BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

8 Marks Questions

How did architectural features of Mohenjodaro indicate planning? Support the statement with
examples. Delhi 2014
Answer:
The most unique feature of the Harappan Civilisation was the development of urban centres.
Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site of Harappan Civilisation.

The following are the most unique architectural feature of Mohenjodaro: Citadel It was smaller but
higher. It was walled and was physically separated from the lower town. Here the buildings w’ere
constructed with mud, bricks platform. Here, we find some structures that were probably used for
special public purposes.
These include the warehouse, a massive structure and the ‘Great Bath’. The uniqueness of the
structure of ‘Great Bath’ suggested that it was meant for some kind of special ritual bath.

The Lower Town The lower town was also w’alled. Several buildings were built on platforms, which
served as foundations. All building activity within the city was restricted to a fixed area on the
platforms. Sun-dried or baked bricks were used at all Harappan settlements.

The courtyard of the houses was the centre of activities like cooking and weaving, particularly during
hot and dry weather. There were no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main .
entrance did not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

Drainage System Mohenjodaro had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and the streets
were laid out along an approximate ‘grid’ pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets
with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.

Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the walls, to the
street drains. Drainage systems were not only unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller
settlements also. All these features indicated that Mohenjodaro had a well planned architectural
system.

Question
“The archaeological records provide no immediate answer to the Harappa’s central authority”.
Analyse different views given in the same. (HOTS; Delhi 2013)
Answer:
If we want to analyse the concept of central authority of Harappan civilisation, the archaeological
findings provide no immediate answer.
In support of these, some reasons have given by some archaeologists:

 At the site of Mohenjodaro, a large building was found, but there were no such specific
evidences which could have any association with it.
 A stone statue was found at the site of Mohenjodaro labelled as the ‘priest king’. It was so
because archaeologists had prior information of such statue found at the site of Sind and which
was labelled as the priest king. But till date, the ritual practices of Harappans have not been
 understood. So, there are no reasons of knowing whether those who performed ritual practices
also held some political power.
 On the other hand, some archaeologists have also the view that there were no rulers in the
Harappan society. According to them, all enjoyed equal status.
 Other archaeologists feel that there was no single ruler, but there were several rulers.
 Even some scholars argued that there was a single state which is evident from the similar
artefacts, the planned settlements, the standardised bricks.

Question
What are the aspects of Harappan economy that have been reconstructed from archaeological
evidence? (All India 2013)
Answer:
The aspects of Harappan economy that have been reconstructed from the archaeological evidences
are:
Agriculture From the evidences, it has been found that the agriculture was one of the most important
source of food.

Evidences such as charred grains have been found in the Harappan Civilisation. The seeds like
wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame were cultivated in the Harappa whereas millets were
found in Gujarat. The evidence of rice cultivation was not there. Evidence of agriculture was easy to
find out, but there is difficulty to find out agricultural practices. From the finds of terracotta
sculpture, it has been assumed . that the oxen were used for ploughing the land. Moreover, terracotta
models of plough also have been found at the sites in Ebolistan (Thar desert), Pakistan.

The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other. The irrigation was also known to the
Harappans. Traces of canals, well also have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in
Afghanistan. Besides these finds, several water reservoirs also have been traced which may have
been used for the irrigation of agriculture.
Animal Domestication From the finds of bones of animals such as sheep, goat, cow, oxen, buffalo,
etc, it has been assumed that the domestication of animals was also there.

Procurement of Crafts Prevalence of artefacts such as pottery sculptures, bead making, seal and
sealings were also there. Besides these, weaving, building construction, jewellery-making were there.
Trade The Harappans had long distance communication, it is evident from the finds of seals and
sealings of Harappans in the distant sites of Mesopotamia.

From the finds of certain metals such as bronze, copper and gold in Harappa which was procured in
different sites, these metals were traded with the other distant civilisations developed in Oman.
Archaeologists think that there were communication between Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia with
the Harappan Civilisation.

Question
What are the evidences found by the archaeologists which show that the Harappans had contacts
with distant lands? Does it show that the contact proved to have good trade relations with each other.
(All India 2011)
or
To what extent had the Harappans established trade relations with the world? (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The archaeologists found many evidences which show that the Harappans had contacts with distant
lands. The important evidences are
1. Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was probably brought from Oman, on the South-
Eastern tip of the Arabian found Peninsula. Moreover chemical analysis proved traces of nickel both
in Omani copper and Harappan artefacts. This suggests a common origin of both.

2. A large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay was found at Omani sites. It is
possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of these vessels for Omani copper.

3. Mesopotamian texts of third millennium BCE referred that copper came from a region called
Magan. Historians thought that probably it was another name of Oman. Mesopotamian texts also
mentioned contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the Island of Bahrain), Magan and
Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. Meluhha was a land of seafarers. Many products of
Meluhha were mentioned. These were carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood.

4. Other archaeological finds suggest of long distance contacts which include Harappan seals,
weights, dice and beads. All these evidences suggest that Harappan Civilisation was connected with
Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia by sea.

5. Depictions of ships and boats on seals indicate the trade relations between different countries.

6.Cylinder seal found in Mesopotamia has humped bull motif which can be derived from the Indus
region. The round ‘Persian Gulf seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs. Local
‘Dilmun’ weights followed the Harappan standard.

All these evidences show that Harappan civilisation had good trade relations with other regions.

Question
What factors in your opinion are responsible for the collapse of a mature Harapp’an Civilisation by
1800 BCE? (HOTS; All India 2009)
Answer:
There is strong evidence1 that by 1800 BCE, most of the mature Harappan sites in regions like
Cholistan had been . abandoned. Simultaneously, there was a growth of settlements in Gujarat,
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. At that time, distinctive artefacts of civilisation like weights,
seals, special beads, writing, long-distance trade and craft specialisation disappeared. House
construction technique deteriorated and large public structures were not produced.
A variety of explanations were given by scholars to explain the decline of mature Harappan
Civilisation.
These reasons are:

 Climatic change
 Deforestation
 Excessive floods
 Shifting and drying up of rivers
 Overuse of the landscape

Some of these reasons may be holding true for certain settlements, but they do not account for the
collapse of the entire civilisation.
No single reason was responsible for the decline of this civilisation. The civilisation might be
destroyed by invaders which was proved by the bulk of bones found. It indicated a slaughter.
But the skeletons found did not belong to the same period according to George Dales. Thus, it was
not concluded in favour of a dramatic collapse, rather it was believed that the end of Harappan
culture was a gradual process.

Question
Describe the contribution of John Marshall, Director General of the ASI to Indian archaeology, (All
India 2009)
Answer:
The two discoveries in seals in Harappa and Mohenjodaro by Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das
Banerji led to the conjecture that these two sites were part of a single archaeological culture. Based
on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director General of the ASI announced the discovery’ of a-
new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world. Similar seals were also found in the excavation of
archaeological sites of Mesopotamia. In this way, not only new civilisation came to limelight but we
also came to know that this civilisation was contemporary to Mesopotamia.
Sir John Marshall’s term as the Director General of ASI was actually a term of major change in
Indian archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist who worked in India.

He brought with himself his experience of Greece and Crete. Like Cunningham, he was also
interested in spectacular findings. But he was equally interested in looking for patterns of daily life.
John Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured unit formly throughout
the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site and this was the biggest drawback in his excavation
process. It means all the artefacts, found from the same unit, were grouped together, even if they
were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable information found about the
civilisation was lost forever.

Question
Explain briefly the distinctive features of Harappan drainage system. (Delhi 2008)
or
Describe briefly the drainage system of Harappan cities. (Delhi 2012)
or
Mention two features of drainage system of the Harappan cities. (All India 2015)
or
“The drainage system in Harappan Civilisation indicates town planning”. Support the statement with
suitable examples.
Answer:
One of the most distinctive features of Harappan Civilisation was its carefully planned drainage
system. If we look at the plan of the Lower Town, we can find that roads and streets were laid out
along an approximate ‘grid’ pattern, intersecting at right angles. Every house had one wall alongside
the street having drain connected to the street drain to flow out domestic waste water. It seems that
streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.

Mackay said about the drains, “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered”.
According to him, every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of
bricks set in Mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning.
Sometimes limestone was used for the covers.
In Harappa, house drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while
waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels . were provided at
intervals with sumps for cleaning.
Little heaps of material mostly sand were found lying alongside drainage channels, it meant that the
debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared.
Drainage systems were mostly found in smaller settlement, but were not unique to the larger cities.
For example, at Lothal while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.
Therefore, we can say that Harappan cities have carefully planned drainage system.

Question
On the given political outline map of India, locate and label the followings with appropriate symbols.

 Rakhigarhi. (Delhi 2016)

 Name of three mature Harappan sites. (All India 2016, Delhi 2015)
or
Five Harappan sites. Delhi 2008
 Dholavira. (All India 2015), (Delhi 2014, 2008)
 Lothal. (All India 2014, 2010), (Delhi 2012, 2008)
 Kalibangan, Nageshwar.
(All India 2013, 2012, Delhi 2012)
 (a) Dholavira
(b) Lumbini. (Delhi 2014)

Answer:
 KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS

8 Marks Questions

Question
Explain the main features of the Mauryan administration. (All India 2017)
or
Explain any four sources to reconstruct the history of Mauryas, Examine the system of Mauryan
administration. (Delhi 2016)
What type of source have been used to reconstruct the history of Mauryan empire? Explain with
suitable examples. (Delhi 2012)
Answer:
For sources to reconstruct the history of Mauryas, Historians have used a variety of sources to
reconstruct the history of Mauryan Empire. These were:

 Things found in archaeological excavation, specially sculpture are regarded as an important

source.

 Contemporary works like writings of Megasthenes, Arthashastra by Chanakya are important

sources regarding that period.

 The Mauryas were also mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina, Puranic and Sanskrit literature.

 Moreover the inscriptions of Asoka on rocks and pillars are regarded as the most valuable
sources.

System of Mauryan Administration The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the
Mauryan empire. Chandragupta Maurya who founded the empire (321 BCE), extended control as far
North-West as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and his grandson Asoka, arguably the most famous
ruler of early India, conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Odisha).
There were five major political centres in the empire i.e. the capital Pataliputra and the provincial
centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, that are all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions.
Due to Vastness of the empire administrative system of this empire was not uniform. It is likely that
administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centres. These
centres were carefully chosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on important long-distance
trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) was possibly important for tapping
the gold mines of Karnataka.
Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of the empire. It is
obvious that the army was an important means for ensuring the latter.

Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity. Of
these, one looked after the navy the second managed transport and provisions, the third was
responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.
The activities of the second subcommittee were rather varied-arranging for bullock carts to carry
equipment, and recruiting servants and artisans to look after the soldiers.
Asoka also tried to hold his empire together by propagating Dhannna, the principles of which were
simple and virtually universally applicable. This, according to him, would ensure the well-being of
people in this world and the next. Special officers, known as the Dhamma Mahamatta, were
appointed to spread the message of Dhamma.

Question
Explain the agricultural practices followed by the cultivators to increase productivity from C 600
BCE to 600 CE. (All India 2017)
or
To what extent were agricultural practices transformed from 6th century BCE? Explain briefly.
(Delhi 2011)
Answer:
Agricultural practices were transformed from 6th century BCE onwards because of increasing
burden of taxes imposed by state. The kings demanded considerable taxes from the subjects, from
6th cent ury BCE onwards.
In order to fulfil this demand for more taxes, the farmers started finding new means to increase the
production of their crops.

These new means were:

Shift Towards Plough Agriculture Agriculture practices were significantly transformed by the shift to
plough agriculture which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the
Kaveri.

Use of Iron-Tipped Ploughshare In the areas of high rainfall, the use of iron-tipped ploughshare
turned the alluvial soil into highly fertile ground.

Use of Paddy Transplantation Paddy transplantation technique was used in which seeds were first
broadcast then the saplings were transplanted in water logged fields. This ensured a higher ratio of
survival of saplings and higher yields and dramatically increased the production of paddy crop.
Although, this process requires high degree of manual labour.

Use of Irrigation to Increase Productivity Irrigation was another strategy to increase agricultural
production. The irrigation was done through wells and tanks and sometimes the canals were used.

Communities as well as individuals organised the construction of irrigation works. The process of
construction of irrigation was often recorded in the inscriptions by the kings.

The use of such technologies led to an increase in agricultural production which ultimately led to a
growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture. The large landholders and village
headmen emerged as powerful figures who exercised control over the cultivators or agricultural
labourers. Thus, there was a remarkable change in the field of agriculture from 6th century BCE.

Question
Explain the system of land grants and trade from 600 BCE to 600 CE. (Delhi 2016)
Answer:
From the early centuries, the grants of land were recorded in inscriptions. Some inscriptions were
recorded in copper plates. The records that have survived, give us the following facts:

 The land grants were given to religious institutions or to Brahmanas. The Brahmanas were
usually exempted from paying land revenue and other due to the king. The Brahmanas were .
 often given the right to collect these
dues from the local people.

 Women were not supposed to have independent access to resources like land. But aristocrat
women like Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II had access to lands.

 All the people in rural areas had to obey the new land of the village and pay him all the taxes.

 Some historians claim that land grants were indicative of weakening political power, as kings
were loosing control over their samantas. Sometimes, kings tried to win allies by making
grants of land.

 Land grants provide some insight into the relationship between cultivators and the state.

 The system of trade from 600 BCE to 600 CE can be explained in the following ways:

 Land and river routes criss-crossed the sub-continent and extended in different
directions from the 6th century BCE. The ruler tried to control these routes by
offering protection for a price.

 These different routes were transversed by the peddlers who travelled on foot. But the
merchants travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.

 There were seafearers. Their ventures

were risky but highly profitable.

 Successful merchants, designated as Manattuvan in Tamil and Setthis and

Satavahanas in Prakrit w’ere very rich.

 A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another. These were salt, grain,
cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices and
pepper and textiles. All these were transported across the Arabian sea to the
Mediterranean.

Question 22.
What does Asokan inscriptions tell about the Mauryas? Describe the limitations of the inscriptional
evidences. (All India 2016)
or
To what extent the epigraphists face limitations of inscriptional evidence? Explain. (Delhi 2014,
2009)
Answer:
Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages on stone surfaces i.e. natural rocks and polished
pillars.
The major rock edicts explain the Mauryans administration specially about Asoka. Some of the
important inscriptions are discussed below:

 The name of Asoka was not mentioned in the inscriptions. Instead, the titles viz,
‘Devanampiya’ (beloved of the God) and ‘Piyadassi’ (pleasant to behold) were mentioned.

 Asoka condemned the desire for fame and glory. He stressed on popularity of Dhamma.
  Dhamma included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who
renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly and respect for religions and
traditions other than one’s own.

Limitations of inscriptional evidence are:

Technical Limitations: Sometimes letters are very faintly engraved and thus doubts arise for
inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.

Damaged or Missing Letters: Sometimes important letters are damaged or missing in the inscription.
It makes the work for epigraphists more difficult.

Lack of Clarity: It is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in the
inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. So, scholars are constantly
debating on alternative ways to read inscriptions.

Undeciphered Inscriptions: Thousands of inscriptions have been discovered, but not all have been
deciphered, published and translated. Many inscriptions were destroyed and what we have today’
probably a fraction of it.

Non-relevance of Inscriptions: Inscriptions were composed in praise of kings and patrons in general.
Not everything that is economically or politically important was recorded in the inscriptions, e.g.
routine agricultural practice, the joys and sorrow of common man were not mentioned in the
inscriptions. Thus, it is difficult for the epigraphists to give the complete picture of a society by
relying on inscriptions only.

Question 23.
What do you mean by’ Numismatics?
How has the study of coins helped the Numismatists to reconstruct possible commercial networks?
(All India 2014, 2010)
Answer:
Numismatics is the study of coins, including visual elements such as scripts and images,
metallurgical analysis and the contexts in which they have been found.
The study of coins has helped the numismatists to reconstruct the possible commercial networks in
the following ways:

Introduction of Coinage for Trade Facilitation: To some extent, exchanges were facilitated by the
introduction of coinage. A wide range of goods like salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished
products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, etc were carried from one place to another. These certainly
required some kind of currency for exchange.
Hence, these led to the development of coinage across the trading cultures.

Excavation of Punch-marked Coins across the Sub-continent: Punch-marked coins made of silver
and copper (16th century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. These
have been recovered from excavations at a number of sites throughout the sub-continent.
Numismatics have studied these and other coins to reconstruct possible commercial networks.

Kings, Merchants and Bankers as Issuing Authority: Attempts made to identify the symbols on
punch-marked coins with specific ruling dynasties, including the Mauryas, suggest that these were
issued by kings. It is also likely that merchants, bankers and towns people issued some of these
coins.

Similarity of Kushana Coins with those of Greeks and Parthians: The first gold coins were issued in
1st century CE by the Kushanas. These were virtually identical in weight with those issued by
contemporary Roman emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran have been found from several sites in
North India and Central Asia.

Close Connections with Roman Empire: The widespread use of gold coins indicates the enormous
value of the transactions that were taking place. Besides, hoards of Roman coins have been found
from archaeological sites in South India. It is obvious that networks of trade were not confined
within political boundaries. South India was not a part of the Roman empire, but there were dose
connections through trade.

Question 24.
How do the modern historians explain the development and growth of Magadhan power? Explain
briefly. (All India 2012)
Answer:
Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful
mahajanapada. Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:

 Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.

 Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand ) were accessible and provided resources for
tools and weapons.

 Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.

 Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient
communication.

However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the
policies of individuals, ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma
Nanda are the best known, and their minister, who helped implement their policies.

The two capitals, i.e. Rajagriha (Rajgir) and Pataliputra (Patna) of Magadha had their own
advantages. Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, located amongst hill, thus, was not easily captured.
Pataliputra was easily communicable through the Ganga and its tributaries.

Question 29.
On the given outline map of India, locate and label the following. (Delhi 2013)
1. Avanti
2. Magadha
Answer:

Question 30.
On the given political map of India, locate and label the following. (All India 2012 )
1. Topra – Pillar Inscription
2. Girnar – Major Rock Edicts
Answer:
Question 31.
On the same map, three places related to Mahajanapada and cities have been marked as
1, 2 and 3. Identify them and write their names on the lines drawn near them. (Delhi 2008)

Answer:
Question 32.
On the map of India, three Asokan Pillar inscriptions have been marked as 1, 2 and 3.
Identify them and write the names on the lines drawn near them (All India 2008)

Answer:
 KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS

8 Marks Question

Question 17.
What are the rules of gotra as given in Brahmanical practice? Give some example to show that these
rules were not always followed. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
Brahmanical practice from 1000 BCE onwards classified people in terms of gotra. Each gotra was
named after a vedic seer. All those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as the descendants
of the particular vedic seer. Two rules about gotra were particularly important.
These were:
1. Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt their husband’s gotra on marriage.
2. Members of the same gotra could not marry.

But always these rules were not followed. Many women who married Satavahana rulers retained
their father’s name instead of adopting names derived from their husband’s gotra. For example, there
were Satavahana rulers who were recognised by their mother’s name, like Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani,
Vasithi-puta (Sami) Siri-Pulumayi, etc. This meant that these women did not adopt their husband’s
gotra name and rejected the Brahmanical rules. Moreover, some of these women belonged to the
same gotra, i.e. the gotras of their father and husband were same. This was against the rules of
exogamy (referred to marriage outside the unit), recommended by the Brahmanieal seriptures.

THINKERS BELIVES AND BULDINGS

Question 10.
Explain the structural and sculptural features of the Sanchi stupa. (Delhi 2015)
Answer:
The Sanchi stupa was built in the 2nd century BCE and regarded as one of the important stupas in
India. It was discovered in 1888.
The structural features of the Sanchi stupa are:

 The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of Earth, later called Anda. Above the
anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the Gods. There
was a mast called the yashti, arising from the harmika and it was surmounted by a chhatri or
umbrella.

 Around the mound, there was a railing, separating the sacred space from the world. There
were stone railings and the gateways, which were richly carved and installed at the four
cardinal points.

 An elevation of the great stupa provides a vertical perspective.

The sculptural features of the Sanchi stupa are:

  Art historians identified the scene depicted in the gateways as a scene from the Vessantara
Jataka. They often try to understand the meaning of sculpture by comparing it with textual
evidence.

 Many symbols like empty seat, wheel, tree were used to indicate the different teachings of
Buddhism in Sanchi stupa. For instance, the empty seat was meant to represent the
mahaparinibbana.
Wheel stood for the first sermon of Buddha.

 Other sculptures at Sanchi were perhaps not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. These
figures included beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway holding into a tree,
like, Shalabhanjika was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit.

 There are other images in Sanchi stupa. Depiction of animals like elephants, horses, monkeys
and cattle were found there. Animals were used as symbols of human attributes, e.g.
elephants were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.

 There is a motif in Sanchi stupa of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which
seems to be sprinkling water on her as if performing an Abhisheka or consecration. It has
been identified by some historians as Maya, the mother of Buddha while others identify her
with a popular Goddess Gajalakshmi (Goddess of good fortune).

Question 11.
How did Sutta Pitaka reconstruct the philosophy of Buddhism? Mention about Buddhist Tipitaka.
(HOTS; All India 2015)
Answer:
After the death of Buddha, his teachings were compiled by his disciples and were known as Tipitaka.
Sutta-Pitaka was one of the Tipitaka.
The main features of Sutta Pitaka are:
1. The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from stories found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka.
Some stories ’ describe his miraculous powers and other stories suggest that the Buddha tried to
convince people through reason and persuasion, rather than through displays of supernatural power.
Sometimes, through stories, the teachings of the Buddha were narrated in the language spoken by
common men, so that individual effort was expected to transform social relations.

2. The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the
cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana. By extinguishing ego and desire, individual
could end the cycle of his . sufferings and renounce the world.

Tipitaka literally means three baskets to hold different types of texts.

The main features of it are:

 The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or
monastic order.

 The Sutta Pitaka included the teachings of the Buddha.

 The Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Each pitaka comprised a number
of texts.
  According to Buddhist philosophy the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.
The world is soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.

 Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. It is by

following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence, the human
beings can rise above these worldly troubles.

 The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin.
Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.

Question 12.
Discuss how and why were stupas built? (All India 2013,2008)
Answer:
The stupas were built with donation made for building them. The kings such as Satavahanas, wealthy
persons, guilds of the merchants and artisans and even monks, common men and nuns made
donation for building stupas. We find records of donations that were made for building and
decorating the stupa on the railings and pillars of the stupas. The inscriptions also mention the names
of hundreds of donors and sometimes the name of the place from where they came, their occupations
and names of their relatives as well. For instance, one of the gateways at Sanchi was built with the
money donated by the guilds of ivory-workers.

The stupas were regarded as sacred place and the relics of Buddha i.e. his bodily remains or objects
used by him were buried here. These mounds were known as stupas. The tradition of building stupas
may have been pre-Buddhist, but they attained much popularity as an emblem of both the Buddha
and Buddhism.

The scholars find a mention of ‘Ashokavadana’ a Buddhist text, in that Asoka distributed portions of
the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the
2nd century BCE, a large number of stupas including those at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath were
built.

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 4 Source Based Questions

Question 13.
Buddhism in Practice:
This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains the advice given by the Buddha to a wealthy
householder named Sigala.
In five ways should a master look after his servants and employees… by assigning them work
according to their strength, by supplying them with food. and wages, by tending them in sickness; by
sharing delicacies with them and by granting leave at times …
In five ways should the clansmen look after the needs of Samanas (those who have renounced the
world) and Brahmanas; by affection in act and speech and mind, by keeping open house to them and
supplying their worldly needs.
There are similar instructions to Sigala about how to behave with his parents, teacher and wife.
1. In what ways should a master look after his servants and employees? (All India 2017)
or
What advice was given by Buddha to Sigala regarding relationship between a master and his servants
and employees? (Delhi 2013)
2. In what ways should the clansmen look after the needs of Samanas? (All India 2017)
or
List the instructions given by Buddha to the clansmen for Samanas and Brahmanas. (Delhi 2013)
3. Explain the main aspects of Buddhist philosophy. (All India 2017)
or
According to you what suggestion Buddha would have advocated regarding parents and teachers?
(Delhi 2013)
Answer:
1. The advice given by Buddha to Sigala regarding relationship between a master and his servants
and employees are:

 A master should look after his servants and employees in five ways.

 He should assign them work according to their strength, by supplying them with food and
wages.

 A master should tend them in sickness, by sharing delicacies with them and by-granting leave
at times.

2. The instructions given by Buddha to the clansmen for Samanas and Brahmanas are:

 The clansmen should look after the needs of Samanas (those who have renounced the world)
and Brahmanas in five ways.

 The clansmen should have affection in act and speech and mind by keeping open to house.

 The clansmen should also fulfil the worldly needs of Samanas and Brahmanas.

3. The suggestions Buddha would have advocated regarding parents and teachers are similar.
According to Buddha, parents and teachers ought to be respected and their needs should be fulfilled
with grace and dignity.

Question 15.
In the outline map of India, three places which are major Buddhist sites have been marked as A, B
and C. Identify them and write their correct names on the lines drawn near them. (All India 2017)
Answer:

Question 16.
On the given political map of India, locate and label the following.

1. Bodhgaya. (All India 2014 )

2. Lumbini. (Delhi Board 2014)

 3. Sanchi. (Delhi Board 2011)

Answer:

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 4 Value Based Questions

Question 17.
“The mid first millennium BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in the world history.”
Justify. (Delhi 2016)
Answer:
The mid first millennium BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in world history because of
the following facts:

 Emergence of Thinkers: It saw the emergence of thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong
Zi in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece and Mahavira and Gautam Buddha
among others in India.

 Understanding of the Mysteries of Existence: Thinkers tried to understand the mysteries of

existence and the relationship between human beings and the cosmic order.

 Development of New Kingdoms and Cities: It was the time when new kingdoms and cities
were developing.

 Change in Social and Economic Life: Social and economic life were changing in a variety of
ways, e.g. in the Ganga valley growth of town, new crafts and trade took place.

 New Agricultural Technology: There was extension of agriculture due to occupation of new
lands, application of new techniques and use of iron tools.

Question 18.
“Buddha laid stress on right conduct and values.”
In the light of the above message, explain his teachings of life. (Delhi 2014)
Answer:
The teachings of Buddha are as follows:

 The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing. It is also soulless as there is nothing
permanent or eternal in it.

 Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.

 By following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence, human
beings can use above these worldly pleasures.

 He advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical. Buddha regarded the social world
as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin.

 He emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle
of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana (literally means the extinguishing of ego and
desire).
This ends the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world.

 The words to his followers were “Be lamps into yourselves as all of you must work out your
own liberation.”

Question 19.
“The principle of ahimsa and renunciation emphasised by Jainism has left its mark.” Support the
statement with Lord Mahavira’s messages. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The most important idea of Jainism is that the entire world is animated, even stones, rocks and water
have life. In Jainism, the principle of ahimsa is emphasised. Jainism focuses on non-injury to living
beings especially to humans, plants and insects.

Impacts of Jainism on Indian thinking are:

 The idea of ahimsa left its mark on Indian thinking on the whole especially the thinking of
Buddha and Gandhiji.

 It also influenced Indian thinking in the light of the cycle of birth and rebirth through karma
and renouncing the world to free oneself from the cycle of karma. In this respect, asceticism
and penance are required.

 From the perspective of morality, vows like not to steal, kill, lie or possess property and
observing celibacy were emphasised, which is easily evident in Indian thinking.

 It has stressed on simple way of life.

 Vegetarianism’has also been derived from this thinking.

 BOOK II Medieval India

Through the Eyes of travelers

8 Marks Questions

Question 10.

“Ibn Battuta found Delhi as a city full of exciting opportunities.” Support your answer with
evidences given by him. (Delhi 2013)

or

Explain the observations of Ibn Battuta about the cities of India, with special reference to Delhi. (All
India 2010)

Answer:

Ibn Battuta arrived at Delhi in the 14th century. His description regarding Indian cities was very
informative and helpful to understand the lifestyle of Indians.

He described Indian cities in the following ways:

Indian cities were densely populated and prosperous although sometimes these were affected by the
wars.

Most cities had crowded streets and bright colourful markets with a wide variety of commodities.

Delhi with its vast population became the largest city in India. Daulatabad was no less, easily rivalled
Delhi in size.

The rampart round the city was widely expanded. Inside the rampart, there were houses for the night
sentry, gate keepers and store houses.

The lower part of the rampart was built of stone and the upper part was of bricks. It had many
towers.

There were twenty eight gates in Delhi, which were called as ‘Darwazas’. Of these gates, Budaun
darwaza, Mandi darwaza, Gul darwaza were very famous.

The markets and bazaars of Indian cities were the places of economic transactions and social and
cultural activities. Most of the bazaars had a masjid and a temple. These places also had fixed spaces
for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.

Ibn Battuta found that many towns derived their wealth and prosperity through the appropriation of
surplus from villages.

Question 11.
“The conception of social pollution intrinsic to the caste system was contrary to the law of nature.”
Examine Al-Biruni’s statement on Indian caste system. (HOTS, All India 2013)

Answer:

Al-Biruni wrote the voluminous text ‘Kitab-ul-Hind in which he elaborately discussed about the
social life of India. According to him, the conception of the pollution intrinsic to the caste system in
India was contrary to the law of nature. Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for
parallels in other societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised.
These were kings and princes; monks, fire-priests and lawyers; physicians, astronomers and other
scientists and peasants and artisans.

He further explained that

Social Divisions not Unique to India:

In other words, he attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. At the same
time, he pointed out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their
observance of piety (deep respect for God).

Rejection of Notion of Pollution: In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the
caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved the notion of pollution. He remarked that everything which falls
into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity, e.g. the sun
cleanses the air, and the salt in the sea prevents the water from becoming polluted. ,

Cycle of Purification Important for Life on Earth: Al-Biruni believed that if there . were no
phenomenon of removing impurity, then the life on Earth would have been impossible. Hence, the
conception of social pollution intrinsic to the caste system, was according to him, contrary to the
laws of nature.

Al-Biruni’s description of caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit
texts, thus he described caste system from the point of view of Brahmanas. But in real life, the caste
system was not so rigid.

Question 12.

Explain the views of Bernier about a more complex social reality of the Mughal empire, (All India
2010)

Answer:
Bernier had the following views about the complex social reality of the Mughal empire:

Bernier had a belief that the Mughal state was tyrannical.

He observed that artisans had no incentives to improve the quality of their manufactures, as the profit
was appropriated by the state.

The manufacturers were consequently, everywhere in decline.

Bernier also pointed out that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India, as
manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver.

Bernier noted the existence of a prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance

exchange.

Bernier noted that a large portion of land were extremely fertile and the large kingdom of Bengal
surpassed Egypt in agricultural production and innumerable articles like, silk, cotton, indigo, etc.

He observed that many parts of India were sufficiently populated and the land was well tilled.

People were employed in manufacturing carpets, brocades, embroideries, gold and silver cloths and
various sorts of silk and cotton goods.

There were several kinds of towns in India. These were manufacturing towns, trading towns, port
towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns, etc.

Different community of people having different professions like mahajans, sheta, nagarsheth, hakim,
pundit, wakil, puinters, archittes, musicians, calligraphers were there in Indian society.

BHAKTI and SUFI

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 – 8 Marks Questions

Question 17.
Identify the relationship between the Sufis and the state from the eighth to the eighteenth century. All
India 2017
Answer:
A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly
power. However, this was by no mean a situation of absolute isolation from political power.
The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites. The Sultans in turn set
up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).

The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind. Rather than accumulate donations, they preferred
to use these fully on immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual
necessities (such as sama). All this enhanced the moral authority of the shaikhs, which in turn
attracted people from all walks of life.
Further, their piety and scholarship, and people’s belief in their miraculous powers made sufis
popular among the masses, whose support kings wished to secure.

Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their association with sufis; they also required legitimation
from them. When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they resisted the insistence of the ulama on
imposing shari’a as state law because they anticipated opposition from their subjects, the majority of
whom were non-Muslims. The Sultans wanted their tombs to be in the vicinity of sufi shrines and
hospices.

However, there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. To assert their authority,
both expected that certain rituals be performed such as prostration and kissing of the feet.
Occasionally the sufi shaikh was addressed with high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of
Nizamuddin Auliya addressed him as Sultan-ul-Mashaikh (literally, Sultan amongst Shaikhs).

Other sufis such as the Suhrawardi under the Delhi Sultans and the Naqshbandi under the Mughals
were also associated with the state. However, the modes of their association were not the same as
those of the Chishtis. In some cases, sufis accepted courtly offices.

Question 18.
Identify the relationship of the Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu with the state from the eighth to
the eighteenth century. (All India 2017)
Answer:
The realtionship of the Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu with the state is discussed below:

 Some of the earliest bhakti movements were led by the Alvars (literally, those who were
immersed in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (who were devotees of Shiva).

 They preached their message in Tamil. During their travel they identified certain shrines as
abodes of their chosen deities. And these were developed as centres of pilgrimage.

 One of the major themes in Tamil bhakti hymns was the poet’s opposition to Buddhism and
Jainism. The main reason for this opposition was competition between members of other
religious traditions for royal patronage.

 The Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions,
making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.

 The Chola rulers constructed many Shiva temples e.g. Chidambram, Thanjavur and
Gangaikandacholapuram. They done this to proclaim their own power and status.

 This was also the period when some of the most spectacular representations of Shiva in
bronze scuplture were produced.

 Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered (admire) by the Vellala peasants. Not surprisingly
rulers tried to win their support as well.

Thus, are can say that the Chola rulers had intimate relations with the both Alvars and Nayanars as
they had much honour and status in the society.

Question 19.
Explain the teachings of Kabir. How did he describe the ultimate reality through his poems? (Delhi
2010)
or
Explain the significance of Kabir’s poems and the traditions he drew to describe the ultimate reality.
(All India 2009)
Answer:
The historians tried to reconstruct Kabir’s life and timings through a study of compositions attributed
to him and later hagiographies.

Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct traditions, viz, Kabir Bijak, Kabir
Granthavali and Adi Granth Sahib. All these compilations were made long after the death of Kabir.
Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects.

The significance of Kabir’s poems is as follows:

Source of Inspiration:
Kabir’s poems have been a source of inspiration to those who questioned rigid and unrooted social
institutions, ideas and practices in search of God.
Taken from both Hinduism and Islam:
The significance of Kabir’s poem also lies in the fact that his teachings were inspired by both
Hinduism and Islam which sometimes expressed diverse and conflicting ideas. For instance, some
poems imbibed Islamic ideas and used monotheism and attacked Hindu polytheism and idol worship
while others used the Sufi concept of zikr and ishq to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran i.e.
remembrance of God’s name.
Kabir’s ideas crystallised through dialogue and debate and his legacy was claimed by several groups.
The traditions, he drew to describe ultimate reality through his poems are:
Islamic Traditions:
He described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.
Vedantic Tradition:
He used the terms Alakh (Unseen), Nirakar (Formless), Brahman, Atman, etc to describe the ultimate
reality.
Yogic Tradition:
Other terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or Shunya (emptiness) were drawn
from yogic tradition.

Question 20.
Explain how the biography of the saint poetess Mirabai has been primarily constructed. How did she
defy the norms of society? (HOTS; All India 2010)
Answer:
Reconstruction of Mirabai’s: Biography The reconstruction of biographies of Mirabai has been done
from the bhajans composed by herself (transmitted orally for centuries).
Royal affiliations of Mirabai From the bhajans it has been reconstructed that she was a Rajput
princess from Merta in Marwar. She was married to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar,
Rajasthan, which had been done against her wishes so she defied her husband. She even refused to
submit to the traditional role of wife and mother.

Recognition of Krishna as lover: She recognised Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu, as her lover.
Because of her behaviour, her in-laws once tried to poison her, but she managed to escape the in-
laws home and preferred to live as a wandering saint and composing the songs of bhakti and love for
the Krishna. Her compositions are known for intense expression of her emotion.

Defiance of social barriers: In some traditions, Mirabai has been mentioned as a disciple of Raidas, a
leather worker. It indicates that she did not recognise the bonds of caste system and the practices of
the society. For her intense love of Krishna, she rejected all the comforts of her husband’s palace and
donned the saffron robe of the renouncer or the white robe of widow.

Popular source of inspiration: Mirabai, now-a-days recognised as the source of inspiration instead of
attracting a sect or group of followers. Still she and her songs are popular among the poor or ‘low
caste’ population in the State of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYA NAGAR

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 7 – 8 Marks Questions

Question 20.
Explain why Abdur Razzak, a Persian Ambassador was greatly impressed by the fortification of
Vijayanagara empire during the 15th century. Delhi 2013
or
Highlight any four aspects observed by Abdur Razzak on the fortification of the vijayanagar empire.
Delhi 2016
Answer:
Abdur Razzak was an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the 15 th century. He was
greatly impressed by the fortification of the Vijayanagara empire. The aspects observed by him are:

 Abdur Razzaq mentioned seven lines of forts.

 The fortification encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterlands and forests.
Razzak noted that “between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields,
gardens and houses”.

 The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.

 The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered. No mortar or cementing agent was
used anywhere in the construction. The stone blocks were wedge, shaped, which held them in
place. The inner portion of the wall was of i.e. earth packed with rubble. Square or
rectangular bastions projected outwards.

 The fort was entered through well-guarded gates which linked the city to the major roads.
Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which
they regulated access.

 The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the
gate are regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans. Art
historians refer to this style as Indo-Islamic, as it grew continually through interaction with
local building practices in different regions.
Question 21.
Why was the South-Western part of Vijayanagara settlement designated as Royal centre? Explain.
(HOTS; All India 2013)
Answer:
The Royal centre of Vijayanagara empire was located in the South-Western part of the settlement. It
had more than 60 temples. The patronage of temples and cults was very important for the rulers. The
rulers tried to establish and legitimate their authority through the association with deities in the
temple.
‘ The following points explain about the importance of this location:

1. The Royal centres had thirty palaces. These were large structures and were not associated with
ritual functions.
The main difference between the palaces and temples was that the temples were constructed entirely
of masonry, but the superstructure of the palaces was made of perishable materials.

2. The king’s palace was the largest complex of the royal centre. But there was no definite evidence
to prove that it was a royal residence. The entire complex is surrounded by high double walls, with a
street running between them. It has two platforms, viz.

The Audience Hall It was a high platform with w’ooden pillars at close and regular intervals. It had a
staircase, going up to the second floor, rested on closely spaced pillars. However, it was not clear for
what purposes was the hall used.
The Mahanavami Dibba It was located in the highest point of the city. It was a massive platform
rising from a base of about 11,000 sq ft to a height of 40 ft. It supported a wooden structure. Main
ceremonies being performed in Mahanavami dibba included worship of the image, worship of the
state horse and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals, dances, wrestling matches, royal
processions, etc. The base of the platform was covered with relief carvings.

3. There were several grand places in the royal centre, viz. the Lotus Mahal, the Hazara Rama
temple, etc. These were used by the kings for different purposes.

Question 22.
Explain the striking features about the location of Vijayanagara, its water resources and
fortifications. (Delhi 2012)
Answer:
Location The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by
the river Tungabhadra. This river flows in a North-Easterly direction. The surrounding landscape of
the city is characterised by granite hills which seem to form a girdle around the city. There are a
number of streams that flow down from this river in this rocky area.

Water Resources As Vijayanagara is situated in one of the most arid zones of the Peninsula, so it was
necessary to store rainwater and use it later. Thus, a large number of embankments were built along
these streams to create reservoirs in different sizes. The most important tank was Kamalapuram tank
which was built in early 15th century. Water from this tank was used for irrigation. It was also
conducted through a channel to the ‘Royal centre’. Another important water work was the Hiriya
canal which was built by the kings of Sangam dynasty. This canal drew water from a dam across the
Tungabhadra river and this water was used for cultivation of the valley.
Fortifications Foreign travellers like Abdur Razzaq were greatly impressed by the fortifications of
Vijayanagara. There was seven lines of forts. These fortification encircled the city its agricultural
hinterland and forests. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. Between the first,
second and the third walls, there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses. The second line of
fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the Royal
centre. In royal centre, each set of major building was surrounded by its own high walls.

The dome over the gateways led into the fortified settlement. This was an example of Indo-Islamic
style of architecture. The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an expensive and elaborate strategy of
protecting their capital and agricultural belt by constructing ‘ fortification wall.

Question 23.
1. Explain how the Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara
empire.
2. Why did strain begin to show within the imperial structure after the death of Krishnadeva Raya in
1529?
(All India 2012)
Answer:
1. The Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara empire.
Many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi sultanate. The Amara-
Nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Rayas or the rulers
of Vijayanagara,

The main features of the Amara-Nayaka system were:

 The Amara-Nayakas collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftpersons and traders in
the area.

 They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent
of horses and elephants.

 These contingents provided the Rayas an effective fighting force, with the help of which they
controlled the Southern Peninsula.

 The Amara-Nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and gave gifts to the king. Kings
occasionally transferred them from one place to another to show their supremacy.

 Many of these Nayakas established independent kingdoms which led to the collapse of the
central imperial structure.

2. Following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529, the strain began to show within the imperial
structure. The successors of Krishnadeva were troubled by many rebellious nayakas or other military
. chiefs.
In 1542, the control at the centre had shifted to another ruling lineage, viz. Aravidu, which remained
in power till the end of the 17th century. During this period, the military ambitions of the rulers of
Vijayanagara as well as that of the

Deccan sultanates resulted in the shifting of alignments between the kingdoms.

The tense situations led to an alliance of sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565, Rama Raya, the
Chief Minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into the battle at Rakashasi Tangadi where his forces
were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.

The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few
years. The armies of the sultans were responsible for the destruction of the city of Vijayanagara. It
was only after the death of Krishnadeva Raya, the relation between Sultans and Rayas became bitter.

The adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against another, made the
Sultans angry and they combinedly defeated him. In this way, Vijayanagara empire was gradually
destructed.

Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 8 – 8 Marks Questions

Question 12.
“There was more to rural India than the sedentary agriculture”. Explain the statement in the context
of Mughal period. (Delhi 2016)
Answer:
There was more to rural India than the sedentary agriculture. Apart from . intensively cultivated land,
there were dense forests or scrubland all over Eastern India, Central India, Northern India, Jharkhand
and in Peninsular India down the Western Ghats and the Deccan plateau. The life of the forest
dwellers justify the above statement in the following ways:

 Forest dwellers were termed as ‘Jangli’ which did not mean an absence of civilisation.

 The livelihood of forest dwellers included the gathering of forest produce, hunting and
shifting agriculture.

 The livelihood of the forest dwellers were largely season specific. For e.g. among the Bhil
tribes, spring season was reserved for collecting forest produce, summer for fishing, the
monsoon months for cultivation, and autumn and winter for hunting.

 For the state, the forest was regarded as a subversive place i.e. a place of refuge for
troublemakers.

 The state required elephants for army. Thus, forest people supplied elephants.

 In the Mughal period, hunting ensured justice to all its subjects, rich and poor. Regular
hunting expeditions enabled the emperor to travel extensively and attend grievances of its
inhabitants. These were the observations found in Ain-i Akbari.

 New cultural influences also began to penetrate into forested zones. Sufi-saints played a
major role in the slow acceptance of Islam among agricultural communities in newly
colonised places.
Question 13.
Inspite of the limitations, the Ain-i Akbari remains an extraordinary document of its time. Explain
the statement. (HOTS; Delhi 2016)
Answer:
The major sources for the agrarian history of the 16th and early 17th centuries are chronicles and
documents from the Mughal court.

One of the most important chronicles was the Ain-i Akbari. Ain was authored by Akbar’s court
historian Abu’l Fazl. This text meticulously recorded the arrangements made by the state to ensure
cultivation to enable the collection of revenue by the agencies of the state and to regulate the
relationship between the state and the zamindars.
Ain-i Akbari was not a mere reproduction of official papers. Abu’l Fazl had worked very carefully to
search the authenticity of the documents. He tried to cross-check and verify oral testimonies before
incorporating them as facts in the chronicle.

This was why that the text achieved its final form only after having gone through five . revisions. But
there are some problems in using the Ain-i Akbari as a source for reconstructing agrarian history of
that period. These are:

 We should realise that the Ain-i-Akbari was penned under patronship of the emperor. It was a
part of larger royal project of history writing. Its main objective was to depict the Mughal
empire under Akbar in such a way as to prove that social harmony was provided by a strong
ruling class in the empire.

 The totalling given in the Ain-i Akbari are not thoroughly accurate. We find numerous errors
in the totalling.

 Another problem while using the Ain-i Akbari as a source for reconstructing agrarian history
is that the quantitative data given in it is of skewed nature.

 Similarly, though the fiscal data from the provinces has been given in detail, sufficient light
had not been thrown on vital parameters such as prices and wages of the same areas.

However, it should be kept in mind that despite these limitations, Ain-i-Akbari has its own
significance as a historical document. It is a mine of information for us about the Mughal Empire
during Akbar’s reign, although it gives us a view, of society from its apex.
The various information compiled in the text, help us significantly in reconstructing the history of the
period under consideration.

Question 14.
“The village panchayat during the Mughal period regulated rural society. Explain the statement.
(Delhi 2016)
or
Describe caste and rural milieu of Mughal India. How did Jati-Panchayats wield considerable power
in the rural society during Mughal period? Clarify. (Delhi 2016)
or
Assess the role played by Panchayats in the villages during Mughal period. (All India 2016)
or
Explain the ways through which Mughal village Panchayats and village headmen regulated rural
society. (Delhi 2013)
or
How were the Panchayats formed during 16th and 17th centuries? Explain their functions and
authorities (Delhi 2011)
or
Explain the role of Panchayats in the Mughal Rural Indian Society during 16th-17th centuries. (Delhi
2014)
or
Examine the role of Panchayat as the main constituent of the Mughal village community. (Delhi
2015)
Answer:
The Panchayat and villagemen occupied a significant place in rural society during the period of the
16th and 17th centuries. They played an important role in regulating the rural society.

Generally the Village Panchayat was an assembly of important and respected elders of the village
having hereditary rights over their property Every Panchayat was headed by a headman who was
known as Muqaddam or Mandal. The headman could hold his office as long as he enjoyed the
confidence of the village elders. He had to lose his position if he failed to win the confidence of the
elders. The Panchayat had its own funds. All the villagers contributed to a common financial pool.
All expenditures of the Panchayat were met from these funds. The functions of Panchayat are:

1. The Panchayat was responsible for the administration of the village. All the functions such as
security, health, and cleanliness, primary education, law and order, irrigation, construction work and
making arrangements for the moral and religious upliftment of the masses were performed by the
Panchayat.
One of the main function of the Panchayat was to keep accounts of the income and expenditure of
the village. It used to accomplish this task with the help of the accountant or patwari of the
Panchayat.

2. The most important function of the Panchayat in medieval India was to regulate the rural society
The Panchayat endeavoured to ensure that the various communities inhabiting the village were up
holding their caste limits and were following their caste norms as well. Thus, overseeing the conduct
of the members of the village community in order to prevent any offence against their caste w’as an
important duty of the village headman or mandal.

In addition to the village Panchayat, each caste or jati in the village had its own Jati Panchayat. The
caste Panchayat protected the rights and interests of its members and raised voice against any
injustice caused to them. The members of a particular caste could complain to their Panchayat in
case the members of a superior caste or state officials forced them to pay taxes or to perform unpaid
labour.

Villagers regarded the village Panchayat as the court of appeal that would ensure that the state
carried out its moral obligations and guaranteed justice. The decision of the Panchayat in relation to
conflicts between ‘lower caste’ peasants and state officials or lower zamindars could vary from case
to case. Sometimes panchayat suggested to compromise and in cases where reconciliation failed,
peasants took their own decisions.
3. The Panchayats had the authority to levy fines and inflict more serious forms of punishment like
expulsion from the community. These meant that the person was forced to leave the village and
became an outcaste and he lost the right to practise his profession. Such a measure was taken on a
violation of caste norms.

Question 15.
“Revenue was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire”. Explain the statement in the context
of agriculture and trade. (Delhi 2016)
Answer:
Revenue was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire. This can be explained in the following
ways:

 It was vital for the state to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over
agricultural production and to fix and collect revenues from the entire empire.

 The administrative apparatus included the office (daftar) of the diwan who was responsible
for supervising the fiscal system of the empire. The revenue officials and record keepers
became decisive agents in shaping agrarian relations.

 The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of the agricultural
lands in the empire and what these lands produced before fixing the burden of taxes on
people.

 The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages-first assessment and then actual
collection. The ‘Jama’ was the amount assessed, and the hasil was the amount collected by
the cultivators.

 Akbar decreed that cultivators could pay in cash or in kinds. While fixing revenue, the
attempt of the state was to maximise its claims. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were
measured in each province.

 In the field of trade, a huge amounts of silver bullion from Europe came to India which was
good for our country, as India did not have natural resources of silver. It resulted a
remarkable stability in the availability of metal currency i.e. silver rupya. It also facilitated an
unprecedented expansion of minting of coins and the circulation in the economy. It helped
the Mughal state to extract taxes and revenues in cash.

Question 16.
Analyse the role of zamindars during the Mughal period. (HOTS; All India 2016, 2014, 2013)
Answer:
The zamindars in the Mughal period were the class of those people who lived off agriculture but did
not take part directly in the processes of agricultural production. Role of zamindars during the
Mughal period are:

 They were landed proprietors who enjoyed certain social and economic privileges by virtue
of their superior status in rural society.

 The factor of caste hierarchy played a significant role in the elevated status of zamindars.
Another factor was that, they performed certain services (Khidmat) for the state.
  The zamindars had extensive personal lands, known as milkiyat. These lands w’ere cultivated
with the help of hired labour for the private use of zamindars. The zamindars had the right to
sell or mortgage these lands.

 The zamindars could often collect

revenue on behalf of the state, a service for which they were compensated financially.

 The zamindars had fortresses and armed military resources which comprised of cavalry,
artillery and infantry.

 If we visualise social relations in the Mughal countryside as a pyramid, zamindars constituted

its very narrow apex. Abu’l Fazal said that an upper-caste, Brahmana-Rajput combine had
already established firm control over rural society. However, Muslim zamindars were also
present at that time.

 The dispossession of weaker people by a powerful military chieftain was a way of expanding
a zamindari system. State did not support this aggression unless the zamindar had an imperial
order (sanad).

 Sometimes in the slow processes of zamindari consolidation people belonging to the

relatively lower castes entered the rank of zamindars. For e.g. peasant-pastoralists (like the
Sadgops) carved out powerful zamindaris in areas of Central and South-Western Bengal.

 Zamindars spear headed the colonisation of agricultural land and helped in setting cultivators
by providing them means of cultivation, cash, loan, etc.
The buying and selling by zamindars accelerated the process of monetisation in the country
side. They sold the produce from their milkiyat lands. They often established markets (haats)
to which peasants came to sell their produce.

 Although, zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with the peasantry had an
element of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage.

 Two views supported this fact. Firstly, the Bhakti saints who were the strong critic of
casteism and other forms of oppression, did not portray the zamindars as exploiters of the
peasantry. Secondly in a large number of agrarian uprisings in the 17th century, zamindars
often received the support of the peasantry in their struggle against the state.

Question 17.
Examine the status and role played by women in the agrarian society during Mughal period. All
India 2016 or
Explain the role of women in the agrarian society in Mughal India (Delhi 2008)
Answer:
Women played an important role in Indian agrarian society during the medieval period. Women
belonging to peasant families participated actively in agricultural produce and worked shoulder to
shoulder with men in the field.
Status and role of women were as follows:

1. The work of tilling and ploughing the fields was performed by men. The women particularly did
the work of sowing, weeding and harvesting. They also extended their cooperation in threshing and
winnowing the harvest. In fact, the labour and resources of the entire household had become the
basis of production with the growth of nucleated village and expansion in individual peasant fanning
during the 16th and 17th centuries. Therefore, it became quite difficult to draw a divisive line
between the spheres of works for women and men.

2. Some aspects of production especially, artisanal tasks like spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay
for pottery and embroidery, etc were thoroughly dependent on female labour. It seems that the
demand of women’s labour started growing with the commercialisation of the product. The peasant
and artisan women worked in the fields, went to the house of their employers or to the markets, if
necessary.

3. It is worth mentioning that as the women were child bearers in a society dependent on labour, they
were regarded as an important resource in agrarian society. But because of frequent pregnancies,
malnutrition and death during child birth, the mortality rate among women was very high. Thus, the
number of the married women or wives in the society became less. Thus, marriages in many rural
communities required the payment of bride price rather than dowry.

4. Instances from the contemporary sources suggest that several Hindu and Muslim women were
inherited by zamindaris. They could sell or mortgage those zamindars. We find mention of women
zamindars in Bengal and Rajasthan.

5. However, it should be kept in mind that the biases related to women’s biological functions still
remained in existence.
For instance, in Western India, menstruating women could not touch the plough or potter’s wheel. In
fact, they were not allowed to do so. Similarly, in Bengal, the menstruating women were not allowed
to enter the groves where betel leaves (pan) were grown.

6. Women were kept under strict control by the male members of the family and the community.
There was strict punishment for women if they suspected infidelity. But male infidelity was not
always punished. Documents from Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra showed that record of
petition sent by women to seek justice.

Question 18.
Explain the organisation of the administration and army during the rule of Akbar as given in ‘Ain-i
Akbari’. (All India 2012)
Answer:
Ain-i Akbari consists of 5 books or daftars. The first three books of the Ain are about the description
of the administration. Akbar was a great administrator and viewed it as the central point of his
policies in administration. It is considered as a rich treasure of various information regarding the
Mughal Empire during the rule of Akbar.
The following points can be the highlights:

The Manzil-Abadi:
The first book among 5 describes the royal household and its maintenance.

Sipah-Abadi:
The second book gives the detailed account of civil and military administration and the establishment
of servants. It includes notices and short biographical sketches of imperial officials, learned men,
poets and artists.
Mulk-Abadi:
The third book gives the fiscal polices of Mughal rule. It gives the detailed information on revenue
rates alongwith the account of the 12 provinces. It also comprises of statistical figures having
information on geographic, topographic and economic details of all subas and their administrative
and fiscal divisions (Sarkars, Paraganas and Mahals), total measured area and assessed revenue
(Jama).

Ain also provides a detailed picture of the Sarkars below the Suba. It does give a table data which
has 8 columns with the following information:

 Parganat/Mahal

 Qila/(Forts)

 Arazi and Zamin-i-Paimuda (measured area)

 Naqdi, revenue assessed in cash

 Suyurghal, grants of revenue in charity

 Zamindars and

Columns 7 and 8 contain details of the castes of these zamindars, and their troops including their
horsemen, foot soldiers and elephants.

Organisation of the Army during Akbar

 It consisted mainly three parts

 The troops provided by the Rajas or chiefs who were bound to supply military help to
the king.

 The contingents of the Mansabdars.

 Emperor’s standing Army.

There were two groups of soldiers to serve as bodyguards and were highly paid. These were
known as Dakhilis and Ahdis.

The imperial army consists of

 The infantry.

 The artillery

 The Cavalry

 The elephant corps

 The Navy

The cavalry was considered as the main power centre of the army. Though the Mughal
Empire is less known about naval power but Akbar had a naval department.
 MODERN INDIA: BOOK III

Colonialism and the countryside

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 10 – 8 Marks Questions

Question1. Examine the land revenue system that was introduced in Bombay Deccan. How did the
peasants fall into the dept-trap of the moneylenders? Explain.

Ryotwari Settlement was introduced in the Bombay Deccan by the British. It has the following
features:

 Direct Settlement with the Ryots: The revenue was settled directly with the ryot.

 Calculation of Revenue: Unlike the Permanent Settlement, the revenue was estimated taking
into consideration all types of soil, the average income of the harvest was estimated. It
assessed how much revenue a ryot could pay.

 Share of State: The share of the state was fixed in proportion to the income of the ryot.

 Re-survey of Land After every 30 years the lands were re-surveyed and the rates of revenue
were increased accordingly.

 Temporary Demand: The demand for revenue was not permanent but temporary.
It is true that the ryots came to see the moneylenders as devious and deceitful. As the
moneylenders were much insensitive to the plight of the peasants. They got deeper and
deeper into debt trap and were dependent on the moneylenders for their survival.

This can be understood by the following points:

1. Cotton boom due to American Civil War brought free flow of cash in the rural areas as credit for
the farmers to promote cotton production. It was directly promoted by the East India Comp[any to
ensure regular supply of cotton to England.

2. when the Deccan Riots commission investigated, they found the law broken by the moneylenders
as they had charged over 2000 as interest on a loan of ₹ 100.

3. After complain of this manipulation by Ryots, the British passed a Limitation Law in 1859 which
meant to check the accumulation of interest over time and give 3 years validity of loan bonds signed
between moneylenders and Ryots.
4. Moneylenders again manipulated the law and forcing ryots to sign a new bond every three years.
When a new bond was signed, the unpaid balance, the original loan and accumulated interest was
entered as principle on which a new set of interest charges was calculated.

5. They refused to give receipts when loans were repaid, entered fictitious figures in bonds acquired
peasants harvest at low prices, made peasants to sign and put thumb impression on documents and
did not allow peasants to know what is inside the documents. This way the ryots faced injustice in
the hands of the moneylenders and lost their harvest and properties as well.

Question “After introducing the Permanent settlement in Bengal, the zamindars regularly failed to
pay the land revenue demand.” Examine the causes and consequences of it.
Answer:
The permanent settlement had come into operation in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis. Under this system,
zamindars collected revenue from peasants and handover to the East India company. Company off
icials felt that a fixed revenue demand would give zamindars a sense of security and assured of
returns on their investment, encourage them to improve their estates. In the early decades after the
permanent settlement, however, zamindars regularly failed to pay the revenue demand and unpaid
balances accumulated.
The causes for this failure were:

1. The initial demands were very high. This was because it was felt that if the demand was fixed for
all time to come, the company would never be able to claim a share of increased income from land
when prices rose and cultivation expanded.
To minimise this anticipated loss, the company fixed the revenue demand high , arguing that the
burden on zamindars would gradually decline as agricultural production expanded and prices rose.

2. This high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural produce were
depressed, making it difficult for the ryots to pay their dues to the zamindar.

3. The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually. In fact,
according to the ‘ Sunset Law if payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the
zamindari was liable to be auctioned.

4. The permanent settlement initially limited the power of the zamindar to collect rent from the ryot
and manage his zamindari.

The consequences after the failure to fulfil the land revenue demands were:

 When a raja or zamindar failed to pay the revenue demand, a company official was speedily
dispatched to his zamindari with explicit instructions ‘to take charge of the district and to use
the most effectual of the raja or zamindar and his officers’.

 The East India Company subdued their authority and restricted their autonomy.

 The zamindars troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished and their ‘cutcheries’
(courts) brought under the supervision of a collector appointed by the company.

 Zamindars lost their power to organise local justice and the local police.
  Over time the collectorate emerged as an alternative centre of authority, severely restricting
what the zamindar could do.

 While many zamindars were facing a crisis at the end of the 18th century, a group of rich
peasants also known as ‘Jotedars’, were consolidating their position in villages. They
controlled local trade as well as money-lending, exercising immense power over the poorer
cultivators of the region.

 Besides these, the estates of the zamindars also were auctioned for failure to make revenue
payment and at that time jotedars were after amongst the purchasers as they were most
powerful in North Bengal.

Question 3.Examine the main aspects of the fifth report which was submitted to the British
Parliament in 1813.
Many of the changes occurred at the time of the East India Company were documented in detail in a
report that was submitted to the British Parliament in 1813. It was the fifth report on the
administration and activities of the East India Company in India.

The main aspects of the fifth report are discussed below:

1. The fifth report had been covered into 1002 pages of which over 800 pages were appendices that
reproduced petitions of zamindars and ryots reports of collectors from different districts, statistical
tables on revenue returns, and notes on the revenue and judicial administration of Bengal and Madras
(present-day Tamil Nadu) written by officials.

2. From the time the company established its rule in Bengal in the mid 1760s, its activities were
closely watched and debated in England. There were many groups in Britain who were opposed to
the monopoly that the East India Company had over trade with India and China.

3. An increasing number of private traders wanted a share in the India trade, and the industrialists of
Britain were keen to open up the Indian market for British manufactures.

4. Information about Company misrule and maladministration was hotly debated in Britain and
incidents of the greed and corruption of company officials were widely publicised in the press.

5. The British Parliament passed a series of acts in the late 18th century to regulate and control
company rule in India. It forced the company to produce regular reports on committees to enquire
into the affairs of the company.

6. The fifth report was one such report produced by a select committee. It became the basis of intense
parliamentary debates on the nature of the East India company’s rule in India.

7. The evidence contained in the fifth report is invaluable. But the recent researches show that the
argumeilts and evidences offered by the fifth report cannot be accepted uncritically.

8. After careful examination of the archives of various Bengal zamindars and the local records of the
Districts, researchers found that the report exaggerated the collapse of traditional zamindari power
and also overestimated the scale on which zamirdars were losing their land. As we have seen even
when zamindaris, were auctioned, zamindars were not always displaced, given the ingenious
methods they used to retain their zamindaris.
9. It does not mean that there were not any malpractices done by the East India Company, infact they
were very oppressive towards the rural society of Bengal.
Thus, the fifth report had been proved to be a good source to understand the India’s economy in the
colonial times.

REBELS AND THE RAJ: 1857

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 11 – 8 Marks Questions

1. “Rumours and prophecies played a part in moving the people into action during the revolt of
1857.” Examine the statement with rumours and reasons for its belief.
It is true that rumours and prophecies played a part in moving people to action during the revolt of
1857.

These rumours were as follows:

1. During 1857 revolt, there was an apparent rumour that the Indian sepoys were intentionally given
the Enfield rifles, and its bullets were coated with the fat of cows and pigs and biting those bullets
would corrupt their caste and religion.

2. The British tried to explain to the sepoys that this was not the case but the rumour that the new
cartridges were greased with the fat of cows and pigs which spread like wildfire across the sepoy
lines of North India.

3. This is one rumour whose origin can be traced. Captain Wright, commandant of the Rifle
Instruction Depot, reported that in the third week of January 1857 a ‘low-caste’ Khalasi who worked
in the magazine in Dum Dum had asked a Brahmin sepoy for a drink of water from his lota. The
sepoy had refused saying that the Tower caste’s’ touch would defile the lota. The Khalasi had
reportedly retorted, “You will lose your caste, as ere long you will have to bite cartridges covered
with the fat of cows and pigs”.

4. The truthfulness of the report had not identified but once this rumour started no amount of
assurances from British officers could stop its circulation and the fear of it spread among the sepoys.

5. This was not the only rumour that was circulating in North India at the beginning of 1857. There
was the rumour that the British government has hatched a gigantic conspiracy to destroy the caste
and religion of Hindus and Muslims.

It is seen that rumours reflect about the minds of people who believed them, their fears and
apprehensions, their faiths and convictions. Rumours circulate only when they resonate with the
deeper fears and suspicions of people. The rumours in 1857 begin to make sense when seen in the
context of the policies the British pursued from the late 1820s. The reasons of believing in these
rumours are discussed below:
  From that time under the leadership of Governor General Lord William Bentinck, the British
adopted policies aimed at ‘reforming’ Indian society by introducing Western
education,Western ideas and Western institutions. With the cooperation of sections of Indian
society they set up English-medium schools, colleges and universities which taught Westerp
sciences and the liberal arts.

 The British established laws to abolish customs like sati (1829) and to permit the remarriage
of Hindu widows.

 The British annexed not only Awadh, but also Jhansi and Satara. Once these territories were
annexed, the British introduced their own system of administration. The impact of this on the
people of North India was profound.

 It seemed to the people that all that they cherished and held sacred from kings and socio-
religious customs to patterns of landholding and revenue payment was being destroyed and
replaced by a system that was more impersonal, alien and oppressive.

 This perception was aggravated by the activities of Christian missionaries. In such a situation
of uncertainty, rumours spread with remarkable swiftness. And people started to believe in
these rumours during the revolt of 1857.

Question3. Examine the visual representations of the revolt of 1857 that provoked a range of
different emotions and reactions.

Am There are a number of visual representations of the revolt of 1857 like paintings, pencil
drawings, etchings, posters, cartoons, bazaar prints, etc which were produced by the British and
Indian artists and painters. These are discussed below:

1. British pictures offer a variety of images that were meant to provoke a range of different emotions
and reactions. Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed
the rebels. For e.g. ‘Relief of Lucknow’, painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859 depicts the efforts
of James Outrom, Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell in rescuing the besieged British garrison in
Lucknow.

2. Newspaper reports have a power over public imagination. This reported about the incidence of
violence against women and children and raised a public demand in Britain for revenge and
retribution. Artists expressed as well as shaped these sentiments through their visual representations
of trauma and suffering.

3. “In Memoriam” was painted by Joseph Noel Paton in w’hich English women and children huddled
in a circle, looking helpless and innocent seemingly waiting for the inevitable dishonor, violence and
death coming from the rebels. This represents the rebels as violent and brutish.

4. In another set of sketches and paintings women are seen in a different light. They appear heroic,
defending themselves against the attack of rebels, for e.g. a painting depicts Miss Wheeler who
stands firmly at the centre, defending her honour, single-handedly killing the attacking rebels. This
picture is represonted as having a deeper religious connotation. It is a battle to save the honour of
Christianity and the book lying on the floor is the Bible.
5. As waves of anger and shock spread in Britain, demands for retribution grew louder. Threatened
by the rebellion, the British felt that they had to demonstrate their invincibility.
For e.g. in an image an allegorical female figure of justice with a sword in one hand and a shield in
the other is seen. Her posture is aggressive, her face expresses rage and the desire for revenge. She is
trampling sepoys under her feet while a mass of Indian women with children cower with fear.

6. When Governor General Canning declared that a gesture of Leniency, he w’as mocked in the
British press. In a British Journal of comic satire, Canning is shown as a looming father figure, with
his protective hand over the head of a sepoy who still holds sword and dagger in hands, both
dripping with blood.

7. On the other hand leaders of the revolt were presented as heroic figures leading the country into
battle, rousing the people to righteous undignation against oppressive imperial rule. For e.g. Rani of
Jhansi was represented as in popular prints a masculine figure chasing the enemy slaying British
soldiers and valiantly fighing till her last. She is usually portrayed in battle armour, with a sword in
hand and riding a horse, a symbol of the determination to resist injustice and alien rule.

Question 4.‘A chain of grievances in Awadh linked the prince, taluqdars, peasants and sepoy to join
hands in the revolt of 1857 against the British”. Examine the statement. (All India 2017)

Since 1800 century, Awadh faced a number of grievances which linked the princes, taluqdars,
peasants and sepoys to join hands in the revolt of 1857 against the British. The British wanted to
annex Awadh in their empire. This conquest happened in stages which were:

Annexation of Awadh:

The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh in 1801, which confined the power of the
Nawab over his territory as his military force disbanded, the British troops took position in the
kingdom and he could not take any decision without the advice of the British resident who was
attached to the court of Awadh. He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chiefs and
taluqdars. The British became increasingly interested in acquiring the territory of Awadh as it was
economically and geographically important for them.

By the early 1850s, all the major areas of India, e.g. Maratha land, Doab, the Carnatic, the Punjab
and Bengal had been conquered by the British. By annexation policy Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
(Awadh) was dethroned and exiled to Calcutta on the plea that the region was being misgoverned.

The emotional upheaval was aggravated by immediate material losses, e.g. it led cultural loss as well
as many people lost their livelihood.

Dispossession of Taluqdars:

This annexation also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region. Before the advent of the British, they
were powerful and maintained armed retainers, built forts and enjoyed degree of autonomy. The
British were unwilling to tolerate the power of taluqdars. Immediately after the annexation, the
taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed. The first revenue settlement, known as the
‘Summary Settlement’, further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars. This
settlement proceeded to remove the taluqdars wherever possible. The taluqdars of Southern Awadh
were the hardest hit and some lost more than half of total number of villages.
Suppression over Peasants:

By removing the taluqdars, the British wanted to reduce the level of exploitation and increase the
revenue demand, and end-up the rendition system.
But now, Peasants were in more difficult situation. Under the British rule there was no guarantee that
in times of hardship or crop failure the revenue demand of the state would be reduced or collection
postponed, or that in times of need they would get any loan or support that the taluqdar had earlier
provided. Thus, with this suppression, neither taluqdars nor peasants had any reasons to be happy
with the annexation.
Now, the situation was completely changed. Many taluqdars outside the Awadh who participated in
the 1857 revolt were loyal to the Nawab of Awadh and they joined Begum Hazrat Mahal (the wife of
Nawab) in Lucknow to fight the British. Peasants also took participate in the revolt.

Rage of Sepoys:

There was also a rage in sepoys towards the British. Before 1820, the British were very gentle with
the sepoys but in 1840 this began to change. The officers developed sense of superiority and started
treating the sepoys as their inferiors. Abuse and physical violence became common. Trust was
replaced by suspicion. The episode of the greased cartridges was a classic example of this.

Most of the sepoys were from Awadh and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Now, the fears of the sepoys about
the new cartridges, their grievances about leave, their grouse about the increasing misbehavior and
racial abuse on the part of their white officers were the responsible factors for their rage. A whole
complex of emotions and issues, traditions and loyalities worked themselves out in the revolt of
1857. In Awadh, more than anywhere else, the revolt became an expression of popular resistance of
an alien order.

MAPS

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 11 Map Based Question

On the given outline map of India locate and label the following appropriately.
(i) Masulipatnam a territory under British control during 1857.

Question
On the map 3 centres of the Revolt of 1857 have been marked as A, B and C. Identify them
and write their names on the lines drawn near them. (All India 2015, 13, 12, Delhi 2011)

Answer:
A. Delhi
B. Meerut
C. Jhansi

Question 15.
On the same political outline map of India three places related to the centres of the revolt of
1857 have been marked as A, B and C. Identify them and write their correct names on the
lines drawn near them. (All India 2014)
A. Delhi
B. Lucknow
C. Varanasi

Question 16.
On the map 3 centres of the revolt of 1857 have been marked as A,B and C. Identify them
and write their names on the lines drawn near them. (Delhi 2013, All India 2015, 2012)

Answer:
A. Delhi
B. Jhansi
C. Lucknow
Question
On the map 3 territories/cities under the British control in 1857 have been marked as A, B
and C. Identify them and write their names on the lines drawn near them. (Delhi 2012)

Answer:
A. Lucknow
B. Calcutta
C. Patna
Question
On the map 3 important centres of the revolt of 1857 have been marked as A, B and C.
Identify them and write their names on the lines drawn near them.

Answer:
A. Delhi
B. Bareilly
C. Jhansi

MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 13 – 8 Marks Questions

Question 1. Gandhiji encouraged the communication of the Nationalist Message in mother tongue
rather than in language of the ruler.Examine how he knitted the Non-Cooperation Movement with
his philosophy.
Answer:
Gandhiji believed that any struggle can be successful only when masses will support it. For
participating in any movement masses must known the aim of movement. In India through local
languages or mother tongue, communication with public could be done easily. So, Gandhiji advised
nationalist to use mother tongue.

In addition, he believed that masses will felt more connected to movement when there will be
communication in mother tongue. Gandhiji believed that mother tongue will play an adhesive role in
dividing society and will help in bringing masses at single platform. Englishmen during these years
believed that their language is superior than other language. Use of Indian language for
communication by every Indian will change this notion and alongwith this, it will boost confidence
in Indian citizen that their language has its own importance. Therefore, considering all above factors
Gandhiji stressed on use of mother tongue.

Making the Non-Cooperation Movement successful Gandhiji called for renunciation of all voluntary
associations with the British and as responded very optimistically to it. Students stopped going to the
schools and colleges run by the government, lawyers refused to attend courts. There were strikes in
factories, mills and workshops, peasants stopped paying taxes, tribes violated forest laws, forests
were burnt and liquor shops were picketed..

Non-Cooperation Movement was very successful as masses participated in it without any difference
of caste, creed, religion, economic and education, status and language. Non-Cooperation Movement
led by Mahatma Gandhi played seminal role in uniting different regions of India as country and
promoted a sense of nationhood among the fellow citizens.

Question 2“The salt march of 1930 was the first event that brought Mahatma Gandhi to world
attention.” Explain significance of this movement for Swaraj.
OR
Explain the main events of the Dandi March. What is its significance in the history of the Indian
National Movement?
Answer:
On 26th January, 1930, ‘Republic Day’ was observed, with the National Flag being hosted in
different venues, the patriotic songs being sung and after the observance of this day, Mahatma
Gandhi announced that he would lead a march to break one of the most widely disliked laws in
British Indiq. The law which gave the state a monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt.

The conditions in the country had become very favourable to launch a widespread movement against
the British, the movement was started with famous Dandi March on 12th March, 1930. Gandhiji
alongwith 78 of his followers began his foot march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a village of
seashore in Surat district, about 375 km away from Sabarmati Ashram. The violation of salt law by
Gandhiji was a signal of the beginning of Civil Disobedience Movement. Soon, this movement
spread like wildfire through the length and breadth of the country.
Gandhiji’s Dandi March occupies a very significant place in the history of the freedom struggle of
India because of several reasons:

 This march made Gandhiji a centre of attraction of the whole of the world. The European
press and the American press published detailed accounts of the Salt March conducted by
Gandhiji.
 Undoubtedly it was the first National Movement in which women participated in large
numbers. Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay, the renowned socialist worker advised Gandhiji not
to keep the movements limited to men-folk only. A large number of women alongwith
Kamala Devi violated the salt and liquor laws and courted arrest collectively.
 As a result of the salt movement, the colonial rulers understood it clearly that their authority
was not going to remain permanent in India and now they will have to give some
participation to the Indians in power.

Question 3In the history of nationalism Gandhiji was often identified with the making of a nation.
Describe his role in the freedom struggle of India.
OR
Explain how Gandhiji transformed Indian Nationalism by 1922.
Answer:
The period of 1919-1947 occupies a very important place in the history of the Indian freedom
struggle. It was the third and the final phase of the Indian freedom struggle. It was during the period
that a great personality entered the Indian political scene with several weapons like Satyagraha, Non-
Cooperation and Civil Disobedience, based on truth and non-violence and soon became the pioneer
of the National Movement. This period is generally known as the ‘Gandhian Era’, Gandhiji
transformed the nature of the National Movement and it became a mass movement.
Gandhiji transformed the National Movement of the masses by following his new technique of
struggle based on the principle of Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience. Indian nationalism witnessed a
transformation in its nature with the active participation of Gandhiji in Indian National Movement.
The mass appeal of Gandhiji was undoubtedly genuine. His qualities of efficient leadership made a
remarkable contribution in making the base of Indian nationalism wider. It is worth mentioning that
the provincial committees of the Congress were formed on linguistic regions and not on the artificial
boundaries of the British India. These different ways contributed greatly to take nationalism to the
distant corners of the country.

Consequently, the social groups previously untouched by nationalism, now became an important part
of it. Thousands of peasants labourers and artisans started participating in the National Movement.
Similarly the common masses participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement significantly. In
Delhi, some 1600 women picketed the liquor shop. In the same way, Quit India Movement became
genuinely a Mass Movement, hundreds of thousands of ordinary Indians participated in it.

Besides the common Indian, some very prosperous businessmen and industrialists too became
supporters of the Indian National Congress. They came to realise it well that the favours enjoyed by
their British competitors would come to them in free India.

Consequently, some renowned industrialists such as GD Birla started supporting the national
movement openly whereas some others began to do so tactly.
Thus, the followers and admirers of Gandhiji included both the peasants and the rich industrialists.
Thus, under Gandhiji the National Movement was transformed into a Mass Movement.

Question 4.
Describe the different source from which we can reconstruct the political career of Gandhiji and the
history of National Movement?
OR
How have the different kinds of available sources helped the historians in reconstructing the political
career of Gandhiji and the history of the national movement that was associated with it? Explain. (D
OR
Explain the sources from which we can reconstruct the political career of Gandhiji and the history of
the nationalist movement.
OR
How do autobiographies, government records and newspapers help us in knowing about Gandhiji?
Explain.
OR
Examine the different kinds of sources from which political career of Gandhiji and the history of the
National Movement could be reconstructed.
OR
Explain three different kinds of sources through which we come to know about Gandhiji. Give any
two problems faced while interpreting them.
Answer:
Private letters and autobiographies furnish us with significant information about an individual. With
these help we can make almost an accurate estimate of the concerned individual’s ideology and
career. For instance, Gandhiji’s letters and his autobiography help us significantly in understanding
Gandhiji and his ideology.

Different kinds of sources from which the political career of Gandhiji are as follows:

Autobiographies:
They give us an account of the past i.e. rich in human detail. Autobiographies are retrospective
accounts written very often from memory. They tell us what the author would be able to recollect,
what he or she saw as important or was recounting or how a person wanted his or her life to be
viewed by others.

Private Letters:
They give us a glimpse of the private thoughts of an individual. In letters we see people expressing
their anger and pain, their dismay and anxiety, their hopes and frustrations, in a way in which they
may not express themselves in public statements. Gandhiji regularly published in his journal Harijan,
letters written to him during the national movements. Nehru edited a collection of letters called
Bunch of Old Letters.

Government Records:
The letters and reports written by policemen and other officials were secret at that time, but now they
can be accessed in archives. One such sources is the fortnightly report prepared by the home
department from early 20th century. These reports were based on information given to the police by
the localities, but often expressed what the officials saw or wanted to believe, e.g. in fortnightly
reports for the period of the salt march, it is noticed that the home department was unwilling to
accept that Mahatma Gandhiji’s actions had evolved any enthusiastic response from the masses.

Newspaper Records:
Both Indian and foreign newspapers played an important role while covering the news of Indian
National Movement and the political career of Gandhiji. Every detail given in the state reports cannot
be accepted as factual statements of the events that had been happening. Often these details acquaint
us with the anxieties and worries of the officials who had been finding themselves incapacitated in
controlling the movement and who were much too worried about its getting momentum. They were
unable to take the decision whether they should arrest Gandhiji or not. They were also not able to
realise that what would be the result if Gandhiji was arrested. Thus, it can be concluded that the
accounts furnished by private letters and autobiographies differ from the officials account in several
ways.

Question 5 Examine the causes and contribution of Non-Cooperation Movement to India’s freedom
struggle. Why did Gandhiji couple Non-Cooperation Movement with Khilafat Movement.

Undoubtedly, the Non-Cooperation Movement was a form of protest. It w7as a popular form of the
expression of public resentment and protest against the Rowlatt Act. Its main objective was not to
extend any cooperation to the administration, thus, rendering it completely crippled.

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a form of protest and by it national leaders wanted to express
their protest against the abominable events such as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. By launching this
movement they wanted to severely punish those British who were responsible for killing hundreds of
innocent people by firing on the peaceful meeting.

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a form of protest on another account also because it aimed at
boycotting government jobs, titles, honorary offices, law courts and educational institutions, etc. The
Indians wanted to display their protest against the British rule by boycotting foreign goods and
government elections by non-payment of taxes to government and by peaceful disobedience of
government laws. Law courts were boycotted, renowned advocates like Deshbandhu, Chittaranjan
Das, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel, Rajgopalachari, Babu Rajendra Prasad
and Asaf Ali left their lucrative legal practices.

Thousands of students boycotted the government and semi-government educational institutes. Many
Vidyapeeths such as the Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth and Aligarh Muslim University, etc
were set up in various parts of the country to impart national education.
A strong wave of the movement swept the country side as well in Northern Andhra. The hill tribes
refused to obey the colonial forest laws. Farmers in Awadh refused to pay taxes and the peasants in
Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial officials. In Assam, the labourers on tea plantations went
on strike and the farmers of Midnapore refused to pay taxes to Union Board.

Gandhiji couple this movement with Khilafat Movement to foster the feeling of unity between two
dominant religious communities and gave a movement an all India outlook. Indian Muslim were
angered with the removal of Khalifa and they wanted English to restore the Khalifa so they also
participated against British in this movement.

Question 9.
Assess the significance of salt march in India’s freedom struggle. How did the • British.Government
reach to it? (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
The choice of salt as a symbol of protest against the colonial rule was remarkable indicative of
Gandhiji’s tactical wisdom which were as follows:

 Salt law was one of the most widely disliked laws in British India. It provided the state a
monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt.
 The common-folk hated the salt law. Salt was an inseparable part of food for every
household, but people were prohibited from making salt even for domestic use. It was
because of this law that Indians were compelled to buy salt from shops at a high price.
 The state monopoly over salt was deeply unpopular. By making it his target, Gandhiji hoped
to mobilise a wider discontent against British rule.

Thus, Gandhiji by making the salt law his target wanted to garner the maximum participation of the
masses in the National Movement.

Question5. “Wherever Gandhiji went rumours spread of his miraculous powers.” Explain with
examples.

The peasants regarded Gandhiji as their ‘Messiah’ and considered him to be having many beneficial
and miraculous powers. Many rumours were in circulation at various places regarding his miraculous
powers. At some places the common masses came to believe that he had been sent by the king to
remove their miseries and resolve their problems and he had such power that he could even reject the
orders of all the officials.

At some other places it was affirmed that Gandhiji’s power was greater than even the English king
and it was claimed that with his arrival the colonial rulers would run away out of fear.

In many villages this rumour was in circulation that the persons criticising Gandhiji got their houses
mysteriously caved and their standing crops getting destroyed without any reason.

Gandhiji was popular with many names such as ‘Gandhi Baba’, ‘Gandhi Maharaj’ or ‘Mahatma’
among the peasants. They considered him as their saviour and believed that only he could save them
from the exorbitant rate of land revenue and the oppressive activities of British officials.

Questions6. Explain why many scholars have written of the month after the Independence as being
Gandhiji’s ‘finest hour.’
Answer:
Gandhiji did not attended any function or hoist a flag either at the day of Independence, instead he
marked a day with 24 hour fast. He kept himself isolated from the celebrations as he believed that
freedom has come at an unacceptable price, country has been divided and due to communalism, two
religious communities of India are seeking life of each others.

After attainment of Independence, Gandhiji kept himself aloof from the political work and
engagements. He focussed on pacifying people, went around hospitals and refugee camps and giving
consolation to distressed people. He appealed to Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims to forget the past and
extend the hand of friendship and cooperation to one another.

He said the worst is over and all Indians should work together for equality of all classes and creeds.
He even thought that though India and Pakistan are divided geographically and politically, but at
heart we shall be friends and brothers and be the one for outside world. Gandhiji was in Bengal when
India attained its freedom, after bringing peace to Bengal he shifted to Delhi and he was willing to go
to Punjab to console the people.

So, it can be said that in his last days Gandhiji was spending time to bring peace without any
pressure of political objectives. He was serving the humanity, tried to reduce the sufferings of
displaced people with hands of empathy. Thus, keeping the all above in consideration, scholars
described the month after Independence being Gandhiji’s ‘finest hour’.

Question6. Explain the ideas expressed by Gandhiji in his address at the time of opening of Banaras
Hindu University in February 1916. Did he put his precepts into practice? Give examples.
Answer:
As per the advice of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Gandhiji spent about a year travelling around the
various parts of India in order to know about the India masses. The first major public appearance of
Gandhiji was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University in February 1916.
Gandhiji felt that it was very bad that there was no mention of poor labourers in the speeches of the
dignitaries. Therefore, while speaking on the occasion, he criticised the elite for it.

While expressing his views he said that the opening of Banaras Hindu University was ‘certainly a
most gorgeous show’ but the ever increasing economic rift between the richly bedecked noblemen
present there and the ‘millions of the poor Indians’ who were not present was really a matter of
worry for him.

Gandhiji said, “there is no salvation for India unless you strip yourself of this jewellery and hold it in
trust for your countrymen in India.” He further said, “there can be no spirit of self-government about
us, if we take away or allow others to take away from the peasants almost the whole of the results of
their labour. Our salvation can only come through the farmer. Neither the lawyers nor the doctors,
nor the rich landlords are going to secure it.”

It is worth mentioning that the opening of the Banaras Hindu University was an occasion for
celebration because this nationalist university was founded by Indian money and Indian efforts. But
Gandhiji in place of adopting a tone of self congratulation, wanted to remind those present of
peasants and workers who thought of forming the majority of Indian population and were not present
there as audience.

Thus, the speech of Gandhiji at Banaras in February 1916 was an indicative of the fact that the
Indian nationalism was a creation of elite such as lawyers, doctors and landlords. Besides it was also
the first public announcement of the desire of Gandhiji that he wanted to make Indian nationalism
more properly representative of the Indian people as a whole.
Question 7. How was Quit India Movement genuinely a mass movement? Explain.
Answer:
The conditions that are responsible for Quit India Movement are as follows:

 In 1942 Winston Churchill, the conservative Prime Minister of Britain sent Sir Stafford
Cripps to India to try and force to compromise with Gandhiji and insisted that if it was to help
the British defend India from the Axis powers, then the Viceroy had first to appoint an Indian
as the Defence Member of his Executive Council.
 The entry of the Axis power Japan in India during the World War II.
 Defeat of the British in the World War.

The above conditions led Gandhiji to launch ‘Quit India Movement’ against the British rule. The
main characteristics of the movement was that it was a Mass Movement, bringing into its ambit
hundreds of thousands of ordinary Indians. It especially energised the young who in very large
numbers left their colleges to join the Congress leaders languishing in jails.

After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch his third major
movement the ‘Quit India’ campaign which began in August 1942. Gandhiji was jailed at once, but
the young activists organised strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country.

Question 8 Explain how Gandhiji’s mass appeal was undoubtedly genuine in the context of Indian
politics and how it contributed to his success in broadening the basis of nationalism? (All India 2009)
Answer:
Gandhiji’s mass appeal was undoubtedly genuine in the context of Indian politics as:

 By 1922, the Indian nationalism had undergone an important and substantial change and
Gandhi emerged as people’s leader. The awakening arising among the masses because of the
Non-Cooperation Movement transformed the National Movement into a Mass movement.
 The common masses were admirers of Gandhiji because like other leaders Gandhiji neither
remained cut off from ordinary people nor did he appear to be different from the common
masses and would wear clothes like them.
 He would go among the common masses in a very simple dhoti. In 1921, during his visit to
South India, he got his head shaved and started wearing cotton clothes in order to identify
himself with the poor.
 Simplicity of Gandhiji and his sympathy for the common masses made him very popular
among the common folk.
 Undoubtedly, Gandhiji with spinning wheel had become the most popular identity of the
Indian nationalism.
 The work of spinning by Gandhiji helped him significantly in breaking the boundaries
prevailing within the traditional caste system between mental labour and manual labour.

FRAMING THE CONSTITUION

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 15 – 8 Marks Questions

Question 1. “Within the Constituent Assembly of India the language issue was intensely debated”.
Examine the views put forward by members of the assembly on the issue.
Answer:
The language issue was intensely debated in the Constituent Assembly. R.V. Dhulekar, Shrimati G.
Durgabai, Shri Shankarrao Deo and T.A. Ramalingam Chettiar were prominent members of the
Constituent Assembly who gave their remarkable views on language.

R.V. Dhulekar, a Congressman from the United Provinces, made a strong plea that Hindi must be
used as the language of constitution making. He stated! “People who are present in this house to
fashion a constitution for India and do not know Hindustani are not worthy to be member of this
Assembly. They better leave”. Many members of the Assembly became agitated and the controversy
regarding language continued over the next three years.

After three years, the Language Committee of the Constituent Assembly had produced its report. The
committee tried to give a compromise formula to resolve the dead lock between those who advocated
Hindi as the national language and those who opposed it. The committee suggested Hindi in the
Devanagari script would be the official language along with English. But this solution could not
satisfy members like Dhulekar who wanted to see Hindi as the national language of India.

Shrimati G. Durgabai from Madras expressed her worry that this controversy made the non-Hindi
speaking people to think that other powerful languages of India would be neglected and it was an
obstacle for the composite culture of our nation. She informed the House that the opposition in the
South against Hindi was very strong. She said “The opponents feel perhaps justly that this
propaganda for Hindi cuts at the very root of the provincial languages”.

She along with many others had obeyed the call of Mahatma Gandhi and carried on Hindi
propaganda in the South. She accepted Hindustani as the language of the people. But its character
was changed as it took many Urdu words and regional vocabulary. Durgabai believed this composite
character of Hindustani was bound to create anxieties and fears among different language groups.

Shri Shankarrao Deo, a member from Bombay, a Congressman and a follower of Mahatma Gandhi
accepted Hindustani as a language of the nation. But he warned “If you want my whole-hearted
support (for Hindi) you must not do now any thing which may arise my suspicions and which will
strengthen my fears”.

T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar from Madras suggested that whatever was done had to be done with
caution. Because the cause of Hindi would not be helped if it was pushed too aggressively. There
would be fear and bitter feelings among people if Hindi was applied forcefully, although the people
might be unjustified. So he believed that to form a united nation “there should be mutual adjustment
and no question of forcing things on people.”In this way different members of the Constituent
Assembly expressed their views regarding the controversy.

Question 2. How did Constituent Assembly of India protected the powers of the Central
government? Explain
Answer:
India achieved its independence on 15 th August, 1947 and was also divided into two parts i.e. India
and Pakistan. Before the partition, the Constituent Assembly did not communicated itself in
commendation of a strong Central Government, but after the declaration of partition on 3rd June,
1947, Constituent Assembly considered itself free from all restrictions inflicted by Cabinet Mission
and political pressures. Constituent Assembly decided to opt for a federation alongwith strong centre.
There were arguments in favour of strong provinces which evoked powerful reactions from the
leaders who preferred strong centre.
Dr BR Ambedkar and Jawaharalal Nehru propounded a strong Central Government for India. They
mentioned to the riots’and violences that were fearing the nation apart and stated that only a strong
centre can stop the communal disharmony. Balakrishna Sharma focussed on length of the nation and
stated that only a centre, which was powerful could plan for the well-being of the country. Strong
centre would help in mobilising available economic resources and proper administration was
possible only through strong centre only.

In spite of arguments of the centre has likely to break or inefficiency of the centre, the rights of the
states were most impressively defended by K Santhanam from Madras. Also the decision of the
Constituent Assembly to have a strong centre was occasioned by the situations in which it was taken.
Most of the members felt that strong centre was the need of the hour. It was necessary to ensure
peace, prosperity and political stability, and hence, Gopalaswami Ayyangar requested to make centre
as strong as possible.

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 15 – 4 Marks Questions

Question .
Describe the different arguments made in favour of protection on of depressed class in the
Constituent Assembly.
Answer:
The following arguments were made in favour of protection of depressed classes in the Constituent
Assembly:
1. It was realised that the depressed classes especially tribals and untouchables needed special
attention and safeguards to raise their status in society and provide them equality. But some members
of the depressed class emphasised that the problem of the “Untouchables” could not be resolved
through protection and safeguards alone.

2. These members believed that the disabilities of the depressed class were caused by the social
norms and the moral values of caste divided society. The depressed class had been left in isolation
with this belief that they are not born to be fit in the civil society.

Their suffering was due to their systematic marginalisation. They had no aceess to education and also
had no share in the administration.
Thus, in the Constituent Assembly many recognised that social discrimination could not solve only
through constitutional legislation, there had to be a change in the attitudes within society.

Question .
“The discussions within the Constituent Assembly were also influenced by the opinions expressed by
the public”.
Examine the statement.
Answer:
The public opinion had a considerable effect on the discussions of the Constituent Assembly that
were:

 There was public debate on all the resolutions.

 The newspapers reported the arguments presented by different members on any issue.
  Criticisms and counter criticism in the press shaped the nature of the consensus that was
ultimately reached on specific issues.

 Suggestions from the public was also welcomed which created a sense of collective
participation.

 Many linguistic minorities demanded protection of their mother tongue. Religious minorities
asked for special safeguards.

 The groups low caste or dalits demanded an end to ill-treatments by upper caste people and
reservation of separate seats on the basis of their population in legislatures.

 Important issues of cultural rights and social justice raised in the public discussions were
debated in the Assembly.

 In the same way, groups of religious minorities came forward and asked for special
safeguards.

Question
“A communist member Somnath Lahiri saw the dark hand of British . imperialism hanging over the
deliberations of the Constituent Assembly”. Examine the statement and give your own views in
support of your answer.
Answer:
The statement implies that Somnath Lahiri saw the influence of the British imperialism over the
deliberations of the Constituent Assembly.
As a result, he urged the members to completely free themselves from the influences of imperial rule.
During the winter of 1946-47, when the assembly was constituted, the British were still in India.

An interim administration headed by • Jawaharlal Nehru was in place, but it could only operate under
the directions of the viceroy and the British Government in London. Lahiri exhorted his colleagues to
realise that the Constituent Assembly was British made and was working on the British plans as the
British should like it to be worked out.

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 15 – 8 Marks Questions

Question 1.“Within the Constituent Assembly of India the language issue was intensely debated”.
Examine the views put forward by members of the assembly on the issue.
Answer:
The language issue was intensely debated in the Constituent Assembly. R.V. Dhulekar, Shrimati G.
Durgabai, Shri Shankarrao Deo and T.A. Ramalingam Chettiar were prominent members of the
Constituent Assembly who gave their remarkable views on language.

R.V. Dhulekar, a Congressman from the United Provinces, made a strong plea that Hindi must be
used as the language of constitution making. He stated! “People who are present in this house to
fashion a constitution for India and do not know Hindustani are not worthy to be member of this
Assembly. They better leave”. Many members of the Assembly became agitated and the controversy
regarding language continued over the next three years.

After three years, the Language Committee of the Constituent Assembly had produced its report. The
committee tried to give a compromise formula to resolve the dead lock between those who advocated
Hindi as the national language and those who opposed it. The committee suggested Hindi in the
Devanagari script would be the official language along with English. But this solution could not
satisfy members like Dhulekar who wanted to see Hindi as the national language of India.

Shrimati G. Durgabai from Madras expressed her worry that this controversy made the non-Hindi
speaking people to think that other powerful languages of India would be neglected and it was an
obstacle for the composite culture of our nation. She informed the House that the opposition in the
South against Hindi was very strong. She said “The opponents feel perhaps justly that this
propaganda for Hindi cuts at the very root of the provincial languages”.

She along with many others had obeyed the call of Mahatma Gandhi and carried on Hindi
propaganda in the South. She accepted Hindustani as the language of the people. But its character
was changed as it took many Urdu words and regional vocabulary. Durgabai believed this composite
character of Hindustani was bound to create anxieties and fears among different language groups.

Shri Shankarrao Deo, a member from Bombay, a Congressman and a follower of Mahatma Gandhi
accepted Hindustani as a language of the nation. But he warned “If you want my whole-hearted
support (for Hindi) you must not do now any thing which may arise my suspicions and which will
strengthen my fears”.

T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar from Madras suggested that whatever was done had to be done with
caution. Because the cause of Hindi would not be helped if it was pushed too aggressively. There
would be fear and bitter feelings among people if Hindi was applied forcefully, although the people
might be unjustified. So he believed that to form a united nation “there should be mutual adjustment
and no question of forcing things on people.”In this way different members of the Constituent
Assembly expressed their views regarding the controversy.

Question How did Constituent Assembly of India protected the powers of the Central government?
Explain.
Answer:
India achieved its independence on 15 th August, 1947 and was also divided into two parts i.e. India
and Pakistan. Before the partition, the Constituent Assembly did not communicated itself in
commendation of a strong Central Government, but after the declaration of partition on 3rd June,
1947, Constituent Assembly considered itself free from all restrictions inflicted by Cabinet Mission
and political pressures. Constituent Assembly decided to opt for a federation alongwith strong centre.
There were arguments in favour of strong provinces which evoked powerful reactions from the
leaders who preferred strong centre.

Dr BR Ambedkar and Jawaharalal Nehru propounded a strong Central Government for India. They
mentioned to the riots’and violences that were fearing the nation apart and stated that only a strong
centre can stop the communal disharmony. Balakrishna Sharma focussed on length of the nation and
stated that only a centre, which was powerful could plan for the well-being of the country. Strong
centre would help in mobilising available economic resources and proper administration was
possible only through strong centre only.

In spite of arguments of the centre has likely to break or inefficiency of the centre, the rights of the
states were most impressively defended by K Santhanam from Madras. Also the decision of the
Constituent Assembly to have a strong centre was occasioned by the situations in which it was taken.
Most of the members felt that strong centre was the need of the hour. It was necessary to ensure
peace, prosperity and political stability, and hence, Gopalaswami Ayyangar requested to make centre
as strong as possible.

The end