraces block and the data on
agricultural production at the sample blocks.
Moreover, I appreciate the officers at BWS Bali-Penida, Ministry of Public Works;
Department of Public Works Bali Province; farmers of Subak Agung Yeh Ho, especially
farmers of Subak Gede Caguh and Subak Gede Meliling; Indonesia Agency for
Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD), Ministry of Agriculture; Department
of Agriculture and Horticulture Tabanan; Soil Mechanic Laboratory of Bali State
Acknowledgements xi

Polytechnic, Geological Agency of the Indonesian Ministry for Energy and Mineral
Resources to provide data for my research.
For the best, I am very blessed with the support of my dear husband, Ristono and
our lovely son Narayana Radya Aydin (14 years old) and daughter Larasati Ridha Alisa
(12 years old), without their loves and tolerants, I could not have gone through this
process successfully. As well I am very thankful to my parents, first my father Suharto,
who always encouraged me to pursue my study at the higher level. When I was studying
for the bachelor degree, he advised me that as a woman, even when you become a wife or
a mother you should have the existence of yourself. Subsequently you can transfer it to
your children and your neighbourhood. Second, in memory of my deceased mother
Roekminingsih, who was a teacher from 1961 till 1975, even if she decided to become a
house wife, she always teached me how to become an independent person.
Finally I am grateful to my brothers Kukuh Wahyu Utomo and Winahyu Hadi
Utomo, mother in law Ibu Sarmi, sisters in law and brother in law, all of my family, my
UNESCO-IHE friends, especially Yenesew Mengiste Yihun, Mario E. Castro Gama,
Wied Winaktoe Wiwoho, Bosman Batubara, Mona Delos Reyes, Reem F. Digna, Girma
Yimer, Shahnoor Hasan, Jakia Akter, Claudia Quintiliani, Adey Nigatu, and Nguyen
Thao. Also my roommates Fatma Balany, Hesti Nur Paramita, Junira Ardiana, Ernestasia
Siahaan and Elizabeth Valentin, my best friends Widayati, Mei Lilia Triana, Tri
Sulistyowati, Siti Nur Asmah, my colleagues, especially G.A.P. Candra Dharmayanti,
Anissa Maria Hidayati, I Nyoman Sunarta and I Nyoman Udayana at Udayana University,
and all my friends in Indonesia who supported me.

Delft, 2017

Mawiti Infantri Yekti

1 Introduction

Indonesia is one of the countries blessed with a large potential of water resources.
Kardono (2005) stated that the potency of Indonesia's surface water is higher than 2,000
billion m3/year, where Papua is in the first place with 1,400 billion m3/year, followed by
Kalimantan with 557 billion m3/year, then Java with 118 billion m3/year. The surface
water scatters in 5,886 rivers, 33 million ha lakes, reservoirs and lowlands in 470 river
basins, of which 64 are in a critical condition. The critical condition is due to several
factors, namely pollution, change of land use, deforestation and agricultural activities
within the river basins.
The seasons change every six months. The dry season (June to September) is
influenced by the Australian continental air masses, while the wet season (December to
March) is the result of the Asian and Pacific Ocean air masses. The air contains vapour
that precipitates and produces rain in the country almost the whole year through.
During the twentieth century, rainfall reduced with 2 to 3% in Indonesia (Boer and
Faqih, 2004). Almost all of this reduction occurred during the months from December to
February. The precipitation patterns have also changed. There has been a decline in annual
rainfall in the southern regions, an increase in precipitation in the northern regions and the
seasonality of precipitation (wet and dry seasons) has changed. In addition, the wet season
rainfall in the southern regions has increased, while the dry season rainfall in the northern
regions has decreased (Case et al., 2008).
The changes in the wet and the dry season also affect the water availability, with
decreasing rainfall during critical times of the year that may result in drought risk and
uncertainty in water availability. Consequently, uncertain production of agricultural
products, economic instability and more undernourished people, hindering progress
against poverty and food insecurity (Wang et al., 2006). Other consequence may be that
the water supplies to irrigation systems are affected, which is a part of water resources
management, particularly in terms of sustainability of water supplies. That is also
happening in one of the river basins in Bali called Yeh Ho River Basin.
The basin characteristics of Yeh Ho River in southern Bali show an elongated shape
with the main river on the right side. Yeh Ho River has three reaches, which include
2 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

upstream called the first time/part (ngulu), midstream called the second time/part
(maongin) and downstream called the third time/part (ngasep). In the upstream, Yeh Ho
River has its source, a spring called Gembrong. Since late 1990, the accounted discharge
of some diversion weirs shows a reduction of discharge in the river. As a result, the
distribution of water to the Subak irrigation systems has been disturbed (Regional River
Office of Bali-Penida, 2006). This may have been caused by the fact that since 1987 the
Bali Province Government, under the management of the Local Water Supply Utility
(Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum (PDAM)) as regional-owned corporation (Badan Usaha
Milik Daerah (BUMD)), has utilized the spring water for domestic purposes beyond its
share of 65%. In 2001, in response to the claim of the Subak farmers in the upstream
schemes, Tabanan Regency Government decided to restore the 35% allocation of
Gembrong Spring for them under responsibility of the river basin organization, called
Subak Agung Yeh Ho. However, this is not really followed in practice.
Associated with the shortages of land and water irrigation systems will experience
the challenge in water resources management, especially in the distribution of water
(MacRae and Arthawiguna, 2011). In fact, Indonesia faces challenges of water resources
management until the present time. One of the challenges is application of the synergy
concept top down and bottom-up. Indonesia has not been able to accommodate the public
as part of a potential performer in problem solving, project-oriented use of technology to
overcome the problems in water resources management, and insufficient involvement of
the community in the finalization of planning and design criteria for hydraulic structures
(Jayadi and Darmanto, 2011).
One type of irrigation systems that has existed for a thousand years are the Subak
irrigation systems in Bali, which are farmer based irrigation systems with independent
institutions. Historically irrigation, including Subak irrigation systems, has developed in
Southeast Asia in four distinct but overlapping phases: community irrigation, river
diversion dams, large storage dams and tube wells with pumps (Barker and Molle, 2004).
Subak irrigation schemes - related to which is the term of Irrigation Planning
Criteria (Kriteria Perencanaan (KP)), called Irrigation Area (Daerah Irigasi (DI)) - are an
example of water resources management, distribution and supply of irrigation water in a
perfect vision on the social welfare in the river basin. The decision-making process of
Introduction 3

Subak irrigation takes into account political, economic, social and cultural (religious)
elements. Multifunctional ecosystems are implemented in a sustainable way of agriculture
in the Subak irrigation schemes, particularly in the technology of these schemes.
The challenges, as mentioned above, are also experienced in the Subak irrigation
schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin, where the Telaga Tunjung Dam started operation in
2006. Previously, the Subak irrigation systems in this river basin were supplied with water
by diversion weirs at several points along the main river. The reason to build the dam was
insufficient development of the water resources that caused a new problem among the
farmers. In the past, the amount of water in Yeh Ho River was mostly utilized for the
Subak irrigation and it was taken for drinking water as well in the upstream. The Subak
irrigation systems are located both upstream and downstream of the reservoir. Each Subak
irrigation system is operated and maintained by a group of farmers, who since the
construction of the dam have problems to distribute the irrigation water. The present
practice of reservoir operation based on rule curves, which are predominantly guided by
direct economic benefits, while ignoring ecosystem requirements, needs to be reviewed
(World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2008). It may be noted that sometimes,
with some minor operational and/or structural modifications, existing reservoirs can adapt
the managed flows. However, it is recognized that maintaining (in the case of new
reservoirs), or re-establishing (in the case of existing reservoirs) the natural river condition
by the managed flow may not always be possible and may require a conflict management
mechanism to determine the appropriate approach. Therefore, it is essential to develop a
decision-making framework capable of handling conflicting demands and to apply an
integrated approach.
Reservoir operation studies can be approached in different ways, such as by
mathematical models and setting purposes of reservoir operation. Studies based on
mathematical models were for example Deriving reservoir operation rules via fuzzy
regression and ANFIS (Mousavi et al., 2003); Development of fuzzy reservoir operation
policies using genetic algorithms (Zahraie and Hosseini, 2007), Harmonics elimination in
multi level inverter using linear fuzzy regression (Othman and Mekhaizim, 2010). These
studies focused on the application of mathematic equations of simulation and optimisation
in reservoir operation.
4 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

In the context of setting the purpose of reservoir operation within a river basin,
especially for irrigation water, a decision support system for reservoir operation can be
applied to be able to rotationally distribute irrigation water among sub-irrigation blocks.
Then, by using this system, the operators can control the reservoir in the emergency state
to possibly save water until coming rainy days (Kim et al., 2003). An operational method
for a regulating reservoir to effectively utilize excess water was examined for a canal
system. The simulation could estimate quantitatively the effect of the regulating reservoir
to make excess water effective (Nishimura et al., 2005).
The central concern of various aspects of reservoir operation as well as to show
possibilities how flows can be managed successfully to minimize their adverse impacts
and optimise the benefits from ecosystem and socio-economic activities, implies that
reservoir operation needs to focus at (World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2008):
• understanding changes in flow and sediment regimes by reservoirs;
• identifying the issues that need to be quantified for deciding on the managed flows;
• introducing options to tackle these issues by modification of reservoir operation;
• planning the managed flows;
• providing a framework for environment sensitive reservoir operations.

Reservoirs need to provide for flow release to meet their specific purposes as well as
the needs of the downstream ecosystem and livelihood objectives identified through
scientific and participatory processes (International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN), 2003). These flows are also referred to as 'environmental
flows', which concern a certain minimum quantity of water released downstream of a
reservoir. They have to serve certain environmental objectives, which need to be
understood and defined. Several approaches are available for assessing the environmental
needs of river systems downstream of a reservoir. According to Olivares (2008) the
engineering objective solution to environmental impacts of hydropower operations on
downstream aquatic ecosystems were studied using a revenue-driven approach by a linear
programming model optimisation for operation of a reservoir after the Bay Hydropower
Complex. The model was formulated and solved for parametrically varying levels, or
Introduction 5

environmental constraints. It was attempted that the managed flows would maintain the
natural flow and sediment regimes variability as close as possible. Therefore, the main
objective of managed flows is to compromise in the allocation of water between releases
and retaining sufficient water in the reservoir to support economic activities, e.g. water
supply, hydropower and flood moderation, for which the reservoirs were originality built,
or the purposes for which new reservoirs are proposed (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. Managed flow approach (Acreman, 2000)

In connection with the construction of the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir, this research
aims at optimising the relation between reservoir operation and the operation of the Subak
irrigation systems in the river basin in such a way that these systems can be maintained
and even be further developed for their agriculture productivity. The thesis is organised in
eight chapters.
Chapter 1 provides the introduction.
Chapter 2 presents background of the research related to Subak irrigation and the
objectives for this research.
Chapter 3 provides information about the development of Subak irrigation schemes
related to learning from experiences over a thousand years of participatory irrigation
system management in ancient Subak irrigation schemes of Bali.
6 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Chapter 4 presents information on Subak irrigation in the south of Bali with the
challenges to manage the flow for these irrigation systems. This is followed by a
discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation
schemes as a culture heritage.
Chapter 5 provides information on the interaction between irrigation and drainage of
Subak irrigation schemes in light of the farmer's perspective.
Chapter 6 shows a model simulation and optimisation technique to enable
optimisation of the managed flows in Yeh Ho River Basin.
Chapter 7 presents a scenario analysis on the optimisation of river flow in Yeh How
River and the related Subak irrigation schemes.
In Chapter 8 the study is concluded with an evaluation.

Abbreviations and acronyms are shown in Annex A and the symbols in Annex B.
The Summary is given in Annex L and the 'Samenvatting' (Dutch) in Annex M. Finally
Annex N gives information about the author. For the other annexes there is a reference in
the text.
2 Background and objectives

2.1 Profile of the region

Bali is one of the 17,504 Indonesian islands and one of the 34 provinces. It is surrounded
by 25 named islands and 60 unnamed islands as shown in Figure 2.1 (Department of
Internal Affairs, 2004). Administratively, the Province of Bali is divided into 8 districts
and 57 sub districts with 1 city and 710 villages, which have 3.9 million people. Bali is
part of the Lesser Sunda Islands, it has 153 km length, 112 km width and an area of
563,000 ha (0.29% of the Republic of Indonesia). Astronomically, Bali is located between
latitude 8°25'23" South and longitude 115°14'55" East.

Figure 2.1. Map of Indonesia

(http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/indonesia_rel_2002.pdf)

Bali has a tropical climate, like the other parts of Indonesia. It has a dry season from
April to October and a rainy season from November to March. The average annual rainfall
varies between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2011). Bali
has a minimum temperature between 23.0 and 24.5 oC, the average temperature is
between 26.4 and 27.3 oC and the maximum temperature between 29.5 and 31.8 oC. The
month of July has the coolest temperature. Wind velocity of Bali fluctuates over the year
8 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

between 9.3 and 13 km/day, the relative humidity is approximately between 69 and 93%
(Tables 2.1 and 2.2).
The topography of Bali has a slope in northern and southern direction with the
mountains in the middle (Figure 2.2). The mountains and hills cover 85% of the area. The
slopes 0 - 2%, 2 - 15% and 15 - 20% are located in the districts of Badung, Tabanan,
Gianyar, Buleleng and in the coastal areas, while areas with slopes above 40% extend
from the middle to the South (Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2011). There are two
active volcanoes namely Batur Mountain (1,717 m+MSL (mean sea level)) and Agung
Mountain (3,142 m+MSL) and 22 inactive volcanoes. If the total area of 563,000 ha of
Bali is distinguished by slopes the areas are as follows (Wapedia, 2011):
• 0 – 2% : 123,000 ha;
• 2 – 15% : 118,000 ha;
• 15 – 40% : 190,000 ha;
• > 40% : 132,000 ha.

Table 2.1. Average values of meteorological and geophysical conditions of Bali in 2008
by station
Meteorology Geophysics Geophysics Climatology
Ngurah Rai Sanglah Karangasem Negara
o
1. Temperature ( C)
• maximum 30 32 30 30
• minimum 24 24 23 23
• average 27 27 26 26
2. Relative humidity (%)
• maximum 93 89 89 93
• minimum 71 68 69 71
• average 83 79 79 82
3. Air pressure (mm Hg) 757 758 745 758
4. Wind velocity (km/day) 11.1 9.3 13 13
5. Rainfall (mm/year) 1,790 1,890 2,210 1,720
6. Sunshine (%) 75 72 65 67
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009
Background and objectives 9

Table 2.2. Meteorological and geophysical conditions of Bali in 2008 by Regency

Regency/ Temperature Relative humidity Rainfall Wind velocity
o
Municipality ( C) (%) (mm/year) (km/day)
Jembrana 26 82 1,720 13
Tabanan 19 90 4,110 111
Badung 27 83 1,790 111
Gianyar 27 80 2,120 111
Klungkung 28 89 2,190 111
Bangli 28 83 2,480 111
Karangasem 26 79 2,210 13
Buleleng 27 81 1,340 13
Denpasar 27 79 1,890 93
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009

Figure 2.2. Map of Bali

(http://www.baliguide.com/bali_map.html)

The 15 - 40% land slope area has soil fertility characteristics that depend on the
source rocks and weathering rates, while the 2 - 15% land slope area has the
10 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

characteristics of sediment transporting alluvial rivers (Romenah, 2010). The potential

lands for agriculture are spread in Bali and are mostly found in the mountainous and hilly
areas. Due to the good soil fertility over the years the crop yields in Bali have been quite
stable, with the harvested area in the range of 142,000 - 160,000 ha (Central Bureau of
Statistics, 2011). This is evidenced by the stability of agricultural products, especially rice,
with yields in the range 787,000 - 879,000 tons/year, which is approximately 5 tons/ha of
unhusked rice or 2.85 tons/ha of rice (Figure 2.3). This is achieved by the farmers of the
Subak irrigation schemes.

900,000

800,000

700,000

600,000
Production (ton)

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Year

Figure 2.3. Production of rice in Bali Province

(Central Bureau of Statistics, 2011)

Indonesia is an agricultural country, with Bali that is known as the rice granary.
Accordingly, the agricultural production became a mainstay in this island, in addition to
the tourism industry. In particular industry is increasing, as a result of the development of
world economy towards a free market and more competition. Nevertheless, the number of
people in Bali who work in agriculture, estate crops, forestry and fishery still occupies
with 726,000 people a top position. Approximately 790,000 people work in several other
Background and objectives 11

sectors such as mining and quarrying, manufacture, electricity and water supply,
construction, transportation, storage, communication, finance, insurance, real estate and
public services. About 482,000 people work in trade, restaurants, hotels and the tourism
industry (Central Bureau of Statistics Bali Province, 2009).
In the mid of the twentieth century, as consequence of ongoing population growth
and land conversion, Balinese farmers were having difficulties in meeting the ever-
growing demand for rice. The Government constructed large dams to increase water
supplies based on the available hectares of paddy fields. However, due to this also the
problem of insufficient water in the dry season developed.

2.2 Water resources

2.2.1 World water resources

The world's water exists naturally in different forms and locations: in the air, on the
surface, below the ground and in the oceans. Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is fresh.
Nearly 68.7% of this water is frozen in glaciers and ice sheets. The 0.4% of world's
surface and atmospheric water is divided in 67.4% in freshwater lakes, 8.5% in lowlands,
12.2% in soil moisture, 1.6% in rivers, 9.5% in the atmosphere and 0.8% in plants and
animals (Figure 2.4). The reduction in available water resources depends on human
activity and natural forces. Even though public awareness of the need to better manage
and protect water has grown over the last decades, economic criteria and political
considerations still tend to drive water policy at all levels. Science and best practices are
rarely given adequate consideration (UNESCO, 2006). Pressures on water resources will
continue to increase primarily because of urbanization, population growth, increase in
living standards, growing competition for water and pollution.
However, a large volume of freshwater exists 'in storage'. It is therefore important to
evaluate the renewable annual water flows, taking into account where and how they move
through the hydrological cycle (Figure 2.5). The scheme of the hydrological cycle
illustrates how elements can be grouped as part of a conceptual model that has emerged
12 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

from the discipline of eco-hydrology, which stresses the relationships and pathways
shared among hydrological and ecological systems (Zalewski et al., 1997).

Figure 2.4. Global distribution of the world's water (UNESCO, 2006)

Figure 2.5. Schematic view of the hydrologic cycle components (UNESCO, 2006)
Background and objectives 13

2.2.2 Water resources in Indonesia

Although Indonesia is blessed with abundant water resources, it still faces various
challenges with respect to these resources. Therefore, it is important to update information
on water resources periodically. AQUASTAT presents the water availability information
of Indonesia as shown in Table 2.3 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), 2005). Total actual renewable water resources (TARWR) is the sum of
renewable water resources and incoming flow originating from outside the country. It is a
measure of the maximum theoretical amount of water annually available for the country.
Derived from the data of FAO, Indonesia only uses 3% of the TARWR of which the
highest percentage of 91% for withdrawal of water for the agricultural sector, as follows:
• total freshwater withdrawal (km3/yr) : 82.8;
3
• per capita withdrawal (m /p/yr) : 372;
• agricultural use (%) : 91;
• domestic use (%) : 8;
• industrial use (%) : 1;
• agricultural use (m3/p/yr) : 339;
3
• domestic use (m /p/yr) : 30;
• industrial use (m3/p/yr) : 3.

Withdrawal typically refers to water taken from a water source for use. It does not
refer to water 'consumed' in that use (FAO, 2006). The agricultural sector includes water
for irrigation and livestock. The domestic sector typically includes household and
municipal uses as well as commercial and governmental water use. The industrial sector
includes water used for power plant cooling and industrial production.
According to Naylor (2007), agriculture is central to human survival and is probably
the human enterprise most vulnerable to changes in climate. This is particularly true in
countries such as Indonesia, with large populations of rural and urban poor.
Understanding the current and future effects of changes in climate on Indonesian rice
agriculture will be crucial for improving the welfare of the country's poor.
14 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 2.3. Water resources in Indonesia

Population: 223 million
Precipitation rate: 2,700 mm/year
Total actual renewable water resources (TARWR)
Volume in 2005: 2,840 km3/year (2,840 billion m3/year)
Per capita in 2000: 13,400 m3/year
Per capita in 2005: 12,800 m3/year
Breakdown of total actual renewable water resources:
• surface water: 98%
• groundwater: 16%
• overlap is water shared by both the surface water and groundwater
systems: 14%
Incoming waters: 0%
Outgoing waters: 0%
Total use of total actual renewable water resources: 3%
Source: FAO-AQUASTAT, 2005

2.2.3 Water management in Indonesia

The main challenge of water management in Indonesia will be oriented to minimize the
conflict of interest on water management among the regions within a river basin, law
enforcement and implementation of regulation, increasing community participation and
awareness, capacity building in dealing with environmental issues, and improvement of
the performance of water allocation planning and conservation activities. Hence, the
development of water management policies requires evidence-based information that
deals with complex, contextual and multi-aspect issues (Alexander et al., 2010). In
addition, sector oriented management, top-down approach, and illegal/illegitimate
management activities are indications of crisis water resources management in Indonesia
(Jayadi and Darmanto, 2011). Therefore, a solution is needed to integrate the natural
system (both quantitative and qualitative) with the societal system of the resource users
(Loebis, 2003).
Background and objectives 15

The most recent law on water resources, which conforms to the decentralization
legislation, was passed by Parliament on 19 February 2004. It is known as Law No.
7/2004 on Water Resources. This law is based on Constitution 1945, Art. 33 Para (3) and
Peoples Consultative Council (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR)) Decree No.
IV/MPR/1999 about the Outlines of State Policy (Garis-garis Besar Haluan Negara
(GBHN)). This law formulates the mission of water resources management with water
resources utilization, water resources conservation, water-related disaster control,
empowerment and improvement of Government, public and private participation, water
resources data viability and accessibility and advancement of information systems
(Directorate of Water Resources and Irrigation, 2005). This law was an improvement of
the Law No. 11/1974, which still supported centralization of decision-making in water
resources development.
In 2010, the Government formulated the future challenges in its National Policy on
Water Resources, including the main role of water resources conservation, based on the
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and the Johannesburg Summit of 2002. This was
the basis of the implementation of technology in water resources, and the coordination and
synchronization at national, provincial, district, and river basin level to establish a reliable
institutional water resources management (Jayadi and Darmanto, 2011). The answers to
challenges in water resources management focused on:
• to overcome the problem of the water crisis due to the uneven distribution of
population and economic activity from one island to another;
• to reduce the potency of low social performance, economic and environmental loss
consequences due to the low performance of water resources management.

Because of some inconsistencies in the law of 2004 on 18 February 2015 the law
was repealed. This brings for the moment the legal position back to the law of 1974. The
Minister of Public Works and Public Housing, Basuki Hadimuljono, expects that Law
Number 11 of 1974 will be adapted where required and then accepted. The old law is
simpler than the new law, which provides sufficient scope for the Government to adjust
design regulations with respect to water management to the up to date conditions
(Bimantara, 2015).
16 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

2.2.4 Water resources in Bali

Bali is blessed with a large water potential, especially in the southern region. Based on the
Regulation of the Minister of Public Works number: 13/PRT/M/2006, July 17th, Bali
Province has the Bali-Penida River Region that is divided in 20 Sub-regions. The 20 Sub-
regions have 165 river basins in which there are 49 seasonal rivers (renewed by
Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah) number 12 of 2012, code 03.03.A3,
about the establishment of Bali-Penida River Region that covers the area of the Province
of Bali, and divides it in 391 river basins with an area of in total 5,617 km2). In the middle
of Bali there are four lakes, namely Lake Beratan, Lake Buyan, Lake Tamblingan and
Lake Batur, 1,273 scattered springs and eight groundwater basins.
Due to global climate change, the rainfall during the rainy and dry seasons affects
the hydrological cycle. Therefore, it becomes quite difficult to predict it (Case et al.,
2008). Bali as one of the regions with agricultural stable products is also experiencing
such changes. The data need to be updated by the Regional River Office of Bali-Penida of
the Department of Public Works. The annually potential water of Bali as described in the
river basins map (Figure 2.6) consists of 4,126 million m3 of river flow, which is from
surface runoff and interflow, 781 million m3 of springs and 252 million m3 of
groundwater. Then the total is 5,160 million m3.

Figure 2.6. River basins map of Bali

(http://galerigis.com/Peta-Tematik/Peta-Das/Peta-Das-Bali)
Background and objectives 17

Four large reservoirs exist in the Bali-Penida River Region. The Palasari Reservoir
started operation in 1989, the Grokgak Reservoir in 1998, the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
in 2006 and the Benel Reservoir in 2009 (Figure 2.7). The main purpose of all reservoirs
is to fulfil the needs of Subak irrigation water.
The area of lakes and reservoirs has not changed over the last years and is equal to
3,588 ha (Raka, 2009).

Figure 2.7. Dams in the Province of Bali (Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2011)

2.3 Definition of Subak irrigation schemes

Bali has a tradition of managing irrigation water by Subak irrigation schemes since the 9th
Century (Norken et al., 2010). If we mention the word Subak, generally Bali's people will
interpret it in one of the following descriptions (Sutawan, 2008):
• a region of rice fields with an area and certain limits;
• the rice farmers who are gathered in one organization that is engaged in the
management of irrigation water;
• physical system or irrigation system itself with canals (telabah), traditional diversion
weirs, secondary/tertiary boxes and other facilities.
18 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Furthermore, there are definitions of Subak given by several researchers and Subak
observers as follows:
• Subak is of indigenous people in Bali who are socio-religious agrarians. It was
historically established since ancient times and continues to grow as a ruling
organization of land in the field of water management and others for the rice fields
from a water source within a region (PERDA No. 02 / PD/DPRD/1972);
• Subak Union (Persubakan) as a social organization, called Seka Subak, is an
organized social unit where the members feel bound to each other, because of
common interests in relation to irrigation of rice fields. They have a leader
(manager) who can act inside or outside and have a treasurer, both material and
immaterial (Sutha, 1978);
• a Subak is defined as all terraces irrigated from a traditional diversion weir and
major canal and the term Subak is commonly translated as irrigation society.
However, Subak is much more: an agricultural planning unit, an autonomous legal
corporation, and a religious community (Geertz, 1980);
• Subak is an organization of traditional rice farmers in Bali, with a unit area of rice
fields, and generally a source of water as the completeness of the essence (Kaler,
1985);
• a Subak irrigation system is in addition to a physical system also a social system.
The physical system is defined as the physical environment closely linked to
irrigation water as the source and irrigation facilities in the form of diversions or
dams, canals, secondary or tertiary boxes, etc., while the social system is a social
organization that manages the physical system (Sutawan, 1985);
• Subak is defined as an organization of water users for fields of its members to obtain
water from the same source, having one or more of the temples near secondary
diversion structures (Ulun Bedugul) and having full autonomy well into the care of
the interests of their own households, or in the sense of the word freely entered into
direct relationships with outside parties independently (Sutawan et al., 1986);
• Subak is more precisely called as a socio-technical-religious organization system
rather than called socio-agricultural-religious organization system (Arief, 1999);
Background and objectives 19

• a Subak irrigation system is besides an appropriate technological system, also a

cultural system. The phenomena indicates that basically a Subak irrigation system is
a technological system that has been developed as a part of a cultural society
(Pusposutardjo, 2000);
• a Subak system is a custom law community with socio-technical-religious
characteristics. It consists of a group of farmers that manage irrigation water at their
paddy fields (Windia et al., 2000);
• Subak may be defined as a socio-religious agriculture and irrigation institution
dealing primarily with water management for the production of annual crops,
particularly rice, based on the Tri Hita Karana (THK) philosophy (Sutawan, 2002);
• Subaks are recognized in social anthropology as irrigators' associations that combine
ritual and resource management (Jha and Schoenfelder, 2011);
• as a system Subak is widely known as a 'traditional' irrigation management
institution for rice cultivation on the Indonesian island of Bali (Roth, 2011). Subak
and irrigated rice agriculture became well adapted to, and embedded in the
characteristic Balinese landscape of rugged mountains and steep valleys deeply
incised by fast-flowing rivers.

Considering the various above definitions of Subak, it may be observed that none of
them covers the full context of a Subak irrigation scheme. Therefore underneath definition
has been developed. This definition reads (Yekti et al., 2012):
'A Subak irrigation scheme, primarily in Bali, Indonesia is an irrigation system of
which the construction, operation and maintenance is based on agreed principles of
technology, management of agriculture and religious community'.

2.4 Subak schemes

2.4.1 Paddy terraces

Most of the Subak cultivation areas are paddy terraces. Paddy terraces are elements in
20 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

irrigation systems that offer a beautiful view for tourists who visit Bali. However, not only
Bali has traditional irrigation systems (Subak). Especially in Asia almost all countries
have rice fields irrigated by traditional irrigation institutions similar to Subak, including
India, Korea, Nepal, Oman, the Philippines and Thailand. Definitely, their names are
different according to local terms, for example Khul in India and Pakistan (Karez in
Baluchistan), Falaj in Oman, Zanjeras in Philippines and Muang-fai in Thailand (Coward
and Levine, 1987). According to Von Droste et al. (1995), the paddy terrace landscape is
a cultural landscape and unique characteristic of Asia's countries. Therefore, these
landscapes would have to be protected. Meanwhile Indonesia has traditional irrigation
systems other than Subak, such as Panriahan-pamokkahan in North Sumatra and Panitia
Siring in South Sumatra. The cultural landscapes in every corner of the world are the
result of interactions between humans and nature. Diverse people living in different
environments and with different cultures have developed strategies to survive in their
landscapes, creating numerous forms of such landscapes in their efforts to sustain their
communities (Luchman et al., 2009).
In 2003 the Subak landscapes were nominated for the World Heritage List of
UNESCO (Fowler, 2003). This was also strengthened by Bridgewater (2003), who stated
that the major factor in the identification and maintenance of cultural landscapes is the
understanding of the world-views that have shaped them. The Subak landscapes were
officially added to the list on June 29, 2012, as a manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana
philosophy and reflecting their significance for sustainable development.
The abundance of agricultural fields is possibly the most obvious characteristic of
Bali. The large areas of fertile land and abundant water resources have permitted paddy
cultivation for a long time, and rice cultivation has become one of the main economic
activities. This has developed over the centuries in the specific socio-cultural, agro-
ecological and political administrative environment of this mountainous island. As a
consequence, the Subak irrigated rice agriculture became well adapted to, and embedded
in, the characteristic Balinese landscape of rugged mountains and steep valleys deeply
incised by fast-flowing rivers. In many parts of the island, such as sloping upland areas,
the land is fragile and sensitive to disturbance because of agricultural activities. Rice
terraces have been created as a strategy to permit the use of hilly and sloping
Background and objectives 21

environments (Whitten et al., 1996).

The key issue for the future is what policy settings are needed to ensure their
survival in the face of environmental homogenization, as part of the general process of
globalization.

2.4.2 Subak irrigation system

The Balinese have build diversion weirs (empelan) in the rivers or canals to irrigate their
paddy fields (Figure 2.8), without worrying about the flow of water through the fields,
because the excess water was discharged into drains, and was then available for irrigation
of other fields. Since the 9th Century, Subak Associations have been in charge of the
management of the Subak irrigation schemes by using these diversion weirs. Through
these weirs, irrigation water was supplied to the respective schemes and within the
schemes distributed to each Subak Association member by using water distribution units
(WDU/tektek/kecoran). This condition allows farmers (individual) and Subak
Associations to have access to each other's irrigation water (Windia et al., 2006).
Therefore, Subak irrigation is a farmer based irrigation system with an independent
association (self-governing irrigation association). The independent institution has certain
rules and procedures of work, which are related to design, technology implementation,
water management and operation and maintenance of the overall canal systems and
structures (Pribadi and Wena, 2007).
Bali's Subak irrigation is known as a gathering of farmer organizations with
determination and high spirits to work together (gotong royong) in the efforts to obtain
water for producing food crops, especially rice and secondary crops. As an institution of
traditional farmer irrigation, rice cultivation activities have existed in Bali since 882. The
word huma, that means cultivating rice field in Indonesian, was mentioned in epigraph
Sukawana (Purwita, 1993; Sutawan, 2008). Whether the huma in question is cultivating
irrigated paddy fields, is also evidenced by the word of undagi pangarung in Bebetin
epigraph written in 896, which means tunnel maker (arungan/aungan) (Sutawan, 2008).
22 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Furthermore, the Pandak Badung epigraph was found in 1071 that has the word
kasuwakan, meaning kasubakan or Subak (Purwita, 1993; Sutawan, 2008).

Figure 2.8. Paddy terraces of Subak (Yekti et al., 2013)

The format of Subak irrigation system management is remarkably homogenous

throughout Bali. Variations are a result of unit size or regional naming systems
(Birkelbach, 1971). Poffenberger and Zurbuchen (1979) stated that in the history of pre-
mechanized agriculture few societies have ever achieved the high levels of productivity
characterized by wet-rice farming in Bali. With traditional technology, the Balinese
farmers could produce twice as much rice on their land as their neighbours, the Javanese
farmers, whose techniques were by no means unsophisticated. How have the Balinese
farmers done it? It appears that four factors are central to their success as rice farmers.
These include the fertility of the volcanic soil, a complex technology and corresponding
knowledge of wet-rice cultivation, which allows the Balinese farmers to make maximal
use of environmental systems and resources. As an organizational system, Subak
irrigation has the capability of coordinating workers and resources, and genetic strains of
rice selected during a thousand years for their disease resistance, productivity and beauty.
However, Subak Associations still have some problems with the condition of certain
water control structures (diversions) that are generally made of simple wood
constructions. Consequently, some improvements can be made with respect to the quality
Background and objectives 23

of Subak irrigation, especially related to the hydraulic performance of the systems

(Suanda and Suryadi, 2010).

2.5 Subak cultivation area

The area of paddy wet fields under Subak cultivation in Bali reached 85,700 ha in 2000.
When viewed from the type of irrigation, the irrigated rice fields reached 98.8%. It means
that most of the rice areas are wet paddy fields. However, in 2008, the paddy field area
decreased to 81,400 ha (Table 2.4) (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009). This decrease was
caused by land conversion to residential and industrial areas, or other types of land use.

2.6 Previous studies on water management of Subak irrigation schemes

Previous studies on Subak irrigation can be described based on three main subjects; these
are related to perspective, organization, and history and technology. The perspective of the
Subak irrigation schemes based on the Tri Hita Karana (THK) philosophy as an
equivalent technology in irrigated agriculture was presented by Windia et al. (2002). This
study discussed the form of Subak irrigation schemes as an appropriate technology,
implemented in the form of thinking-pattern, social system, and the development of the
system. The final goals of the schemes are to achieve harmony and togetherness in
irrigation management. The second study discussed the perspective issues of agrarian
change in South-Central Bali (Lorenzen, 2010). According to him, although rice farming
continues, for many households it has become a side business. The flexible nature of rice
farming in terms of labour input and available casual off-farm work allows farming
households to allocate their available labour to a variety of on-farm and off-farm income
generating activities. On the other hand, a significant part of the younger generation is
unwilling to work in the 'mud' and there is little appreciation of the many benefits the
Subak provides not only to the farming community, but also to the wider community.
Furthermore, on the technological elements it was explained by Gany (2004) that in
Indonesia, there remains a lot of phenomena of the ancient heritage of participatory
24 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

irrigated agriculture practices adhered to Subak irrigation, that need to be uncovered in

terms of scientific explanation. An ethnographic study undertaken by Pribadi and Wena
(2007) aimed at providing information about the irrigation structures and technologies as
scientific description of specific human cultures in Bali.

Table 2.4. Area and type of agricultural land use in Bali in 2008 (ha)
1 Agriculture land 355,800
1.1. Paddy wet field 81,400
a. Full technical irrigation 160
b. Semi technical irrigation 71,000
c. Simple irrigation by Public Works Department 5,100
d. Traditional irrigation 4,600
e. Non irrigation 490
f. Tides rise and fall based -
g. Lowland -
h. Polder and others -
1.2. Non paddy wet field 274,400
a. Field (Tegal/Kebun) 136,700
b. Field (Ladang) -
c. Estate crops 121,700
d. Wood land 10,400
e. Sea fish pond 680
f. Fish fond 290
g. Grassland -
h. Temporary not used 230
i. Others 4,400
2 Non agriculture land 207,200
a. House, building, and land surroundings 44,700
b. State forest 123,400
c. Swamp 100
d. Others 39,000
Total: 563,000
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009
Background and objectives 25

Another study on these elements had the objective to achieve better farming, which
needs some improvements in the scientific quality of Subak irrigation, especially related
to the hydraulic performance (Suanda et al., 2010). A fourth study was conducted based
on an inverse technique to find out if the ability of Subak irrigation can be transformed.
Then by the fuzzy set theory the dominance or ranks of the elements of Subak irrigation
can be determined, which are also a consideration in the transformation process (Windia
et al., 2010).
A study of the organization and history of Subak organizations and their efforts to
improve as irrigation institution has been done by Norken et al. (2010). Another study
presented how water shortages are ascribed to the dominance of the tourism industry,
private companies selling bottled drinking water and regional water delivery services in
Tukad Ayung River, all of which farmers hold responsible for crop failure in dry years
(Straub, 2011). Straub focused on the perspective of Subak members during water scarcity
caused by lack of coordination between privatized and previously centralized water
resource management based on economic priorities for the tourism sector and urban
regions, and water use for agriculture.
A model of the complex adaptive system of Balinese water temples by Lansing and
Kremer (1993) was developed to solve complex coordination problems in allocating water
and to control pests. The coordination problem can be solved by assuming the local rules
how individual communities make their decisions. Claims that have been made by
Lansing for explanatory power of this model are unwarranted. Therefore, there can be
doubt about the relation of the modeland the real-world events (cf., Elster, 1986; Smith,
1995; Vayda, 1995a). Janssen (2007) tested this model and found that the robustness of
their insights was determined by the ability of agents to self-organization, which was
sensitive to pest dynamics and assumptions of agent decision-making. According to his
opinion, if water availability is the key problem, it is wise to coordinate with others not to
use water at the same moment and the coordination among Subak farmers will require
more comprehensive behavioural rules than imitating the best neighbour.
26 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

2.7 Problem description

The study area is managed by Subak Agung Yeh Ho. Yeh Ho River has from upstream to
downstream 11 weirs, being: the new diversion weirs Aya and Penebel, the traditional
diversion weirs: Benana, Riang and Sigaran, and the new diversion weirs: Jegu and Caguh
in the upstream, the new diversion weir Meliling I in the midstream, and the new
Gadungan, Sungsang I, and Sungsang II weirs in the downstream. The cropping patterns
have been determined and agreed upon by Subak Agung Yeh Ho, which have been used
and are believed as fair under the traditional system of water distribution.
In the period 2003 - 2006, Meliling II Weir in the midstream has been replaced by
Telaga Tunjung Dam, which enabled storage and changed the function of the hydraulic
structure from a weir to a dam. Telaga Tunjung Reservoir with a surface area of 16.5 ha is
located in Village Timpag, Kerambitan District, Tabanan Regency, Bali Province. The
distance is 40 km northwest from Denpasar, the capital of the province. The dam is
located downstream of the confluence of Yeh Ho River and Yeh Mawa River.
In this case, the purpose of the weir was to elevate the water level in order to enable
gravity flow to the Subak irrigation systems, and the purpose of the dam is besides to
elevate the water level, to store water as well. Furthermore, the river flow downstream
changed quite significantly due to a change in water sharing since the reservoir became in
operation (Figures 2.9 and 2.10).
The following points contribute to the role of reservoir operation as managed by an
independent association in sustainable irrigation water supplies to Subak irrigation
systems managed by farmers, who can also develop their productivities in agricultural
income:
• shortage of water has developed;
• increased land conversion causes reduction in agricultural area and affects the river
basin;
• Subak farmers need to adapt their practices to the changed distribution of water from
diversion by a weir to storage and distribution from a reservoir.
Background and objectives 27

Figure 2.9. Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

(Department of Public Works, 2005)
28 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

SKEMATIK LAYANAN IRIGASI DAN AIR BAKU

BENDUNGAN TELAGA TUNJUNG Meliling Weir

Subak Meliling Weir

Telaga Tunjung Dam

420.00 Ha
Sb. Meliling
Sb. Buluh
Gadungan Weir

Tukad Yeh Lambuk

54.00 Ha 2.00 Ha Row Water Supply (141 1 / sec)
220.00 Ha 209.00 Ha
Sb. Pupuan Luan Sb. B.A. Klod (4) Sb. Gadungan (74) Sb. B. A. Klod
Sb. Nyampuan (21) Sb. B.A. Klod (107) Unit Tabanan
Unit Selemadeg Unit Kerambitan
Sb. Gede (81) Sb. Mangku (28) Ds. Sudimara
Ds. Bajera Ds. Tibubiu
Sb. Mungkling (6) Ds. Kelating
Ds. Antosari
Lambuk Weir Sb. Pande (7)
Ds. Tegal Mengkeb
Sb. Penarukan (77)
Ds. Tangguntiti
Tukad Yeh Hoo

55.00 Ha 33.00 Ha 461.00 Ha 180.00 Ha Ds. Beraban

Sb. Aseman I Sb. Aseman II Sb. Aseman V (87) S. Aseman III (56) Ds. Berembeng
Sb. Aseman VI (165) Sb. Aseman IV (125) Kawasan
Sb. Gebang Gading (209) Pariwisata Soka
(1.321 Ha)

Babakan Weir
Sungsang Weir
180.00 Ha 244.00 Ha 186.00 Ha
Sb. Aseman III (55) Sb. Sungsang Sb. Belumbang
Sb. Aseman IV (125)

247.00 Ha 340.00 Ha
Sb. Lanyah delod jalan Sb. Bbk Batuanan (21)
Sb. Bbk Batenan (13)

Tukad Yeh Lambuk River Tukad Yeh Hoo River

Lambuk Weir System 726.00 Ha Subak Meliling Weir System 420.00 Ha
Babakan Weir System 180.00 Ha Gadungan Weir System 485.00 Ha
Lanyah Weir System 281.00 Ha Sungsang Weir System 430.00 Ha
Sub Total 1187.00 Sub Total 1335.00

Figure 2.10. Subak irrigation schemes and Telaga Tunjung Reservoir (Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2006)
Background and objectives 29

2.8 Objectives

2.8.1 Research questions

Since the reservoir was built in the midstream of Yeh Ho River due to the change in river
flow downstream quite significant changes in the process of water sharing occurred
among the Subak irrigation schemes. Moreover, due to utilization of the Gembrong Spring
for domestic needs since 1987, there is a serious conflict on the water distribution among
the farmers within the river basin. This resulted in the following research questions:
• how can a Subak irrigation scheme result in sustainable productivity and even be
further developed under limited water resources?
• can new operation and maintenance technologies be applied in Subak irrigation
systems in order to improve agricultural production?
• which reservoir operation rule can best manage the flow within the river basin, and
how would it have to be applied by the river basin agency?
• how do farmers perceive the changes in the operation pattern of the water
distribution from the reservoir, while previously the water was distributed by a weir?
• what is the subsistence of the reservoir in terms of water conservation?
• how can the reservoir be operated to allocate the irrigation water in an optimum
way?
• how can the related Subak irrigation schemes best be operated in relation to the
reservoir operation?

2.8.2 Hypotheses

The hypothesis of this study is that it is possible to manage water resources in a

sustainable way particularly by managed flows of Subak irrigation systems within a river
basin, which is influenced by the potential water resources, water needs and
characteristics of a reservoir and its position in the river basin.
30 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

It is expected that managed flows within a river basin can be analysed in the form of
modelling and scenario analysis, where the factors described above are formulated in a
system approach that may result in a reservoir operation that is able to improve the
agriculture productivities in the Subak irrigation schemes.
This hypothesis is related to the objective of managed flow under Integrated Flood
Management (IFM) and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) that would
have to be: 'To imitate the natural flow conditions, as far as possible, in order to minimize
the adverse impacts on the livelihoods of people through eco-services' (World
Meteorological Organization, 2008).
The main purpose of building a reservoir for irrigation in the humid tropics is to
store water in the rainy season and to supply it in the dry season. The first characteristic is
the reservoir capacity. Mass curve analysis shows the fluctuating curve in the Rippl
diagram method (1883) as describing the mass supply, while the constant line is
describing the mass demand. The required storage capacity of a reservoir is the vertical
mass a+b (Figure 2.11).

Figure 2.11. Mass curve analysis (Rippl diagram method, 1883; Akintug, 2010)
Background and objectives 31

The discharge data of the midstream of Yeh Ho River have been considered. The
line of cumulative mass is more or less constant (Figure 2.12). Due to the construction of
the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir with an effective capacity of 1 million m3 a modified
operation and maintenance of the involved Subak irrigation systems, by changing it from
traditional operation of the diversion weir to reservoir operation (dam) is needed.

20 400
18 350
16

Cumulative Volume million m3

300
14
12 250

10 200
Q m3/s

8 150
6
100
4
2 50

0 0
2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Q days Cum Volume

Figure 2.12. Discharge characteristics midstream of Yeh Ho River in the South of Bali
(Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2011)

2.8.3 Research objectives

The main objective of this study is to develop an optimal reservoir and related Subak
irrigation systems operation, capable to support agricultural productivity at upstream,
midstream and downstream level.
From a scientific perspective, as shown in Figure 2.11, it is of importance whether
the river requires storage of water or not, which depends on the river flow characteristics.
Therefore, study was needed how the reservoir can best be operated. The research needed
32 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

to be conducted by considering the river basin as a whole system, which in this study is
the river with several Subak irrigation systems. Therefore, detailed objectives of study that
have been addressed are to:
• identify the type of river basin and to evaluate the land use;
• identify the contribution of the existing hydraulic structures in the main river system
in supplying water to the Subak irrigation schemes;
• identify and analyze the reliability of discharge in the main river system and the
inflow to the reservoir;
• analyze and determine the optimal outflow from the reservoir based on the needs of
the Subak irrigation schemes within the river basin;
• simulation of the reservoir operation and the operation of the related Subak
irrigation systems based on the needs of the Subak irrigation schemes at upstream,
midstream and downstream level to achieve optimal productivity of agriculture in a
sequence time of operation related to the cropping patterns of the Subak irrigation
schemes;
• to formulate recommendations on the future operation of the reservoir and related
Subak irrigation schemes.
3 Development of Subak irrigation schemes: learning
from experiences of ancient Subak schemes for
participatory irrigation system management in Bali

3.1 Introduction

Subak irrigation systems have been well known since the 9th Century. These systems are
managed by a Subak Association based on the Tri Hita Karana (THK) philosophy, as a
faith of Balinese-Hindus based on harmony between people and nature, harmony between
people and people, and harmony between human beings and God. This philosophy
underlies every activity of Subak farmers. For managing the Subak systems, Subak
Associations and farmers pursue the Subak regulation called Awig-awig Subak as the
togetherness consensus that was originally announced by the King and nowadays by the
Head of the Regency. As associations for irrigation system management, Subak
Associations have been already naturally adapted to Participatory Irrigation Management
(PIM). This chapter is based on a literature study to portray centuries of experience with
ancient Subak irrigation system management, in which PIM was represented by three
linked elements: PIM in irrigation system operation and maintenance; PIM with respect to
socio-culture and economics of agriculture; PIM in light of a religious community. While
several of these systems are now under stress, the results of this literature study may
hopefully contribute to sustainable PIM for the operation and maintenance of Subak
irrigation schemes in Bali during the forthcoming decades.
A special aspect of the paddy terraces landscapes is the water management in the
Subak irrigation schemes as shown in Figure 3.1 (Yekti et al., 2012). The successful
management by applying the Subak irrigation practice distinguishes Balinese terrace
management from other terrace management practices. Hence, the harmonious nature of
the Balinese cultural landscape based on the THK philosophy presents an excellent model
for sustainable development (Luchman et al., 2009).
The THK logo in Figure 3.2 implicitly contains a message for us to manage water
resources wisely in order to maintain their sustainability. The THK philosophy of
34 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

irrigation system management has three subsystems: (i) material subsystem (including
technology); (ii) social subsystem (including economy); (iii) cultural subsystem (way of
thinking, norms and principles). All subsystems have a balance with the environment as
shown in Figure 3.3.

Paddy terrace

Tri Hita Karana

philosophy

Figure 3.1. The characteristics of the paddy terraces as a cultural landscape in Bali bound
to the Balinese THK philosophy (Luchman et al., 2009)

Figure 3.2. Tri Hita Karana (THK) (Yekti et al., 2014)

Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 35

Cultural
subsystem

Social
Environment subsystem Environment

Material
subsystem

Figure 3.3. Links between subsystems in the socio-cultural community for irrigation
system management (after Arif, 1999)

As an association of landowners, that got the auspices from the Government, the
Subak Association has its regulation (Awig-awig Subak) (Arga, 2011). This regulation
was and still is applied to prosper the community based on the THK philosophy. For
Subak farmers, the Awig-awig Subak is a tool for management of the irrigation system.
The developing times can influence human behaviour and thinking patterns. This
also concerns the Subak farmers. Lorenzen et al. (2005) pointed out that all levels within
the Subak systems are autonomous and interdependent at the same time and showed that
even the formal regulations are still existent. Farmers at the lower level fine-tune the
system by relying on informal arrangements.
Present and future challenges faced by Balinese Subak farmers are: i) increasing
competition in marketing of agricultural products due to trade liberalization; ii) declining
interest of the rural youth to become farmer; iii) financial burden due to operation and
maintenance in the tertiary, quarternary, etc. level; iv) decline of irrigated land areas due
to conversion to other uses, such as tourism and industry; v) degradation of the
environment, limited availability of water resources and competition with other water
users; vi) the irrigation systems and hydraulic works are partially damaged; vii) ownership
of a farmer's land is 0.5 ha or less, making it difficult to achieve a decent life; viii) lack of
coordination and supervision from the Government since the lack of clarity by the Regent
(Great Sedahan), and the Head of the District (Sedahan) who were instrumental in
36 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

coordinating the management of water, consultations for the managers of Subak irrigation
schemes and as mediator in resolving conflicts.
Therefore, it was considered important to do a literature study on ancient Subak
irrigation, to enable formulation of key issues of the three linked elements: participatory
irrigation system management (PIM) in irrigation system operation and maintenance
(harmony between people and nature - physical including existing technology: the terraces
landscape and the hydraulic system, PIM with respect to socio-culture and economics of
agriculture (harmony of people and people - agreement/compromise between
Government/stakeholders and farmers within socio-culture and economic elements in
agriculture, including regulations and organizations, and PIM in light of a religious
community (harmony of human beings and God - faith/belief in God in the ceremonies
and hierarchy of Subak temples as core lake ecosystem/water is belonging together and a
blessing).

3.2 Method and discussion

In the initial period, people together in a community opened farmland and needed the
irrigation water to be distributed, arranged and managed from sources to their farmland.
Then Subak Associations were formed. In 1072, the first writing on Subak has been
recorded (Goris, 1954; Norken et al., 2007). However, as agricultural wetlands (rice
fields) they have already existed before the 11th Century (Purwita, 1986; Norken et al.,
2007). Moreover, it cannot be denied that the people have been participating
independently in communities related to sharing water by using socio-technical elements
as Subak irrigation schemes since long time ago.
Irrigation schemes are basically based on social and technical elements (Huppert and
Walker, l989; Pusposutardjo, l997b). A statement that irrigation schemes have a socio-
technical nature was supported by the Government Regulation (Peraturan
Pemerintah/PP) 77/2001. While Subak irrigation schemes are based on the THK
philosophy, it also means that it are systems of socio-technical nature, in which the
technology is fused with the socio-cultural elements of local communities. The character
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 37

of the Subak technology has been identified by Poespowardojo (l993), as the technology
that has evolved into the culture of the people. The form of THK in the management of
irrigation water in Subak irrigation schemes is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Socio-technical nature of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy in Subak irrigation
scheme management (after Windia et al., 2005)
Contents of
Implementation of Tri Hita Karana
Tri Hita Karana
1. Cultural subsystem • water is considered highly valued and respected, and is
1.1 Religious elements created by the One Almighty God
(Gatra parhyangan) • the temple is a place of worship of the One Almighty God,
and regarded as part of the control mechanism for
managing irrigation water
• regular religious ceremonies
1.2 Human relation elements • irrigation water management based on the concept of
(Gatra pawongan) harmony and togetherness
1.3 Natural relation elements • special land is provided for holy buildings (temples) at
(Gatra palemahan) locations where it is considered to be important
• the remaining land near distribution boxes is used for holy
buildings (temples), so conflicts over land can be avoided
2. Social subsystem • there is a regulation called Awig-awig
2.1 Religious elements • accountability of irrigation water management
(Gatra parhyangan) • rights of water and land are respected
• there is a system of additional water for downstream called
pelampias in irrigation water management
2.2 Human relation elements • there is a flexible structure of the Subak Association
(Gatra pawongan) • there is mutual cooperation and payment of contribution to
succeed the Subak activities
• there are routine meetings of the Subak Association
2.3 Natural relation elements • the Subak's members permit the building of holy buildings
(Gatra palemahan) (temples) at remaining land near distribution boxes
38 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 3.1. continued

3. Material subsystem • water flows continuously through the distribution boxes. It
3.1 Religious elements is managed by using this system that is overseen by the
(Gatra parhyangan) One Almighty God, also there has been presence of temples
near the distribution boxes
• a concept of water distribution unit with continuous flow
called tektek in any of the distribution boxes of the Subak
systems is considered to distribute the irrigation water
fairly and proportionally
• mutual cooperation between the members of the Subak
Association and the ordinary members, so the Subak
programs can be completed by harmony and togetherness
3.2 Human relation elements • cooperation between the members of the Subak Association
(Gatra pawongan) and the ordinary members, so the Subak programs can be
done by harmony and togetherness
• coordination between Subak leaders with other
stakeholders in the area, such stakeholders are customary
village, village agency, government agencies and others, in
order to achieve that the Subak programs are properly
implemented
3.3 Natural relation elements • topography of Subak schemes is typically sloping area
(Gatra palemahan) • every paddy block of one farmer has one inlet and one
outlet
• boundaries of Subak schemes are naturally clear
• presence of hydraulic structures and irrigation systems are
suitable with the needs of the local farmers
• use of local materials in support of the irrigation systems

Scientifically it still needs to be explored how the THK philosophy has been and has
to be implemented related to the Subak irrigation schemes. The THK philosophy in Subak
irrigation is a faith of Balinese-Hindus to maintain all elements in agriculture. However,
Roth and Sedana (2015) stated that the scientific and policy concepts in irrigated
agriculture and the Subak domain as an ideology are not simply based on local wisdom,
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 39

tradition or culture but that it requires critical scientific scrutiny as part of wider processes
of socio-political change.
The etymologically meaning of the THK philosophy is the love of truth or the love
of wisdom instead of an ideology, which is a systematic assemblage of ideas, believes and
truths to provide direction of communities in various aspects of life, as politics, law,
defence and security, social-culture and religious activities. Starting from the THK
philosophy the goal of scientific engagement can further be developed without limits.

3.2.1 PIM in irrigation system operation and maintenance

As stated before, for centuries, the Balinese have built diversions in rivers or canals to
irrigate their paddy terraces fields without worrying about the flow of water through the
fields. This condition allowed individual farmers and Subak Associations to have access
to each other's irrigation water. Prior to the Majapahit era, these activities were done
independently. During the Majapahit Kingdom (1343 - 1500) there was Government
influence by the head of the Subak regency (Asedahan), who served to coordinate water
arrangements among the Subak irrigation schemes and coordinated collection/tribute/
incentive of land taxes (sewenih/tigasana). After the Majapahit Kingdom this was done by
the head of the district (Sedahan) until the Dutch Colonial period with regency
government officers (Sedahan Agung), the Government intervened related to coordination
of operation and maintenance (Norken et al., 2010). In the Dutch Colonial period, a start
was made with the building of permanent hydraulic structures (empelan), like weirs and
other supporting structures, such as primary and secondary canals and discharge
measurement structures, such as Cipoletti and Thomson weirs.
After independence, starting in 1986, the standard of irrigation systems was
completely described in the Irrigation Planning Standards (Standard Perencanaan Irigasi)
in seven series of books with Planning Criteria (KP) by the Department of Public Works.
Moreover, the infrastructure and facilities for irrigation have been discussed related to the
system and the operation and maintenance of it within the context of a river basin in line
with the most recent laws and regulations, such as Government Regulation (PP) 20 / 2006
40 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

on irrigation, and Act number 7/2004 on water resources, that was cancelled in 2015.
Therefore, since then in fact activities have to be based on the laws and regulations
preceeding to this law.
Subak irrigation schemes consist of simple irrigation structures. The general
technology of the hydraulic structures of the schemes consists of (Yekti et al., 2013): i) a
diversion/intake (buka or bungas), or weir (empelan); ii) primary canals (telabah gede),
secondary canals (telabah pemaron), tertiary canals (telabah cerik), quarternary canals
(telabah pengalapan) to distribute the water to several owners of paddy fields. If one
quarternary canal belongs to 5 owners, it is called telabah panca, and if one canal belongs
to 10 owners, it is called telabah penasan. The canal that is used to distribute the water
evenly within one small field is called talikunda; iii) primary boxes (tembuku aya),
secondary boxes (tembuku pemaron), tertiary boxes (tembuku cerik), and boxes to
distribute water among several owners of paddy fields (tembuku penyahcah). If one box
belongs to 5 owners, it is called tembuku panca, and if one box belongs to 10 owners, it is
called tembuku penasan. The box to distribute water for one owner is called tembuku
pengalapan; iv) water distribution unit (tektek/kecoran) (Figure 3.4); v) to break through
hills there may be tunnels (aungan); vi) the structure at the end of a tunnel is called kibul,
drain (pengutangan), and receiving water body (pangkung) (Figures 3.5 and 3.6).

Figure 3.4. Typical water distribution unit (tektek or kecoran)

Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 41

Legend:
= primary box (tembuku aya)
= secondary box (tembuku pemaron)
= tertiary box (tembuku cerik)
= box to distribute water for many owners of paddy fields (tembuku
penyahcah)
B1, B2, and B3 = water users associations (tempek) in Subak B
Drain (pengutangan)
Receiving water body (pangkung)

Figure 3.5. Subak irrigation systems with hydraulic structures from the source to the
paddy fields (after Gany, 2004)
42 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 3.6. Irrigation water flow in farmer's paddy fields (Sutawan, 2008)

Simple constructions without sluice gates have enabled Subak farmers to: (i)
regulate water based on a water allocation system agreed upon by all members; (ii)
distribute water through the diversions to the paddy terraces blocks in various ways,
according to the availability of water simultaneously or rotationally; (iii) release excess
water to drains (pengutangan). Therefore, members of a Subak Association have three
activities namely (Yekti et al., 2014):
(i) allocation and distribution of irrigation water. Irrigation water allocation is an
activity that entitles the use of available water to each member behind a water
distribution unit (WDU, tektek/kecoran) with the following dimensions: 5 - 8 cm of
width and 1 - 2 cm of height. A section of rice fields with an area of about 0.3 - 0.4
ha is supplied from the main/secondary/tertiary/quarternary canal (Figure 3.7) under:
(i) a continuous flow system, or (ii) an agreed scheduling system (Sutawan, 2008).
The scheduling system may consist of:
∗ scheduling based on rotation of the cropping pattern (megilir);
∗ scheduling based on the starting time of land preparation in the paddy
cultivation season, which is called nyorog/nugel bumbung;
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 43

∗ scheduling based on the season: wet season called masa and dry season gadon;
∗ scheduling based on the period of water use right in a year (tebak taun) or the
period to plant rapid growing rice (tebak cicih);
(ii) the transfer mechanism among the members of the Subak Association behind a
single weir, within a Subak irrigation system, and between the Subak irrigation
schemes (Figure 3.7). The transfer procedure of irrigation water is based on mutual
dealing among water users and is coordinated by the leader of the Subak irrigation
subsystem called Pekaseh and for a total Subak irrigation system called Subak Gede.
All Subak irrigation schemes within a river basin are called Subak Agung. Here the
coordination is by the leaders of the large Subak irrigation schemes called Pekaseh
Subak Gede and the leader of Subak irrigation schemes in a river basin, called
Pekaseh Subak Agung. In the past the auspices of Government rested with the King.

Subak leader in the Irrigation observer

river basin/
Pekaseh Subak Agung
(2)
(1) a b
Subak/Subak Gede Subak/Subak Gede Weir warden
borrower supplier
coordination
(1) the borrower consults and makes a letter
(2) the recommendation letter is given to the supplier and weir
warden, who will operate the intake gate

Figure 3.7. Transfer procedure of irrigation water along the Yeh Ho River

(iii) procedure for operation and maintenance of the irrigation systems. Implementation
of Article 18 of the Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing Regulation No.
04/PRT/M/2015 on Criteria and Designation of Irrigation Status is based on
irrigation areas for decision-making in which the Government manages the irrigation
systems at primary and secondary level. Thus, the construction of new canals, weirs,
reservoirs or other structures and the financing of operation and maintenance at the
primary and secondary level are under government responsibility.
44 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Although the Government has the responsibility for operation and maintenance of
the primary and secondary canals, it sometimes uses the Subak farmers to maintain the
main system. On the other hand, if there is damage in the lower level system, the Subak
Association can request for a grant from the Government. Even though the grant is not
launched immediately, the Subak farmers still can solve their technical problems with
their indigenous knowledge and individual financial resources (Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.8. Segregation of duties among Subak members in minor financing of physical
improvement and irrigation system maintenance

The Subak Associations have a mechanism for minor financing of physical

improvement and maintenance at lower level as shown in Figure 3.8. The operation and
maintenance of water distribution units is controlled by occasionally using intermittent
irrigation. However, the water in the primary, secondary, tertiary and quarternary canals
still flows to the lower level schemes. Subak farmers have the duties of operation and
maintenance at the lower level (Figure 3.8), starting from the tertiary canals and tertiary
boxes (II), quarternary boxes (III, IV, V, and VI), and the boxes for 5 or 10 landowners
(VII, VIII, and IX).
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 45

The indigenous regulation for institutional management and water sharing (Awig-
awig Subak) has survived to cope with the traditional conditions for more than a thousand
years. The Awig-awig Subak describes all aspects related to water distribution and law for
Subak members. As long as the water sharing is agreed upon by the members of the
Subak Association, although it may be scientifically not quite accurate, they will accept it
as a fair and equitable water sharing.
Subak Associations obtain financing from two sources: i) external budget from
government grants; ii) internal budget from fees and independent business. Each Subak
Association has its own way to get the budget to operate and maintain the physical
systems at the tertiary and/or lower level. Overall, the funding process is sufficiently
flexible that farmers may direct government funds as they see fit, and they invariably
claim to channel funds towards the uses that they prioritise. Even with the more heavy-
handed government agendas during the Suharto era (1967 - 1998), farmers often imposed
their own agendas using strategies ranging from overt resistance to more subtle 'everyday
forms of resistance' (Scott, 1985; Pedersen and Dharmiasih 2015).

3.2.2 PIM with respect to socio-culture and economics of agriculture

As socio-cultural and economic agricultural organizations Subak Associations had already

a complete institutional system. In addition, Subak Associations had the areas and the
water sources of their own. Thus, it is reasonable that the Subak Associations are regarded
as autonomous organizations that run their irrigation systems accordingly based on the
Subak regulation. The contents of the regulation are proposed by the Subak farmers, who
are the actors in the field.
The authorities did not interfere in the construction, operation and maintenance of
the irrigation schemes. The Subak members conducted this independently, without
external financial support. In the Kingdom era, the King merely gave permission to his
people to crush the forest and to open new fields, as well as, to raise the river flow for
irrigation by building weirs (empelan). The farmers were required to pay by using the
tribute of crops. The Subak autonomy was widespread, as revealed by the fact that each
46 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Subak Association had its own regulation, which was defined by democratic consensus
that could be different from others, including their organizational assembly. The assembly
of a Subak Association is shown in the Figures 3.9 and 3.10.

Leader/Pekaseh Subak Agung

1 secretary (penyarikan)
1 treasurer (juru raksa)
4 general officers

Leader/Pekaseh Subak Gede

Deputy leader/Pekaseh Subak Gede

1-2 secretaries (penyarikan)

1-2 treasurers (juru raksa)
General officers

Water users associations

(WDU (tempek) level)

Figure 3.9. Association structure of Subak Agung Yeh Ho (after Sutawan, 2008)

Also in 1908 during the Dutch colonial period, very high authority was given to the
Regency Government officers in their territory to coordinate the District Government
officers in order to increase the contribution for the Dutch Colonial Government (Norken
et al., 2010). The aim was to increase revenues from farmers' tax on land, and the
selection of Subak leaders was done by the Regency Government officers or District
Government officers. The financial accountability of the Subak Associations was
controlled as well by these officials (Graders, 1939). During the Dutch colonial period the
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 47

role of the head of Subak regency (Asedahan) was transferred to the supervisor of the
Subak irrigation schemes (Sedahan/Sedahan Yeh/Penglurah) at the district level, and the
head of Subak regency became the supervisor at regency level (Sedahan Agung).

Chairman/Pekaseh Subak Gede

Vice-chairman of Pekaseh Subak Gede

Secretary (penyarikan)
Treasurer (juru raksa)
General officers

Chairman/Pekaseh Subak scheme

Vice-chairman of Pekaseh Subak scheme

Secretary (penyarikan)
Treasurer (juru raksa)
General officers

Leader of water users association/

Kelian tempek
(each scheme has several tempek)

Information carrier (juru arah)

Members water users association/

Krama tempek
(all of them are Subak members)

Figure 3.10. Association structure of Subak Gede in Tabanan Regency

(after Sutawan, 2008)
48 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

After the proclamation of independence in 1945, one of the most significant roles of
the Regency Government officers and District Government officers was in the field of
water distribution management among the water sources and among the Subak irrigation
schemes. Normally the Subak members were obedient to the decisions of the Regency
Government officers and District Government officers with respect to the water
management. They were charismatic and highly respected (Norken et al., 2010).
Regency's Government officers had responsibility as coordinator for managing water and
as advisor for resolving conflicts. In this period the Regency's Government officer
function was held by the Head of the Department of Local Revenue (DISPENDA). In
1972, the Government established formally - by Article 14 of the Regional Regulation of
Bali Province (Pasal 14 PERDA No. 02/PD/DPRD/1972) - that Subak Associations as the
traditional institutions were authorized to manage their own administration.
After 1998 during the reform era, Regency Government officers had no role
anymore as coordinator for managing water and as advisor for resolving conflicts.
Because the supervision of Subak irrigation schemes was divided over several of the
responsible Departments, such as for social cultural matters under the Department of
Culture and Tourism, for agriculture under the Department of Agriculture, for irrigation
schemes (Daerah Irigasi) below 1000 ha under the District Government, between 1000
and 3000 ha under the Provincial Government and above 3000 ha under the Central
Government, for a river basin under the Regional Office River Basin Bali-Penida. Since
the launching of the Regional Government Autonomy Policy in 2000 the Regency
Government officers and District Government officers have lost their power.
Consequently, the Subak leaders lost their coordinating role in settling down disputes.
Therefore, nowadays conflicts frequently occur in matters of water use among Subak
members (Norken et al., 2010).
The river basin organization Subak Agung Yeh Ho was established in 1991. The
competition between Subak farmers with other users has been investigated in this river
basin (Yekti et al., 2012). Since late 1990, the accounted discharge of some diversion
weirs showed a reduction of discharge in the river, as a result the distribution of water to
the irrigation systems was disturbed (Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2006). This
may have been caused by the fact that since 1987 the Bali Province Government, under
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 49

the management of the Local Water Supply Utility (Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum
(PDAM)) as regional-owned corporation (Badan Usaha Milik Daerah (BUMD)), has
utilized the spring water for domestic purposes beyond its share of 65%. In 2001, in
response to the claim of the Subak farmers in the upstream schemes, Tabanan Regency
Government decided to restore the 35% allocation of Gembrong Spring for them under
Subak Agung Yeh Ho. However, this is not really being followed in practice.
The claim of the Subak farmers became fragile, because the value of irrigation water
is significantly lower than the prices of domestic water and of hydropower. Furthermore,
it will have a significant impact on the price of unhusked rice that is pegged by the
Government, compared to the price of consumption rice in the market. According to the
Central Bureau of Statistics Bali Provinsi (2013), per October 2013, the selling rate of
unhusked rice by the farmers was Rp 3,923 per kg, and Rp 4,013 per kg for rice millers,
while the Cost of Goods Sold (Harga Pokok Penjualan) of rice set out by the Government
was Rp 3,300 per kg, and the minimum price of consumption rice in the market was
approximately Rp 9,000 per kg.*
Before 2015, the Governments of Bali Province and the regencies were charged to
implement Law No. 7/2004 on Water Resources and had to form a Water Resources
Council for the Subak irrigation schemes, namely an Irrigation Commission. The re-
introduction of the Regency Government officer and District Government officer
functions as supervisors from the Government authority was required. This was in
accordance with the Public Works Ministry Rule (Permen) 31/PRT/M/2007 regarding the
Irrigation Commission Guidelines (Norken et al., 2010). During this period, to face the
challenges of water resources development, the authorities in charge of the coordination of
the Subak irrigation schemes within a river basin (Subak Agung) and of the individual
Subak irrigation schemes (Subak Gede) were appointed as members of this commission.
Accordingly, the Subak farmers had a voice to give their opinion related to everything that
occurred in the field. Therefore, decisions that were announced by the Government were
also based on the voice of the Subak farmers.

*
Rp 10,000 = US$ 0.96 average price level for 2013
50 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

As said before the Water Resources Law was cancelled because it did not meet the
six basic principles of water resources management restriction. One of these, the fifth
principle related to the customary rights of indigenous people who depended on water
resources, was also recognized in accordance with Article 18B (2) of the 1945
Constitution. The regulations about inauguration unity customary law community are still
alive through the Regional Regulation (Peraturan Daerah-Perda). It does not have a
constitutive, but it a declarative status.
With respect to this it is also important that water resources utilization for other
countries was principally not allowed. The Government only allowed giving the
permission to other countries if the water supply to their own people's needs had been
sufficient. The needs referred to daily needs, sanitation system, agriculture, energy,
industry, mining, transportation, forestry and biodiversity, sports, recreation and tourism,
ecosystems, aesthetic and other needs. Based on all the foregoing considerations the rights
on authorization over water resources by the State is the 'soul' or 'heart' of the Law No.
7/2004 on Water Resources as mandated by the 1945 Constitution' (Anjasari, 2015).
However, this does not influence the Subak irrigation that is based on the Awig-awig
Subak, indeed the Subak farmers tended to have a voice in the arrangement of the
Irrigation Commission during the period 2007 - 2014.
Furthermore, the paddy terraces landscape is a famous destination of tourism in Bali.
In future, Bali tourism ultimately depends on the preservation of their rich and
harmonious culture and natural landscapes. While tourism can potentially damage the
island's ecosystems, the indigenous THK philosophy promotes sustainable development in
several ways. First, the THK philosophy provides rules and guidelines by which humans
can live in the biosphere in a sustainable manner. Second, the Balinese system is able to
facilitate indigenous knowledge preservation and its application in the community.
Nowadays, indigenous techniques such as ethno-ecology are widely practiced to manage
the island's resources, and significantly contribute to the sustainable development agenda
(Martin, 1995; Dudley et al., 2005; Mercer et al., 2007; Luchman et al., 2009).
To make the livelyhood of the Subak farmers more economic, it is important to
undertake such practices and creating indigenous community support for the sustainability
of resources, especially with respect to agricultural products, use of in Subak irrigation
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 51

schemes cultivated products in the hotels, and other forms of cooperation. The increasing
income for farmers related to the prices of agriculture products requires Government
oversight together with the role of private sector fairly, based on the third element of the
THK philosophy, harmony between people and people.

3.2.3 PIM in light of a religious community

The religious element is still kept by the Subak farmers in their activities. Generally, the
ritual activities are conducted collectively and individually (Sutawan, 2008). The temple
of the Subak religious community is the place where the collective ritual activities are
conducted. It concerns that they appreciate God Almighty (Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa) for
granting the sources of water and the locations to where the water is distributed. The
routine of collective ritual activities that they do in these places expresses that they are
always reminded by God to maintain and share the water fairly.
The Subak collective and individual ritual activities are very diverse. All ritual
elements are related to agriculture activities. The collective ritual activities are conducted
by Subak members within cross-districts and regencies, and related to sustainability of
water sources such as: ritual for hope on success for the period of the paddy session
(ngusaba), ritual for hope on success for the full session (pakelem), ritual at the beginning
of diverting water from the river to the primary canal (magpag toya), ritual for the hope of
God's blessing of the farmers (ngerestiti), and ritual for the hope to be prevented from pest
attacks (nangluk merana).
The individual ritual activities are conducted by the Subak farmers at the lowest
level, related to the activities during the planting season such as: ritual just before
cultivating the land (ngendagin), ritual after ploughing the land (ngerasakin), ritual
starting to plant seeds (pengwiwit), ritual for choosing the best day for planting (nuansen),
ritual for calling and hoping for cleaning of weeds (ngulapin), ritual 12 days after planting
(ngeroras), ritual for spreading slurry and hoping for fertility (mubuhin), ritual one month
after planting and hoping that attacks of pest can be prevented (neduh), ritual two month
after planting (nyungsung), ritual when rice is flowering (nyiwa seraya), ritual just before
52 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

paddies begin to bear fruit (biukungkung), ritual just before harvesting and hoping for the
best result (mebanten manyi), ritual after storing paddies in a granary (mantenin), and
ritual for hoping that God will bless the farmer (ngerestiti).
All the religious activities are conducted vertically from the top to the lowest level
of the hierarchy of the Subak temples and depend on the kind and the time of the ritual to
be carried out. The schedule of the ritual activities is in line with the cropping patterns
within the river basin (Subak Agung) and the individual irrigation systems (Subak Gede).
The ritual activities, contribute to unity of the Subak members, and are expected to reduce
conflicts that may arise with their activities in agriculture. Subak farmers believe the
philosophy that water is belonging together, the philosophy that water is a blessing, and
the coordination with others will sustain the Subak ecosystem.
According to Surata (2003) in the four lakes of Bali - Lake Batur, Lake Beratan,
Lake Buyan and Lake Tamblingan - Subak temples, called Ulun Danu Temple, became
the core of the management of the ecosystem itself, while Bali is formed by the
management of the lake ecosystems. The Ulun Danu Temple is located on the edge of
Lake Batur, and of Lake Beratan for three lakes (Beratan, Buyan and Tamblingan). The
Ulun Danu Temple for Lake Batur is shown as number 1 in Figure 3.11, and for Lake
Beratan for three lakes by the numbers 1 and 2 in Figure 3.12.
According to Lansing (1987), there are four types of hierarchy of Subak temples or
water temples (Pura Subak) in the Bali Regencies as shown in the Figures 3.11 and 3.12.
The hierarchy of the Subak temples is connected to the Subak irrigation schemes
(technology of the hydraulic structures of the schemes, see the first aspect of PIM). Near
the weir (empelan) is the temple called Ulun Suwi as number 5 in Figure 3.11a, near the
primary and secondary boxes/diversion structures are temples called Ulun Empelan as
number 6 in Figure 3.11 and Ulun Bedugul as number 7 in Figure 3.11, and near the
distribution units (tektek) is a temple called Ulun Carik (number 7 or 8 in Figures 3.11 and
3.12 of the hierarchy of Subak temples).
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 53

(a) (b)
Figure 3.11. Hierarchy of Subak temples for Lake Batur in Bangli, Gianyar and Badung
Regencies (a) in Karangasem Regency (b) (after Sutawan, 2008)

(a) (b)
Figure3.12. Hierarchy of Subak temples for the three lakes in Buleleng Regency (a) and in
Tabanan Regency (b) (after Sutawan, 2008)
54 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Pedersen and Dharmiasih (2015) state that the 'ritual technology', needs to reframe
the debate surrounding the THK concept, which condemns its application in contemporary
agendas. The extent to which its principles resonate with farmers, including the focus on
temples and rituals cannot be ignored. Certainly, the direction of government funds to
'ritual technology' is part of a State project and it is about priorities defined by the State,
including cultural preservation and tourism. However, when it is being looked at from the
ground up - 'seeing like a farmer' as shown in Stephan Lorenzen (2008) thesis title - it
accords with farmer beliefs and priorities. Farmers work with the flexibility that they can
have within the State and State directives to make decisions that make sense to them given
their knowledge and circumstances. They do this even in the changing modern lifestyle in
human civilization that has taken place. For instance, in the past, they walked from their
house to the locations of the ceremonies, and in the modern era, they use motor cycles and
vehicles. Yet, in some places and for specific ceremonies, some Balinese-Hindus still
walk to the location of the ceremony, even though they have motor cycles and vehicles.
They believe that the THK philosophy is capable to adjust in wise value to be relevant in
their aspects of life.

3.3 Result and conclusion

This chapter illustrates that the THK philosophy as principle value and the regulation of
the Subak Association (Awig-awig Subak) as togetherness consensus can be consistent by
developing and changing the three linked elements: PIM in irrigation system operation
and maintenance, PIM with respect to socio-culture and economics of agriculture, and
PIM in light of a religious community. From the Kingdom era to the present, some
behaviour and thinking patterns have changed. This can affect the socio-culture and
economics of agriculture in the Subak irrigation schemes and the religious community.
Moreover, there are concerns how the values of the THK philosophy can be applied
consistently, although there have been dynamic changes in human civilization.
The lesson learned from the ancient Subak schemes is to have natural resources of
topography, especially in the paddy terraces landscape, water resources and soils based on
Learning from experiences of ancient Subak schemes in Bali 55

the principles of ecosystem management by using the THK philosophy. This philosophy
also influences all the activities of participatory irrigation management related to those
three linked elements in Bali.
Accordingly, Subak farmers irrigate their paddy terraces based on continuous flow
related to the natural hilly topography, the specific location of water sources and type of
soils. Then, Subak farmers make together a deal in Awig-awig Subak about opening and
closing the irrigation water supply that only applies to the WDUs (tektek). Therefor this
routine is shown in Table 3.1 related to the social subsystem and the material subsystem,
especially on the religious element. Also the system of one inlet and one outlet, as
mentioned in Table 3.1 about the material subsystem on the natural relation element,
enforced Subak irrigation schemes to apply the principle of justice in the management that
has been adjusted to the natural environment and has proven to be an effective system.
This effective system needs to be sustainable related to the agricultural productivity under
limited water resources by updated operation and maintenance, based on a scenario
analysis with five scenarios to improve agricultural production, that will be discussed in
the next Chapters. However, the results can be accepted wisely by Subak farmers based on
the element of THK on harmony among people.
Although the the Subak farmers are reluctant to change to new irrigation practices,
such practices can in principle be useful for them as has been shown by Arsana (2012) and
Sumiyati et al. (2013). The three scenario ideas by Lorenzen (2015) about: i)
disintegration; ii) formalisation; iii) reinvention by contemplating the future of Balinese
irrigation societies can inspire how the Subak communities, especially Subak farmers will
adapt their practices in light of the future challenges.
At last, it is important that the Subak farmers believe and retain their indigenous
knowledge in managing and maintaining the hierarchy of Subak temples as the right
places to unite and persuade people in preserving the ecosystem.
4 Subak in the south of Bali: discharge analysis for a
system approach to river basin development with
Subak irrigation schemes as a culture heritage

4.1 Introduction

Depending on the location of the Subak irrigation scheme, an area of about 0.3 - 0.4 ha
can generally be supplied by each water distribution unit. These units are supplied from
the main/secondary/tertiary/quarternary canals within the system by using either
continuous flow or an agreed scheduling of the water supply.
According to Geertz (1984), the details related to the technological elements of
Subak irrigation schemes are very complex and have not been disclosed to researchers. In
1998 the Department of Public Works started to document the Subak irrigation schemes
by addressing the traditional, technological and religious elements. This study was based
on the understanding that the sustainability of indigenous paddy terraces depends on the
availability of the discharge in the river at all stages in the river basin.
Therefore, one of the objectives of the present study was to analyze the available
discharge from historical data on the weirs. This analysis can support the system of water
supply to the paddy terraces in the Subak irrigation schemes in order to sustain
agricultural productivity at all stages in the river basin.

4.2 Study of a river basin

The Yeh Ho River Basin (160 km2) is located in the South of Bali. Yeh Ho River has a
length of 45 km. There are 5,268 ha of irrigated fields along the river. Since the 1990s, the
organization Subak Agung Yeh Ho is in charge of the management of this river basin.
Yeh Ho River is a perennial river. The basin characteristics of Yeh Ho River have an
elongated shape with the main river on the right side (Figure 4.1). Yeh Ho River has three
sections, which include upstream, midstream and downstream. The water diversion
58 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

system in the upstream is called first time (ngulu), in the midstream second time
(maongin) and in the downstream last time (ngasep).
Following source capturing of Gembrong Spring, the sequence of twelve diversion
weirs is (Department of Public Works, 2004): Aya and Penebel (new weirs), Benana,
Riang and Sigaran (old weirs), then Jegu and Caguh (new weirs) in the upstream, Meliling
I in the midstream, and Gadungan, Sungsang I and Sungsang II in the downstream (Figure
4.1). In the period 2003 - 2006, Meliling II diversion weir was changed into Telaga
Tunjung Dam in the midstream, built by the Department of Public Works. Due to the
construction of the dam, the traditional way of water distribution has been influenced and
therefore a new optimal distribution has to be determined. Because the topography of the
river basin is relatively steep and the section of the river comparatively V-shaped, the
storage volume is quite small compared to the storage height. The effective capacity of
Telaga Tunjung Reservoir is 1 million m3, and the height of the main dam is 33 m.

Figure 4.1. Yeh Ho River Basin and Subak irrigation schemes

Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 59

4.3 Managed flow approach in Yeh Ho River Basin

In the Yeh Ho River the purpose of the weirs was and is to elevate the water level in order
to enable gravity flow to the Subak irrigation schemes, and the purpose of the dam is
elevating the water level and to store water as well. The present study can support the
development of the arrangements of water supply to the paddy terraces of the Subak
irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin in order to sustain agricultural productivity at
the upstream, midstream and downstream level. Subak irrigation is especially taking place
in Tabanan Regency. Due to the good soil fertility, Tabanan Regency successfully
produced a paddy harvest at 22,455 ha of rice fields in 2010. The production was
approximately 5 tons/ha of unhusked rice or 2.85 tons/ha of husked rice. Although the
changes in land use from paddy fields to housing, farmlands and dry fields have increased
with 0.3% over the last two years, the paddy production was relatively stable (Statistical
Central Agency, 2010).
Based on the managed flow approach by Acreman (2010), the present study was
conducted to determine the managed flow related to defined links between flow regime
and function of the river, to define the managed flow options, and to assess impacts of the
managed flow options. The results of the study may support the analysis of the river basin
with the Subak irrigation schemes as specified in Figure 4.2.

4.4 Method and material

Gupta (2012) suggests that we need a paradigm shift towards an information-based

framework for model identification, one that draws both on modern system and
information theories, but also on the considerable conceptual (hydrological) knowledge
that was historically developed and exploited before cheap computing made it so easy to
analyse problems digitally.
60 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Start

Objectives managed Assess other - river basin area

Paddy
flow: feasibilities: - hydrologic analysis
terraces CHARACTERISTIC
1. irrigation - water treatment - river characteristics
- flow regime PADDY TERRACES
2. domestic need plan
- micro hydro - reservoir + dam
characteristics
Develop full
stakeholder Physical Socio-agricultural
involvement and Define managed
technical expertise flow options
- minimizing rapid
surface irrigation Bali Water Temple
Select the best water Cropping pattern
Subak managed flow by - mitigation of soil
association simulation erosion Indigenous water
- reduce landslides management (Subak Tri Hita
association) Karana
Operation of managed flow in philosophy
MANAGED FLOW hydraulic structure of dam
MODEL APPROACH Land/soil - maximise yield
conservation - reduce pest
- mitigate social conflict
No Monitoring and
evaluation of
operation Sustainable indigenous paddy terrace

Yes

End

Figure 4.2. Development of managed flows model approach for sustainable water supplies to Subak irrigation schemes
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 61

Daily data inflows have been obtained from seven of the diversion weirs along the
Yeh Ho River for which complete data of the period 2002 – 2010 are available. These
data have been used for empirical flow frequency analysis. A popular method of studying
the variability of streamflow is through flow duration curves that can be regarded as
standard reporting output from hydrological data processing. The data were used for
(DHV Consultants BV and Delft Hydraulics, 1999):
• evaluation of dependable flows in planning water resources engineering projects;
• evaluation of the characteristics of the hydropower potential of a river;
• assessment of the effects of river regulation and abstractions on river ecology;
• design of drainage systems;
• flood control studies;
• computation of the sediment load and dissolved solids load of a river;
• comparison of adjacent river basins.

The traditional way of water distribution of Subak irrigation takes advantage of

mutual agreements on using water through the continuous flow system. Based on this
system, the recoverable flow (natak tiyis) to the river also plays an important role as a
source of water to the diversion weirs downstream. As a result, it is important to analyze
the overflow weir data at the same time. The analysis has been done on a daily basis.
Meanwhile, in evaluating dependable flows, frequency analysis has been applied on
the daily mean discharges. The analysis has been used in assisting the execution of the
regulation and water distribution, which supplies the paddy terraces in the Subak
irrigation schemes. Moreover, it has been used as inflow to the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
for further use downstream within the river basin.
By using the Weibull formula, the historic supply data of several diversion weirs
were analyzed independently. This formula enables to provide a reasonably accurate
forecast based on small samples, as well as a simple and useful plot, which is important to
engineers and managers (Abernethy, 2002). In the Weibull formula the n values (number
of years) are distributed uniformly between 0 and 100 percent probability, so there must
be n + 1 intervals, n – 1 between the data points 1 and 2 at the ends (Chow et al., 1988):
62 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

�
P (� ≥ �� ) = 4-1
���

where:
P = probability plotting (%)
X = random variable
�� = probability distribution associated with the rank m
m = ranking position
n = number of years

The analysis procedure is as follows:

• the frequency or number of maximum to minimum occurrences m in n years of 365
daily discharge data has been selected. The daily inflow, diversion, and overflow
data have been selected as well;
• the 80% of failure probability of the data has been analyzed to determine the
minimum discharge. The percentage of probability of 50% can be considered as the
mean discharge;
• the mean daily inflow, diversion and overflow have been plotted against the days;
• the water balance of each diversion weir has been represented by a graph.

4.5 Results and discussion

Before Telaga Tunjung Reservoir was built Subak Agung Yeh Ho managed 5,130 ha of
paddy fields. Since the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir has been in operation the cropping
patterns have changed as shown in Table 4.1. The cropping patterns in specific months
have been determined and agreed by the Subak farmers. For many centuries, the cropping
patterns as shown in Table 4.1 have been used and believed to be a fair system of water
distribution. It is observed that the discharge in the river will remain the most important
factor to sustain the cropping patterns. In addition to this the water balance of each weir
(empelan) has been used to determine the availability of water in relation with supplying
paddy terraces in the concerned Subak irrigation schemes.
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 63

Table 4.1. Cropping patterns in Subak Agung Yeh Ho before and after Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir came into operation
Subak irrigation Functional Blocks When to start land
scheme paddy fields preparation
Upstream Midstream Downstream
(Ngulu) (Maongin) (Ngasep)
ha ha ha ha
Before
1. Aya 644 644 Block I (Ngulu)
2. Penebel 731 731 Paddy I: Dec, Jan
3. Riang 25 25 Paddy II: July, Aug
4. Jegu 111 111 Block II (Maongin)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Paddy I: Jan, Feb
6. Meliling 562 562 Paddy II: Aug, Sep
7. Sungsang 430 430 Block III (Ngasep)
8. Gadungan- 1534 594 940 Paddy I: Feb, Mar
Lambuk Paddy II: Oct, Nov
Total field 5130 1511 2249 1370
After
1. Aya 644 644 Block I (Ngulu)
2. Penebel 731 731 Paddy I: Dec, Jan
3. Riang 25 25 Paddy II: July, Aug
4. Jegu 111 111 Block II (Maongin)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Paddy I: Jan, Feb
6. Meliling-Timpag 142 142 Paddy II: Aug, Sep
7. Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir
• Meliling 420 420 Block III (Ngasep)
• Sungsang 430 430 Paddy I: Feb, Mar
• Gadungan 485 485 Paddy II: Oct, Nov
8. Lambuk 1187 1187
Total field 5268 1511 2140 1617
Source: Region River Office of Bali-Penida, 2006
64 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

The diversion graphs in the Figures 4.3a, 4.3b, 4.4a and 4.4b describe the probability
of 80 and 50% of daily discharge patterns within a year for the two upstream weirs: Aya
and Penebel. Similar trends can be noticed for the Qinflow and the Qdivert. These trends occur
during the dry season from June until October, when the wet season starts.
In the Aya Weir, the maximum diversions of 80 and 50% are respectively 0.63 and
0.71 m3/s to supply the 644 ha of paddy fields. The minimum diversions are respectively
0.07 and 0.25 m3/s. In the Penebel Weir, the diversions of 80 and 50% are respectively
0.85 and 0.87 m3/s and the minimum divertions are respectively 0.18 and 0.36 m3/s. These
supply water to the 731 ha of paddy fields. The land preparation starts in December for
Paddy I and in July for Paddy II. The fluctuating trends show that Qoverflow of 80 and 50%
occur from December until June. The peaks of Qinflow of 80 and 50% in the Aya Weir are
1.12 and 1.47 m3/s, while, the peaks of Qinflow of 80 and 50% in the Penebel Weir are
respectively 1.25 and 2.01 m3/s.
In the midstream of Yeh Ho River there are the Caguh and Meliling weirs. In
addition there is the Rejasa Weir in the tributary Yeh Mawa River as shown in Figure 4.1.
The daily diversion graphs for the Caguh Weir and Meliling Weir at 80 and 50%
probability are shown in the Figures 4.5a, 4.5b, 4.6a, and 4.6b. The months in which
Qinflow is fairly equal to Qdivert are from May, during the dry season, until November, when
the wet season starts.
In the Caguh Weir, the diversions of 80 and 50% probability are 0.95 and 1.08 m3/s.
The minimum diversions are respectively 0.23 and 0.33 m3/s. These provide water supply
to the 1,093 ha of paddy fields. In the Meliling Weir, the diversions of 80 and 50%
probability are 0.61 and 0.76 m3/s, while the minimum diversions are 0.18 and 0.29 m3/s.
These can supply 562 ha of paddy fields. Land preparation starts in January for Paddy I
and in August for Paddy II. The fluctuating trends show that Qoverflow of 80 and 50% occur
from December until May. In addition, the peaks of Qinflow of 80 and 50% of Caguh Weir
are 2.62 and 7.56 m3/s, while the peaks of Qinflow of 80 and 50% of Meliling Weir are
respectively 2.23 and 4.31 m3/s.
The diversions of the Rejasa Weir are shown in the Figures 4.7a and 4.7b. It has
Qinflow of respectively 2.28 m3/s at 80% and 8.4 m3/s at 50% probability. The minimum
diversions at 80 and 50% probability are respectively 0.08 and 0.10 m3/s.
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 65

Water Balance of Aya Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
max Q 1,12
1.2

Q (m3/s)
1.0
0.8 max divert 0,63
0.6
0.4 min Q 0,43
0.2
0.0
min divert 0,07 Day

(a)

Water Balance of Aya Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4 max Q 1,47
1.2

Q (m3/s)
1.0
0.8
max divert 0,71
0.6 min Q 0,58
0.4
0.2 min divert 0,25
0.0

Day

(b)
Figure 4.3. Daily flows over the Aya Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
66 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Water Balance of Penebel Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4 max Q 1,25
1.2

Q (m3/s)
1.0 max divert 0,85
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 min Q 0,45
0.0min divert 0,18

Day

(a)

Water Balance of Penebel Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0 max Q 2,01
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Q (m3/s)
1.0 max divert 0,87
min Q 0,77
0.8
0.6
0.4 min divert 0,44
0.2
0.0
Day

(b)
Figure 4.4. Daily flows over the Penebel Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 67

Water Balance of Caguh Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

2.6 max Q 2,62
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Q (m3/s)
max divert 0,95
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 min Q 0,23
0.2
0.0 min divert 0,23

Day

(a)

Water Balance of Caguh Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

8.0
max Q 7,56
7.2
6.4
5.6
4.8
4.0

Q (m3/s)
3.2
2.4
1.6
0.8 min divert 0,33 max divert 1,08
0.0
min Q 0,33
Day

(b)
Figure 4.5. Daily flows over the Caguh Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
68 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Water Balance of Meliling Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

2.6
2.4
2.2 max Q 2,23
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Q (m3/s)
1.0
0.8 max divert 0,61
0.6
0.4 min Q 0,19
0.2
0.0 min divert 0,18

Day

(a)

Water Balance of Meliling Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

4.5
max Q 4,31
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5

Q (m3 /s)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 max divert 0,76

0.0

Day

(b)
Figure 4.6. Daily flows over the Meliling Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 69

Water Balance of Rejasa Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

2.40
max Q 2,28
2.00

1.60

1.20

Q (m3/s)
0.80

0.40
min Q & intake 0,08
0.00 max intake 0,33

Day

(a)

Water Balance of Rejasa Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

9.0
max Q 8,40
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0

Q (m3/s)
3.0
2.0
1.0 max divert 0,40
0.0

Day

(b)
Figure 4.7. Daily flows over the Rejasa Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
70 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

The diversions in the downstream Gadungan Weir at 80 and 50% probability are
shown in the Figures 4.8a and 4.8b. Similar trends of Qinflow and Qdivert start in May during
the dry season until December when the wet season starts. In the Gadungan Weir, the
diversion at 80% is 0.28 m3/s, the same as at 50% probability, while the minimum
diversion is 0.05 m3/s. Before the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir started operation, the
Gadungan Weir supplied two Subak irrigation schemes. The total area was 1,534 ha.
Since 2006, this area has been divided in 485 ha, which is supplied by the Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir and 1,187 ha, which is at present still supplied by the Lambuk Weir, which will
be replaced by the Lambuk Dam and a reservoir in the coming years.
In the downstream Sungsang Weir (Figures 4.9a and 4.9b) there is a diversion of
0.61 m3/s at both 80 and 50% probability and a minimum diversion of 0.06 m3/s to supply
430 ha of paddy fields. Downstream, the starting months of land preparation are February
for Paddy I and October for Paddy II. The fluctuating trends show that Qoverflow of 80 and
50% probability occur from December until April. In addition to this, Qinflow of 80 and
50% of the Gadungan Weir is respectively 4.31 and 16.0 m3/s, and Qinflow of 80 and 50%
of the Sungsang Weir is respectively 5.84 and 17.9 m3/s.
As an example the 50% monthly inflow, diversion and overflow for the Meliling
section of Yeh Ho River is shown in Table 4.2. In this Table the inflow has been
determined based on the difference between the observed diversion and overflow.
It was difficult to get the data for the diversions and overflows consistent, because
there is also a recoverable flow from higher to lower schemes that is not recorded. In order
to obtain information on the water balance within a scheme a clearly defined paddy
terraces block of 4.7 ha in Meliling Subak irrigation scheme has been monitored. As an
example the average monthly water balance for this block is shown in Table 4.3.
The cropping patterns and indigenous water management, which are organized by
the respective Subak Associations, show in the midstream, especially in the Caguh
Scheme, limited irrigation water when the land preparation starts in the period August -
September. Also in the downstream, especially in the Gadungan Scheme, there is limited
irrigation water at the start of land preparation in the period October - November.
However, the Gadungan Scheme is supplied with sufficient water released from the
Telaga Tunjung Reservoir.
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 71

Water Balance of Gadungan Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

6.0

5.0
max Q 4,31
4.0

3.0

Q (m3/s)
2.0

1.0
max divert 0,28
min Q & divert 0,05
0.0

Day

(a)

Water Balance of Gadungan Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

16.0 max Q 16,03

14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0

Q (m3/s)
6.0
4.0
2.0 max divert 0,28
0.0

Day

(b)
Figure 4.8. Daily flows over the Gadungan Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
72 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Water Balance of Sungsang Weir Q 80% Qdivert 80% Qoverflow 80%

6.00 max Q 5,84

5.00

4.00

3.00

Q (m3/s)
2.00

1.00 max divert 0,61

min Q 0,11 min divert 0,06
0.00

Day

(a)

Water Balance of Sungsang Weir Q 50% Qdivert 50% Qoverflow 50%

18.0 max Q 17,88
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0

Q (m3/s)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0 max intake 0,61
0.0

Day

(b)
Figure 4.9. Daily flows over the Sungsang Weir at 80% (a) and 50% (b) probability
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 73

Table 4.2. Average monthly inflow, diversion and overflow of the weirs in the Meliling
section of Yeh Ho River
Diversion Overflow Inflow
m3/s MCM m3/s MCM MCM
Jan 0.48 1.29 1.07 2.87 4.15
Feb 0.54 1.31 0.89 2.15 3.46
Mar 0.56 1.50 0.58 1.55 3.05
Apr 0.61 1.58 0.46 1.19 2.77
May 0.6 1.61 0.12 0.32 1.93
Jun 0.4 1.04 0.03 0.08 1.11
Jul 0.44 1.18 0.01 0.03 1.21
Aug 0.4 1.07 0.00 0.00 1.07
Sep 0.34 0.88 0.10 0.26 1.14
Oct 0.52 1.39 0.15 0.40 1.79
Nov 0.54 1.40 0.59 1.53 2.93
Dec 0.63 1.69 1.57 4.21 5.89
Annual 15.9 14.6 30.5
MCM = million cubic metres

4.6 Conclusion

In conclusion, the same trends of daily flows of all the weirs in the upstream, midstream
and downstream show that the available water of Qinflow can be diverted, because there is
limited flow in the river during the period of June until October in the upstream, May until
November in the midstream, and May to December in the downstream. Therefore, the
concerned off-takes are kept open during those periods. This is indeed based on the
agreement among the Subak farmers under the supervision of an irrigation observer who
represents the Government, which proves the possibility of continuous flow throughout
the water distribution unit (tektek) at the lowest level of the paddy terraces system.
Therefore, it should be noticed that the sustainable indigenous paddy terraces
depend on the availability of the discharge in the main river that needs to be sufficient for
the diversions from the upstream, midstream to downstream. This system would have to
74 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

be ensured during the dry season, although in the wet season, the recoverable flow
increases sharply to the downstream. The results of the study provide a perspective to
Subak farmers on how to use the water more accountable.
As a result, the source of water in the upstream is extremely important to sustain the
river system. This has become the main reason why 35% of the Gembrong Spring in the
upstream is claimed by the Subak Agung Association. In contrast, most of the Gembrong
Spring has been managed by the regency's water company to supply domestic needs.
Then, it was a big challenge for the Subak Agung Association to supply sufficient
irrigation water to the Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin.
The hydrologic aspects of the dependable flows, while using trends in water balance
discharge behind each weir in the river are very important to sustain the Subak irrigation
schemes. The dependable flows of the upstream schemes, Aya and Penebel have to be
considered (Figures 4.3 and 4.4), because of the sequence of irrigation water supplies
based on upstream (ngulu), midstream (maongin), and downstream (ngasep).
Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation 75

Table 4.3. Average monthly water balances for a clearly defined paddy terraces block of 4.7 ha in Meliling Subak irrigation scheme
Average WDUs/Tektek Rainfall Evapotranspiration Recoverable flow Additional supply
3 3
m /s mm/day mm/day mm/day m /s mm/day mm/day
Jan 0.033 60.0 19 4.4 0.065 119 44.1
Feb 0.025 46.2 19 4.3 0.078 144 82.8
Mar 0.017 31.9 18 4.2 0.075 137 91.2
Apr 0.044 81.2 12 3.3 0.034 63 26.8 (storage)
May 0.032 59.5 13 3.2 0.069 127 58.4
Jun 0.036 66.7 12 2.7 0.116 213 137.9
Jul 0.024 44.8 15 2.7 0.088 163 105.5
Aug 0.022 39.9 2 3.5 0.075 139 100.1
Sep 0.028 51.2 5 4.0 0.030 56 3.3
Oct 0.027 48.8 4 4.3 0.026 48 0.7 (storage)
Nov 0.026 48.5 13 4.3 0.042 77 20.0
Dec 0.025 45.7 15 3.8 0.068 125 68.6
Annual in mm 18,700 4,400 1,340 42,300 20,500
5 Hydrology and hydraulic approaches: irrigation-
drainage of Subak irrigation schemes, a farmer's
perspective over a thousand years

5.1 Introduction

The irrigation and drainage arrangements for paddy terraces blocks have been applied by
farmers using Subak's local wisdom for more than a thousand years. As long as they do
not need the water through their fields, they seal the water distribution units using simple
materials such as pieces of timber or clumps of soil. This system is called intermittent
irrigation (ngenyatin). In addition, the drainage system has one or more drains, and or
receiving water bodies (pangkung). The aim of intermittent irrigation and released
drainage is to maintain an adequate amount of water in the paddy fields for weeding
(mejukut) and fertilizing. In the intermittent irrigation period, the paddy roots can receive
sunlight and conservation of water can directly take place.
Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that farming by consecutive irrigation is believed to
have been applied during several centuries, as recorded in the inscription Sukawana (882)
and inscription Bebetin (896) (Windia, 2013). Irrigation water is symbolically referred to
as sanctified or 'holy water' termed tirtha. The notion of holy water as an ultimate means
of purification and blessing is crucial for the understanding of the ritual control of the
irrigation water and of the land, and the hierarchy of Subak temples that are the major
institutions in charge of the ritual control of the flow of water. As one of the Subak
temples (Ulun Danu) discussed in Chapter 3, the Batur Temple, as written on (only partly
dated) palm leaf (lontar) manuscripts, was known collectively as the Rajapurana Batur.
These manuscripts are kept in the Batur Temple and have been transcribed by Budiastra
(1975, 1979). They outline the path of historical development of the institution (Hauser-
Schäublin, 2011).
While in recent times Subak irrigation is facing water shortage and competition
between different users the traditional way of irrigation and drainage arrangements has
been influenced. However, in this situation Subak Gede along the river system still agreed
78 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

to utilize the river water by scheduling based on the starting time of land preparation in
the paddy cultivation seasons. Land preparation starts at the upstream blocks, followed by
the midstream blocks and then by the downstream blocks. Regarding the cultivation
schedule, the cropping pattern for each block is determined by mutual discussion.
In this study, a careful approach on the role of irrigation-drainage in Subak irrigation
systems has been conducted by observing the water levels at the inlet and outlet of a
paddy terraces block during two dry and two wet seasons. The combined result can
support the efficiency of irrigation water supply to paddy terraces of Subak irrigation
schemes, in order to sustain agricultural productivity.

5.2 Methodology

The focus of the study was on operation and maintenance of Subak irrigation schemes in
conveyance of flow, especially in the role of irrigation-drainage based on the farmer's
perspective. The simple constructions without sluice gates have enabled Subak farmers to:
(i) regulate water based on a water allocation system agreed upon by all members; (ii)
distribute water through the diversions to the paddy terraces blocks in varies ways,
according to the availability of water simultaneously or rotationally; (iii) release excess
water to drains. Therefore, members of a Subak Association have three activities as
outlined in Chapter 3 (Yekti et al., 2013), of which the characteristics are:
• allocation and distribution of irrigation water to each member behind a water
distribution unit (tektek/kecoran) with the following dimensions: 5 - 8 cm of width
and 1 - 2 cm of height to a section of rice fields with an area of about 0.3 - 0.4 ha
under a continuous flow system or an agreed scheduling system;
• the transfer mechanism among the members of the Subak Association behind a
single weir within a Subak irrigation scheme, and between the Subak irrigation
schemes. In the Subak irrigation schemes of Yeh Ho River the transfer of irrigation
water from one scheme to another is regulated by mutual dealing among the water
users and coordinated by the Subak leader (Pekaseh Subak Agung);
Irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation schemes: a farmer's perspective over a thousand years 79

• the Subak Association has a mechanism for minor financing of physical

improvement and maintenance at the lower level. The operation of the water
distribution units is controlled by occasionally using intermittent irrigation.
However, the water in the primary, secondary, tertiary and quarternary canals still
flows to the lower schemes.

In the wet season when the water supply is sufficient, the intermittent irrigation is
operated generally for 2 - 3 days three times in one cultivation season at the age of paddy
of 10, 25 and 40 days. Thereafter there is no irrigation for 90 days up to harvest. At the
same time the water is kept flowing continuously through the irrigation canals along the
paddy terraces, together with the water release through the drains to the receiving water
body (pangkung). The drainage water may become recoverable flow (natak tiyis) and
provided as irrigation water to the downstream systems.
Subak farmers have the experience that continuous flow maintains the soil of the
paddy bunds/levees at the required moisture content, thus cracking and sliding can be
avoided. The paddy bunds/levees play various roles in the cultural landscapes, e.g.: water
retention, footpath, source for hay to be fed to cattle, property boundary, space for
landmark trees, drying space for harvesteed rice and space for dry foodcrops (Fukamachi
et al., 2005).
On the other hand, the water supply in dry conditions occurs during the long period
of the dry season, as a result the water levels in the distribution boxes (tembuku) and in the
water distribution units (WDU) may become low and insufficient to supply water. Due to
this intermittent irrigation hardly can be applied and there is limited, or no release of
drainage water from the paddy terraces. Furthermore, Subak farmers can flush irrigation
water from the Subak irrigation systems in the upstream, in order to meet the required
water levels using the transfer mechanism, which was explained in the previous chapter.
A scientific perspective on farmer's practices needs to be based on observations in
paddy terraces blocks, in the distribution boxes and in the water distribution units, as well
as in the drains from the paddy terraces. Therefore, quantitative data have been collected
on the role of irrigation-drainage within a paddy terraces block of 4.7 ha in the Meliling
Subak irrigation scheme.
80 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

5.2.1 Observation of the water balance in a paddy terraces block

In order to analyze the crop water requirement in the paddy terraces block the discharge
from diversion canals (quarternary box) as beneficial consumption (Perry, 2007) and
recoverable flows (drain/pengutangan) have been observed within the sample paddy
terraces block as shown in Figure 5.1. The collected data have been analyzed to provide
the trends of water requirement during a cultivation season.
Inlet by quarternary box

Outlet from paddy terraces block

Figure 5.1. The observed paddy terraces block in Meliling Subak irrigation scheme

5.3 Results and discussion

The application of continuous flow in the Subak irrigation schemes has been investigated
in detail based on observations and analyzing the discharge data of several weirs
(empelan) to recognize trends in the river system (Yekti et al., 2012). Subsequently during
this study daily flows have been observed and analysed based on the farmer's practise with
the water distribution unit. The observations of height, width and velocity of water at the
inlet and outlet of the paddy terraces block (Figure 5.2) have resulted in the trends of daily
flows in the distribution boxes, water distribution unit and drain (irrigation-drainage).
Irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation schemes: a farmer's perspective over a thousand years 81

Figure 5.2. Lay out and observation points of the observed paddy terraces block in
Meliling Subak irrigation scheme

Two components of the THK philosophy, harmony of people and nature and
harmony among people, have been implemented by the Subak farmer's during the period
of observation from April 2013 until April 2015. In 2013 during the early phase of the dry
season from March until April it was still raining. Although in the observed scheme and in
other midstream schemes, the Subak farmers would have to follow the midstream block
cultivation season, which starts in October - November 2013, they started to plant the
paddy crop based on the natural conditions by mutual decision in May - June 2013 (5
months earlier). This was followed by a fallow period from September until mid
December 2013. Thereafter they started to plant the paddy crop by the end of December.
Harvesting took place in April 2014, within the wet season. After harvesting, the fallow
season from April 2014 until the middle of November 2014 was used for improvement of
the primary and secondary canals, while the reservoir gate for irrigation was closed.
Thereafter the reservoir gate for Meliling Subak irrigation scheme was opened again.
The observed irrigation-drainage flows during the two years showed that the Subak
farmers use the irrigation water and drain the excess water in a natural way during the
cultivation seasons, as shown in Figure 5.3a (period April 2013 - April 2014) and Figure
5.3b (period April 2014 - April 2015). The irrigation water was used quite effective with
supplies between 0.02 m3/s and 0.04 m3/s.
82 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10

Q (m3/s)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

Mei
July

June

April
April

March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September
WDU (Tektek) Drain (Pengutangan)

(a)
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10

Q (m3/s)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

Mei
July

June

April
April

March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September
WDU (Tektek) Drain (Pengutangan)

(b)
Figure 5.3. The irrigation-drainage flow observations in the WDU and drain of the observed paddy terraces block in
Meliling Subak irrigation scheme
Irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation schemes: a farmer's perspective over a thousand years 83

The drainage water increased sharply with values of 0.075 - 0.14 m3/s in the first
season and 0.04 - 0.08 m3/s in the second season.
In the second year, the irrigation water supplies were for the same paddy terraces
block between 0.02 and 0.09 m3/s higher than in the first year. The drainage water was
quite high during one cultivation period, between 0.14 and 0.21 m3/s.
The water level at the five water distribution units with varying heights and widths
resulted in the same trends (Figure 5.4). The intermittent irrigation was conducted four
times in the first cultivation season, two times in the second and three times in the last
(Figure 5.3), while the land of the paddy terraces block had received enough rainwater
during the first cultivation season. Also during the last cultivation season the rainfall was
quite high. The water level in the drains increased sharply during the first cultivation
season and in the period November 2013 - January 2014 when in the second cultivation
season the land preparation was done (Figure 5.5). The same trend was observed in the
last cultivation period from December 2014 - April 2015.
In spite of the continuous flow quarternary box 1 had enough water with discharges
of 0.02 - 0.06 m3/s and 0.02 - 0.10 m3/s to irrigate the paddy terraces block as shown in
the Figures 5.6a and 5.6b. From 24 to 29 January 2015 the canals were closed for
maintenance. However, the Subak farmers did not plant the paddy crop and preferred to
conserve their paddy fields during the fallow period. In addition, there is conveyance flow
from one block to a downstream block, which is shown in Figure 5.6. The continuous
flow of quarternary box 2 has varying discharges to supply irrigation water.
Recently a research was done by Arsana (2012) on the water requirement for paddy
cultivation in relation to the season, location, irrigation and varieties of paddy in the
upstream, midstream and downstream sections of Yeh Ho River Basin. This study
explained that irrigation during 8 days gave a yield of paddy of 1.24 kg/m3 while
continued irrigation gave 1.14 kg/m3. Moreover the application of the System of Rice
Intensification (SRI) combined with intermittent irrigation was investigated by Sumiyati
et al. (2013). This study was done to determine the effect intermittent irrigation
(ngenyatin) and the SRI method on rice productivity in the paddy field of Subak Sigaran,
Tabanan Regency. The results show an increase in productivity of 18.4%, as well as
increase of tillers, of the length of panicles and of total grains per panicle.
84 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0

H (cm)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

Mei
July

June
April

April
March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September
WDU (Tektek) 1 WDU (Tektek) 2 WDU (Tektek) 3 WDU (Tektek) 4 WDU (Tektek) 5
.
(a)
20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0

H (cm)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

Mei
July

June
April

April
March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September

WDU (Tektek) 1 WDU (Tektek) 2 WDU (Tektek) 3 WDU (Tektek) 4 WDU (Tektek) 5

(b)
Figure 5.4. Profile of the water levels at five WDUs in the Meliling Subak irrigation scheme by daily observations
Irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation schemes: a farmer's perspective over a thousand years 85

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0

H (cm)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

Mei
July

June

April
April

March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September
Drain (Pengutangan) 1 Drain (Pengutangan) 2

(a)
20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0

H (cm)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

Mei
July

June

April
April

March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September

Drain (Pengutangan) 1 Drain (Penguntangan) 2

(b)
Figure 5.5. Profile of the water levels in two drains in Meliling Subak irrigation scheme by daily observations
86 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10

Q (m3/s)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

Mei
July

June

April
April

March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September
Quarternary Box (Tembuku) 1 Quarternary Box (Tembuku) 2

(a)
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10

Q (m3/s)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

Mei
July

June

April
April

March

August
January

October
February

Desember

November

September

Quarternary Box (Tembuku) 1 Quarternary Box (Tembuku) 2

(b)
Figure 5.6. Daily flow observations in two quarternary boxes in Meliling Subak irrigation scheme
Irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation schemes: a farmer's perspective over a thousand years 87

However, there is a problem to transfer these worthy results to the Subak farmers in
order to encourage them to operate and maintain the paddy terraces fields in the new way,
while in the farmer's perspective the SRI method is not easy applicable in practice for
reasons such as:
• the seeds should be developed to sprouts, thus in the SRI method the 7 - 12 days
developed seeds need to be planted more carefully than with the traditional method,
which has 15 - 20 days developed seeds. Also with the SRI method the seeds need to
be planted by using a high precision technique (the length and the total seeds of a
panicle), which needs 1 - 2 days more than the traditional method by employing five
persons/hectare. In reality now, the number of people who work in the agricultural
sector decreased and there is limited experience with the SRI method, sometimes the
Subak farmers have to pay a person to help them, or they employ their family and
neighbours, who have limited knowledge about the SRI method;
• for strengthening of the grains the SRI method needs a dry paddy field during 7 days
after seeding. On the other hand, the traditional method does not need a dry paddy
field. In addition, there is the farmer's reason that the continuous flow through the
paddy fields can avoid the growth of weeds and seeds of weed. This can result in
diseases in future. In this period, the Subak farmers will implement the intermittent
irrigation for clearing of weeds during 2 - 3 days at the age of paddy of 10 days;
• the Subak farmers had experience with the SRI method in the paddy terraces fields
during the cultivation season. As a result of this practise cracking of the paddy
bunds/levees occurred with development of cracks in the paddy fields. Due to this
the next land preparation was difficult;
• nevertheless, the Subak farmers agreed that 15 days before harvesting they will dry
the paddy terraces field.

5.4 Conclusion

Initially the THK philosophy has been implemented by the Subak farmers in the
investigated paddy terraces block in Meliling Subak irrigation scheme, who made the
88 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

right decision to start land preparation based on their indigenous knowledge about the
signs of the start of the wet season and their mutual discussion. The results of the study
show a conformance of justice among nature, human and technology that has been applied
by using an orderly system for adjusting the topography, soil and water sources, mainly
rain, which became the important values to operate and maintain the paddy terraces block,
as well as to manage the river basin. Because of this continuous flows in quarternary
canals were used in an effective way and the excess water was released and where
applicable directly used as recoverable flow (natak tiyis) for downstream schemes. The
irrigation-drainage process has shown that conservation of water has been implemented
during the concerned periods by considering the condition of the hydro-climate in the
river basin. This concerns proper water distribution and allocation management during the
dry season as well as efficient drainage management during the wet season, to meet in an
optimum way the soil moisture demands of the crops in the root zone during both seasons.
It is also expected to provide a quantitative description on how to manage water in Yeh
Ho River Basin.
Finally, an important perspective would have to be considered by the Subak farmers,
who are competing with other users, to be aware that irrigation water can be more
valuable. Thus, it will be interesting to elaborate on this study towards water pricing in
Subak irrigation schemes, even though the two preceding worthy Subak studies related to
the growth of rice productivity and water requirement were conducted in recent times.
Therefore, the variety of sciences of Subak studies will become a valuable source for
recommendations to the Government. In the next Chapters, based on river basin
simulation the quantity of water, productivity and pricing in the Subak irrigation schemes
will be discussed.
6 Model simulations and optimisation technique

6.1 Model categorization

'As modellers or researchers, we must discipline ourselves to work more closely with our
clients - the planners, managers and other specialists who are responsible for the
development and operation of our water resources systems. We must study their systems
and their problems, and we must identify their information needs' (Loucks, 1992; Hejazi
and Cai, 2011).
Modelling and analysis methods for evaluating the water supply capabilities of
reservoir/river systems are fundamental to the effective management of the highly variable
water resources of a river basin (Wurbs, 2005). The modelling would have to be supported
by scenarios that are self-consistent story lines of how a future system might evolve over
time in a particular socio-economic setting, and under a particular set of policy and
technology conditions. The scenarios are formulated and then compared to assess their
water requirements, costs and environmental impacts (Mugatsia, 2010).
In order to achieve the best decision a system analysis can be effectively applied.
System analysis is an efficient and systematic rational approach used to gain the best
decision of a system in which its approach is based on the available information and its
limitations (Sudjarwadi, 1992). There are two common techniques used in the analysis
namely simulation and optimisation. A simulation technique is a quantitative method that
describes the behaviour of a system, which is used to estimate system outputs. Different
simulation and optimisation techniques have been developed and implemented to
incorporate the uncertainties, such as climate variations and variations in market prices,
which have caused uncertainty on agricultural water demands in water management
policies (Zahraie and Hosseini, 2009).
Several models have been developed for simulation and optimisation in irrigation
water resources, such as an integrated optimisation method using Stochastic Programming
(SP) that was developed for supporting agriculture water management and planning in
Tarim River Basin, Northwest China (Huang et al., 2012). The hydrological model is
aplied for forecasting the available irrigation water and the simulation system is then
90 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

embedded into an optimisation framework, where the objective is to maximize the system
benefit for water resources management.
Linear programming has been used to optimise reservoir operation since many
years. Rani and Moreira (2010) and Alemu et al. (2011) highlighted some of the
advantages of using linear programming. These include flexibility for application to large-
scale problems, convergence to global optimal solutions, and the wide variety of
commercial and open-source software packages available. In addition, the mathematical
models behind linear programming and their objective functions can be relatively
straightforward explained to stakeholders.
Recently mathematic programming based on genetic algorithms has been developed.
Genetic algorithms are optimising algorithms, inspired by natural evolution. They produce
a complete population of answering points. Each point is tested independently to establish
new populations, including modified points (Dehini et al., 2012; Kiyoumarsi, 2015).
Genetic algorithms consider many points simultaneously and these characteristics
conform them with more parallel processors, since considering that each point needs some
calculations, including target functions differentiation, etc. (Sivanandam et al., 2007;
Kiyoumarsi, 2015). In these algorithms, different operands and mechanisms are
implemented, that are described here to analyse the applicability of genetic algorithms as
optimising algorithms (Asfaw et al., 2011; Kiyoumarsi, 2015) mainly for natural
evolution simulation and only to a certain extent based on strong mathematical theories.
This technique uses natural genetics, statistical methods (Kiyoumarsi, 2015) and a type of
creativity, and tries to reach an optimised conclusion (Kiyoumarsi, 2015).
The genetic algorithms model gives better results when compared to the linear
programming model on reservoir operation for known total irrigation demand and on the
optimal allocation of water available to crops at the farm level (Md. Azamathulla et al.,
2008). Moreover, genetic algorithms are well suited to solve irrigation scheduling
problems. They are robust and very efficient and can easily be run with a range of
objective functions. The developed genetic algorithms could with little difficulty be
applied to problems that are more complex.
In this study, the simulations have been conducted based on the diversion by the
weirs in the Yeh Ho River and on the storage in Telaga Tunjung Reservoir to supply the
Model simulations and optimisation technique 91

Subak irrigation schemes with the required amounts of irrigation water in a timely and
efficient manner, based on the cropping patterns. The physical characteristics of the Subak
irrigation schemes and their operation rules can be modified to adapt to the changing
circumstances. For example, sustainability has been incorporated in irrigation water
management, which can be defined as managing irrigation water in an economically
efficient and socially equitable manner, while considering conservation of the
environment (Kang and Park, 2014).

6.2 Modelling of Subak schemes related to Tri Hita Karana philosophy

The modelling has been based on the technological and socio-agricultural approaches. The
boundary conditions were based on the local conditions formed by religious elements and
the Balinese water temple. The religious elements of THK have inspired the application of
the local cropping patterns and indigenous water management. The possible effect of the
Telaga Tunjung Reservoir on the water supply to the Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho
River Basin has been analysed. The irrigation plays an important role in agricultural
livelihood strategies that support and strengthen the cultural values of the indigenous
people (Groenfeldt, 2005), as well as to further develop their agricultural products.
Before describing the modelling and scenario analysis of the reservoir operation in
connection with the water supply to the Subak irrigation schemes, the conceptual
approach of the research has been defined based on the literature review and the
description of the study location as shown in the Figures 4.1 and 4.2. The THK as
principal value is underlying the reservoir operation and the supply to the Subak irrigation
schemes. This is why the THK triangle acts as a boundary condition (Figure 3.2).
However, the THK philosophy is not an accountable value that can be put in the reservoir
operation analysis, but it can give the belief to act based on the paradigm how to analyze,
simulate and evaluate the result.
The role of reservoir operation based on the scenario analysis and simulation process
of the Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin is included in the content material
subsystem of point 3 of the THK philosophy as shown in Table 3.1.
92 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

6.3 Multiple purpose reservoir operation

The first purpose of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir is to serve the Subak irrigation schemes
with water up to 1.87 m3/s. It concerns 420 ha Subak Meliling, 485 ha Subak Gadungan
and 430 ha Subak Sungsang. The second purpose is to deliver 120 l/s raw water, which is
divided into 24 l/s for industrial centres and domestic needs in the Village of Berembeng,
50 l/s for the development of Soka tourism area, and 46 l/s for domestic water in the
Selemadeg and Kerambitan districts. If these purposes have been fulfilled, other purposes
can be developed, such as domestic needs, micro hydropower (micro-hydro) and fishing
that approximately uses 10% of the reservoir surface area. Starting in 2013, the purposes
for domestic needs are in operation, but the micro-hydro is not yet in operation.
Since the impounding process of the reservoir began in December 2006 the
operation was observed from January 2007 to December 2012. The operation is based on
the existing cropping pattern, but the operation rule, which can provide optimal
agriculture production has not yet been determined.

6.4 Scenario analysis in Subak schemes

As shown in Figure 6.1, the technological and socio-agricultural elements, the application
of local cropping patterns and indigenous water management practices are regarded as the
boundary conditions, which will be translated into scenario's of simulation at river basin
level. In the Subak schemes, the cropping patterns, which fall in specific months, have
been determined and agreed upon by Subak Agung Yeh Ho, as shown before and after the
initiation of the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir in Table 4.1.
While the period of land preparation is critical with respect to the water needs the
scenario analysis and optimisation have been based on shifting of the starting time of land
preparation (nyorog). The objective function of the optimisation is to obtain an optimal
agriculture production for all schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin. The simulation and
optimisation have been analysed according to Figure 6.1. Details of the scenario analysis
and the results will be explained in section 7.4.
Model simulations and optimisation technique 93

Start

Support data I: Dam Support data II: Support data

- rainfall characteristics: - network Subak III:
- climatology - rule curve irrigation -paddy price
- discharge capacity of system -annual
- river basin reservoir - discharge budget for O
- paddy terrace - hydraulic supply in paddy and M of
and land use structure terraces block Subak and
map - measurement of - cropping reservoir
- soil data water level elevatio patterns
- intake discharge - domestic water
- overflow demand
- sediment data

Water availability Water demand analysis Water pricing

analysis Elevation- based on paddy analysis
volume-area terraces block
correlation of operation
reservoir storage
Output: Output:
inflow discharge Reservoir Output: irrigation water
sedimentation outflow discharge pricing
analysis

Output:
control lifetime of
reservoir operation

Simulation based on Tri Hita Karana

alternatives of starting
time (nyorog) to Cropping patterns
optimise the benefit of
agricultural production Indigenous water
management (Subak)

End

Figure 6.1. Flowchart of the scenario analysis

94 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

6.5 Simulations with the RIBASIM model

Simulation models based on genetic algorithms provide information and insight that can
help improve water system management and planning processes, such as in conditions of
drought. Simulation models provide an efficient way to reproduce source - demand
interactions and to predict the impacts of rule modifications over time and space (Sulis
and Sechi, 2013).
It was decided to rely on the RIBASIM model for the simulation and evaluation of
different management options of the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir and supplies to the Subak
irrigation schemes within Yeh Ho River Basin. RIBASIM is a generic model package for
simulating the behaviour of river basins under various hydrological conditions. The model
package links the hydrological water inputs at various locations with the specific water
users in the basin (Van der Krogt, 2013).
The structure of the RIBASIM model is based on an integrated framework with a
graphically oriented interface. The main interface is a flow diagram representing the tasks
involved in carrying out a simulation analysis and has been developed to assist the user
through the analysis from data entry to evaluation of the results. As for the capabilities of
RIBASIM, it can model various future and potential situations and system configurations
by setting various scenarios and management actions (Van der Krogt, 2013).
RIBASIM has been applied in more than 20 countries to support the process of
water resources planning (Omar, 2014), such as: in 2001 RIBASIM was used to describe
the effects of changes in farming systems on the regional water balance for three river
basins - the Jratunseluna, Serayu and Cidurian basins - in Indonesia. In 2010 RIBASIM
was applied to clarify the importance of the natural system for the socio-economic
situation and also to develop the Sistan River Basin in Iran. By the Hydrology Project of
the Water Resources Department of the Government of Maharashtra, India, the RIBASIM
model was applied to predict the water shortages in Godavari River Basin, India for 2015
and 2020, and to develop options for minimizing water deficit.
Model simulations and optimisation technique 95

6.6 Application aspects of the RIBASIM model

The simulation with the RIBASIM model proceeds in time steps (Figure 6.2). For each
time step the water balance is computed based on the supply of water at the boundaries of
the system, the demand of water by the various users, the operation rules for the various
structures, such as surface water and groundwater reservoirs, weirs and the water
management policies at the basin level. The water diversions are based on the operation
rules of the hydraulic structures, as well as on the cropping pattern, based on the month
when land preparation starts. This created the scenarios for the simulation process.

Figure 6.2. Phases in a time step in the RIBASIM model (Van der Krogt, 2013)
96 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

The time step to represent a water balance needs to accommodate the variations in
the sources of supply and demand. Variations from time to time in demands can usually
be represented adequately by a half-monthly or monthly interval. However, the hydrologic
variations in rainfall or flow can vary widely.
Quite frequently different interlinked supply - allocation systems in a river basin
require a different time interval and a compromise solution is required. Typical for this
case is the supply of a particular demand from the reservoir and a regulated diversion.
For the storage system, a half monthly or monthly time interval will be appropriate
to describe variations and allocation decisions. The diversion from an unregulated river
with a relatively fast varying flow (e.g. strong daily variations in response to rainfall)
requires in principle a smaller time interval to determine the diverted amounts of water.
For comparison, a single interval needs to be chosen and a way has to be found to match
the different requirements. Use can be made of a dependability function, which relates,
over a half monthly interval, the flow that can be diverted to the actual flow.
The function indicates a declining dependability of the larger river flow above a
certain threshold. There is further a cumulative effect, which should be taken into account
because increasing demands in the basin are faced with declining dependable flow as
more and more less dependable flow has to be diverted.
In order to analyse periods of high and variable flow during wet seasons in more
detail, e.g. for sedimentation computations, a daily time step might be appropriate.
For reservoirs, a flood routing period can be specified in the model data reflecting
the duration in number of days that a flood peak may last. If the flood routing period is
bigger than the number of days in the simulation time step then for the computation of the
spillway release flow the relation between the net head (defined as the head above
spillway level) and the spillway flow needs to be applied. In all other cases, the spillway
flow is computed based on the water balance equation of the reservoir, which results in a
storage level at the end of the time step equal to the spillway level.
Model simulations and optimisation technique 97

6.7 Yeh Ho River system as input in the RIBASIM model

According to Ali and Shui (2001), efficient utilization of water resources needs
information data, such as, annual effective rainfall, runoff, consumptive use and reservoir
release. Effective processing of these data is possible through a state-of-the-art computer
modelling system. Thus, a reservoir operation rule is to be developed to meet shortage of
water to some extent. The schematisation for Yeh Ho River Basin is shown in Figure 6.3.
As the first step, adequate and reliable data have been collected. Highly reliable data
are important since they contribute to any settlement of the research efforts. The required
data that were collected consist of primary and secondary data.

Figure 6.3. Schematisation of Yeh Ho River and the Subak irrigation schemes in the river
basin in the RIBASIM model
98 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Primary data

Analytical modelling tools constructed and evaluated based on primary data can help
assess effects of alternative operational scenarios related to reservoir and Subak irrigation
scheme operation, water right transfers and changes in irrigation practises (Berris et al.,
1998)
Primary data have been collected from surveys, which give information about the
existing Subak irrigation schemes and the existing reservoir operation. Paddy terraces
have physical and socio-agricultural systems, which have been followed in this research.
Furthermore, collected primary data have been entered into the RIBASIM model:
• these concern in the sample paddy terraces block:
∗ the discharge from diversion canals (quarternary box) as beneficial
consumption (Perry, 2007) and recoverable flows (drain/pengutangan) were
observed in order to analyze the crop water requirment of the paddy terraces
blocks;
∗ the geologic profile to find the soil parameters;
∗ by in situ tests infiltration rates have been determined;
∗ topographic measurements have been done to observe the elevation.
• the cropping patterns of the Subak irrigation schemes have been investigated to
determine the crop water requirement in relation to the reservoir operation;
• yield and production cost of the sample paddy terraces block (Subak Caguh
upstream and Subak Meliling downstream of the reservoir).

Secondary data

The secondary data are needed to support the analysis of design standards and approaches.
The secondary data are important to generate the operation rule of the reservoir and its
lifetime. The secondary data consist of:
Model simulations and optimisation technique 99

• hydrologic and climatologic data such as annual effective rainfall,

evapotranspiration, humidity and sun intensity;
• map of the river basin;
• discharge records of the weirs in the main river;
• physical data and design of the reservoir;
• land use in the river basin;
• soil data;
• records of water levels, seepage discharge and relief wells, intake, outflow and
overflow;
• domestic needs;
• reservoir sedimentation;
• harvested paddy prices.
7 Scenario analysis

7.1 Hydrologic and hydraulic analysis

River system modelling and analysis related to reservoir operation need hydrologic and
related data. Long records representative for historical hydrology are used in planning
studies. Existing observations are required for real-time operations. Moreover, a selection
of computational tasks is involved in converting records of field measurements on
hydrologic processes to the input data required for river basin development and reservoir
system analysis models. In light of this, historical records of gauged streamflows need to
be adjusted to represent flows at relevant locations for a specified condition of river basin
development. For instance the analysis of weir streamflow data in Subak irrigation
schemes within Yeh Ho River Basin. The results can give an idea how the water
management in this river basin can be developed.
River and reservoir system analysis models are built around water accounting and
routing algorithms. Water accounts are balanced as water is routed through the system. In
a reservoir operation model, the streamflow provides the inflow to the system. Reservoirs
regulate the streamflow through storage and releases. Water flows through river reaches,
can be diverted for beneficial use, which can result in evapotranspiration, and there can be
other gains and losses.
A river is a natural condition of open channel hydraulics. Open channel hydraulic
models can simulate flow conditions in natural and improved streams, associated
floodplains and constructed canals. Water surface profiles are needed for various reservoir
operation rules to release water for related water management applications. Intake
structures may become inoperative if river stages drop below certain levels. Evaluation of
flood control operations and floodplain management programs, design of levees and
channel improvements based on water surface profile models, erosion and sedimentation
may be of significant importance in design and operation of river control structures. Flow
rates and velocities computed with hydraulic models can provide basic input required by
water quality models.
102 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

7.1.1 Analysis of rainfall data: dependable rainfall and effective rainfall

Rainfall data concern one of the parameters in a hydrologic analysis for reservoir
operation. The dependable and effective rainfall are used for reservoir simulation and
consumptive use of irrigated crops. The dependable rainfall is the amount of rainfall that
can reliably be expected during a certain period in an area where the risk of yield
reduction, or even failure plays a role. In Indonesia, the standard for dependable rainfall
for irrigation is usually set at 80%. Dependable rainfall data can be analyzed with the
Weibull formula as shown in equation 4-1. In Yeh Ho River Basin, dependable rainfall in
the middle range (101 – 300 mm/month) occurs from November until February.
Thereafter heavy rain, occasionally upto 300 mm/month, can occur during March and
April (Annex C). The Subak farmers take the decision to start land preparation (Paddy I)
based on their indigenous knowledge about the signs of the start of the rainy, or wet
season. They use this capability based on the months of the wet season. In the Subak
irrigation schemes, they have three parts in sequence (Table 4.1): Block I (the first/Ngulu)
Paddy I: December, January; Block II (the second/Maongin) Paddy I: January, February;
Block III (the last/Ngasep) Paddy I: February, March. The cropping patterns illustrate the
equity of the schemes within the river basin.
Effective rainfall has various definitions from the point of view of crops, soil
moisture, management of irrigation systems, and economics (Chen et al., 2014). Hayes
and Buell (1955), Li (1956), Chin (1965), and Dastane (1974) stated that effective rainfall
is the quantity of rainfall available for plant growth. Those who consider just the water
available for plants, Tsao (1966) and Chen (1979), indicated that the conjunctive use of
effective rainfall can reduce the amount of irrigation water from rivers and reservoirs.
Ogrosky and Mockus (1964) defined effective rainfall by considering the water that enters
into the soil. Hershfield (1964), Lo (1962), United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) (1967), Jackson (1992), Obreza and Pitts (2002), Liu et al. (2007), Rahman et al.
(2008), and Adnan and Khan (2009) defined effective rainfall by considering the amount
that just meets the consumptive water requirement.
Scenario analysis 103

The effective rainfall is used for efficient consumption of water in irrigated

agriculture, such as for design and operation of irrigation and/or drainage systems, for
rainfed agriculture, or for leaching of salts. Other aspects that have an influence are:
temperature, solar radiation, humidity, wind movement, length of the growing season,
latitude and sunlight.
In this research, the rainfall data were taken from Kerambitan Station. The effective
rainfall has been determined by using the empirical equation for irrigation of rice of the
Irrigation Planning Standards (Standard Perencanaan Irigasi) and the Planning Criteria
(KP) 01 by the Department of Public Works. The effective rainfall is taken by 70% of the
partly-month (15 days) rainfall with 80% probability (Figure 7.1; Annex D):

�� = 0.7 × � 80�������������) 7-1

where:
Re = effective rainfall (mm/day)
R80 = 80% probability of dependable rainfall (mm/day)

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0
Re (mm/day)

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

1/2 Month

Figure 7.1. Effective rainfall for paddy terrace schemes

104 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

7.1.2 Streamflow analysis

Since the future is unknown, the historical streamflow needs to be used as a representation
of the hydrologic characteristics of a river basin to be expected during the future planning
scope. A planning study may involve analyses of the operation of existing reservoirs
and/or evaluation of proposed new projects. Evaluation of proposed long-term
improvements in operation policies may be of concern, or the objective may be to
formulate operation strategies for the next season or year.
Modelling studies are commonly based on historical measured streamflow data,
adjusted to represent flow conditions at pertinent locations for a specified condition of
river basin development. The historical streamflow measurement needs to be adjusted to
reflect conditions of river basin development at a specified past, present and future point
in time. Some reservoir system modelling and analysis approaches are based on
representation of the inflows. Based on the operation rules of water distribution units
(WDU)/tektek in primary, secondary, tertiary, or quarternary canals, which have no
operational gate deterministic or probabilistic models represent the streamflow analysis of
each weir in Yeh Ho River. To estimate water availability, it will be necessary to
determine a objective function on how the streamflow will be presented, which will
largely determine the results and conclusions (Monzon et al., 2015).
A deterministic model requires that inflows be simplified to an average, or a
characteristic flow for each season, or sub-period of a representative year. This analysis
was shown in the Figures 4.3 until 4.9. The result has been input to the simulation process
by using the RIBASIM model.

7.1.3 Potential evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration from crops and the soil surface is an important parameter in the water
balance equation. It is dependent of climatic conditions, crop variety and stage of growth,
soil moisture depletion and various physical and chemical properties of the soil. A two-
measure procedure is generally followed in estimating evapotranspiration: (i) computation
Scenario analysis 105

of the seasonal distribution of potential evapotranspiration (Etp); (ii) adjustment of Etp for
crop variety and stage of growth (Walker and Skogerboe, 1987). A common practice for
estimating evapotranspiration is to first estimate the reference evapotranspiration (ETo),
and then to apply a crop coefficient (kc) (Trajkovic and Gocic, 2010).
The general features of evapotranspiration in the humid tropics as well as methods
for the estimation of potential evapotranspiration (Etp) were presented by Bruin (1983). In
1998 the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 56 Crop Evapotranspiration was
published to revise the guidelines for computing crop water requirements (Allen et al.,
1998; Pereira et al., 2015). Accordingly, Indonesia in the humid tropical region, has
adopted this paper to determine the reference evapotranspiration, using Penman -
Monteith in the Standard National Indonesia (RSNI T-01-2004). The equation and the
results of this method are shown in Annex E.

7.1.4 Reservoir water surface losses and gains

Evaporation from the reservoir in each period (t) is based on the evaporation rate (er) with
an average surface area of the water in the reservoir and the interval time, and is
determined by the storage function (Wurbs, 1996):

Ei = Ai er 7-2

Ai = (At + At + Δt)/2 7-3

where:
Ei = evaporation in the reservoir each time to i
Ai = average surface area of the reservoir in time interval i

At values are specified in Δt and are a function of the volume of storage at the
beginning and end of a time interval.
106 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Rainfall and evaporation rates are often combined as a net rate. By way of ordinary
unregulated streamflows provided as input to a reservoir system analysis model the
corresponding net rainfall minus evaporation rates should reflect precipitation, which is
not already accounted for in natural unregulated streamflows. With the reservoir,
altogether the precipitation falling on the reservoir water surface is inflow. Net rainfall
minus evaporation rates are sometimes adjusted to reflect the difference between rainfall
falling on the reservoir water surface and runoff from rain falling on the land area at the
site that contributes to streamflow before the reservoir was constructed. In this case the
evaporation data are from Tiyinggading Station with a range of 0 - 13.5 mm/day.

7.1.5 Other reservoir losses and gains

Losses and gains of water to and from the ground under a reservoir are difficult to
quantify. Losses to infiltration or seepage and gains from groundwater, or bank storage
are typically considered negligible and ignored in reservoir system analysis studies
(Wurbs, 1996). Most reservoirs are constructed at relatively impermeable locations.
Permeability of the reservoir bottom is likely to decrease over time with sedimentation.
The sediment deposits help cover the bottom and prevent seepage. Therefore in the
present study such losses and gains have not been taken into account.

7.1.6 Reservoir elevation/storage/area relationship

In reservoir operation, the correlation between elevation, storage and area needed to
control the active volume of reservoir storage, is obtained from reservoir data. It is defined
by McMahon (2007) as difference between total storage capacity at full supply level and
dead storage (the volume of water held below the lowest off-take). Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir has an area-storage curve as shown in Figure 7.2.
Scenario analysis 107

Area ( ha )
16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00
205 205

200 200

195 195

190 190

Elevation ( m )
Elevation ( m )

185 185

180 180

175 175

170 170
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400
Volume ( x103 m3)
Water Level Reservoir Area Poly. (Reservoir Area)

Figure 7.2. Reservoir elevation, storage and area relationship

(Regional River Office of Bali-Penida, 2006)

7.1.7 Flow routing in the reservoir and hydraulic profile of outlets

The operation of the hydraulic structures in Telaga Tunjung Reservoir has been evaluated
and combined with the operation of the Subak irrigation schemes. The reservoir has one
direct outlet to supply Subak Meliling and one direct outlet to supply domestic water of
which the hydraulic profiles are shown in Annex F. The dimensions of the reservoir and
the hydraulic structures are shown in Annex G. These dimensions are important in relation
to the operation. The downstream Subak irrigation schemes receive released water
through diversion weirs.

7.1.8 Evaluation of reservoir lifetime based on sedimentation

The sedimentation in the reservoir has been calculated to predict the lifetime. The results
are presented in Annex H. The problem of sedimentation has to be challenged on the level
108 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

of the reservoir itself, if the target minimum water levels reached at the end of irrigation
season are kept low, the available storage volume will be high, thus allowing good
regulation of water inflow for irrigation purposes (Petkovsek and Roca, 2014). By
considering irrigation as primary benefit, emphasis needs to be on the operational strategy
of the reservoir, which would result in maximization of irrigation benefits that can be
achieved through storage conservation. Also for successful reservoir operation with
storage conservation, an appropriate minimum operating level (MOL) of the reservoir
needs to be maintained (Rashid et al., 2014). Elevation of the minimum water level of
Telaga Tunjung Reservoir is 190.70 m+MSL and the dead storage (50 years) 261,000 m3.
The onset of sedimentation may result in a reduction in the capacity of the reservoir,
which will have an impact on the lifetime. Telaga Tunjung Reservoir has been planned for
50 years. Therefore the curve of reservoir capacity based on the analysis of sedimentation
patterns was needed to evaluate the reservoir operation during this period.

7.2 Advanced irrigation node in RIBASIM

With the advanced irrigation node in RIBASIM it is possible to analyse and quantify
Subak irrigation schemes with varying layers of paddy terraces, because the irrigated area,
water demand, allocation, production costs and crop yield can be computed based on:
• cropping plan and crop characteristics;
• hydrological input;
• soil characteristics;
• topography and lay out of the irrigated area;
• operation and irrigation water management;
• production costs and crop yield;
• actual field water balance.

For the analysis it is useful and practical to make a distinction between the water
delivery system: the river providing water to the Subak irrigation schemes, and the
schemes with their water conveyance and distribution systems (Figure 7.3). Such a
Scenario analysis 109

distinction corresponds with the typical management responsibility division between

Government and farmers, or farmer's organizations.

Figure 7.3. River basin and irrigation system components (Van der Krogt, 2008)

7.2.1 Schematization of the irrigated area

The advanced irrigation node represents a whole irrigated area or a part of an irrigated
area, which in this study is a Subak irrigation scheme and Subak sub-schemes (water users
association/tempek). The area is cultivated by a number of crops covering a certain
percentage of the irrigated area. Further, the cultivated area of a particular crop is split into
a number of sub-units (strips) (Figure 7.4). The width of a sub-unit depends on the
progress of the land preparation and planting, and is computed for flood basin cultivations
using the 'Van der Goor' method (Annex I).
The sub-unit can have a layered structure of fields for flood basin cultivation,
allowing a flow of water from field to field. Figure 7.5 shows in a schematised way the
field to field layered water distribution within the irrigated area.
110 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 7.4. Schematization of an irrigated area: sub-division in sub-units (strips) and fields
(Van der Krogt, 2008)

The number of field layers can be specified in the input data. This indicates the
extent, or effectiveness of the distribution system. If the number of layers is one then a
perfect distribution system is assumed to be available. A large number of layers may
indicate a complete lack of a distribution system and thus a full dependence on a field to
field water distribution.
The water distribution within a Subak irrigation scheme can be represented more
accurately with these layers allowing, for example, to represent the effect of canal systems
and associated rotations and to estimate realistically the effect of water shortage. The
modelling approach for the irrigation node is then the specification of the cropping plan
(crop type, cultivated area, starting date, percolation pre-saturation requirements) and
Scenario analysis 111

the number of layered fields for the flood basin crop, computation of a moisture balance
for each field and water flows from field to field for the set of layered fields. A time
staggering is adopted for crop cultivation in the set of layered fields.

Figure 7.5. Schematization of an irrigated area sub-unit: field to field water flow for flood
basin irrigated crops (Van der Krogt, 2008)

7.2.2 Interactive graphical cropping plan editor

The cropping plan is one of the input data requirements. The cropping plan consists of a
table with the actual cultivation characterised by:
• cultivated crop;
• cultivated area (ha);
• starting date of the land preparation and transplanting period;
• percolation (mm/day);
• pre-saturation (mm).
112 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

In the model the cropping plan is defined for one year and is kept each year the
same. At the determination of the cropping plan various constraints, such as crop
characteristics, maintenance period(s), and overall water availability are taken into
account. The cropping plan is presented graphically in a crop-time diagram and the water
demand and availability are shown in a water balance hydrograph. Each crop in the crop
time diagram is represented as a parallelogram as shown in Figure 7.6, characterized by:
• the length of the land preparation period. This determines the steepness of the
parallelogram. At the start of the planting period the first farmers start and at the end
of the planting period the last farmer is ready;
• the length of the growing or cultivation period of the crop. This determines the
length of the parallelogram. This includes also harvesting.

Figure 7.6. Format for presentation of a planned cultivation for a particular area
(Van der Krogt, 2008)

A combination of cultivations is scheduled in a cropping plan of the irrigated area.

Figure 7.7 shows an example of the Subak Meliling cropping plan consisting of two
cultivations. The crop is paddy by two varieties, which were determined based on the
Scenario analysis 113

highest value of feasibility of farming (B/C ratio). These paddy varieties have the same
land preparation and water requirement. Each cultivated area is split into a number of sub-
units (strips) depending on the length of the planting period. RIBASIM contains an
interactive graphical cropping plan editor for the composition of a feasible cropping plan
at which water demand and availability are compared by a water balance hydrograph.

Figure 7.7. Schematization of the cropping plan and the water balance of Subak Meliling
irrigation scheme with paddy crops

7.2.3 Simulation of a cropping plan

During the simulation and optimisation of Yeh Ho River, the cropping plans have been
simulated by five scenarios as will be discussed in the next sections. Based on these
scenarios the optimal irrigation performance has been determined as follows:
1. with the RIBASIM model the water demand of the Subak irrigation systems based
on six weirs along Yeh Ho River, the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir and one weir along
the tributary Yeh Mawa River has been determined for each time step. The water
availability at the weirs was based on the available water for the Subak irrigation
schemes at 80% dependable flow over the period 2002 - 2010. The initial soil water
content, the cropping plan, the survival fraction of the cultivated area, dependable
rainfall, target level of the water layer or soil moisture, percolation, rainfall
114 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

effectiveness, irrigation practise and irrigation efficiency are taken into account;
2. with the RIBASIM model the actual irrigation supplies for each irrigation node for
the present time step, taking into account the water demand, the available water, the
operation of the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir and the weirs, recoverable flow of the
upstream schemes and the water allocation priority for each are computed;
3. in the model, on a daily basis the actual soil water balances, based on the irrigation
supplies, actual rainfall, actual crop evapotranspiration, percolation, field storage,
seepage and drainage discharge are updated. The soil water content at the end of the
time step becomes the new initial soil water content for the next time step. In this
way, excess or shortage of irrigation water will be corrected in the next time step;
4. finally, the crop survival fraction of each field, sub-unit, and cultivation based on the
actual crop evapotranspiration are computed with the model. At the end of the
growth period, the crop yield and production costs are computed.

7.2.4 Soil moisture characteristics

As stated before Bali has volcanic soils and Latosol soil is one of the two types of
volcanic soil that cover the soil layer of the study region at Tabanan Regency (Sunarta,
2016). Latosol soil has the following characteristics (Saptaningsih, 2015; Yulia, 2015):
• the layer of soil is 1.3 to 5 metres thick, while the horizon is unclear;
• the colour of the soil is red, brown to yellowish. By the colour the natural fertility
can be determined. More red is usually poorer. In general the nutrient content is
from low to moderate;
• the soil is usually clay, while the organic content of the soil ranges from 3 - 9%. It is
usually estimated at 5%;
• soil reaction is quite acid until acid between pH 4.5 - 6.5;
• the consistency of the grain structure is friable;
• infiltration and percolation are quite fast until quite slow;
• the water holding capacity is quite good;
• the soil is fairly resistant to the erosion.
Scenario analysis 115

Soils have physical characteristics such as texture, structure, bulk and particle
density, porosity and permeability. Soils hold different amounts of water depending on
their texture and structure. The most important physical characteristic is the field capacity
(FC), especially in the root zone. This is the upper limit of the water holding capacity,
while the lower limit is the permanent wilting point (PWP) (Zotarelli and Dukes, 2010).
In the paddy terraces of Meliling Subak irrigation scheme, soil samples have been
taken and laboratory tests were done to describe the physical characteristics of the
Latosol. The results of the analyses show that the soil texture is categorized by silty clay
with medium until high plasticity and brown to yellowish colours. Moreover, the average
value of the bulk density is 0.91 gr/m3, particle density 2.58 gr/m3, and porosity 0.65.
Based on the criteria of the Soil Laboratory of the University of Brawijaya the bulk
density is categorized in the middle range (Bokings et al., 2013). The bulk density is
influenced by a solid soil, porous soil structure, texture, the availability of organic matter
and land preparation, so that it quickly can be changed as a result of land preparation and
the practice of cultivation (Hardjowigeno, 2003). The value of the porosity of Latosol soil
is good with relatively limited pores to drain (Bokings et al., 2013).
The soil moisture characteristics of Latosol and some other vocanic soils are shown
in Figure 7.8. Latosol has a water content in the middle range, between Regosol as the
lowest and Andosol as the highest at all pF values.
Andosol is categorized as the soil with a relatively high organic matter content. In
contrast, Regosol has the most rough texture, and the water content is lower at all pF
values. This shows that the soil moisture availability is influenced by the organic matter
content and the soil texture. If the organic matter content of the soil is higher, then the soil
moisture is higher, and the soil texture is more coarse, so the soil moisture is lower. The
rate of decrease in the moisture content of the four soil types is shown in Figure 7.9.
Regosol has the highest rate of decrease, followed by Podsolik MK, Latosol and Andosol.
In addition, tests with the double ring infiltrometer were conducted at four terraces
in the early fallow season of July 2012. The tests have been conducted to investigate the
infiltration rate or the permeability of the root zone (+ 20 cm). The permeability is used as
an indicator for the drainage capacity of the soils. The average result of the root zone
permeability of the paddy terraces was 75 cm/hour. This result is considered high
116 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

(Bokings et al., 2013), which implies that the soil can rapidly drain excess water. This
result shows that when the Subak farmers work for saturation before land preparation, the
top soil of the paddy terraces need a high amount of water. This result can support the
information on the irrigation practice of the Subak farmers related to land preparation.

Figure 7.8. Relationship curves of soil moisture and matric suction pF

(Baskoro and Tarigan, 2007)

The type of soils with a low permeability is appropriate for rice fields. This implies
that the hydraulic conductivity in saturated circumstances at a rice field should be quite
low to prevent water losses, but still enough to leach the toxic materials (Emerson and
Foster, 1985). The laboratory tests by the falling head method for soil depths of 2 up to 6
m resulted in an average hydraulic conductivity of 9.7 x 10-4 cm/hour or 2.7 x 10-9 m/s.
This value represents the silty clay of the rice fields at the study location. The results of
soil tests are shown in Table 7.1.
Scenario analysis 117

Figure 7.9. Moisture content under free drainage, related to the time after saturation
(Baskoro and Tarigan, 2007)

Table 7.1. Index soil properties of Latosol silty clay at the paddy terraces block
Depth (m) 2-3m 4-5m 5-6m Average
Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
Soil index
1 2 1 2 1 2
3
γ (kg/m ) 1.64 1.64 1.53 1.53 1.51 1.51 1.56
ω (%) 0.71 0.72 0.61 0.62 0.81 0.84 0.72
Gs 2.63 2.67 2.41 2.45 2.64 2.64 2.58
3
γd (kg/m ) 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.83 0.82 0.91
N 0.63 0.64 0.61 0.61 0.68 0.69 0.65
Sr 1.07 1.07 0.96 0.95 0.98 1.00 1.00
3
γsat (kg/m ) 1.60 1.60 1.56 1.56 1.52 1.51 1.56
ωsat (%) 0.66 0.67 0.64 0.65 0.82 0.84 0.71
kv (cm/hour) 0.00091 0.0013 0.0007 9.7 x 10-4
118 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

A medium level of detail is considered in the modelling of the soil moisture. The
characteristics of soil moisture as considered in the modelling are presented in Figure 7.10
for flood basin crops.

Figure 7.10. Schematization of water management at field scale for flood basin crops
(Van der Krogt 2008)

7.2.5 Crop water requirement in the paddy terraces block

The computed consumptive use of paddy fields based on optimal soil moisture levels and
the various factors depleting or replenishing soil moisture, is based on a set of fixed or
pre-set conditions. Water requirements for a flood basin crop start with land preparation,
which requires a large amount of water and constitutes peak flows in the canal system,
and thus strongly determines design capacities (Van der Krogt, 2013).
Scenario analysis 119

As said, the RIBASIM model uses the 'Van der Goor' method to represent the
increase in cultivated area during land preparation based on the Irrigation Planning
Criteria (KP) 01 and the Technical Requirement (PT) 01 of the Department of Public
Works. By this method, the non-linear increase in the area is associated with a constant
supply of water during this period (Figures 7.11 and 7.12).

Figure 7.11. Progression of land preparation for flood basin crops (Van der Krogt, 2008)

In the land preparation period, the water requirements consist of two parts: (i)
application of the pre-saturation and water layer requirements on the piece of land, which
has been prepared during time dt; (ii) the evaporation and percolation over a progressively
prepared piece of land. Water input to an irrigated area is kept constant during land
preparation and results in a progression in land preparation according to equation 7-4. The
water requirement for the land preparation and transplanting time step is shown in
equation 7-5.
120 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 7.12. Land preparation and growing period for flood basin cultivation
(Van der Krogt, 2008)

 e MT/S 
Y =  MT/s (
 . 1- e
− 1) 
- tM/S
)
 (e 7-4

where:
Y = fraction of the irrigated area prepared at time (area which has received the pre-
saturation, water layer and compensation for seepage and evaporation)
t = time (days)
S = water requirements for the pre-saturation of the field and water layer (mm)
M = supply required for maintaining the water layer after pre-saturation is completed.
This equals to the sum of evapotranspiration and percolation (mm/day)
T = duration of pre-saturation (days)
e = base of natural logarithm
Scenario analysis 121

Req tot = S . Y' + (Cp . Eto + S) . Yep ' 7-5

where:
Reqtot = total crop water requirement (mm/time step)
S = water requirement for the pre-saturation of the field and water layer (mm)
Y' = area prepared at the end of land preparation and transplanting time step
Cp = crop factor
Eto = reference crop evapotranspiration
S = percolation
Yep' = factor indicating the cumulative area (evaporation and percolation)

The evaporation and percolation of a particular part of the irrigated area (saturated
between t0 and t) can be expressed as follows:

 - t . M/S
Yep = e MT/S .  e MT/S − 1 x e 0
  
( ) 
. t - t 0 − S M + S M . e- M.t/S 
 7-6

where:
Yep = proportion of pre-saturated area
t0 = starting time of the period between t0 and t for which pre-saturation must be
completed
t = time (days)
S = water requirement for the pre-saturation of the field and water layer (mm)
M = supply required for maintaining the water layer after pre-saturation is completed.
This equals to the sum of evapotranspiration and percolation (mm/day)
T = length of pre-saturation period (days)
e = base of natural logarithm
A = area under the curve with the proportion of the pre-saturated area versus time
122 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

7.2.6 Computation of command area water demand, actual field water

balance and effective irrigation water supply

The net field water requirements are obtained by subtracting the effective contribution of
rainfall, or from the computed field water requirement of the crops. An efficiency factor is
then applied to the total net field water requirement in order to find the water demand at
the intake. The effectiveness of rainfall depends on the water supply to the irrigated area
and the actual moisture condition in the fields.
The efficiency of water supply is a variable depending on the source and type of
irrigation. The efficiency increases under dry conditions. It is for example known that the
efficiency may go up to almost 100% during periods of shortage. For a flood basin the
approach followed in the DelftAGRI model is schematically shown in Figure 7.13.
DelftAGRI accounts for irrigation requirements based on farming and irrigation practices,
physical parameters related to soils and hydro-meteorological characteristics, crop damage
and production costs (Borden et al., 2016).

Figure 7.13. Schematization of the field water balance for flood basin crops
(Van der Krogt, 2008)
Scenario analysis 123

An average application efficiency of 80% has been considered and a maximum

efficiency during drought conditions of 90%. In the determination of the irrigation water
supplies, an irrigation efficiency of 80% has been applied to the net field water
requirements for all the crops. For the primary and secondary canals, an efficiency of 80 -
90% has been applied. This means that it is assumed that 80 - 90% is effectively available
to the plants in the soil and 10 - 20% will be lost to evaporation and seepage in canals and
in the distribution system. In the Subak irrigation schemes, most of the confluence flows
are located after the primary and secondary canals and one confluence system in the
upstream of Yeh Ho River as shown in Figure 7.14 (Subak Penebel to Subak Benana). As
a result the tertiary, quarternary and lower level canals almost only receive recoverable
flow from the upper Subak irrigation schemes, so the water losses are more or less in
balance or higher than the supply from the weirs. Based on Chapter 5, the observed outlets
which also function to provide recoverable flow have a maximum of 83%, an average of
62% and a minimum of 21% from the observed inlets. The results of the observations
during two dry and two wet seasons are shown in Annex J.

Figure 7.14. Confluence flow as recoverable flow supports downstream irrigation schemes
124 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

In the performance simulation of the cropping plan over a certain period the net
command area water demand has been computed by the water requirements of each field
and by simulating the cascade flow from field to field. For the computation of the demand
only the actual cultivated area (survival fraction of potential cultivated area) is taken into
account. RIBASIM provides also an option to simulate the level of irrigation system
management: with and without feedback from actual field conditions. Operation with
feedback has the following effect on the water demand:
• actual rainfall > dependable rainfall: the actual water level in the field above the
target level (storage of water in the soil) which means that in the next time step the
demand will be lower;
• actual rainfall < dependable rainfall: the actual water level in the field drops below
the target level which means that in the next time step the demand will be higher.

The computation of the actual field water balance has been carried out for each field
on a daily basis over the time step. This was based on the initial soil moisture content,
actual water supply, actual rainfall, evapotranspiration and percolation or seepage.
Drainage has been computed as a rest term: if the storage in the field, after considering the
above components, is above the desired level and the field storage buffer then the extra
water is considered as drainage. If the root zone soil moisture drops below the wilting
point then actual evapotranspiration and percolation are considered to be zero.
Actual irrigation water supply and rainfall enter both as input into the computation
of the water balance. If the sum of the irrigation water supply and rainfall is larger than
the requirement then there is in fact no way of telling which input contributes how much
to drainage. The following approach has been taken to separate the contributions of
irrigation water supply and rainfall to the drainage, or in other words to determine the
effective contribution of rainfall and irrigation water supply to the consumptive demand
(evapotranspiration and percolation or seepage).
If the field water level drops below the target level for a certain lower field then the
field storage of the upper fields is levelled over all fields. Drainage from the field will
occur if for flood basin crops the field water level reaches the field storage level or if for
dryland crops the soil moisture reaches the soil moisture storage. The outflow goes to the
Scenario analysis 125

next lower field. The drainage from the lowest field is added to the drainage flow out of
the irrigation node.

7.3 Results of economic evaluation of storage allocation

7.3.1 Pricing of paddy productivity

The Subak irrigation schemes are suitable for a non-volumetric method of irrigation water
pricing. The non-volumetric methods charge for irrigation water is based on a per output
basis, a per-input basis, a per-area basis, or on land values. These methods are easy to
implement and to administer and are best suited to continuous flow irrigation, which may
explain the prevalence in the irrigation world (Easter and Welsch, 1986; Easter and Tsur,
1995; Johansson, 2000). The market based method mechanisms have recently arisen as a
need to address water pricing inefficiencies inherent in existing irrigation institutions.
Subak Associations only charge the operation and maintenance cost of the tertiary,
quarternary and lowest level of the system, which need to be repaired incidentally.
However, it is related to the value of water for irrigation of paddy terraces. Irrigation
water is not charged for the transfer process.
In the Dutch colonial period, at April 25, 1939, a food agency, called Voedings
Middelen Fonds (VMF), was established, which aimed to control fluctuations of the price
of rice that were quite sharp in 1919/1920, and that had declined harshly in 1930, so that
the farmers found it difficult to pay taxes. In May 10, 1967 a government agency, the
Bureau of Logistics (Badan Urusan Logistik (BULOG)), was established to control prices
in the rice market (Harga Pokok Penjualan), During the Suharto era (Orde Baru) (30
years), the success of BULOG was characterized by centralization of management with
strong leadership for implementing the policy. However, due to Indonesia's economic
policy shift towards openness, deregulation of international trade, banking and finance,
the closed and centralized management system of BULOG started to loose effectiveness
and confidence. Since the early 1990s, the performance of BULOG has attracted criticism
from economists and other social scientists (Rachman and Purwoto, 2005).
126 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Since 2003, the status of BULOG has changed from a government agency into a
Public Company (Perusahaan Umum (PERUM)), and it does not have sole authority to
implement pricing policies anymore (Asnawi, 2015). Since then most of the Subak
farmers have sold their products directly to middleman, who can pay a higher price than
BULOG. On the other hand, some Subak farmers have rice mills themselves and sell
directly to the market.
The simulation has been based on the yield and production cost per node as
mentioned for a Subak irrigation scheme. The analysis of the primary data was based on
the period of two wet seasons and two dry seasons in two Subak irrigation schemes:
Subak Caguh and Subak Meliling. The results are shown in Table 7.2. RIBASIM
computes an agro-economic model with cost figures for the situation without a significant
reduction of yields due to drought. Damage can be considered as potential production
costs. In case of major crop losses due to water shortages, it was expected that production
costs will also be reduced.

7.3.2 Pricing of domestic water

The pricing of domestic water is determined by the Regency Government under the Local
Water Supply Utility (Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum (PDAM)) as regional owned
corporation (Badan Usaha Milik Daerah (BUMD)). In this research, the pricing of
domestic water from Telaga Tunjung Reservoir was input, because the domestic water is
processed in the water treatment plant (WTP) under supervision of PDAM Tabanan
Regency at the reservoir location. The pricing of domestic water basic cost has been based
on the annual operation and maintenance of the reservoir. It was Rp. 564 per m3 in 2013
and Rp. 941 per m3 in 2014. The PDAM Tabanan Regency charged a constant price of
Rp. 1,300 per m3 during the recent years.
 Scenarion analysis 127

Table 7.2. Yield and production cost analysis in Indonesian Rupiah

Subak scheme Subak Caguh Subak Meliling
Observation location Tempek Jangkahan 2013 and 2015 Angligan 2014 Angligan 2015
Area (ha) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.37 1.3 0.3 1.5 0.45 0.2 1.35
Start land preparation 16-5-13 5-12-13 1-2-15 24-12-14 26-12-14 27-12-14 29-12-14 16-2-15 4-2-15 02-2-15 04-2-15
Harvest time 13-9-13 19-3-14 21-5-15 12-4-15 13-4-15 20-4-15 12-4-15 24-5-15 17-4-15 26-4-15 07-4-15
Paddy Crop Ciherang Ciherang Inpari 19 Waengapu Ciherang Ciherang Inpari 19 Serang Serang 64 Inpari
Prima Prima Prima Prima Sumatera 19
Unhusked harvest (kg) 4,560 4,630 3,000 1,400 1,300 3,900 1,200 5,500 1,110 600 7,000
Revenue of harvest (Rp.) 16,200 17,600 9,000 9,600 5,180 13,300 4,800 28,900 3,770 2,580 27,300
Price per kg 3.55 3.79 3 6.86 4 3.40 4 5.25 3.40 4.30 3.90
kg/ha 5,700 5,790 3,750 2,330 3,500 3,000 4,000 3,670 2,470 3,000 5,190
Revenue per ha (Rp.) 20,200 22,000 11,300 16,000 14,000 10,200 16,000 19,300 8,390 12,900 20,200
Cost (Rp.)
a. ceremonies 300 250 300 200 185 200 200 2,300 200 200 300
b. land preparation 1,160 1,450 1,840 1,200 740 2,600 600 4,400 1,500 400 600
c. planting 640 800
d. seeding 1,200 150 1,030 350 355 1,330 400 1,680 690 345 500
e. weeding 440 600 630 860 790 1,500 301 350 335 235
f. spraying 955 720 770 525 600 1,000 1,500 200 140
Total cost (Rp.) 4,050 3,810 5,370 3,140 2,670 6,630 1,500 10,200 2,390 1,480 1,780
 128 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.2. continued

Cost per kg (Rp.) 0.89 0.82 1.79 2.24 2.06 1.70 1.25 1.86 2.15 2.47 0.25
Cost per ha (Rp.) 5,060 4,760 6,710 5,230 7,220 5,100 5,000 6,820 5,310 7,400 1,320
Benefit per ha (Rp.) 15,200 17,200 4,540 10,800 6,780 5,100 11,000 12,500 3,080 5,500 18,900
Benefit per kg (Rp.) 2.7 3.0 1.2 4.6 1.9 1.7 2.8 3.4 1.3 1.8 3.7
R/C (Efficiency of
4.0 4.6 1.7 3.1 1.9 2.0 3.2 2.8 1.6 1.7 15.4
farming)
B/C (Feasibility of
3.0 3.6 0.7 2.1 0.9 1.0 2.2 1.8 0.6 0.7 14.4
farming)
Rupiah in thousand 1 US $ = Rp. 13,000 standard cost = 500 US$/ha
Scenario analysis 129

7.4 Scenario analysis, simulation and optimisation of Yeh Ho River

Basin

The scenarios for the Subak schemes within Yeh Ho River Basin are based on the
flowchart as shown in Figure 6.1 and the cropping pattern in Table 4.1. The table shows
the total functional paddy field area that has been used in the model simulation, although
the data of the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, Tabanan Regency differ. The
area of agriculture fields was 22,388 ha in 2013 and 21,962 ha in 2014, it decreased with
1.9%. In 2015, the agriculture fields were 21,742 ha, and decreased again with 1.0%.
While the start of the land preparation plays a crucial role in the water management
the optimisation has focused on variations in the start of land preparation. The start of land
preparation is based on the cropping pattern agreement in Awig-awig Subak as it has been
compromised by the Subak farmers. In the reality at the field, there sometimes have been
sudden changes in the start of land preparation, such as because of the hydro-climate and
the maintenance of the canals in the concerned years, as it occurred in the case for two
years period of the observations in this study (April 2013 - April 2015). Although the
change of cropping pattern is usually prepared among the farmers and the Subak leader
(Pekaseh), occasionally, individual Subak farmers start the land preparation by
considering that their WDU (tektek) is having available water. However, the reason is the
justice of the THK philosophy that is based on Awig-awig Subak related to irrigation water
distribution, and mentions the farmer's right on his section of paddy field of approximately
0.5 - 1 ha
The concept of Subak water management is a boundary condition for the simulation
process. With the simulation based on alternatives for scheduling of the starting time of
land preparation in the paddy cultivation season (nyorog) the benefit of crop products, and
the indigenous cropping patterns based on the blocks upstream (ngulu), midstream
(maongin) and downstream (ngasep) has been optimised.
All scenarios were based on the 80% dependable discharge in the Yeh Ho River, as
mentioned in Chapter 4. Following the approach for input in the simulation is the type of
paddy crops, which have been chosen based on two highest values of feasibility of
130 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

farming (B/C ratio): Inpari 19 and Ciherang Prima as shown in Table 7.3. Another
approach for input in the simulation of RIBASIM is the percentage of recoverable flow
from the upper to the lower of paddy terraces schemes. For all scenarios, the average 62%
(normal condition) and minimum 21% (dry condition) for the recoverable flow have been
applied in the simulation.

Table 7.3. Recapitulation of average yield and production costs

Paddy crops kg/ha Price/kg (Rp.) Cost/ha (Rp) R/C B/C
Ciherang prima 4,500 3,700 5,360,000 3.1 2.1
64 Sumatera 3,000 4,300 7,400,000 1.7 0.7
Serang 3,070 4,350 6,060,000 2.2 1.2
Inpari 19 4,310 3,650 4,340,000 3.6 2.6
Waengapu 2,330 6,850 5,230,000 3.1 2.1

The RIBASIM model can simulate alternative numbers of terraces. Therefor the
simulation process could also have been aimed on how the influence of the number of
terraces for the recoverable flow from the upper schemes can support the lower schemes,
especially within the schemes in the upstream of Yeh Ho River Basin: Aya, Penebel,
Riang, Jegu and Caguh. The preliminary results did not show significant differences in the
optimum of agriculture production and little differences between the scenarios from
scheme to scheme. The differences in confluence flows between 25 and 35 terraces from
scheme to scheme were 0.001 - 0.002 m3/s. While the objective of the study was
optimisation of agriculture productivity all scenarios have been based on 25 terraces,
which were described in the paddy terraces block in Chapter 5.
Finally, the scenario analysis aimed to determine a recommendation for the Subak
farmers, how the available water based on the start of land preparation (nyorog) can give
optimum agriculture production for all schemes of Subak Agung Yeh Ho.
Scenario analysis 131

7.4.1 Simulation of the first scenario

In the first scenario the land preparation starts in period 13 (July I) for Subak Aya. The
cropping pattern is shown in Table 7.4, which was legally announced prior to the start of
the operation of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir in 2006. The simulation of the first scenario
shows the cropping pattern diagram in Subak Aya, Subak Penebel (one weir system with
Subak Riang and Jegu), Subak Caguh and Subak Meliling-Timpag in the upstream of the
Telaga Tunjung Reservoir. These Subak systems should be concerned, because of the
allocation of water from the upstream to the midstream of Yeh Ho River has been
insufficient for irrigation since a long time, when the utilization of Gembrong Spring in
the upstream was mainly used for domestic water.
The water balance between weir supply and crop water requirement of Subak Aya
(Figure 7.15) shows deficit irrigation during Jan I - Mar II and Jul II - Oct II. Subak
Penebel (Figure 7.16) shows a shift trend that has deficit irrigation during Jan I - Apr I and
Aug I - Nov II. Moreover, the water balance of Subak Caguh (Figure 7.17) has a longer
and higher trend than the previous schemes, there was deficit irrigation during Jan I - May
I and Aug I - Nov II. There was no problem with irrigation in Subak Meliling-Timpag,
which is shown in Figure 7.18. However, that scheme only serves 142 ha of paddy field.
In the upstream and midstream of Yeh Ho River, the largest scheme is Subak Caguh.
Therefore the irrigation water distribution within this scheme is challenging.
The confluence flows from diverted flow and recoverable flow are considered to be
62 and 21% of recoverable flow for each scheme. The results show significant differences
in confluence flows (Figure 7.19), which ranged from Subak Aya to Subak Penebel from
1.24 to 1.11 m3/s, Subak Penebel and Subak Caguh have 1.33 and 1.08 m3/s, Subak Caguh
and Subak Meliling-Timpag have 0.97 and 0.71 m3/s. Following the Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir, Subak Meliling has two confluence flows: to Yeh Ho River of 0.05 and 0.01
m3/s, and to Subak Sungsang 1.24 and 1.17 m3/s. Furthermore, the results of the
simulation of water allocation and agriculture production are explained in Table 7.5. The
actual field level production has an average percentage of 92.0% for 62% and 91.5% for
21%.
132 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.4. The cropping pattern of the first scenario in Subak Agung Yeh Ho
Subak irrigation Functional Blocks When to start land
schemes paddy fields preparation
Paddy I and Paddy II
Upstream Midstream Downstream (24 periods per year)
(Ngulu) (Maongin) (Ngasep)
ha Ha ha ha
1. Aya 644 644 Jul I (13) and Dec I (23)
2. Penebel 731 731 Jul II (14) and Dec II (24)
3. Riang 25 25 Aug I (15) and Jan I (1)
4. Jegu 111 111 Aug II (16) and Jan II (2)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Jan I (1) and Aug I (15)
6. Meliling- 142 142 Jan II (2) and Aug II (16)
Timpag
7. Telaga
Tunjung
Reservoir:
• Meliling 420 420 Feb I (3) and Sep I (17)
• Sungsang 430 430 Feb I (3) and Oct I (19)
• Gadungan 485 485 Feb II (4) and Sep II (18)

Figure 7.15. Cropping pattern and water balance of the first scenario for Subak Aya
Scenario analysis 133

Figure 7.16. Cropping pattern and water balance of the first scenario for Subak Penebel

Figure 7.17. Cropping pattern and water balance of the first scenario for Subak Caguh
134 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 7.18. Cropping pattern and water balance of the first scenario for Subak Meliling-
Timpag

(a) (b)
Figure 7.19. Confluence flows for the first scenario at 62 and 21%
Scenario analysis 135

Table 7.5. Water allocation and agriculture production of the first scenario
Name Subak Success time Success Pot.field level
Node Yearly average Act.field level prod. Act.prod.
Scheme steps years prod.
Demand Shortage Demand Shortage number rate number rate Costs
(MCM) (m3/s) (MCM) (m3/s) (-) (%) (-) (%) Ton 106 Rp Ton 106 Rp (%) 106 Rp
62 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 25.0 10.91 0.8 0.33 19 38.0 0 0 4,230 15,500 3,700 13,600 87.5 4,400
2 Subak Penebel 34.7 7.64 1.1 0.23 26 52.0 0 0 5,700 20,900 5,180 19,000 91.0 6,110
3 Subak Caguh 43.3 12.78 1.3 0.39 25 50.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 6,160 22,700 84.7 7,830
Subak Meliling
4 5.8 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.3 2.63 0.5 0.08 39 78.0 0 0 2,790 10,290 2,790 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 18.7 2.25 0.6 0.07 42 84.0 0 0 3,230 11,900 3,230 11,900 100.0 3,650
7 Subak Sungsang 14.6 1.78 0.4 0.05 43 86.0 0 0 2,860 10,500 2,860 10,500 100.0 3,240
Total 158.5 38.0 4.8 1.16 27,000 99,400 24,900 91,500 92.0 29,500
21 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 25.0 10.91 0.8 0.33 19.0 38.0 0 0 4,230 15,500 3,700 13,600 87.5 4,400
2 Subak Penebel 34.7 11.17 1.1 0.34 24.0 48.0 0 0 5,700 20,900 5,130 18,800 90.0 6,080
3 Subak Caguh 42.9 21.54 1.3 0.66 18.0 36.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 6,060 22,300 83.3 7,750
Subak Meliling
4 5.8 0.00 0.2 0.00 50.0 100.0 2 100 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.1 5.51 0.5 0.17 28.0 56.0 0 0 2,790 10,290 2,800 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 18.5 5.24 0.6 0.16 32.0 64.0 0 0 3,230 11,900 3,230 11,900 100.0 3,650
7 Subak Sungsang 14.9 3.85 0.5 0.12 39.0 78.0 0 0 2,860 10,500 2,860 10,500 100.0 3,240
Total 158.0 58.2 4.8 1.77 27,000 99,400 24,700 90,900 91.5 29,400
136 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

7.4.2 Simulation of the second scenario

In the second scenario the land preparation starts in period 14 (July II) for Subak Aya and
also a sequence change for the other schemes, with 15 days shift from the first scenario
(Table 7.6). The Subak schemes before the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir remain to require
attention for their cropping pattern and the water balance. The water balance between weir
supply and crop water requirement of Subak Aya is shown in Figure 7.20. It has the same
trend as in the first scenario with deficit irrigation during Jan I - Mar II and Aug I - Nov
II. Otherwise, in this scenario, Subak Penebel has a different trend of deficit irrigation,
while it shows a shift trend during Jan I - Apr II and Aug II - Nov II (Figure 7.21).

Table 7.6. The cropping pattern of the second scenario in Subak Agung Yeh Ho
Subak Functional Blocks When to start land
irrigation paddy preparation
schemes fields Paddy I and Paddy II
Upstream Midstream Downstream (24 periods per year)
(Ngulu) (Maongin) (Ngasep)
ha ha ha ha
1. Aya 644 644 Jul II (14) and Dec II (24)
2. Penebel 731 731 Aug I (15) and Jan I (1)
3. Riang 25 25 Aug II (16) and Jan II (2)
4. Jegu 111 111 Sep I (17) and Feb I (3)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Jan II (2) and Aug II (16)
6. Meliling- 142 142 Feb I (3) and Sep I (17)
Timpag
7. Telaga
Tunjung
Reservoir:
• Meliling 420 420 Feb II (4) and Sep II (18)
• Sungsang 430 430 Feb II (4) and Oct II (20)
• Gadungan 485 485 Mar I (5) and Oct I (19)
Scenario analysis 137

Figure 7.20. Cropping pattern and water balance of the second scenario for Subak Aya

Figure 7.21. Cropping pattern and water balance of the second scenario for Subak Penebel

The water balance of Subak Caguh (Figure 7.22) shows a shift trend of deficit
irrigation during Feb I - May II and Aug II - Dec I. At last, Subak Meliling-Timpag still
has no deficit irrigation (Figure 7.23).
The principle of justice based on THK portrays how Subak farmers are concerned
'when and how' the irrigation water comes. The results show significant differences in
confluence flows (Figure 7.24), from Subak Aya to Subak Penebel of 1.21 and 1.10 m3/s
138 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Subak Penebel and Subak Caguh have 1.28 and 1.06 m3/s, Subak Caguh and Subak
Meliling-Timpag have 0.95 and 0.71 m3/s. Following Telaga Tunjung Reservoir, Subak
Meliling has two confluence systems: to Yeh Ho River of 0.05 and 0.01 m3/s, and to
Subak Sungsang 1.34 and 1.26 m3/s. The results of the simulation of water allocation and
agriculture production are given in Table 7.7 and the averages of the percentage of actual
field level production are 94.3% for 62% and 93.8% for 21%.

Figure 7.22. Cropping pattern and water balance of the second scenario for Subak Caguh

Figure 7.23. Cropping pattern and water balance of the second scenario for
Subak Meliling-Timpag
Scenario analysis 139

Table 7.7. Water allocation and agriculture production of the second scenario
Success Success Act.
Name Subak Yearly average Pot. field level
Node time steps years Act. field level prod. prod.
Scheme prod.
Demand Shortage Demand Shortage numberrate numberrate costs
(MCM) (m3/s) (MCM) (m3/s) (-) (%) (-) (%) Ton 106 Rp Ton 106 Rp (%) 106 Rp
62 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 25.9 11.41 0.8 0.35 18 36.0 0 0 4,230 15,500 3,730 13,700 88.2 4,420
2 Subak Penebel 35.5 7.37 1.1 0.23 27 54.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,380 19,800 93.4 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.7 12.97 1.3 0.40 29 58.0 0 0 7,370 27,300 6,700 24,800 90.9 8,730
Subak Meliling
4 5.7 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.7 2.34 0.5 0.07 38 76.0 0 0 2,790 10,300 2,790 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 19.0 1.89 0.6 0.06 42 84.0 0 0 3,230 11,900 3,230 11,900 100.0 3,650
7 Subak Sungsang 16.9 1.85 0.5 0.06 43 86.0 0 0 2,860 10,500 2,860 10,500 100.0 3,240
Total 162.3 37.8 4.9 1.15 27,200 100,000 25,600 94,500 94.3 30,800
21 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 25.9 11.41 0.8 0.35 18 36.0 0 0 4,230 15,500 3,730 13,700 88.2 4,420
2 Subak Penebel 35.7 11.39 1.1 0.35 19 38.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,340 19,600 92.6 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.9 22.10 1.3 0.67 19 38.0 0 0 7,370 27,300 6,600 24,400 89.5 8,660
Subak Meliling
4 5.7 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.5 5.41 0.5 0.17 29 58.0 0 0 2,790 10,300 2,790 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 19.1 4.69 0.6 0.14 33 66.0 0 0 3,230 11,900 3,230 11,900 100.0 3,650
7 Subak Sungsang 17.2 5.18 0.5 0.16 36 72.0 0 0 2,860 10,500 2,860 10,500 100.0 3,240
Total 162.9 60.2 5.0 1.83 27,200 100,000 25,500 93,900 93.8 30,700
140 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

(a) (b)
Figure 7.24. Confluence flows for the second scenario at 62 and 21%

7.4.3 Simulation of the third scenario

In the third scenario the land preparation starts in period 15 (Aug I) for Subak Aya and in
sequence for the other schemes, with 15 days following from the second scenario. The
cropping pattern is shown in Table 7.8. Subak schemes upstream of TelagaTunjung
Reservoir still focus for their cropping pattern and the water balance between weir supply
and crop water requirement. The water balance of Subak Aya (Figure 7.25) has the same
trend as in the first and second scenarios, but in the third scenario there is a quite different
trend with deficit irrigation during Jan II - Apr I and Aug II - Nov II.
In addition, Subak Penebel has a shifting trend compared to the two previous
scenarios that shows deficit irrigation during Feb I - May I and Sep I - Nov II (Figure
7.26). The different trends occurred in Subak Caguh (Figure 7.27) which early in the year,
Jan I, has deficit irrigation, but in Jan II there is no deficit, then from Feb II until June I,
and during Sep I - Dec I there is deficit irrigation. At last, Subak Meliling-Timpag still has
no deficit irrigation (Figure 7.28).
Scenario analysis 141

Table 7.8. The cropping pattern of the third scenario in Subak Agung Yeh Ho
Subak Functional Blocks When to start land
irrigation paddy fields preparation
schemes Paddy I and Paddy II
Upstream Midstream Downstream (24 periods per year)
(Ngulu) (Maongin) (Ngasep)
ha ha Ha ha
1. Aya 644 644 Aug I (15) and Jan I (1)
2. Penebel 731 731 Aug II (16) and Jan II (2)
3. Riang 25 25 Sep I (17) and Feb I (3)
4. Jegu 111 111 Sep II (18) and Feb II (4)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Feb I (3) and Sep I (17)
6. Meliling- 142 142 Feb II (4) and Sep II (18)
Timpag
7. Telaga
Tunjung
Reservoir:
• Meliling 420 420 Mar I (5) and Oct I (19)
• Sungsang 430 430 Mar I (5) and Nov I (21)
• Gadungan 485 485 Mar II (6) and Oct II (20)

In operation the Subak farmers of the irrigation systems also make use of the
recoverable flow from the upstream schemes. By shifting the start of the land preparation,
in the third scenario there is also a shift in the results. The results of confluence flows
(Figure 7.29) are the same as with the second scenario, which is expected in Subak Aya to
Subak Penebel to be 1.21 and 1.10 m3/s, Subak Penebel to Subak Caguh 1.28 and 1.06
m3/s and Subak Caguh to Subak Meliling-Timpag 0.95 and 0.71 m3/s.
Moreover after the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Subak Meliling has quite different
results compared to the second scenario: to Yeh Ho River 0.05 and 0.01 m3/s, and to
Subak Sungsang 1.29 and 1.21 m3/s. The results of the simulation of water allocation and
agriculture production are explained in Table 7.9, that has an average actual field level
production of 98.0% for 62% and 97.7% for 21%.
142 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 7.25. Cropping pattern and water balance of the third scenario for Subak Aya

Figure 7.26. Cropping pattern and water balance of the third scenario for Subak Penebel
867 ha
Scenario analysis 143

Figure 7.27. Cropping pattern and water balance of the third scenario for Subak Caguh

Figure 7.28. Cropping pattern and water balance of the third scenario for
Subak Meliling-Timpag
144 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.9. Water allocation and agriculture production of the third scenario
Success Success Act.
Name Subak Yearly average Pot. field level
Node time steps years Act. field level prod. prod.
Scheme prod.
Demand Shortage Demand Shortage numberrate numberrate costs
(MCM) (m3/s) (MCM) (m3/s) (-) (%) (-) (%) Ton 106 Rp Ton 106 Rp (%) 106 Rp
62 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 26.5 11.95 0.8 0.36 16 32.0 0 0 4,280 15,800 3,830 14,100 89.3 4,770
2 Subak Penebel 34.8 7.14 1.1 0.22 31 62.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,690 21,000 98.7 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.3 12.56 1.3 0.38 31 62.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 7,270 26,800 100.0 8,230
Subak Meliling
4 5.6 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100.0 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.3 1.52 0.5 0.05 38 76.0 0 0 2,790 10,300 2,790 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 18.3 0.87 0.6 0.03 44 88.0 1 50.0 3,230 11,900 3,230 11,900 100.0 3,650
7 Subak Sungsang 16.7 1.35 0.5 0.04 43 86.0 0 0 2,860 10,500 2,860 10,500 100.0 3,240
Total 160.4 35.4 4.9 1.08 27,100 100,000 26,600 98,100 98.0 30,600
21 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 26.5 11.95 0.8 0.36 16 32.0 0 0 4,280 15,800 3,830 14,100 89.3 4,770
2 Subak Penebel 34.9 10.77 1.1 0.33 20 40.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,600 20,600 97.1 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.2 21.43 1.3 0.65 19 38.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 7,270 26,800 100.0 8,230
Subak Meliling
4 5.6 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100.0 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.6 4.82 0.5 0.15 31 62.0 0 0 2,790 10,300 2,800 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 18.5 3.77 0.6 0.12 34 68.0 0 0 3,230 11,900 3,230 11,900 100.0 3,650
7 Subak Sungsang 17.2 5.06 0.5 0.15 37 74.0 0 0 2,860 10,500 2,860 10,500 100.0 3,240
Total 161.5 57.8 4.9 1.76 27,100 100,000 26,500 97,700 97.7 30,600
Scenario analysis 145

(a) (b)
Figure 7.29. Confluence flows for the third scenario at 62 and 21%

7.4.4 Simulation of the fourth scenario

In the fourth scenario the land preparation starts in period 16 (Aug II) for Subak Aya and
in sequence for the downstream schemes, with 15 days following from the third scenario.
The cropping pattern is shown in Table 7.10. Subak schemes upstream of TelagaTunjung
Reservoir remain to require attention for the hydro water balance. Subak Aya (Figure
7.30) shows a different trend compared to the previous scenarios with deficit irrigation
during Feb I - Apr I, May II, and during Sep I - Dec I. Subak Penebel also has a shifting
trend from the previous scenarios with deficit irrigation at Jan I, during Feb II - May II,
and during Sep II - Dec I (Figure 7.31).
Fluctuating trends occurred in Subak Caguh (Figure 7.32) with early in the year, Jan
I deficit irrigation, as well as from Mar I until June II, and during Sep II - Dec I. Finally,
Subak Meliling-Timpag still has no deficit irrigation (Figure 7.33).
The marks of confluence flows (Figure 7.34) which are typical in Subak Aya to
Subak Penebel are 1.21 and 1.10 m3/s, Subak Penebel to Subak Caguh 1.28 and 1.06 m3/s,
Subak Caguh to Subak Meliling-Timpag 0.96 and 0.71 m3/s.
146 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.10. The cropping pattern of the fourth scenario in Subak Agung Yeh Ho
Subak Functional Blocks When to start land
irrigation paddy preparation
schemes fields Paddy I and Paddy II
Upstream Midstream Downstrea (24 periods per year)
(Ngulu) (Maongin) m (Ngasep)
ha ha Ha ha
1. Aya 644 644 Aug II (16) and Jan II (2)
2. Penebel 731 731 Sep I (17) and Feb I (3)
3. Riang 25 25 Sep II (18) and Feb II (4)
4. Jegu 111 111 Oct I (19) and Mar I (5)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Feb II (4) and Sep II (18)
6. Meliling- 142 142 Mar I (5) and Oct I (19)
Timpag
7. Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir:
• Meliling 420 420 Mar II (6) and Oct II (20)
• Sungsang 430 430 Mar II (6) and Nov II (22)
• Gadungan 485 485 Apr I (7) and Nov I (21)

In addition, downstream of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir, Subak Meliling has two

confluence flows: to Yeh Ho River 0.07 and 0.02 m3/s, and to Subak Sungsang 1.40 and
1.27 m3/s. The results of the simulation of water allocation and agriculture production are
shown in Table 7.11, with an average actual field level production of 98.9% for 62 and
21%.
Scenario analysis 147

Figure 7.30. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fourth scenario for Subak Aya

Figure 7.31. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fourth scenario for Subak Penebel
148 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 7.32. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fourth scenario for Subak Caguh

Figure 7.33. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fourth scenario for
Subak Meliling-Timpag
Scenario analysis 149

(a) (b)
Figure 7.34. Confluence flows for the fourth scenario at 62 and 21%

7.4.5 Simulation of the fifth scenario

In the fifth scenario the land preparation starts in period 17 (Sep I) for Subak Aya and
progresses for the downstream schemes, with 15 days following from the fourth scenario.
The cropping pattern is shown in Table 7.12. Subak Aya (Figure 7.35) shows a fluctuating
trend with deficit irrigation in Jan I, May I - II, and during Sep II - Dec I. Afterwards,
Subak Penebel also shows a shifting trend compared to the previous scenarios with deficit
irrigation in Jan I - II, during Mar I - Jun I, and Oct I - Dec I (Figure 7.36).
150 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.11. Water allocation and agriculture production of the fourth scenario
Success Success Act.
Name Subak Yearly average Pot. field level
Node time steps years Act. field level prod. prod.
Scheme prod.
Demand Shortage Demand Shortage numberrate numberrate costs
(MCM) (m3/s) (MCM) (m3/s) (-) (%) (-) (%) Ton 106 Rp Ton 106 Rp (%) 106 Rp
62 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 26.1 11.71 0.8 0.36 17.0 34.0 0 0 4,280 15,800 3,980 14,600 92.8 4,850
2 Subak Penebel 34.4 6.86 1.0 0.21 30.0 60.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,760 21,200 100.0 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.0 11.87 1.3 0.36 29.0 58.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 7,270 26,800 100.0 8,230
Subak Meliling
4 5.5 0.00 0.2 0.00 50.0 100.0 2 100.0 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 15.7 1.24 0.5 0.04 41.0 82.0 0 0 2,790 10,300 2,790 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 18.1 0.42 0.6 0.01 45.0 90.0 1 50.0 4,270 15,700 4,270 15,700 100.0 4,700
7 Subak Sungsang 16.7 1.61 0.5 0.05 45.0 90.0 0 0 1,890 7,000 1,890 6,960 100.0 2,080
Total 158.5 33.7 4.8 1.03 27,200 100,000 26,900 99,000 98.9 30,600
21 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 26.1 11.71 0.8 0.36 17.0 34.0 0 0 4,280 15,800 3,980 14,600 92.8 4,850
2 Subak Penebel 34.4 9.94 1.0 0.30 23.0 46.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,760 21,200 100.0 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 41.7 20.60 1.3 0.63 21.0 42.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 7,270 26,800 100.0 8,230
Subak Meliling
4 5.5 0.00 0.2 0.00 50.0 100.0 2 100.0 945 3,500 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
Timpag
5 Subak Meliling 16.0 3.91 0.5 0.12 28.0 56.0 0 0 2,790 10,200 2,790 10,300 100.0 3,160
6 Subak Gadungan 18.2 3.31 0.6 0.10 35.0 70.0 0 0 4,270 15,700 4,270 15,700 100.0 4,700
7 Subak Sungsang 17.0 4.59 0.5 0.14 38.0 76.0 0 0 1,890 7,000 1,890 6,960 100.0 2,080
Total 158.8 54.1 4.8 1.65 27,200 100,000 26,900 99,000 98.9 30,600
Scenario analysis 151

Table 7.12. The cropping pattern of the fifth scenario in Subak Agung Yeh Ho
Subak Functional Blocks When to start land
irrigation paddy preparation
schemes fields Paddy I and Paddy II
Upstream Midstream Downstream (24 periods per year)
(Ngulu) (Maongin) (Ngasep)
ha ha ha ha
1. Aya 644 644 Sep I (17) and Feb I (3)
2. Penebel 731 731 Sep II (18) and Feb II (4)
3. Riang 25 25 Oct I (19) and Mar I (5)
4. Jegu 111 111 Oct II (20) and Mar II (6)
5. Caguh 1093 1093 Mar I (5) and Oct I (19)
6. Meliling- 142 142 Mar II (6) and Oct II (20)
Timpag
7. Telaga
Tunjung
Reservoir:
• Meliling 420 420 Apr I (7) and Nov I (21)
• Sungsang 430 430 Apr I (7) and Dec I (23)
• Gadungan 485 485 Apr II (8) and Nov II (22)

Figure 7.35. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fifth scenario for Subak Aya
152 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Figure 7.36. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fifth scenario for Subak Penebel

The fluctuating and shifting trends compared to the fourth scenario take place on
Subak Caguh (Figure 7.37) with early in the year, Jan I - II, deficit irrigation, next from
Mar II until July I, and during Oct I - Dec I. After all, Subak Meliling-Timpag still has no
deficit irrigation (Figure 7.38).
The results of confluence flows for upstream schemes (Figure 7.39) for Subak Aya
to Subak Penebel are 1.21 and 1.10 m3/s, Subak Penebel to Subak Caguh 1.29 and 1.06
m3/s, and for Subak Caguh to Subak Meliling-Timpag 0.97 and 0.71 m3/s.

Figure 7.37. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fifth scenario for Subak Caguh
Scenario analysis 153

Figure 7.38. Cropping pattern and water balance of the fifth scenario for
Subak Meliling-Timpag

(a) (b)
Figure 7.39. Confluence flows for the fifth scenario 62 and 21%

Furthermore, Subak Meliling has two confluence flows: to Yeh Ho River 0.09 and
0.03 m3/s, and to Subak Sungsang 1.51 and 1.36 m3/s. The results of the simulation of
water allocation and agriculture production are shown in Table 7.13, with an average
actual field level production of 100% for 62 and 21%.
154 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.13. Water allocation and agriculture production of the fifth scenario
Success Success
Yearly average Act.
Name Subak time steps years Pot. field level
Node Act. field level prod. prod.
Scheme number number prod.
Demand Shortage Demand Shortage costs
rate rate
(MCM) (m3/s) (MCM) (m3/s) (-) (%) (-) (%) Ton 106 Rp Ton 106 Rp (%) 106 Rp
62 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 25.6 11.31 0.8 0.34 18 36.0 0 0 4,280 15,800 4,280 15,800 100.0 4,850
2 Subak Penebel 34.3 6.07 1.0 0.19 29 58.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,760 21,200 100.0 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.1 11.60 1.3 0.35 27 54.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 7,270 26,800 100.0 8,230
Subak Meliling
4 5.3 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100.0
Timpag 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
5 Subak Meliling 15.7 1.13 0.5 0.04 39 78.0 0 0 3,700 13,600 3,700 13,600 100.0 4,070
6 Subak Gadungan 18.0 0.51 0.5 0.02 47 94.0 0 0 3,180 11,700 3,180 11,700 100.0 3,400
7 Subak Sungsang 17.0 1.41 0.5 0.04 44 88.0 0 0 2,820 10,300 2,820 10,300 100.0 3,020
Total 158.0 32.0 4.8 0.98 28,000 103,000 28,000 103,000 100.0 31,200
21 % of recovarable flow
1 Subak Aya 25.6 11.31 0.8 0.34 18 36.0 0 0 4,280 15,800 4,280 15,800 100.0 4,850
2 Subak Penebel 34.5 9.79 1.1 0.30 23 46.0 0 0 5,760 21,200 5,760 21,200 100.0 6,520
3 Subak Caguh 42.4 20.67 1.3 0.63 22 44.0 0 0 7,270 26,800 7,270 26,800 100.0 8,230
Subak Meliling
4 5.3 0.00 0.2 0.00 50 100.0 2 100.0
Timpag 945 3,480 945 3,480 100.0 1,070
5 Subak Meliling 15.8 3.96 0.5 0.12 28 56.0 0 0 3,700 13,600 3,700 13,600 100.0 4,070
6 Subak Gadungan 18.1 3.09 0.6 0.09 34 68.0 0 0 3,180 11,700 3,180 11,700 100.0 3,400
7 Subak Sungsang 17.3 4.75 0.5 0.15 38 76.0 0 0 2,820 10,300 2,820 10,300 100.0 3,020
Total 159.1 53.6 4.8 1.63 28,000 103,000 28,000 103,000 100.0 31,200
Scenario analysis 155

7.5 Summary of the simulation and optimisation of Yeh Ho River Basin

The river basin simulation used the 80% dependable discharge, which is a standard for
irrigation in Indonesia, as well as in the simulation and optimisation of the Subak schemes
in Yeh Ho River Basin that was based on shifting of the start of land preparation (nyorog).
This is one of the three activitees of Subak Associations related to operation and
maintenance of Subak irrigation schemes. The results show that the fifth scenario resulted
in an overall optimum agriculture production of 100% and a feasibility of farming (B/C)
of 2.3 of actual field level production for the Subak irrigation schemes.
The fifth scenario starts in the period where the availability of the discharge of the
upstream weirs, Aya and Penebel is stable (Figures 4.3 and 4.4). Compared to the other
scenarios, especially with respect to the upstream schemes, September - October and
February - March of the fifth scenario are the best periods to start land preparation.
Because of the sequence that is followed by the Subak irrigation schemes, based on
upstream (ngulu), midstream (maongin), and downstream (ngasep), the starting month of
land preparation is also important for the allocation of water under deficit conditions.
Application of the right scheme model in RIBASIM for representing the Yeh Ho
River Basin can offer optimum results of agriculture production, though there was limited
and reduced water for irrigation from upstream sources and the river. The recoverable
flow in the river basin scheme model played an important role for processing the
simulation and optimisation of Yeh Ho River Basin.

7.5.1 Utilisation of hydraulic structures

Utilisation over the whole simulation period per diversion and of the reservoir are defined
by the ratio between the sum of minimum (actual diverted and target diverted flow) over
all downstream links and sum of upstream flow as shown in Table 7.14. The operation of
the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir is quite important. The values of utilisation between 60.9
until 79.0% for all scenarios, and the graphs of reservoir operation are shown in Annex K.
For the upstream weirs the values of utilisation between 91.3 until 93.4% are applicable.
156 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table 7.14. Utilisation of the hydraulic structures (%)

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Existing
62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21%
Telaga Tunjung
60.9 71.4 64.5 74.2 65.1 77.0 67.8 79.0 66.3 78.5 66.8 77.0
Reservoir
Weir Aya 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2 92.2
Weir Penebel 91.3 92.2 91.7 93.1 92.5 93.4 92.4 93.4 92.0 92.8 91.3 92.2
Weir Caguh 86.1 87.1 85.7 88.3 86.6 88.6 86.1 88.4 85.5 86.8 86.1 87.1
Weir Meliling 74.4 75.4 74.2 76.5 75.0 76.8 74.6 76.7 74.1 75.2 74.4 75.4
Jetflow 11.7 18.6 11.8 18.5 11.7 18.9 11.7 19.5 12.0 19.7 11.5 17.2
Weir Gadungan 38.7 50.0 40.0 55.0 41.1 55.1 42.1 55.5 41.7 57.2 43.1 57.3
Weir Sungsang 15.3 30.1 19.1 33.9 19.0 34.1 18.9 35.5 20.0 37.3 15.7 32.1

7.5.2 Verification of the model

Besides the irrigation supply from the main river system, the recoverable flow from
scheme to scheme, that has been used by the Subak farmers since a long time, is also
essential. The results at the last node of recoverable flow in the model can be verified with
the dependable flow of 80% over the last weir, namely Sungsang. Based on simulation of
the five scenarios the verified results of the downstream flows show that the fifth scenario
with 21% of recoverable flow gives the highest value of 0.77, as shown in Table 7.15 and
Figure 7.40. All graphs of verification are shown in Annex K.

Table 7.15. R2 main Yeh Ho Sungsang and recoverable flow at Sungsang Weir
Verification of First Second Third Fourth Fifth Existing
downstream
62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21% 62% 21%
flows
R2 0.60 0.68 0.69 0.72 0.66 0.74 0.67 0.76 0.66 0.77 0.56 0.68
Scenario analysis 157

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

Figure 7.40. Downstream flows over Sungsang Weir for the fifth scenario with 21% of
recoverable flow
8 Evaluation

8.1 Recommendations for river basin development

Especially in the upstream and midstream of Yeh Ho River the allocation of irrigation
water to the Subak irrigation schemes experienced a deficit since the withdrawal of
Gembrong Spring for domestic use and distribution of water from that spring was not
based on applying the agreement on water sharing in practice. Therefor the first step in
improved water supply would have to be to really apply the agreement about it in practice.
When the agreement will be applied in practice effective operation of the Telaga
Tunjung Reservoir does not necessarily completely solve the problem of water shortage in
the river basin. However, when a cropping pattern based on the investigated fifth scenario
will be applied the water deficit and yield reduction will be quite limited. Based on
simulation with the RIBASIM model the results of this study can provide a contribution to
the management of water for the Subak irrigation schemes along Yeh Ho River.
In addition, the purpose of this research was to find answers on the gap between the
theory and the practice that is being applied in the Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho
River Basin. Based on literature review, fieldwork, laboratory analyses, the standards
book in Indonesia, and application of the RIBASIM model this research has brought the
theory and practice closer, especially by the hydrological and hydraulic analysis.
The results of the study also show that the role of recoverable flow is very important
in the water distribution from upper schemes to lower schemes. Subak farmers have the
ability of negotiation based on the THK philosophy. The alternative scenarios by shifting
the start of land preparation (nyorog) are expected to be well received by these farmers.
In a discussion with the leader of Subak Agung Yeh Ho and Subak farmers based on
the optimized results on agriculture production of the fifth scenario, with land preparation
starting in September - October and February - March in the upstream schemes: Aya and
Penebel and similar changes in the start of land preparation of the midstream and
downstream schemes, they agreed with the results.
160 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

The importance of this research is that an appropriate of scenario has been identified
to resolve the issue of sustainable water management within Yeh Ho River Basin and the
indigenous Subak irrigation schemes. The study outcomes also show that, even though
before this study it was never evidenced quantitatively at river basin scale, the Subak
farmers are able to manage successfully their irrigation systems, based on the local
wisdom. Furthermore, at river basin scale, the results of the study can provide a
contribution for similar Subak irrigation schemes in other river basins in Indonesia.

8.1.1 Telaga Tunjung Reservoir operation based on Subak cropping

patterns

The subsistence of the reservoir has been applied as important role to increase water
supply for downstream schemes: Meliling, Gadungan and Sungsang. It will also have an
direct impact to sustain water conservation at the river basin scale. Water conservation in
this research is an effort of water resources management by using simulation on the
availability of discharge in order to increase the efficiency of water demand. Based on the
ratio between the actual diverted flow and the target diverted flow under the different
scenarios the water demand in Yeh Ho River Basin was served by 60.9 - 79.0%. This was
mainly caused by deficit in the supply of the systems upstream of the Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir, while the operation of the reservoir resulted in fully the required supply of the
downstream systems. This result can deliver good information to the Regional River
Office of Bali-Penida. It is envisaged that they will consider this result under their
authority related to the standard operation of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir.
The reservoir can be operated to allocate the irrigation water in an optimum way by
connecting to the river basin and the scenarios of the Subak schemes cropping patterns.
From the cropping pattern of the first scenario - which reflects the present situation -
shifting of the start of land preparation each time with 15 days is the most important
action to optimise agriculture production in Yeh Ho River Basin from upstream,
midstream and downstream schemes. This implies that for the fifth scenario land
preparation starts 60 days later than in the first scenario.
Evaluation 161

Since the start of the operation in 2006, the operation staff of Telaga Tunjung
Reservoir and Subak farmers have been dealt gradually that downstream systems are
irrigated alternately from Telaga Tunjung Reservoir, one year to Meliling scheme, the
next one year to Gadungan scheme. The last, Sungsang scheme is irrigated generally from
recoverable flows. However the problem water sharing still occurs in the upstream and
midstream schemes.
The component of THK on harmony among people could be applied to shift the
overall start of land preparation in the schemes in accordance with the cropping pattern of
the fifth scenario, so that the agricultural productivity in the schemes can be guaranteed in
an optimal way. As well, it could be applied in relation to the reservoir operation to supply
Subak irrigation schemes that can best be operated, especially for the downstream
schemes: Meliling, Gadungan, and Sungsang.

8.1.2 Operation and maintenance of the Subak irrigation systems

The operation and maintenance technologies are linked to sub-section 3.2.1 about PIM in
irrigation system operation and maintenance, and the third element of the Tri Hita Karana
philosophy as shown in Table 3.1 on the material subsystem. One part the material
subsystem concerning the natural relation elements, mentions that the presence of
hydraulic structures and irrigation systems are suitable with the needs of the local farmers.
Therefore the operation of the diversion weirs has been implemented based on a
compromise between the irrigation observer and the Subak farmers related to the opening
and closing of the gates of the weirs and the maintenance of the irrigation canals. For
irrigation water supply the gates are opened by setting them at a point gauge based on the
irrigated area (daerah irigasi). During maintenance the irrigation observer closes the gates
of the secondary canals. However, while there are no gates in the distribution boxes within
the Subak irrigation schemes, water can still flow through these boxes related to the
natural hilly topography, the specific location of water sources and type of soils. Subak
farmers make together a deal in Awig-awig Subak about opening and closing the irrigation
water supply that only applies to the WDUs (tektek). Additionally this routine has been
162 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

expressed in Table 3.1 related to the social subsystem and the material subsystem
especially on the religious elements. Also the system of one inlet and one outlet enforces
Subak irrigation schemes to apply the principle of justice in the management that has been
adjusted to the natural environment and has proven to be an effective system.
Subak irrigation farmers would accept the new operation and maintenance strategy
based on the revised start of land preparation of the fifth scenario, and through the results
of the simulation on confluence flows the scheme model can provide information to
Subak associations and Subak farmers per scheme about the supply of irrigation water that
they can receive at the time of the start of land preparation. However, by approach with
the RIBASIM model, the improvement of the agricultural production has been verified
quantitatively in all the schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin.
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APPENDICES

Annex A. Abbreviations

BULOG Bureau of logistics

BUMD Regional owned corporation
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FC Field capacity
IFM Integrated flood management
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
IWRM Integrated water resources management
MDG Millennium development goals
MSL Mean sea level
PDAM Local water supply utility
PIM Participatory irrigation system management
PMF Probable maximum flood
PWP Permanent wilting point
RIBASIM River basin simulation model
Rp. Rupiah (Indonesian currency)
TARWR Total actual renewable water resources
THK Tri Hita Karana
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VMF Voedings Middelen Fonds
WDU Water distribution unit
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WTP Water treatment plant
Annex B. Symbols

A Area under the curve with the proportion of the pre-saturated area versus time
Ai Average surface area of the reservoir in time interval i
At Values are specified in Δt
At + Δ t A function of volume of storage at the beginning and end of a time interval
B/C Feasibility of farming, which is determined by the difference of revenue and cost
devided by the cost
B Benefit (Rp.)
C Cost (Rp.)
c Crop coefficient
Cp Crop factor
e Base of natural logarithms
er Evaporation rate (mm/day)
Ei Evaporation in the reservoir each time to i
ETo Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Etp Estimation of potential evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Gs Specific gravity
Kv Hydraulic conductivity (cm/hour)
m The rank of annual series data arranged in descending order of magnitude
M The sum of evapotranspiration and percolation (mm/day)
n Number of years
n Porosity
P Probability of exceedence (%)
Qinflow Inflow (m3/s)
Qdivert Diversion (m3/s)
Qoverflow Overflow (m3/s)
Qconfluence Confluence flow (m3/ s)
R Revenue (Rp.)
Re Effective rainfall (mm/day)
R2 Percent of variance explained/coefficient of determination (%)
178 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Reqtot Total crop water requirement (mm/time step)

R80 80% probability of dependable rainfall (mm/day)
R/C Efficiency of farming, which is determined by revenue divided by the cost
S Water requirement for the pre-saturation of the field and water layer (mm)
S Percolation (mm)
Sr Saturation
t Time (days)
t0 Starting time of the time period between t0 and t
T Length of pre-saturation during the planting period (days)
X Plotting position
Xm Plotting position m
Y area which has received the pre-saturation and water layer requirement and
receives compensation for seepage and evaporation
Y' Area prepared at the end of land preparation and transplanting time step
Yep' Factor indicating the cumulative amount (evaporation and percolation)
Yep Proportion of pre-saturated area
γ Unit weight (kg/m3)
ω Water content (%)
γd Dry unit weight (kg/m3)
γsat Saturated unit weight (kg/m3)
ωsat A saturated soil (%)
Annex C. Surface runoff analysis as inflow to the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Water Balance of Meliling Weir Q 80% Qdivert80% Qoverflow80%

2.6
2.4
2.2 max Q 2,23
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Q (m3/sec)
1.0
0.8 max divert 0,61
0.6
0.4 min Q 0,19
0.2
0.0 min divert 0,18

Day

Water Balance of Meliling Weir Q 50% Qdivert50% Qoverflow50%

4.5
max Q 4,31
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0

Q (m3/sec)
1.5
1.0
0.5 max divert 0,76

0.0

Day

Figure C.1. Dependable inflow from overflow of Meliling Weir upstream of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
180 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Water Balance of Rejasa Weir Q 80% Qdivert80% Qoverflow80%

2.40
max Q 2,28
2.00

1.60

1.20

Q (m3/sec)
0.80

0.40
min Q & intake 0,08
0.00 max intake 0,33

Day

Water Balance of Rejasa Weir Q 50% Qdivert50% Qoverflow50%

9.0
max Q 8,40
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0

Q (m3/sec)
3.0
2.0
1.0 max divert 0,40
0.0

Day

Figure C.2. Dependable inflow from Yeh Mawa River

Annex D. Analysis of rainfall data

300
275
250
225
200
175
R (mm)

150
125
100
75
50
25
0

Month
R 80%

Figure D.1. Graph of monthly dependable rainfall

175

150

125

100
R (mm)

75

50

25

1/2 month
R 80%

Figure D.2. Graph of half monthly dependable rainfall

Annex E. Reference evapotranspiration

Table E.1. Reference evapotranspiration

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
1 January 1 25.3 85.2 50.0 1.3 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.6 4.8 16.1 8.4 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.9 1.04 4.7 4.9
2 25.5 85.4 19.7 0.8 32.7 0.7 0.3 15.8 27.9 4.8 16.1 5.7 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.04 3.4 3.6
3 24.9 85.4 44.8 1.1 31.6 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.0 4.6 16.1 7.9 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.04 4.4 4.6
4 24.7 83.4 40.0 1.2 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.0 5.2 16.1 7.5 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.04 4.3 4.5
5 25.3 84.4 36.4 0.7 32.3 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.2 5.0 16.1 7.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.04 4.0 4.2
6 25.1 87.0 52.1 1.0 32.0 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.8 4.2 16.1 8.6 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.04 4.6 4.8
7 24.6 88.0 17.3 1.1 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.2 3.7 16.1 5.5 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.4 1.04 3.2 3.4
8 24.7 83.6 48.1 1.1 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.0 5.1 16.1 8.2 0.1 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.04 4.6 4.7
9 24.2 86.4 61.4 1.3 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.0 4.1 16.1 9.4 0.1 0.7 0.6 1.2 1.04 4.9 5.1
10 24.1 85.2 40.0 1.0 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.5 4.4 16.1 7.5 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.04 4.1 4.3
11 24.6 84.8 41.6 1.3 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.3 4.7 16.1 7.6 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.04 4.3 4.5
12 24.2 84.0 65.3 1.3 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.3 4.8 16.1 9.7 0.1 0.7 0.6 1.3 1.04 5.2 5.4
13 24.2 79.8 35.8 1.9 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.0 6.1 16.1 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.8 1.04 4.5 4.7
14 25.0 84.0 54.7 1.4 31.6 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.6 5.1 16.1 8.8 0.1 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.04 4.9 5.1
15 24.8 89.0 49.2 1.1 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.8 3.4 16.1 8.3 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.04 4.4 4.6
16 24.7 83.2 34.5 2.3 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 25.9 5.2 16.1 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.7 1.04 4.4 4.6
17 24.8 83.0 27.2 1.7 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.0 5.3 16.1 6.4 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.6 1.04 4.0 4.2
18 25.4 81.2 27.2 1.8 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.3 6.1 16.1 6.4 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.6 1.04 4.2 4.3
19 25.1 81.0 9.3 1.2 31.9 0.7 0.3 15.7 25.9 6.1 16.1 4.8 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.3 1.04 3.3 3.4
20 25.2 81.6 33.0 1.1 32.1 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.2 5.9 16.1 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.04 4.1 4.3
21 25.6 85.6 37.3 1.1 32.9 0.8 0.2 15.8 28.2 4.7 16.1 7.3 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.04 4.2 4.3
22 24.8 84.4 50.1 1.0 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.4 4.9 16.1 8.4 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.04 4.6 4.7
23 25.2 87.0 32.7 0.7 32.2 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.0 4.2 16.1 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.04 3.8 4.0
24 25.4 87.8 40.6 1.0 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.5 4.0 16.1 7.6 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.04 4.2 4.3
25 24.8 82.8 53.0 1.0 31.4 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.0 5.4 16.1 8.6 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.04 4.7 4.9
26 25.4 82.4 42.0 1.1 32.6 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.9 5.7 16.1 7.7 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.04 4.4 4.6
27 25.3 88.2 29.4 1.2 32.3 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.5 3.8 16.1 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.04 3.8 3.9
28 25.8 88.2 45.9 0.7 33.4 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.4 3.9 16.1 8.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.04 4.3 4.5
29 25.4 84.8 39.4 1.4 32.5 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.5 4.9 16.1 7.5 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.04 4.3 4.5
30 25.2 87.6 12.8 0.9 32.1 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.1 4.0 16.1 5.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 1.04 3.1 3.2
31 25.2 82.0 30.8 1.1 32.1 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.3 5.8 16.1 6.7 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.04 4.0 4.2
184 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
2 February 1 24.7 90.0 17.1 0.9 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 28.1 3.1 16.1 5.5 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.4 1.05 3.1 3.3
2 24.7 84.8 40.5 2.2 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.4 4.7 16.1 7.5 0.1 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.05 4.6 4.8
3 23.9 92.6 15.6 0.8 29.6 0.7 0.3 15.4 27.4 2.2 16.1 5.4 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 1.05 2.9 3.1
4 23.9 84.4 47.9 1.2 29.5 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.9 4.6 16.1 8.2 0.1 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.05 4.5 4.7
5 24.9 85.8 36.9 1.3 31.4 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.0 4.5 16.1 7.2 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.05 4.1 4.3
6 25.0 84.0 48.5 1.8 31.7 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.6 5.1 16.1 8.2 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.05 4.8 5.0
7 25.7 89.2 52.5 1.8 33.2 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.6 3.6 16.1 8.6 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.05 4.8 5.0
8 26.1 85.2 38.3 2.0 34.0 0.8 0.2 15.9 28.9 5.0 16.1 7.3 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.7 1.05 4.5 4.7
9 24.7 80.2 39.3 1.4 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 24.9 6.2 16.1 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.05 4.5 4.7
10 25.8 81.0 67.8 1.0 33.3 0.8 0.2 15.8 26.9 6.3 16.1 9.9 0.1 0.7 0.5 1.3 1.05 5.4 5.7
11 25.6 81.0 55.7 1.3 32.9 0.8 0.2 15.8 26.6 6.2 16.1 8.9 0.1 0.6 0.6 1.1 1.05 5.1 5.3
12 25.4 80.6 35.7 1.2 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.1 6.3 16.1 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.05 4.3 4.5
13 25.6 87.8 34.0 1.3 32.8 0.8 0.2 15.8 28.8 4.0 16.1 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.05 4.0 4.2
14 25.8 87.0 27.1 1.2 33.4 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.1 4.3 16.1 6.4 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.6 1.05 3.8 4.0
15 26.1 88.2 16.7 0.8 34.0 0.8 0.2 15.9 30.0 4.0 16.1 5.5 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.4 1.05 3.3 3.4
16 24.8 86.0 26.4 0.9 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.9 4.4 16.1 6.3 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.05 3.6 3.8
17 25.8 82.6 15.3 0.8 33.3 0.8 0.2 15.8 27.5 5.8 16.1 5.4 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 1.05 3.4 3.5
18 25.7 83.2 14.5 0.9 33.2 0.8 0.2 15.8 27.6 5.6 16.1 5.3 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 1.05 3.3 3.5
19 25.9 83.2 29.3 0.9 33.4 0.8 0.2 15.8 27.8 5.6 16.1 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.05 3.9 4.1
20 25.7 87.6 38.9 1.0 33.2 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.1 4.1 16.1 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.7 1.05 4.1 4.4
21 25.8 88.0 27.3 1.0 33.4 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.4 4.0 16.1 6.4 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.05 3.7 3.9
22 25.6 83.0 47.8 0.9 32.8 0.8 0.2 15.8 27.3 5.6 16.1 8.2 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.05 4.6 4.8
23 25.4 83.0 14.0 0.8 32.5 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.0 5.5 16.1 5.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 1.05 3.3 3.4
24 25.6 84.0 36.8 0.9 32.9 0.8 0.2 15.8 27.6 5.3 16.1 7.2 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.05 4.1 4.4
25 25.7 88.0 63.8 1.0 33.2 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.2 4.0 16.1 9.6 0.1 0.7 0.5 1.1 1.05 5.1 5.3
26 25.6 89.0 37.5 2.2 33.0 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.4 3.6 16.1 7.3 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.7 1.05 4.3 4.5
27 25.6 91.8 33.5 1.0 32.9 0.8 0.2 15.8 30.2 2.7 16.1 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.05 3.8 4.0
28 25.8 87.6 38.4 1.1 33.3 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.2 4.1 16.1 7.4 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.05 4.1 4.3
Reference evapotranspiration 185

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
3 March 1 25.5 86.3 40.7 1.1 32.7 0.7 0.3 15.8 28.2 4.5 15.5 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.06 4.1 4.3
2 25.5 83.3 41.3 1.6 32.7 0.7 0.3 15.8 27.2 5.5 15.5 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.06 4.4 4.6
3 25.3 80.8 40.3 2.1 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.2 6.2 15.5 7.2 0.1 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.06 4.6 4.9
4 24.8 88.3 39.8 1.3 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.6 3.7 15.5 7.2 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.06 4.0 4.2
5 24.9 80.0 36.6 1.0 31.5 0.7 0.3 15.6 25.2 6.3 15.5 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.06 4.1 4.3
6 24.2 86.8 37.9 1.3 30.2 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.2 4.0 15.5 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.06 3.9 4.2
7 24.6 84.3 38.7 2.1 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.0 4.9 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.06 4.3 4.6
8 24.1 84.0 37.8 2.3 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.2 4.8 15.5 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.06 4.3 4.5
9 24.8 81.8 38.0 2.2 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 25.5 5.7 15.5 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.06 4.5 4.7
10 25.1 89.8 38.2 1.9 31.8 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.6 3.3 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.7 1.06 4.0 4.2
11 25.3 88.0 38.5 1.3 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.5 3.9 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.06 4.0 4.2
12 24.2 84.8 38.3 0.7 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.5 4.6 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.8 4.1
13 24.6 88.8 40.6 0.8 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.4 3.5 15.5 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.06 3.9 4.1
14 24.5 86.8 38.3 0.6 30.7 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.6 4.1 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.8 4.0
15 24.0 86.8 39.0 0.5 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.8 3.9 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.7 4.0
16 24.4 84.8 38.2 1.4 30.5 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.8 4.6 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.06 4.0 4.3
17 23.4 87.5 38.9 1.0 28.6 0.7 0.3 15.3 25.0 3.6 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.06 3.8 4.0
18 25.3 82.3 39.5 1.0 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.6 5.7 15.5 7.2 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.06 4.1 4.4
19 24.0 82.7 39.8 0.9 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.6 5.2 15.5 7.2 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.06 4.0 4.2
20 24.9 85.8 40.4 0.9 31.6 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.1 4.5 15.5 7.2 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.06 4.0 4.2
21 24.3 81.7 39.3 0.3 30.4 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.8 5.6 15.5 7.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.8 1.06 3.8 4.0
22 24.7 88.0 38.4 1.0 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.4 3.7 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.06 3.9 4.1
23 24.5 90.0 37.3 1.1 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.6 3.1 15.5 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.06 3.8 4.0
24 24.3 82.8 38.3 1.0 30.2 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.0 5.2 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.06 4.0 4.2
25 25.3 86.3 39.2 0.8 32.3 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.9 4.4 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.06 3.9 4.2
26 24.7 78.5 39.2 1.2 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 24.4 6.7 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.06 4.3 4.5
27 23.7 89.0 37.9 1.1 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.9 3.2 15.5 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.06 3.7 4.0
28 24.8 83.5 38.8 0.6 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.1 5.2 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.9 4.1
29 24.5 84.5 39.1 0.6 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.9 4.8 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.9 4.1
30 23.9 86.5 38.1 0.5 29.4 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.5 4.0 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.7 3.9
31 23.7 92.0 38.3 0.5 29.2 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.9 2.3 15.5 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.06 3.6 3.8
186 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
4 April 1 24.6 86.3 49.3 1.1 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.7 4.3 14.4 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.90 4.0 3.6
2 24.0 87.0 33.9 0.4 29.7 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.9 3.9 14.4 6.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.3 2.9
3 24.7 88.3 37.4 0.3 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.5 3.6 14.4 6.5 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.90 3.4 3.0
4 24.5 89.7 44.3 0.5 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.5 3.2 14.4 7.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.6 3.2
5 24.2 85.0 29.8 0.4 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.6 4.5 14.4 5.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.2 2.9
6 24.0 87.3 31.9 0.9 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.0 3.8 14.4 6.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.90 3.3 3.0
7 23.7 87.3 32.0 0.5 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.4 3.7 14.4 6.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.2 2.9
8 24.8 91.0 42.9 0.6 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 28.5 2.8 14.4 6.9 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.6 3.2
9 24.6 86.3 49.6 0.6 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.8 4.2 14.4 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.9 3.5
10 24.3 87.0 54.2 0.6 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.3 3.9 14.4 7.8 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.90 4.0 3.6
11 24.3 92.7 31.6 0.7 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 28.1 2.2 14.4 6.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.90 3.1 2.8
12 24.7 86.0 36.7 0.5 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.7 4.3 14.4 6.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.4 3.1
13 23.8 89.3 53.5 0.7 29.4 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.3 3.1 14.4 7.7 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.9 3.5
14 24.4 86.7 41.1 0.7 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.5 4.1 14.4 6.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.6 3.2
15 25.3 84.7 39.7 0.5 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.4 5.0 14.4 6.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.6 3.3
16 25.2 85.0 59.0 0.7 32.1 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.3 4.8 14.4 8.2 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 4.3 3.9
17 23.0 87.0 55.1 0.4 27.6 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.0 3.6 14.4 7.9 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.8 3.4
18 23.7 84.3 58.2 0.8 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.5 4.6 14.4 8.1 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.90 4.1 3.7
19 23.8 93.3 65.7 0.5 29.3 0.7 0.3 15.4 27.4 2.0 14.4 8.7 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.90 4.1 3.7
20 24.2 83.7 47.3 0.4 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.2 4.9 14.4 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.8 3.4
21 24.1 65.3 18.2 0.6 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 19.6 10.4 14.4 5.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.90 3.5 3.1
22 24.8 89.7 63.0 0.7 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 28.0 3.2 14.4 8.5 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.1 0.90 4.3 3.8
23 24.2 84.7 62.6 0.4 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.5 4.6 14.4 8.4 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.90 4.2 3.8
24 24.6 85.7 35.4 0.4 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.5 4.4 14.4 6.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.4 3.0
25 25.1 89.0 52.2 0.9 31.8 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.3 3.5 14.4 7.6 0.1 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.90 4.0 3.6
26 24.1 77.0 34.7 0.4 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 23.0 6.9 14.4 6.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.5 3.2
27 23.9 85.0 30.8 0.5 29.5 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.1 4.4 14.4 6.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.2 2.9
28 24.3 86.3 32.1 0.6 30.4 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.2 4.2 14.4 6.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.3 3.0
29 23.8 90.0 20.7 0.4 29.4 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.4 2.9 14.4 5.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.90 2.8 2.5
30 24.1 87.0 29.1 0.3 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.0 3.9 14.4 5.8 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.90 3.1 2.8
Reference evapotranspiration 187

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
5 May 1 26.1 87.0 57.8 0.6 33.9 0.8 0.2 15.9 29.5 4.4 13.0 7.3 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.9 3.5
2 25.6 89.5 28.1 0.7 33.0 0.8 0.2 15.8 29.5 3.5 13.0 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.9 2.6
3 24.5 84.8 19.4 0.7 30.8 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.1 4.7 13.0 4.6 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.90 2.7 2.4
4 24.8 87.5 42.3 0.6 31.4 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.5 3.9 13.0 6.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.3 3.0
5 25.3 90.3 48.9 0.6 32.4 0.7 0.3 15.7 29.2 3.2 13.0 6.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.4 3.1
6 24.9 87.3 59.6 0.7 31.5 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.5 4.0 13.0 7.5 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.8 3.4
7 25.1 87.5 62.0 0.6 32.0 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.0 4.0 13.0 7.6 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.9 3.5
8 24.8 87.5 28.8 0.6 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.4 3.9 13.0 5.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.9 2.6
9 24.5 88.3 31.3 0.5 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.0 3.6 13.0 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.9 2.6
10 35.3 85.3 60.0 0.6 52.4 0.8 0.2 17.9 44.7 7.7 13.0 7.5 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.90 4.8 4.3
11 23.8 86.0 37.7 0.5 29.3 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.2 4.1 13.0 5.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.1 2.8
12 24.4 81.0 47.8 0.5 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.8 5.8 13.0 6.6 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.5 3.2
13 23.8 87.3 44.1 0.5 29.2 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.5 3.7 13.0 6.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.9
14 24.0 84.3 53.5 0.6 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.1 4.7 13.0 7.0 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.6 3.2
15 24.3 87.0 56.5 0.3 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.4 3.9 13.0 7.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 1.1 0.90 3.6 3.2
16 24.1 79.3 65.7 0.7 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 23.7 6.2 13.0 7.9 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.3 0.90 4.1 3.7
17 23.6 86.0 67.7 0.5 28.9 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.9 4.0 13.0 8.0 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.3 0.90 3.9 3.5
18 23.3 81.8 60.0 0.5 28.4 0.7 0.3 15.3 23.2 5.2 13.0 7.5 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.3 0.90 3.7 3.3
19 22.9 86.5 61.9 0.6 27.6 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.8 3.7 13.0 7.6 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.90 3.7 3.3
20 24.0 80.7 46.6 0.3 29.6 0.7 0.3 15.4 23.9 5.7 13.0 6.5 0.1 0.5 0.3 1.0 0.90 3.4 3.1
21 23.2 87.3 50.0 0.4 28.2 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.6 3.6 13.0 6.8 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.3 3.0
22 24.3 79.0 53.3 0.7 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 23.9 6.4 13.0 7.0 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.8 3.4
23 24.8 85.7 49.5 0.4 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.8 4.5 13.0 6.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.5 3.1
24 24.6 88.7 59.1 0.7 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.4 3.5 13.0 7.4 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.7 3.3
25 25.1 89.3 45.8 0.6 31.8 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.4 3.4 13.0 6.5 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.4 3.0
26 24.5 86.7 55.8 0.5 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.6 4.1 13.0 7.2 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.6 3.3
27 24.2 87.7 56.2 0.7 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.4 3.7 13.0 7.2 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.6 3.3
28 23.3 85.3 61.9 0.7 28.3 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.1 4.2 13.0 7.6 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.90 3.8 3.4
29 23.2 83.3 56.8 0.5 28.0 0.7 0.3 15.3 23.3 4.7 13.0 7.3 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.2 0.90 3.6 3.2
30 23.6 88.8 60.3 0.6 28.9 0.7 0.3 15.3 25.6 3.2 13.0 7.5 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.2 0.90 3.6 3.3
31 24.1 87.5 39.8 0.4 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.1 3.7 13.0 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.1 2.8
188 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
6 June 1 24.1 81.8 44.6 0.6 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.5 5.5 12.4 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.3 2.9
2 24.6 83.5 45.0 0.4 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 25.8 5.1 12.4 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.9
3 24.6 83.5 25.5 0.5 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 25.9 5.1 12.4 4.8 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.7 2.5
4 24.7 91.0 50.7 0.5 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 28.4 2.8 12.4 6.5 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.9
5 24.3 88.0 35.5 0.6 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.6 3.6 12.4 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.9 2.6
6 25.1 88.5 40.3 0.6 32.0 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.3 3.7 12.4 5.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.1 2.7
7 25.1 83.8 45.4 0.5 32.0 0.7 0.3 15.7 26.8 5.2 12.4 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.3 3.0
8 24.7 84.0 42.3 0.6 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.1 5.0 12.4 5.9 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.9
9 24.2 83.5 38.0 0.7 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.1 5.0 12.4 5.7 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.1 2.8
10 24.3 92.0 31.8 0.6 30.4 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.9 2.4 12.4 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.7 2.4
11 24.4 82.8 46.3 0.7 30.5 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.3 5.3 12.4 6.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.3 3.0
12 24.0 82.0 43.0 0.6 29.7 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.3 5.3 12.4 6.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.9
13 24.3 77.3 36.3 0.8 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 23.4 6.9 12.4 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.90 3.3 2.9
14 24.0 76.0 36.7 0.7 29.6 0.7 0.3 15.4 22.5 7.1 12.4 5.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.9
15 23.9 79.0 57.1 0.9 29.5 0.7 0.3 15.4 23.3 6.2 12.4 6.9 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.90 3.7 3.3
16 23.8 88.8 47.9 0.5 29.3 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.0 3.3 12.4 6.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.1 2.8
17 24.9 84.8 34.1 0.6 31.4 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.6 4.8 12.4 5.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 3.0 2.7
18 23.6 86.0 31.8 0.5 28.9 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.8 4.0 12.4 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.8 2.5
19 24.4 88.3 7.0 0.6 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.0 3.6 12.4 3.6 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.90 2.2 1.9
20 24.5 89.3 3.9 0.5 30.7 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.4 3.3 12.4 3.4 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.90 2.0 1.8
21 24.0 84.3 26.0 0.6 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.1 4.7 12.4 4.8 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.7 2.5
22 23.8 93.0 44.3 0.5 29.4 0.7 0.3 15.4 27.3 2.1 12.4 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.9 2.6
23 22.8 86.7 41.7 0.6 27.2 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.6 3.6 12.4 5.9 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
24 24.1 83.7 53.4 0.8 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.0 4.9 12.4 6.7 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.1 0.90 3.5 3.1
25 24.0 89.7 27.5 0.4 29.6 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.6 3.1 12.4 5.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.6 2.3
26 24.1 88.0 31.0 0.6 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.3 3.6 12.4 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.8 2.5
27 23.7 86.0 29.5 0.5 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.0 4.1 12.4 5.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.7 2.4
28 23.8 84.0 39.6 0.5 29.3 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.6 4.7 12.4 5.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
29 23.5 83.0 35.7 0.4 28.7 0.7 0.3 15.3 23.8 4.9 12.4 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.9 2.6
30 24.0 84.7 68.2 0.8 29.7 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.2 4.6 12.4 7.7 0.1 0.7 0.5 1.3 0.90 3.8 3.4
Reference evapotranspiration 189

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
7 July 1 24.2 81.3 35.4 0.6 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.4 5.6 12.6 5.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.1 2.8
2 23.7 77.0 30.5 0.6 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 22.4 6.7 12.6 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.0 2.7
3 24.2 87.0 43.0 0.7 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.1 3.9 12.6 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.2 2.8
4 24.3 82.7 47.1 0.6 30.2 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.0 5.2 12.6 6.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.4 3.0
5 24.0 87.3 55.6 1.2 29.7 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.9 3.8 12.6 6.9 0.1 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.90 3.6 3.2
6 23.7 86.0 35.9 0.5 29.0 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.0 4.1 12.6 5.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.9 2.6
7 22.9 85.3 34.1 0.6 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.4 4.1 12.6 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.9 2.6
8 23.0 82.3 52.8 0.7 27.6 0.7 0.3 15.2 22.7 4.9 12.6 6.7 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.90 3.4 3.1
9 23.7 85.3 34.9 0.7 29.0 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.8 4.3 12.6 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 3.0 2.7
10 22.6 89.5 42.2 0.7 26.9 0.7 0.3 15.1 24.0 2.8 12.6 6.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 2.9 2.7
11 22.9 85.8 53.1 0.8 27.4 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.5 3.9 12.6 6.8 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.1 0.90 3.4 3.0
12 22.8 89.0 45.3 0.6 27.4 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.3 3.0 12.6 6.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
13 22.9 88.8 42.6 0.8 27.4 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.3 3.1 12.6 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
14 23.7 84.8 29.8 0.6 29.0 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.6 4.4 12.6 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.8 2.5
15 23.2 92.5 23.8 0.5 28.0 0.7 0.3 15.3 25.9 2.1 12.6 4.8 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.4 2.2
16 23.2 88.0 42.3 0.6 28.0 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.7 3.4 12.6 6.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
17 22.6 84.3 39.4 0.7 26.8 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.6 4.2 12.6 5.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
18 22.9 83.8 38.9 0.4 27.4 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.0 4.5 12.6 5.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
19 22.7 76.5 39.3 0.6 27.1 0.7 0.3 15.2 20.7 6.4 12.6 5.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 3.2 2.9
20 22.8 86.0 33.5 0.6 27.3 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.5 3.8 12.6 5.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.8 2.5
21 23.1 82.3 27.8 0.6 27.9 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.0 5.0 12.6 5.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.8 2.5
22 23.2 87.5 30.7 0.6 28.1 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.6 3.5 12.6 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.7 2.5
23 23.3 84.8 27.0 0.7 28.4 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.0 4.3 12.6 5.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.90 2.7 2.5
24 22.7 87.0 35.1 0.7 27.1 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.6 3.5 12.6 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.9 2.6
25 22.1 90.3 29.5 1.0 25.9 0.7 0.3 15.0 23.4 2.5 12.6 5.2 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.90 2.6 2.4
26 22.7 85.5 22.9 0.5 27.2 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.2 3.9 12.6 4.7 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.90 2.5 2.3
27 22.5 88.8 35.5 0.7 26.6 0.7 0.3 15.1 23.6 3.0 12.6 5.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.90 2.8 2.5
28 21.7 84.5 42.1 0.4 25.1 0.7 0.3 14.9 21.2 3.9 12.6 6.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.90 2.9 2.6
29 23.5 88.8 43.1 0.6 28.6 0.7 0.3 15.3 25.4 3.2 12.6 6.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.90 3.0 2.7
30 24.1 85.8 59.9 0.9 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.6 4.3 12.6 7.2 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.90 3.7 3.3
31 21.9 85.3 32.2 1.0 25.5 0.7 0.3 15.0 21.8 3.7 12.6 5.3 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.90 2.8 2.5
190 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
8 August 1 24.6 92.0 50.3 0.9 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 28.5 2.5 13.5 7.1 0.1 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.00 3.6 3.6
2 25.8 84.3 49.0 0.8 33.2 0.8 0.2 15.8 28.0 5.2 13.5 7.0 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.00 3.8 3.8
3 25.2 84.0 48.2 0.6 32.1 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.0 5.1 13.5 6.9 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.00 3.7 3.7
4 25.2 89.5 53.4 0.6 32.2 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.8 3.4 13.5 7.3 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.9 1.00 3.7 3.7
5 25.1 84.5 41.8 0.8 32.0 0.7 0.3 15.7 27.0 5.0 13.5 6.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.00 3.5 3.5
6 23.7 77.5 31.2 0.6 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 22.5 6.5 13.5 5.7 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.00 3.3 3.3
7 23.5 84.5 42.2 0.7 28.7 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.2 4.4 13.5 6.5 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.00 3.4 3.4
8 23.3 85.5 37.1 0.8 28.2 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.1 4.1 13.5 6.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.00 3.2 3.2
9 22.5 89.5 36.6 0.5 26.6 0.7 0.3 15.1 23.8 2.8 13.5 6.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.00 3.0 3.0
10 23.2 89.8 44.5 0.6 28.2 0.7 0.3 15.3 25.3 2.9 13.5 6.6 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.00 3.3 3.3
11 22.6 82.0 47.6 0.7 26.8 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.0 4.8 13.5 6.9 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.00 3.5 3.5
12 22.9 85.3 51.4 0.6 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.4 4.1 13.5 7.1 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 1.00 3.6 3.6
13 21.9 90.3 46.0 0.7 25.5 0.7 0.3 15.0 23.0 2.5 13.5 6.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 1.00 3.2 3.2
14 21.8 62.3 62.9 1.1 25.3 0.7 0.3 15.0 15.8 9.6 13.5 8.0 0.2 0.7 0.5 1.6 1.00 4.5 4.5
15 21.2 63.5 52.8 0.7 24.1 0.7 0.3 14.8 15.3 8.8 13.5 7.2 0.2 0.6 0.4 1.4 1.00 4.0 4.0
16 21.2 62.8 64.1 0.9 24.1 0.7 0.3 14.8 15.1 9.0 13.5 8.1 0.2 0.7 0.5 1.7 1.00 4.4 4.4
17 21.5 64.3 62.8 0.6 24.7 0.7 0.3 14.9 15.9 8.8 13.5 8.0 0.2 0.7 0.4 1.6 1.00 4.2 4.2
18 21.5 88.8 61.4 1.8 24.6 0.7 0.3 14.9 21.8 2.8 13.5 7.9 0.1 0.7 0.7 1.3 1.00 3.8 3.8
19 21.3 84.5 49.7 0.6 24.4 0.7 0.3 14.9 20.6 3.8 13.5 7.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.00 3.4 3.4
20 24.7 84.8 51.6 1.0 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.4 4.8 13.5 7.2 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.00 3.8 3.8
21 24.1 86.5 48.8 0.6 29.8 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.8 4.0 13.5 7.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 1.00 3.5 3.5
22 22.0 84.5 49.1 0.7 25.7 0.7 0.3 15.0 21.7 4.0 13.5 7.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.00 3.4 3.4
23 22.1 81.0 26.4 0.6 25.8 0.7 0.3 15.0 20.9 4.9 13.5 5.3 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.00 2.9 2.9
24 20.2 86.8 25.4 0.7 22.0 0.7 0.3 14.6 19.1 2.9 13.5 5.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.00 2.6 2.6
25 20.3 86.5 29.2 0.4 22.2 0.7 0.3 14.6 19.2 3.0 13.5 5.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.00 2.7 2.7
26 19.2 87.0 34.1 0.5 20.0 0.7 0.3 14.4 17.4 2.6 13.5 5.9 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.9 1.00 2.7 2.7
27 20.5 71.3 41.5 0.6 22.6 0.7 0.3 14.7 16.1 6.5 13.5 6.4 0.2 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.00 3.4 3.4
28 22.8 83.7 45.3 0.5 27.3 0.7 0.3 15.2 22.8 4.5 13.5 6.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 1.00 3.4 3.4
29 21.9 82.7 33.7 0.9 25.4 0.7 0.3 15.0 21.0 4.4 13.5 5.8 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.00 3.1 3.1
30 22.6 84.3 64.6 0.8 26.8 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.6 4.2 13.5 8.1 0.1 0.7 0.5 1.3 1.00 4.0 4.0
31 22.8 88.3 58.9 0.8 27.3 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.1 3.2 13.5 7.7 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.2 1.00 3.7 3.7
Reference evapotranspiration 191

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
9 September 1 24.9 86.8 18.8 0.9 31.5 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.3 4.2 14.7 5.2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.10 3.0 3.4
2 25.0 88.5 19.3 0.8 31.6 0.7 0.3 15.6 28.0 3.6 14.7 5.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.10 3.0 3.3
3 23.9 91.0 32.2 0.3 29.6 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.9 2.7 14.7 6.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.7 1.10 3.2 3.5
4 24.2 90.0 28.6 0.6 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.1 3.0 14.7 6.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.2 3.5
5 23.6 90.5 32.7 0.8 28.9 0.7 0.3 15.3 26.2 2.7 14.7 6.3 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.3 3.6
6 23.7 83.3 39.8 0.5 29.0 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.2 4.9 14.7 6.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.6 4.0
7 24.2 88.8 19.8 0.8 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.8 3.4 14.7 5.3 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.10 2.9 3.2
8 23.7 87.0 24.9 0.8 29.2 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.4 3.8 14.7 5.7 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.1 3.4
9 24.7 83.0 27.3 0.5 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 25.8 5.3 14.7 5.8 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.3 3.6
10 24.4 81.5 16.4 0.7 30.4 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.8 5.6 14.7 5.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 1.10 3.1 3.4
11 23.2 86.8 25.8 0.5 28.1 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.4 3.7 14.7 5.7 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.1 3.4
12 22.9 85.8 28.8 0.8 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.6 3.9 14.7 6.0 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.2 3.6
13 23.9 85.5 47.0 0.9 29.6 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.3 4.3 14.7 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.10 3.9 4.3
14 23.2 85.5 47.0 0.7 28.1 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.0 4.1 14.7 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 1.10 3.8 4.2
15 34.7 88.5 51.8 0.7 51.2 0.8 0.2 17.8 45.3 5.9 14.7 7.8 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.10 5.0 5.5
16 22.7 84.5 39.4 0.8 27.0 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.8 4.2 14.7 6.8 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.6 3.9
17 25.0 89.5 34.6 0.7 31.8 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.4 3.3 14.7 6.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.8
18 24.1 85.8 58.0 0.8 30.0 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.7 4.3 14.7 8.3 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.1 1.10 4.3 4.7
19 24.7 87.3 59.8 0.9 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.1 4.0 14.7 8.4 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.1 1.10 4.4 4.8
20 24.5 87.3 55.0 0.8 30.7 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.8 3.9 14.7 8.1 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.10 4.2 4.6
21 24.7 88.0 51.9 0.8 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.3 3.7 14.7 7.8 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.10 4.1 4.5
22 24.6 85.8 46.1 0.7 30.9 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.5 4.4 14.7 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.9 4.3
23 24.7 89.3 36.7 0.9 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.8 3.4 14.7 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.6 3.9
24 24.5 85.3 33.8 0.8 30.8 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.3 4.5 14.7 6.4 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.6 3.9
25 25.3 88.5 49.1 0.8 32.3 0.7 0.3 15.7 28.6 3.7 14.7 7.6 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 4.0 4.4
26 25.8 84.0 43.3 0.8 33.3 0.8 0.2 15.8 27.9 5.3 14.7 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.10 4.0 4.4
27 26.0 86.3 46.2 0.8 33.8 0.8 0.2 15.9 29.1 4.6 14.7 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.10 4.1 4.5
28 24.1 86.3 54.9 0.7 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.7 4.1 14.7 8.0 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.1 4.5
29 24.4 84.8 42.4 0.8 30.6 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.9 4.7 14.7 7.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.10 3.8 4.2
30 24.5 86.8 25.3 0.7 30.8 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.7 4.1 14.7 5.7 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.2 3.5
192 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
10 October 1 23.6 88.7 56.7 0.9 29.0 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.7 3.3 15.7 8.7 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.1 1.10 4.4 4.8
2 23.7 85.3 40.2 0.6 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 24.8 4.3 15.7 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.9 4.2
3 24.6 85.3 43.2 0.5 30.8 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.3 4.5 15.7 7.6 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 4.0 4.4
4 22.5 90.8 37.7 0.7 26.6 0.7 0.3 15.1 24.2 2.5 15.7 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.5 3.9
5 21.9 87.5 49.5 0.7 25.4 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.2 3.2 15.7 8.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.0 4.4
6 24.2 87.0 58.8 0.9 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.2 3.9 15.7 8.9 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.1 1.10 4.6 5.0
7 21.8 84.8 36.7 0.6 25.2 0.7 0.3 14.9 21.4 3.8 15.7 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.6 3.9
8 24.4 89.8 56.0 0.8 30.5 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.4 3.1 15.7 8.7 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.10 4.4 4.9
9 23.1 92.0 53.4 0.6 28.0 0.7 0.3 15.2 25.7 2.2 15.7 8.4 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 1.10 4.1 4.5
10 23.8 88.3 47.2 0.7 29.2 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.8 3.4 15.7 7.9 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 4.1 4.5
11 24.8 87.0 34.3 0.7 31.3 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.2 4.1 15.7 6.8 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.7 4.1
12 24.3 82.0 32.0 0.7 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 24.9 5.5 15.7 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.7 4.1
13 23.7 89.5 36.0 0.6 29.0 0.7 0.3 15.4 26.0 3.0 15.7 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.6 4.0
14 24.3 86.5 41.2 0.6 30.3 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.2 4.1 15.7 7.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.9 4.3
15 24.2 87.3 25.8 0.7 30.2 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.3 3.8 15.7 6.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.4 3.7
16 24.7 85.5 50.2 0.7 31.1 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.5 4.5 15.7 8.2 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 1.10 4.3 4.8
17 22.3 82.8 37.5 0.8 26.2 0.7 0.3 15.1 21.7 4.5 15.7 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.9 1.10 3.8 4.1
18 23.6 83.8 42.9 0.7 28.8 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.2 4.7 15.7 7.6 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 4.0 4.4
19 23.7 88.8 46.3 0.9 29.1 0.7 0.3 15.4 25.8 3.3 15.7 7.8 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.10 4.0 4.4
20 24.2 88.8 32.7 0.6 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.7 3.4 15.7 6.7 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.9
21 22.9 88.0 40.5 0.6 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.2 3.3 15.7 7.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.7 4.1
22 23.4 85.5 23.6 0.9 28.5 0.7 0.3 15.3 24.3 4.1 15.7 5.9 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.10 3.3 3.7
23 24.4 90.0 35.1 0.7 30.5 0.7 0.3 15.5 27.5 3.1 15.7 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.6 4.0
24 23.9 94.5 35.7 0.9 29.5 0.7 0.3 15.4 27.9 1.6 15.7 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.9
25 24.2 86.8 44.9 0.9 30.1 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.1 4.0 15.7 7.7 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.10 4.1 4.5
26 24.6 84.3 35.1 1.5 31.0 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.1 4.9 15.7 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.10 4.1 4.5
27 24.7 87.0 51.2 0.9 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 27.1 4.1 15.7 8.2 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.10 4.4 4.8
28 25.6 86.3 38.2 1.2 32.8 0.8 0.2 15.8 28.3 4.5 15.7 7.2 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 4.1 4.5
29 25.0 82.5 29.0 0.9 31.7 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.1 5.5 15.7 6.4 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.10 3.8 4.1
30 22.8 88.5 34.6 0.9 27.3 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.1 3.1 15.7 6.8 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.10 3.6 3.9
31 22.5 80.0 51.4 1.0 26.8 0.7 0.3 15.1 21.4 5.4 15.7 8.3 0.1 0.6 0.5 1.2 1.10 4.4 4.8
Reference evapotranspiration 193

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
11 November 1 24.1 89.3 81.0 1.0 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 26.7 3.2 16.0 11.0 0.1 0.8 0.5 1.4 1.10 5.4 6.0
2 24.1 86.0 74.3 1.0 29.9 0.7 0.3 15.5 25.7 4.2 16.0 10.4 0.1 0.8 0.5 1.4 1.10 5.3 5.8
3 23.9 77.7 78.3 0.9 29.4 0.7 0.3 15.4 22.9 6.6 16.0 10.7 0.1 0.8 0.5 1.6 1.10 5.6 6.1
4 23.1 83.7 63.7 0.6 27.9 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.3 4.6 16.0 9.5 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.3 1.10 4.7 5.2
5 24.7 86.3 25.3 0.8 31.2 0.7 0.3 15.6 26.9 4.3 16.0 6.2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.10 3.5 3.9
6 21.8 89.3 54.3 0.6 25.3 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.6 2.7 16.0 8.7 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.2 1.10 4.1 4.6
7 21.2 77.3 44.0 0.7 24.1 0.7 0.3 14.8 18.6 5.5 16.0 7.8 0.2 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.0 4.4
8 20.6 86.7 66.5 0.7 22.8 0.7 0.3 14.7 19.8 3.0 16.0 9.7 0.1 0.7 0.4 1.5 1.10 4.5 4.9
9 22.6 76.3 50.3 0.6 26.8 0.7 0.3 15.1 20.5 6.3 16.0 8.3 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.2 1.10 4.4 4.8
10 20.8 85.0 46.7 0.5 23.3 0.7 0.3 14.7 19.8 3.5 16.0 8.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 3.9 4.2
11 22.0 88.7 23.0 0.8 25.7 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.8 2.9 16.0 6.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.1 3.5
12 21.6 93.3 43.3 0.6 24.8 0.7 0.3 14.9 23.2 1.7 16.0 7.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.7 4.0
13 22.7 85.7 30.5 0.9 27.2 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.3 3.9 16.0 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.6 3.9
14 21.0 86.7 36.0 0.6 23.6 0.7 0.3 14.8 20.4 3.1 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.5 3.9
15 22.5 85.3 49.0 0.6 26.7 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.8 3.9 16.0 8.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.1 4.5
16 21.6 91.3 25.0 0.6 24.8 0.7 0.3 14.9 22.6 2.1 16.0 6.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.1 3.4
17 23.1 93.3 21.7 0.4 27.9 0.7 0.3 15.2 26.0 1.9 16.0 5.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.10 3.0 3.3
18 22.6 88.3 36.0 0.5 26.9 0.7 0.3 15.1 23.8 3.1 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.6 4.0
19 23.0 91.0 13.7 0.7 27.6 0.7 0.3 15.2 25.1 2.5 16.0 5.2 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 1.10 2.8 3.1
20 21.7 91.3 29.5 0.5 25.0 0.7 0.3 14.9 22.9 2.2 16.0 6.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.2 3.6
21 22.9 92.7 18.5 0.4 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 25.5 2.0 16.0 5.6 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.10 2.9 3.2
22 22.4 83.3 20.5 0.9 26.5 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.1 4.4 16.0 5.8 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.10 3.3 3.6
23 21.3 85.0 47.7 0.6 24.3 0.7 0.3 14.9 20.7 3.6 16.0 8.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.0 4.4
24 21.7 86.3 57.0 0.6 25.1 0.7 0.3 14.9 21.7 3.4 16.0 8.9 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.2 1.10 4.3 4.7
25 21.9 82.3 47.7 0.5 25.4 0.7 0.3 15.0 20.9 4.5 16.0 8.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.0 4.4
26 23.0 81.3 51.5 0.6 27.7 0.7 0.3 15.2 22.5 5.2 16.0 8.4 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.1 1.10 4.3 4.8
27 20.5 85.3 48.0 0.4 22.7 0.7 0.3 14.7 19.4 3.3 16.0 8.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.10 3.8 4.2
28 21.3 90.3 22.7 0.6 24.2 0.7 0.3 14.8 21.8 2.3 16.0 5.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.0 3.3
29 22.5 84.0 35.7 0.7 26.6 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.3 4.3 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.7 4.1
30 22.9 84.0 36.7 0.7 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.1 4.4 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.8 4.2
194 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table E.1. continued

RH n/N u ea ed ed - ea Ra Rs f (ed) Rn 1 Eto* Ep
Month T w (1 - w) f(t) f(n/N) f(u) c
(%) (%) (m/s) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (mm/day) (mm/day) (mm/day)
12 December 1 22.8 86.5 23.9 0.5 27.2 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.5 3.7 16.0 6.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.2 3.6
2 22.1 88.0 25.2 0.8 25.8 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.7 3.1 16.0 6.2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.10 3.3 3.6
3 22.3 87.0 23.3 0.7 26.2 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.8 3.4 16.0 6.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.2 3.5
4 22.3 88.7 36.0 0.7 26.2 0.7 0.3 15.1 23.2 3.0 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.6 4.0
5 22.8 91.3 33.9 0.5 27.2 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.8 2.4 16.0 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.8
6 22.1 84.0 42.3 0.5 26.0 0.7 0.3 15.0 21.8 4.2 16.0 7.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 1.10 3.9 4.3
7 20.6 85.7 36.4 0.4 22.9 0.7 0.3 14.7 19.6 3.3 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.9 1.10 3.5 3.8
8 20.6 83.7 21.2 0.6 22.8 0.7 0.3 14.7 19.1 3.7 16.0 5.8 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.1 3.4
9 23.4 80.0 33.1 0.7 28.6 0.7 0.3 15.3 22.9 5.7 16.0 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.8 4.2
10 22.6 85.7 18.1 1.1 26.9 0.7 0.3 15.1 23.0 3.9 16.0 5.6 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.10 3.2 3.5
11 22.5 83.7 30.3 0.6 26.8 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.4 4.4 16.0 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.9
12 22.2 87.7 30.3 0.6 26.1 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.9 3.2 16.0 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.4 3.8
13 23.0 77.0 32.8 1.2 27.7 0.7 0.3 15.2 21.3 6.4 16.0 6.8 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.10 4.1 4.5
14 22.4 89.3 33.4 0.5 26.5 0.7 0.3 15.1 23.7 2.8 16.0 6.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.5 3.8
15 21.5 91.0 18.5 0.7 24.6 0.7 0.3 14.9 22.4 2.2 16.0 5.6 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.10 2.9 3.2
16 22.1 84.3 8.5 0.7 25.9 0.7 0.3 15.0 21.9 4.1 16.0 4.7 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 1.10 2.8 3.1
17 22.6 91.0 17.6 1.1 26.9 0.7 0.3 15.1 24.5 2.4 16.0 5.5 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.10 3.0 3.3
18 23.0 84.7 24.9 0.7 27.6 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.4 4.2 16.0 6.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.4 3.7
19 23.1 84.3 17.4 1.0 28.0 0.7 0.3 15.2 23.6 4.4 16.0 5.5 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.10 3.2 3.6
20 22.4 84.3 21.7 0.7 26.5 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.3 4.2 16.0 5.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.3 3.6
21 22.0 85.3 29.8 0.9 25.6 0.7 0.3 15.0 21.9 3.8 16.0 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.8
22 23.2 84.0 29.1 0.6 28.1 0.7 0.3 15.3 23.6 4.5 16.0 6.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.6 3.9
23 22.2 84.3 28.2 0.6 26.2 0.7 0.3 15.1 22.1 4.1 16.0 6.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.4 3.8
24 22.1 85.7 36.6 0.8 25.9 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.2 3.7 16.0 7.2 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.9 1.10 3.7 4.1
25 21.9 89.3 21.5 0.7 25.5 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.7 2.7 16.0 5.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.10 3.1 3.4
26 21.9 90.0 40.8 1.0 25.5 0.7 0.3 15.0 22.9 2.5 16.0 7.5 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.10 3.7 4.1
27 22.3 80.7 30.2 0.6 26.2 0.7 0.3 15.1 21.1 5.1 16.0 6.6 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.6 4.0
28 22.9 80.0 32.4 1.0 27.5 0.7 0.3 15.2 22.0 5.5 16.0 6.8 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.10 3.9 4.3
29 22.8 88.0 35.7 0.6 27.2 0.7 0.3 15.2 24.0 3.3 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.10 3.6 4.0
30 23.1 91.7 34.9 0.5 27.9 0.7 0.3 15.2 25.6 2.3 16.0 7.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.10 3.5 3.9
31 23.2 83.0 35.8 1.0 28.0 0.7 0.3 15.3 23.3 4.8 16.0 7.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.10 3.9 4.3
Annex F. Hydraulic profile of outlets

Table F.1. Hydraulic profile of the outlets of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir for Meliling Subak irrigation scheme and for domestic water supply
El. El. Open A1 Q1 % V1 A2 Q2 % V2 A3 Q3 % V3 Q Total Qmax
NWL Dead (Meliling) (Water (Jetflow)
supply)
m m m m3/s m/s m3/s m/s m3/s m/s
190.70 190 0.70 0.94 4.78 0.15 4.78 0.38 1.84 100 4.78 2.93 1.84
190.65 190 0.65 0.91 4.61 0.14 4.61 0.37 1.72 93 4.46 2.77 1.84
190.60 190 0.60 0.87 4.43 0.14 4.43 0.35 1.56 86 4.04 2.56 1.84
190.55 190 0.55 0.83 4.24 0.13 4.24 0.32 1.38 79 3.57 2.34 1.84
190.50 190 0.50 0.20 0.79 100 4.04 0.13 4.04 0.29 1.19 71 3.09 2.11 1.84
190.45 190 0.45 0.19 0.71 90 3.63 0.12 3.84 0.26 1.00 64 2.61 1.84 1.84
190.40 190 0.40 0.17 0.61 80 3.10 0.11 3.62 0.23 0.82 57 2.14 1.54 1.84
190.35 190 0.35 0.15 0.50 70 2.53 0.11 3.38 0.19 0.65 50 1.69 1.25 1.84
190.30 190 0.30 0.12 0.39 60 1.96 0.10 3.13 0.16 0.49 43 1.28 0.98 1.84
190.25 190 0.25 0.10 0.28 50 1.43 0.09 2.86 0.12 0.35 36 0.92 0.72 1.84
190.20 190 0.20 0.07 0.19 40 0.95 0.03 0.08 100 2.56 0.09 0.23 29 0.60 0.50 1.84
190.15 190 0.15 0.05 0.11 30 0.56 0.03 0.06 75 1.78 0.06 0.13 21 0.35 0.30 1.84
190.10 190 0.10 0.03 0.05 20 0.26 0.02 0.03 50 0.90 0.03 0.06 14 0.16 0.14 1.84
190.05 190 0.05 0.01 0.01 10 0.07 0.01 0.01 25 0.25 0.01 0.02 7 0.04 0.04 1.84
190.00 190 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 1.84
196 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Percentage intake
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
3.00
2.80
2.60
2.40
2.20
2.00 Qmax
1.80 Q3 (Jetflow),100 %
1.60
1.40

Q (m3/s)
1.20
1.00
Q1 (Meliling),100 %
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20 Q2 (Water supply)
100 %
0.00
0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00
Intake (m)
Q1 (Meliling) Q2 (Water supply) Q3 (Jetflow) Q Total Qmax

Figure F.2. Water release from Telaga Tunjung Reservoir in relation to the percentage of opening of the outlets
Annex G. Reservoir and its hydraulic structures

Reservoir:

River basin = 81.5 km2

Total storage = 1,260,000 m3
Effective storage = 1,000,000 m3
Death storage (50 yr) = 261,000 m3
Reservoir storage area = 16.5 ha
Flood discharge design (Q 1.5 PMF) = 776 m3/s
Maximum water level (Q 1.5 PMF) = 201.51 m +MSL
Normal water level = 199.00 m +MSL
Minimum water level = 190.70 m +MSL

Main dam:

Type = Earthfill dam (zonal random with vertical core)

Maximum height = 33 m
Length of top dam = 225.4 m
Volume of bank (including cofferdam) = 246,632 m3
Free board (Q20 yr) = 1.49 m

Diversion:

Type = Conduit
Length = 2 @ 3.5 × 3.5 m [193 m]
Top cofferdam elevation = 188.00 m +MSL
Free board (Q20 yr) = 0.43 m
Flood discharge design (Q20 yr) = 357 m3/s
198 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Overflow:

Location = abutment in the right

Type = side canal weir without gate and steep canal
Stilling basin = USBR Type I with end-sill
Top weir elevation = 199.00 m +MSL
Maximum Water Level = 201.51 m +MSL
Width and length overflow = 13 m – 27 m and 93 m
Width and length steep canal = 27 m and 62.85 m

Intake:

Type = Morning glory with steel sliding gate and bonnet type steel pipes with
valves (steel conduit + valve)
Capacity = 1.87 m3/s [0.141 + 1.725]
Annex H. Information on reservoir sedimentation

Borland and Miller (1958): Area Reduction Method

Table H.1. Standard types of reservoirs

Classification Type of reservoir M C m n
I Lake 3.5 - 4.5 3.42 1.5 0.2
II Floodplain-foothill 2.5 - 3.5 2.32 0.5 0.4
III Hill 1.5 - 2.5 15.9 1.1 2.3
IV Gorge 1.0 - 1.5 4.23 0.1 2.5
M = slope of curve

Type of Reservoir
100.0

1,126,103
H-HWL

10.0

1.0
310
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,00010,000,000

Volume

Figure H.1. Gradual sediment increase in a floodplain-foothill type of reservoir

The type of reservoir based on Table H.1 is:

X 3.56 Log of highest minus lowest capacity (X on graph)
Y 1.34 Log of highest minus lowest H level (Y on graph)
M (X/Y) 2.65 Type II - slope
200 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

200

198

196

194

192

190

188
Sediment 43 years
186

184
Maindam elevation (m)

Sediment 30 years 182

180

178
Sediment 8 years
176
14.1 13.2 12.9 12.0 11.5 10.5 9.9 8.9 7.2 6.2 4.6 4.0 3.5 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.0
Area (ha)

Figure H.2. Sedimentation profile of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Information on reservoir sedimentation 201

Area (ha)
16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00
200 200
198 198
196 196
194 194
192 192
190 190
188 188
186 186
184 184
182 182
180 180
Elevation (m)

Elevation (m)
178 178
176 176
174 174
172 172
170 170
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400
Volume (x103 m3)
Initial NWL NWL 8 years NWL 30 years
NWL 43 years Log. (Initial Area) Log. (Area 8 years)

Figure H.3. Reservoir capacity for the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir based on sedimentation
Annex I. Infiltration and percolation

Table I.1. Water requirements for the pre-saturation of the field and water layer S
('Van der Goor' method)
Eo+P T = 30 days T = 45 days
mm/day S = 250 mm S = 300 mm S = 250 mm S = 300 mm
5.0 11.1 12.7 8.4 9.5
5.5 11.4 13.0 8.8 9.8
6.0 11.7 13.3 9.1 10.1
6.5 12.0 13.6 9.4 10.4
7.0 12.3 13.9 9.8 10.8
7.5 12.6 14.2 10.1 11.1
8.0 13.0 14.5 10.5 11.4
8.5 13.3 14.8 10.8 11.8
9.0 13.6 15.2 11.2 12.1
9.5 14.0 15.5 11.6 12.5
10.0 14.3 15.8 12.0 12.9
10.5 14.7 16.2 12.4 13.2
11.0 15.0 16.5 12.8 13.6
Source: Irrigation Planning Criteria (KP) 01
Annex J. Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block

Table J.1. Observations at inlet and outlet of a paddy terraces block

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
April 0.026 0.019
0.024 0.019
0.024 0.029
0.023 0.016
0.024 0.019
0.024 0.022
0.027 0.019
0.025 0.026
0.023 0.029
0.024 0.034
0.026 0.034
0.026 0.035
0.025 0.031
0.028 0.031
0.033 0.032
0.033 0.032
0.033 0.032
0.033 0.032
0.033 0.032
0.086 0.086
0.086 0.086
0.086 0.086
0.081 0.039
0.069 0.033
0.069 0.033
0.069 0.033
0.069 0.033
0.069 0.033
0.065 0.021
0.065 0.044 0.021 0.034 -0.010 -29%
Mei 0.065 0.021
0.065 0.021
0.051 0.036
0.044 0.041
0.044 0.041
206 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.038 0.058
0.031 0.063
0.031 0.063
0.031 0.063
0.029 0.068
0.029 0.068
0.029 0.068
0.030 0.071
0.032 0.059
0.032 0.075
0.035 0.058
0.032 0.077
0.032 0.077
0.032 0.077
0.030 0.074
0.032 0.080
0.032 0.082
0.033 0.090
0.000 0.090
0.000 0.090
0.000 0.090
0.031 0.086
0.032 0.086
0.034 0.107
0.034 0.084
0.034 0.032 0.084 0.0694 0.0370 53%
June 0.034 0.084
0.034 0.084
0.039 0.084
0.039 0.084
0.040 0.092
0.040 0.092
0.040 0.092
0.041 0.092
0.041 0.092
0.043 0.107
0.043 0.107
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 207

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.043 0.107
0.043 0.107
0.044 0.115
0.044 0.115
0.044 0.115
0.044 0.115
0.044 0.137
0.044 0.137
0.044 0.137
0.044 0.137
0.008 0.137
0.000 0.137
0.000 0.140
0.027 0.140
0.027 0.140
0.027 0.140
0.044 0.140
0.044 0.140
0.042 0.036 0.140 0.116 0.080 69%
July 0.042 0.140
0.042 0.140
0.032 0.103
0.032 0.103
0.032 0.103
0.004 0.103
0.004 0.103
0.004 0.103
0.028 0.086
0.028 0.086
0.028 0.086
0.028 0.086
0.028 0.086
0.028 0.086
0.003 0.079
0.003 0.079
208 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.030 0.079
0.030 0.079
0.030 0.079
0.030 0.079
0.025 0.077
0.025 0.077
0.025 0.077
0.026 0.077
0.029 0.077
0.029 0.077
0.029 0.077
0.029 0.077
0.023 0.025 0.078 0.088 0.064 72%
August 0.023 0.078
0.023 0.078
0.023 0.078
0.023 0.078
0.021 0.077
0.021 0.077
0.021 0.077
0.028 0.077
0.028 0.077
0.028 0.077
0.028 0.077
0.021 0.074
0.021 0.074
0.021 0.074
0.026 0.074
0.026 0.074
0.026 0.074
0.026 0.074
0.021 0.074
0.021 0.074
0.021 0.074
0.021 0.074
0.017 0.075
0.017 0.075
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 209

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.017 0.075
0.017 0.075
0.017 0.075
0.017 0.075
0.018 0.073
0.018 0.073
0.018 0.022 0.073 0.075 0.054 71%
September 0.018 0.073
0.024 0.073
0.026 0.034
0.027 0.034
0.027 0.023
0.028 0.023
0.028 0.023
0.029 0.023
0.028 0.033
0.027 0.032
0.027 0.032
0.029 0.019
0.031 0.016
0.031 0.022
0.028 0.022
0.029 0.022
0.029 0.031
0.033 0.031
0.031 0.031
0.032 0.034
0.030 0.034
0.030 0.032
0.030 0.025
0.029 0.025
0.030 0.025
0.030 0.033
0.025 0.033
0.025 0.033
0.025 0.020
0.025 0.028 0.020 0.030 0.002 8%
210 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
October 0.025 0.020
0.024 0.020
0.029 0.024
0.029 0.024
0.029 0.024
0.028 0.024
0.028 0.024
0.028 0.024
0.028 0.024
0.026 0.032
0.026 0.032
0.028 0.023
0.029 0.019
0.030 0.020
0.030 0.020
0.030 0.034
0.029 0.034
0.028 0.034
0.028 0.034
0.028 0.034
0.030 0.029
0.030 0.029
0.030 0.029
0.030 0.029
0.012 0.019
0.012 0.019
0.012 0.019
0.026 0.026
0.026 0.026
0.027 0.026
0.028 0.027 0.030 0.026 -0.001 -2%
November 0.028 0.030
0.028 0.030
0.029 0.031
0.029 0.031
0.029 0.032
0.029 0.032
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 211

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2013 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.029 0.033
0.029 0.026
0.027 0.026
0.028 0.029
0.028 0.032
0.030 0.032
0.030 0.032
0.030 0.019
0.027 0.024
0.027 0.024
0.026 0.024
0.025 0.023
0.025 0.023
0.025 0.023
0.024 0.070
0.026 0.070
0.026 0.070
0.024 0.058
0.023 0.077
0.021 0.077
0.022 0.061
0.022 0.075
0.022 0.075
0.022 0.026 0.075 0.042 0.016 37%
December 0.022 0.075
0.022 0.075
0.024 0.076
0.024 0.071
0.024 0.071
0.025 0.069
0.025 0.058
0.025 0.058
0.028 0.058
0.028 0.057
0.028 0.057
0.029 0.074
0.030 0.072
212 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.030 0.072
0.028 0.074
0.025 0.074
0.026 0.074
0.025 0.077
0.025 0.070
0.025 0.070
0.024 0.075
0.025 0.075
0.025 0.077
0.023 0.077
0.023 0.077
0.025 0.059
0.021 0.057
0.021 0.057
0.021 0.057
0.021 0.057
0.021 0.025 0.057 0.068 0.043 63%
January 0.021 0.057
0.021 0.057
0.000 0.057
0.000 0.057
0.000 0.057
0.026 0.039
0.026 0.039
0.026 0.039
0.035 0.046
0.035 0.046
0.035 0.046
0.039 0.046
0.039 0.069
0.039 0.069
0.039 0.072
0.039 0.072
0.039 0.072
0.039 0.072
0.039 0.078
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 213

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.039 0.078
0.039 0.078
0.040 0.071
0.040 0.071
0.040 0.071
0.040 0.075
0.040 0.075
0.048 0.083
0.048 0.083
0.048 0.083
0.027 0.075
0.027 0.033 0.075 0.065 0.032 50%
February 0.027 0.075
0.027 0.075
0.033 0.085
0.033 0.085
0.033 0.085
0.036 0.087
0.036 0.087
0.036 0.087
0.036 0.087
0.032 0.085
0.032 0.085
0.032 0.085
0.027 0.078
0.027 0.078
0.027 0.078
0.020 0.078
0.020 0.078
0.000 0.078
0.000 0.078
0.000 0.078
0.023 0.076
0.023 0.076
0.023 0.076
0.023 0.076
0.025 0.065
214 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.025 0.065
0.025 0.065
0.025 0.025 0.065 0.078 0.053 68%
March 0.025 0.065
0.025 0.065
0.020 0.064
0.020 0.064
0.020 0.064
0.016 0.069
0.016 0.069
0.016 0.069
0.016 0.069
0.019 0.076
0.019 0.076
0.019 0.076
0.019 0.076
0.019 0.076
0.019 0.076
0.019 0.076
0.013 0.078
0.013 0.078
0.013 0.078
0.012 0.075
0.012 0.075
0.012 0.075
0.012 0.075
0.019 0.078
0.019 0.078
0.019 0.078
0.019 0.078
0.018 0.084
0.018 0.084
0.018 0.084
0.018 0.017 0.084 0.075 0.057 77%
April 0.018 0.084
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 215

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
April 0.018 0.084
0.000 0.089
0.000 0.089
0.000 0.089
0.000 0.093
0.000 0.093
0.000 0.093
0.000 0.107
0.000 0.107
0.000 0.107
0.000 0.107
0.000 0.094
0.006 0.094
0.011 0.080
0.011 0.080
0.006 0.060
0.006 0.060
0.006 0.052
0.006 0.052
0.005 0.038
0.005 0.038
0.004 0.033
0.004 0.033
0.004 0.025
0.004 0.025
0.004 0.016
0.004 0.016
0.004 0.012
0.004 0.012
0.002 0.004 0.009 0.063 0.059 94%
Mei 0.002 0.009
0.001 0.002
0.001 0.002
0.001 0.000
0.000 0.000
216 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.00021 0.000 0.0004 0.0002 49%
June 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 217

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0%
July 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
218 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0%
August 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 219

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0%
September 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0%
220 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
October 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0%
November 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 221

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2014 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.070 0.000
0.070 0.000
0.077 0.000
0.077 0.000
0.081 0.000
0.081 0.000
0.083 0.000
0.083 0.000
0.087 0.000
0.087 0.000
0.087 0.000
0.087 0.000
0.089 0.000
0.089 0.038 0.000 0.000 -0.038 0%
December 0.087 0.106
0.087 0.106
0.098 0.129
0.098 0.129
0.098 0.129
0.098 0.129
0.103 0.127
0.103 0.127
0.096 0.115
0.096 0.115
0.095 0.171
0.095 0.171
0.095 0.171
222 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2015 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.095 0.171
0.095 0.171
0.095 0.171
0.095 0.171
0.095 0.171
0.088 0.123
0.088 0.123
0.088 0.123
0.088 0.123
0.095 0.131
0.095 0.131
0.095 0.131
0.095 0.131
0.095 0.131
0.095 0.131
0.095 0.183
0.095 0.183
0.095 0.095 0.183 0.142 0.047 33%
January 0.095 0.183
0.095 0.183
0.095 0.184
0.095 0.184
0.103 0.188
0.103 0.188
0.096 0.168
0.096 0.168
0.095 0.165
0.095 0.165
0.095 0.165
0.043 0.158
0.043 0.158
0.043 0.158
0.043 0.158
0.044 0.183
0.044 0.183
0.044 0.183
0.044 0.183
Results of the measurements in a paddy terraces block 223

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2015 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.044 0.200
0.044 0.200
0.038 0.200
0.044 0.200
0.008 0.212
0.008 0.212
0.008 0.212
0.027 0.187
0.027 0.187
0.027 0.187
0.044 0.187
0.044 0.057 0.187 0.183 0.126 69%
February 0.044 0.187
0.044 0.187
0.044 0.187
0.032 0.162
0.032 0.162
0.032 0.162
0.017 0.157
0.017 0.157
0.017 0.157
0.032 0.162
0.032 0.162
0.032 0.162
0.027 0.196
0.027 0.196
0.027 0.196
0.020 0.199
0.020 0.199
0.016 0.199
0.016 0.199
0.016 0.199
0.023 0.203
0.023 0.203
0.023 0.203
0.023 0.203
0.025 0.185
224 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Table J.1. continued

WDU Drain
2015 Δ %
(Tektek) (Pengutangan)
m3/s m3/s
0.025 0.185
0.025 0.185
0.025 0.026 0.185 0.184 0.157 86%
March 0.025 0.185
0.025 0.185
0.020 0.188
0.020 0.188
0.020 0.188
0.016 0.184
0.016 0.184
0.016 0.184
0.016 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.019 0.184
0.013 0.184
0.013 0.184
0.013 0.184
0.012 0.196
0.012 0.196
0.012 0.196
0.012 0.196
0.019 0.181
0.019 0.181
0.019 0.181
0.019 0.181
0.018 0.163
0.018 0.163
0.018 0.163
0.014 0.017 0.163 0.183 0.166 91%
April 0.018 0.163
Annex K. Graphs of scenario simulations with RIBASIM

Results of the first scenario 62%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

9 199

8 198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

7 197
Flow: into reservoir

6 196

5 195

4 194

3 193

2 192

1 191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

226 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Results of the second scenario 62%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

9
199
8
198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

7
197
Flow: into reservoir (m3/s)

6
196
5
195
4 194
3 193
2 192
1 191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

Graphs of scenario simulations with RIBASIM 227

Results of the third scenario 62%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

8 199

7 198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

6 197
Flow: into reservoir

196
5
195
4
194
3
193
2
192
1 191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

5

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

228 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Results of the fourth scenario 62%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

199
7
198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

6
197
Flow: into reservoir

5 196

4 195

194
3
193
2
192
1 191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

5

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

Graphs of scenario simulations with RIBASIM 229

Results of the fifth scenario 62%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

7
199

6 198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

197
5
Flow: into reservoir

196
4
195

3 194

193
2
192
1
191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

230 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Results of the first scenario 21%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

199
6
198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

5
197
Flow: into reservoir

4 196

195
3
194

2 193

192
1
191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

Graphs of scenario simulations with RIBASIM 231

Results of the second scenario 21%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

6 199

198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

5
197
Flow: into reservoir

4 196

195
3
194

2 193

192
1
191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

232 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Results of the third scenario 21%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

6 199

198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

5
197
Flow: into reservoir

4 196

195
3
194

2 193

192
1
191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

Graphs of scenario simulations with RIBASIM 233

Results of the fourth scenario 21%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

199
5
198

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

197
4
Flow: into reservoir

196

3 195

194
2
193

192
1
191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

234 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Results of the fifth scenario 21%

Graph for location Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

199

198
4

Level: actual at end of time step (m)

197
Flow: into reservoir

196
3
195

2 194

193

1 192

191

0 190
06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Flow: into reservoir Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Flow: downstream target Telaga Tunjung Reservoir
Flow: full reservoir spilling Telaga Tunjung Reservoir Level: actual at end of time step Telaga Tunjung Reservoir

Graph for parameter Link flows (m3/s)

4

3
Link flows

06/05/2013 04/08/2013 02/11/2013 31/01/2014 01/05/2014 30/07/2014 28/10/2014 26/01/2015

Link flows Yeh Ho Main 7 Sungsang Link flows Return Fl 7

Annex L. Summary

A Subak irrigation scheme, primarily in Bali, Indonesia concerns an irrigation system of

which the construction, operation and maintenance are based on agreed principles of
technology, management of agriculture and a religious community. Subak irrigation
schemes are an example of water resources management, distribution and supply of
irrigation water in a perfect vision on social welfare in the river basin. The decision-
making process in a Subak irrigation scheme takes into account political, economic, social
and cultural (religious) elements. Multifunctional ecosystems in a sustainable way of
agriculture are implemented in the Subak irrigation schemes, particularly in the
technology of such systems. On June 29, 2012 the UNESCO World Heritage Committee
formally added the Subak systems as a manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy to
the World Heritage List.
Subak systems have been well known since the 9th Century. These systems are
managed by a Subak Association based on the Tri Hita Karana philosophy - harmony
between human beings and God, harmony between people and nature, and harmony
between people and people. This philosophy underlies every activity of the Subak
farmers. For managing the Subak irrigation schemes, Subak Associations and farmers
pursue the Subak regulation called Awig-awig Subak as the togetherness consensus that in
the past was announced by the King, nowadays by the Head of the Regency.
Paddy terraces in Bali create important cultural landscapes. Traditionally, the flow
within a river basin has been managed using the Subak irrigation system technology.
Unfortunately, this traditional technology is facing challenges: problems of water shortage
and competition with other water users, that make it complicated to sustain the agriculture
production of the Subak irrigation schemes. In the middle of the twentieth century, as
consequence of ongoing population growth and land conversion, Balinese farmers were
having difficulties in meeting the ever-growing demand for rice.
In addition, the problem of insufficient water in the dry season developed. In order
to increase the irrigation water supply in Yeh Ho River Basin the Government constructed
the Telaga Tunjung Dam, based on the cultivated hectares of paddy fields (sawah).
However, since the dam was build the downstream river flow was reduced quite
236 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

significantly and the process of water sharing among the Subak irrigation systems was
changed. Due to this, there are serious conflicts on the water sharing among the farmers
within Yeh Ho River Basin. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to develop an
optimal reservoir operation strategy in relation to the operation of the Subak irrigation
systems, capable to support agricultural productivity at upstream, midstream and
downstream level. Detailed objectives of study were to:
• identify the type of river basin and to evaluate the land use;
• identify the contribution of the existing hydraulic structures in the main river system
in supplying water to the Subak irrigation schemes;
• identify and analyze the reliability of discharge in the main river system and the
inflow to the reservoir;
• analyze and determine the optimal outflow from the reservoir based on the needs of
the Subak irrigation schemes within the river basin;
• simulation of the reservoir operation and operation of the related Subak irrigation
systems based on the needs of the Subak irrigation schemes at upstream, midstream
and downstream level to achieve optimal productivity of agriculture in a sequence
time of operation related to the cropping patterns of the Subak irrigation schemes;
• to formulate recommendations on the future operation of the reservoir and related
Subak irrigation systems.

Initially the study presents a literature review to portray centuries of experience with
ancient Subak irrigation system management, in which Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM) is represented by three linked elements: PIM in irrigation system
operation and maintenance; PIM with respect to socio-culture and economics of
agriculture; PIM in light of a religious community. While there have been dynamic
changes in human civilization, there are concerns how the values of the Tri Hita Karana
philosophy can be applied consistently. The lessons learned are based on natural resources
of topography, especially in the paddy terraces landscape, water resources and soils based
on the principles using the Tri Hita Karana philosophy that influences all activities of
participatory irrigation system management related to those three linked elements in Bali.
Summary 237

As associations for irrigation system management, Subak Associations have been

already naturally adapted to Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM). The
technological and socio-agricultural elements, the application of local cropping patterns
and indigenous water management are regarded as the building blocks, which have been
further developed in this study as scenarios of Telaga Tunjung Reservoir operation and
supply to the related Subak irrigation systems. Using the Weibull formula, the historic
supply data of several diversion weirs were analyzed. This analysis was able to determine
the water balance of the Subak irrigation schemes behind each diversion weir. In line with
this, a system approach has been applied based on the managed flows within the river
basin and the characteristics of the Subak irrigation schemes.
Irrigation and drainage (irrigation-drainage) of Subak irrigation schemes concern an
operational approach, which has been adapted naturally to the topography, soil and water
resources of Bali. Irrigation and drainage of terrace systems became an essential element
in water distribution. Subak farmers have been able to operate and manage irrigation and
drainage from one scheme to another for more than a thousand years. They did also know
when irrigation water reached from the highest level to the lowest level of the paddy
terraces within the schemes in a river basin.
In order to sustain the agriculture production of Subak irrigation schemes there was
a need for study based on farmer's perspective related to irrigation and drainage from one
scheme to another. This research took place during the cultivation periods by observing
the water levels at the inlet and outlet of a paddy terraces block, followed by an analysis
of the trend and the amount of water being drained.
Latosol soil is the soil layer of the study region. It is one of two types of volcanic
soil cover, which is the oldest of soils in Bali. The soil characteristics of Latosol can be
categorized by silty clay with medium until high plasticity and brown to yellowish
colours. The average value of bulk density is 0.91gr/m3, the particle density 2.58 gr/m3,
the porosity 0.65, the average hydraulic conductivity 9.7 x 10-4 cm/hour or 2.7 x 10-9 m/s.
The average root zone permeability of the paddy terraces is 75 cm/hour. The results prove
that the Subak farmers irrigate for saturation of the root zone before land preparation,
which requires a large amount of water.
238 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

In order to achieve an optimal scenario a technical system analysis was needed. Two
common techniques have been applied, namely simulation and optimisation. The
RIBASIM (RIver BAsin SIMulation) model was applied to identify the best distribution
of water resources in the Yeh Ho River Basin. The focus of this study was to obtain the
highest productivity related to the operation of the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir and the
Subak irrigation systems with several weirs. The approach by representing the Yeh Ho
River Basin with the RIBASIM model offered the possibility to find optimum results for
the agriculture production. However, there was reduced availability of water for irrigation
from upstream sources and from the river.
The river basin simulation uses the 80% dependable discharge, and the simulation
and optimisation of the Subak schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin. While the period of land
preparation is critical with respect to the water needs the scenario analysis and
optimisation have been based on shifting of the starting time of land preparation (nyorog).
The results show that especially in the upstream and midstream of Yeh Ho River the
allocation of irrigation water to the Subak irrigation schemes experienced a deficit since
the water of Gembrong Spring was primarily withdrawn for domestic use, and the
distribution of water from the spring was not based on applying the agreement on water
sharing in practice. Therefore the first step in improved water supply would have to be to
really apply the agreement about it in practice. When this will be done effective operation
of the Telaga Tunjung Reservoir does not necessarily completely solve the problem of
water shortage in the river basin. However, when a cropping pattern based on the fifth
scenario will be applied the water deficit and yield reduction will be quite limited.
The results further show that the cropping pattern of the fifth scenario would result
in an optimal overall agriculture production at 100% and feasibility of farming of 2.3 of
the potential field level production for the Subak schemes. The recoverable flow
considered in the RIBASIM model plays an important role in the simulation and
optimisation of Yeh Ho River Basin. Two values have been applied, being 62% for the
average and 21% for the minimum recoverable flow. This is supported by the Tri Hita
Karana philosophy on harmony among people that overall could be applied in the
schemes in accordance with the cropping pattern of the fifth scenario, so that agricultural
productivity will be optimal. Nevertheless, under normal hydro-climatological conditions
Summary 239

it is also possible to apply the other scenarios, especially the first scenario. This reflects
the applicability of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy of harmony among people and
harmony of people and nature. At last, it is important how Subak farmers are able to
maintain harmony within the irrigation systems.
This research started quantitatively at the river basin scale and at paddy terraces
block scale by composing the Yeh Ho River Basin with the Subak irrigation schemes in it.
The fieldwork was done by orientation on the water sources and hydraulic structures of
and within Yeh Ho River Basin. Then a closed paddy terraces block with inlets and outlets
that relatively easy could be studied was analysed. These studies were based on the third
element of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy that is the material subsystem in relation to the
natural elements. This aspect implies that every paddy block of one farmer has one inlet
and one outlet and that the boundaries of the Subak schemes are naturally clear. These
observations were conducted during two wet and dry seasons (April 2013 - April 2015).
In addition data on agriculture production within Subak Caguh upstream of Telaga
Tunjung Reservoir and Subak Meliling downstream of the reservoir were collected, and
soil samples were taken to determine the type and the characteristics of the soils. Based on
the river basin and Subak irrigation schemes model, a scenario analysis based on the
Subak irrigation systems and the Tri Hita Karana philosophy and Subak regulation was
done. The results can be applied as a recommendation for the farmers.
Although the Subak farmers are reluctant to change to new irrigation practices, such
practices can in principle be useful for them as shown in two recent studies. One of these
studies concerned the application of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) combined
with intermittent irrigation (ngenyatin). In the farmer's perspective the SRI method is not
easy applicable in practice. Nevertheless, the Subak farmers agreed that 15 days before
harvesting they will dry their fields, which is one element of the SRI method.
The reservoir operation rule as applied in the fifth scenario gives the best result. The
reservoir has especially an important role to increase water supply for the downstream
schemes: Meliling, Gadungan and Sungsang. It also has a direct impact to sustain water
conservation at the river basin scale.
Annex M. Samenvatting

Een Subak irrigatie systeem, vooral in Bali, Indonesië betreft een irrigatiesysteem,
waarvan de bouw, de exploitatie en het onderhoud zijn gebaseerd op de overeengekomen
beginselen van de technologie, de landbouwkundige exploitatie en een religieuze
gemeenschap. Subak irrigatiesystemen zijn een voorbeeld van waterbeheer, distributie en
levering van irrigatiewater in een perfecte visie op de sociale welvaart in het
stroomgebied. In het besluitvormingsproces binnen een Subak irrigatiesysteem wordt
rekening gehouden met politieke, economische, sociale en culturele (religieuze)
elementen. Multifunctionele ecosystemen op basis van duurzame landbouw worden in de
Subak irrigatie systemen gerealiseerd, met name in de technologie van deze systemen. Op
29 June, 2012 heeft het UNESCO World Heritage Comité de Subak systemen toegevoegd
aan de Wereld Erfgoed Lijst als een representatie van de Tri Hita Karana filosofie.
Subak irrigatiesystemen zijn goed bekend sinds de 9e eeuw. Deze systemen worden
beheerd door een Subak vereniging op basis van de Tri Hita Karana filosofie - harmonie
tussen de mens en God, harmonie tussen de mens en de natuur, en harmonie tussen
mensen en mensen. Deze filosofie ligt ten grondslag aan alle activiteiten van de Subak
boeren. Voor het beheer van de Subak irrigatie systemen, zijn de Subak regels, genaamd
Awig-awig Subak die zijn gebaseerd op saamhorigheid consensus, dat in het verleden
werd aangekondigd door de Koning en tegenwoordig door het hoofd van de provincie, het
uitgangspunt voor de Subak verenigingen en de boeren.
Rijst terrassen in Bali vertegenwoordigen belangrijke culturele landschappen.
Traditioneel vindt de waterverdeling binnen een stroomgebied plaats op basis van de
Subak irrigatiesysteem technologie. Helaas wordt deze traditionele technologie
geconfronteerd met uitdagingen: problemen van een tekort aan water en concurrentie met
andere watergebruikers, die het moeilijk maken om de landbouwproductie van de Subak
irrigatiesystemen in stand te houden. In het midden van de twintigste eeuw hadden
Balinese boeren, als gevolg van de aanhoudende groei van de bevolking en landconversie,
problemen om te voldoen aan de steeds groeiende vraag naar rijst. Bovendien,
ontwikkelde zich het probleem van onvoldoende water in de droge tijd. Met het oog om
de voorziening van irrigatiewater in het stroomgebied van de Yeh Ho rivier te vergroten
242 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

heeft de overheid de Telaga Tunjung dam gebouwd, op basis van de aanwezige hectaren
rijstvelden (sawah). Sinds de dam is gebouwd, is de benedenstroomse rivier afvoer echter
vrij aanzienlijk verminderd en is het proces van de waterverdeling onder de Subak
irrigatiesystemen gewijzigd. Ten gevolge hiervan zijn er ernstige conflicten ten aanzien
van de waterverdeling onder de boeren in het stroomgebied van de Yeh Ho rivier.
Daarom was het belangrijkste doel van dit onderzoek om een optimale beheer
strategie voor het stuwmeer te ontwikkelen in relatie tot het beheer van de Subak
irrigatiesystemen, waarmee de productiviteit van de landbouw op bovenstrooms, in het
midden en benedenstrooms niveau kan worden ondersteund. Specifieke doelstellingen van
de studie waren:
• de aard van het stroomgebied in kaart brengen en het landgebruik evalueren;
• in kaart brengen van de bijdrage van de kunstwerken in het hoofdsysteem van de
rivier met betrekking tot het leveren van water aan de Subak irrigatie systemen;
• identificeren en analyseren van de betrouwbaarheid van de toevoer naar het
hoofdsysteem van de rivier en de instroom naar het stuwmeer;
• analyseren en bepalen van de optimale afvoer vanuit het stuwmeer op basis van de
behoeften van de Subak irrigatie systemen in het stroomgebied;
• simulatie van het beheer van het stuwmeer en de werking van de bijbehorende
Subak irrigatie systemen op basis van de behoeften van Subak irrigatie systemen op
bovenstrooms in het midden en benedenstrooms niveau om in de tijd optimale
landbouw productiviteit te bereiken in relatie tot de bouwplannen van de Subak
irrigatie systemen;
• formuleren van aanbevelingen ten aanzien van het toekomstige beheer van het
stuwmeer en de bijbehorende Subak irrigatie systemen.

Allereerst presenteert de studie een literatuur overzicht om de eeuwenlange ervaring

met het beheer van traditionele Subak irrigatie systemen te presenteren, waarbij
participatief irrigatie beheer (PIM) wordt vertegenwoordigd door drie gekoppelde
elementen: PIM in irrigatiesysteem beheer en onderhoud; PIM met betrekking tot sociaal
culturele en economische elementen van de landbouw; PIM in het licht van een religieuze
Samenvating 243

gemeenschap. Omdat er dynamische veranderingen in de samenleving zijn, bestaat er zorg

hoe de waarden van de Tri Hita Karana filosofie consistent kunnen worden toegepast. De
opgestoken lessen zijn gebaseerd op de natuurlijke hulpbronnen van topografie, in het
bijzonder het landschap van de rijst terrassen, waterbronnen en de bodem op basis van de
principes van de Tri Hita Karana filosofie die in Bali alle activiteiten van het
participatieve beheer van de irrigatie systemen met betrekking tot de drie gekoppelde
elementen beïnvloed.
Als een vereniging voor het beheer van irrigatie systemen, Subak verenigingen zijn
al van nature gebaseerd op participatief irrigatie beheer (PIM). De technologische en
sociaal landbouwkundige elementen, de toepassing van lokale bouwplannen en inheems
waterbeheer worden beschouwd als bouwstenen, die verder in deze studie als scenario's
voor het beheer van het Telaga Tunjung stuwmeer en de watervoorziening aan de
betrokken Subak irrigaitie systemen zijn ontwikkeld. Met behulp van de Weibull formule
zijn de historische watervoorziening gegevens van meerdere afleiding stuwen
geanalyseerd. Op basis van deze analyse was het mogelijk om de waterbalans van de
Subak irrigatie systemen achter elke afleiding stuw te bepalen. In het verlengde hiervan is
een systeembenadering toegepast die is gebaseerd op de beheerde waterstromen binnen
het stroomgebied en de kenmerken van de Subak irrigatie systemen. Irrigatie en drainage
(irrigatie-drainage) van Subak irrigatie systemen betreft een operationele aanpak, die op
natuurlijke wijze is aangepast aan de topografie, bodem en water voorraden van Bali.
Irrigatie en drainage van de terras systemen is een essentieel element in de distributie van
water. Subak boeren hebben irrigatie en drainage van het ene naar het andere systeem
voor meer dan duizend jaar kunnen opereren en beheren. Ze wisten ook wanneer
irrigatiewater van het hoogste niveau het laagste niveau van de rijst terrassen binnen de
systemen in een stroomgebied zou bereiken.
Om de landbouw productie van Subak irrigatie systemen in stand te houden was er
behoefte aan een studie op basis van het perspectief van de boeren met betrekking tot
irrigatie en drainage van het ene naar het andere systeem. Dit onderzoek vond plaats
tijdens de teelt perioden door het observeren van de waterstanden bij de inlaat en de uitlaat
van een blok met rijst terrassen, gevolgd door een analyse van de trend en de hoeveelheid
water die werd afgevoerd.
244 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Latosol is de bodemlaag in het onderzoeksgebied. Het is één van de twee typen

vulkanische grond en het oudste bodemtype in Bali. De bodem kenmerken van Latosol
kunnen worden gekenmerkt door slibachtige klei met een gemiddelde tot hoge plasticiteit
en bruine tot geelachtige kleuren. De gemiddelde waarde van het soortelijk gewicht is
0.91 gr/m3, de deeltjesdichtheid 2,58 g/m3, de porositeit 0,65, de gemiddelde
doorlatendheid 9,7 x 10-4 cm/uur. De gemiddelde doorlatendheid in de wortelzone van de
rijst terrassen is 75 cm/uur. De resultaten tonen aan dat de subak boeren voorafgaand aan
de bewerking van het land irrigeren op verzadiging van de wortelzone, wat een grote
hoeveelheid water vereist.
Om een optimaal scenario te bereiken was een technische systeem analyse nodig.
Twee bekende technieken zijn in de analyse toegepast, namelijk simulatie en
optimalisatie. Een model gebaseerd op generieke algoritmen is toegepast om de beste
verdeling van de water voorraden in het stroomgebied van de Yeh Ho rivier te
identificeren. De focus van deze studie was om de hoogste productiviteit in relatie tot het
beheer van het Telaga Tunjung stuwmeer en het rivier systeem met meerdere stuwen te
verkrijgen. De aanpak om het stroomgebied van de Yeh Ho rivier te modelleren met het
RIBASIM model bood de mogelijkheid om optimale resultaten voor de landbouwkundige
productie te vinden. Er was echter een gereduceerde beschikbaarheid van water voor
irrigatie vanuit de bovenstroomse bronnen en van de rivier.
Bij de stroomgebied simulatie is gebruik gemaakt van de 80% betrouwbare afvoer,
en de simulatie en optimalisatie van de Subak irrigatie systemen in het stroomgebied van
de Yeh Ho rivier. Omdat de periode van bewerking van het land met betrekking tot de
waterbehoefte cruciaal is, zijn de scanario analyse en de optimalisatie gebaseerd geweest
op het verschuiven van de start van de bewerking van het land (nyorog).
De resultaten wezen uit dat er met name bovenstrooms en in het midden van de Yeh
Ho rivier een tekort was bij het toewijzen van irrigatiewater aan de Subak irrigatie
systemen, omdat het water van de Gembrong bron vooral als stedelijk water werd gebruikt
en de verdeling van water van de bron in de praktijk niet gebaseerd was op het toepassen
van de overeenkomst betreffende de waterverdeling. Daarom zou de eerste stap om tot
verbetering van de watervoorziening te komen moeten zijn het in de praktijk toepassen
van de overeenkomst. Als dit gebreurt leidt effectief beheer van het Telaga Tunjung
Samenvating 245

stuwmeer niet noodzakelijkerwijs tot de complete oplossing van het probleem van het
watertekort in het stroomgebied. Wanneer echter het bouwplan wordt gebaseerd op het
vijfde scenario, dan zullen het watertekort en de opbrengst reduktie slechts beperkt zijn.
De resultaten laten verder zien dat het bouwplan van het vijfde scenario zou leiden
tot een optimale landbouwkundige productie op 100% en een rentabiliteit van de
landbouw van 2,3 van de potentiële productie op veldniveau voor alle Subak systemen
samen. De afvoer die kan worden hergebruikt (Natak tiyis) speelt een belangrijke rol in
het RIBASIM model bij de simulatie van het systeem van het stroomgebied van de Yeh
Ho rivier. Twee waarden zijn toegepast, zijnde 62% voor de gemiddelde en 21% voor de
minimale afvoer die kan worden hergebruikt. Dit wordt ook ondersteund door de Tri Hita
Karana filosofie betreffende harmonie tussen mensen die in het algemeen op de systemen
volgens het bouwplan van het vijfde scenario zou kunnen worden toegepast, zodat de
landbouwproductie optimaal zal zijn.
Desalnietemin is het onder normale hydro-klimatologische omstandigheden
mogelijk dat de andere scenario's, met name het eerste scenario, ook worden toegepast.
Dit weerspiegelt de toepassing van de Tri Hita Karana filosofie betreffende de harmonie
tussen de mensen en de harmonie van mens en natuur. Tenslotte is het belangrijk hoe de
Subak boeren in staat zijn om de harmonie binnen de irrigatiesystemen te handhaven.
Dit onderzoek begon kwantitatief op de schaal van het stroomgebied en van de
blokken met rijst terrassen door het schematiseren van het stroomgebied van de Yeh Ho
rivier met daarin de Subak irrigatiesystemen. Het veldwerk is uitgevoerd op basis van een
oriëntatie op de waterbronnen en op de waterbouwkundige constructies van en binnen het
stroomgebied van de Yeh Ho rivier. Vervolgens is een gesloten blok met rijst terrassen
met een inlaatpunt en een uitlaatpunt dat relatief gemakkelijk kon worden bestudeerd
geanalyseerd. Deze studies waren gebaseerd op het derde aspect van de Tri Hita Karana
filosofie, dat betreft het materiele subsysteem in relatie tot de natuurlijke elementen. Dit
aspect houdt in dat in elk rijst blok een boer een inlaat en een uitlaat heeft en dat de
begrenzing van het Subak systeem van nature duidelijk is. Deze waarnemingen zijn
uitgevoerd gedurende twee natte en droge seizoenen (april 2013 - april 2015). Daarnaast
zijn gegevens over de landbouwkundige productie van het stroomopwaarts van het Telaga
Tunjung stuwmeer gelegen Subak Caguh systeem, en van het stroomafwaarts gelegen
246 Reservoir operation for water upply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

Subak Meliling systeem verzameld. Ook zijn grondmonsters genomen om het type en de
eigenschappen van de bodem te bepalen. Op basis van het model voor het stroomgebied
en de Subak irrigatie systemen, is een scenario-analyse op basis van de Subak
irrigatiesystemen en de Tri Hita Karana filosofie met de bijbehorende Subak regelingen
uitgevoerd. De resultaten worden toegepast als een aanbeveling voor de boeren.
Hoewel de Subak boeren terughoudend zijn voor verandering naar nieuwe irrigatie
toepassingen, kunnen zulke toepassingen in principe voordelig voor hen zijn, zoals twee
studies hebben uitgewezen. Een van deze studies betrof de toepassing van het systeem van
rijst intensificatie (SRI) in combinatie met irrigatie met tussenpozen (ngenyatin). Naar het
oordeel van de boeren is de SRI methode in de praktijk niet makkelijk toepasbaar.
Desalniettemin, zijn de Subak boeren overeengekomen dat zij hun velden 15 dagen voor
de oogst droog zullen zetten, wat een van de elementen van de SRI methode is.
Het beheer van het stuwmeer zoals toegepast bij het vijfde scenario geeft de beste
resultaten. Het stuwmeer speelt met name een belangrijke rol in de toename van de
watervoorziening voor de benedenstroomse systemen: Meliling, Gadungan and Sungsang.
Het heeft ook een direct effect op het waterbeheer op niveau van het stroomgebied.
Annex N. About the author

Mawiti Infantri Yekti was born on 12 October 1972 in Jember, East Java, Indonesia. She
is the second of four children. She spent her childhood in Jember and Jakarta from 1972
until 1981. She finished her elementary school in three different places to follow her
fathers profession in the Indonesian Army: in Jakarta from 1979 until 1981, in Ambon
from 1981 until 1984, and in Tulungagung, when she stayed with her grandparents from
1984 until 1985. Her junior high school and senior high school were finished on 1988 and
1991 in Malang, where her parents resided after retirement. She continued her university
study after she was awarded the selection of achievement student in the senior high school
to enter without test at the Department of Water Resources Engineering, University of
Brawijaya, Malang, East Java.
She obtained her B.Sc degree in October 1996 after writing a thesis on a
productivity test of a deep tube well and an intermediate tube well for irrigation with
groundwater in Pasuruan, East Java. Afterwards, she applied for a job and a master
scholarship of the Indonesian Government (DUE Project) in Februay 1997. In the same
year, she got a job as assistant engineer in the Project Type Sector Loan (PTSL) Nippon
Koei Ltd with the local consultant PT Tata Guna Patria. She was only from July until
August in this job with the task of reviewing of water engineering projects. Owing to this
she was awarded a DUE scholarship. She started to study for a master degree in
September 1997 and she chosed the subject of water resources at Graduate Studies of
Civil Engineering of Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM), Yogyakarta. The DUE Project
was an Indonesian Government Scholarship Programme for selecting the new lecturers for
several state universities during 1997 - 1999.
She obtained her master degree in May 2000 after writing her thesis on Optimization
of reservoir operation analysis. In April 1999 she had already officially become a civil
servant. In September 2000 she started to lecture at the Department of Civil Engineering,
Udayana University, Bali. She married to Ristono in July 2001. They have a son,
Narayana Radya Aydin, who was born in December 2002, and a doughter, Larasati Ridha
Alisa, who was born in January 2005.
248 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

She teaches several subjects related to water science engineering, such as irrigation,
fluid mechanics, hydraulics and hydrology for undergraduate students. She is also
supervisor for undergraduate final projects and practical projects and academic supervisor
of more than 30 undergraduate students. She had 21 topics of research with her
undergraduate students.
In 2003, she started as assistant lecturer to teach for graduate students on subjects as
advanced hydrology, earthfill dams and groundwater movement. In this period, she felt
that she had limited experience with the applications in water science engineering to teach
in the graduate program since she graduated from bachelor and master studies. Then in
2004 she started to be involved as an expert. Since then she has had 21 involvements in
water engineering design project.
With respect to organization experiences, she was responsible for two divisions in
the Department of Civil Engineering in Udayana University, from 2004 until 2010 she
was head of the reading room (small library), and from 2004 until 2008 secretary in the
laboratory of hydrology and hydraulics. Moreover, she is member of three professional
organizations: Indonesian National Committee on Large Dams (INACOLD), Indonesian
Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (INACID), Indonesian Association of Hydraulic
Engineers (HATHI). She has an expertise certificate of the Indonesian Society of Civil
and Structural Engineers (HAKI) in the specialization of water resources engineering.
Accepted papers by international journals:
• Yekti, M. I., Schultz, B., Norken, I. N., and Hayde, L. Discharge analysis for a
system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation schemes as a
culture heritage in Bali. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal.
http://www.cigrjournal.org/index.php/Ejounral/index. Accepted;
• Yekti, M. I., Schultz, B., Norken, I. N., and Hayde, L. Learning from experiences of
ancient Subak schemes for participatory irrigation system management in Bali.
Irrigation and Drainage.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1531-0361. Accepted.
About the author 249

She has 15 publications in international/national proceedings and national journals:

• Yekti, M. I., Schultz, B., Norken, I. N., Gany, A. H. A. and Hayde, L. 2014.
Irrigation-drainage of Subak irrigation schemes: a farmer's perspective over a
thousand years. Proceeding 12th ICID International Drainage Workshop, Drainage
on Water Logged Agricultural Areas, 23 - 26 June 2014, St. Petersburg, Russia;
• Yekti, M.I., Norken, I.N., Schultz, B., and Hayde, L., 2014. A role concept of
reservoir operation for sustainable water supply to Subak irrigation schemes: case
study of Yeh Ho River Basin. Proceeding International Symposium on Dams in
global environmental challenges. The 82th Annual Meeting of ICOLD (International
Commission on Large Dam), 1 – 6 June, 2014, Bali, Indonesia;
• Yekti, M.I., Gany, A.H.A., and Schultz, B., 2014. Learning from decades of
experience with Subak ancient Participatory Irrigation Management in Bali. Lecture
note at Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI), 21 - 24 January 2014,
Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India;
• Yekti, M.I., Schultz, B., and Hayde, L., 2013. Development of a conceptual
approach to manage flow of Subak irrigation schemes in Bali, Indonesia. Proceeding
1st World Irrigation Forum, 29 September - 3 October 2013, Mardin, Turkey;
• Yekti, M.I., Schultz, B., and Hayde, L., 2012. Challenge of runoff regulation to
supply paddy terraces in Subak irrigation schemes. Proceeding 7th Asian Regional
Conference of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 24 - 28
June 2012, Adelaide, Australia;
• Siladarma, I G.B., and Yekti, M.I., 2010. Simulation of thermal water dispersion
from cooling water system of Kubu Steamed Power Plant, Karangasem Region.
Proceeding IATPI National Seminar VI, 29 July 2010, Bali, Indonesia;
• Siladarma, I G.B., and Yekti, M.I., 2009. Predication of thermal water dispersion
from Kubu Steam Power Plant - No. ICOE 273. Proceeding International
Conference in Ocean Engineering (ICOE), 1 - 5 February 2009, IIT Madras,
Chennai, India;
250 Reservoir operation for water supply to Subak irrigation schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin

• Yekti, M.I., 2008. Water surface degradation of Lake Buyan using water balance
analysis. Proceeding HATHI Seminar, 21 – 23 August 2008, Palembang, South
Sumatera, Indonesia;
• Siladarma, I G.B., Yekti, M.I., and Permana, G. I., 2007. Impact of land use
changing on design flood at sub river basin of Ayung, Journal of Water, BITK Vol.
13 No. 3 July 2007, accreditation 23a/DIKTI/KEP/2004, ISSN 0854-4549,
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty of Diponegoro University,
Semarang, Indonesia;
• Yekti, M. I. and Kurniawan, P. A., 2007. Relation height metacentrum and draft for
three types of pontoon. Research Report the Directorate General of Higher
Education, Ministry of Education, Number 010/SP2H/PP/DP2M/III/2007;
• Yekti, M.I., Arsana, I G.N.K., and Luthfi, 2006. Evaluation reservoir capacity of
Telaga Tunjung with three critical period method: behavior analysis, dincer, sequent
peak algorithm. Journal of Water, No. 1 Years 13 July 2006, accreditation
23a/DIKTI/KEP/2004, ISSN 0854-4549, Laboratorium Water Flows, Department of
Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty of Diponegoro University, Semarang;
• Yekti, M. I., 2004. Productivity test of deep tube well and intermediate tube well for
irrigation groundwater area, Journal of Water, No. 1 Years 11th July 2004,
accreditation 23a/DIKTI/KEP/2004, ISSN 0854-4549, Laboratorium Water Flows,
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty of Diponegoro University,
Semarang;
• Yekti, M.I., 2004, Fluids mechanics lecture book, Department of Civil Engineering,
Engineering Faculty, Udayana University, Bali;
• Yekti, M.I., 2001. Optimization analysis of reservoir operation, Journal of Civil
Engineering Vol.5 No. 9 July 2001, ISSN No. 1411-1292, Udayana University;
• Yekti, M.I., 2001. Precipitation - runoff model using Mock method for Sermo
Reservoir. Paper note of Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty,
Udayana University, Bali.