WSN/Unit 1/Notes

Introduction and Overview of Wireless Sensor Networks:

1. Sensor Type and Technology:

 Sensor Type: Refers to the specific sensors used, such as temperature,
humidity, light, or motion sensors.
 Technology: Describes the underlying technology and methods employed by
sensors for data collection (e.g., MEMS technology, optical sensors).
2. Software:
 Definition: Software components that govern sensor node operations, data
management, and communication.
 Functions: Implement communication protocols, manage data processing,
and enable coordination among sensor nodes. Examples include embedded
firmware and operating systems on sensor nodes.
3. Standard for Transport Protocol:
 Definition: A standardized set of rules governing data transport within the
sensor network.
 Example: MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport), CoAP (Constrained
Application Protocol), or custom protocols designed to suit the specific needs
of the application.
4. Routing and Data Dissemination:
 Routing: Determines the path data takes from sensor nodes to the central
system or other nodes.
 Data Dissemination: Strategies for distributing data efficiently across the
network. Protocols such as AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector),
LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), and SPIN (Sensor
Protocols for Information via Negotiation) are commonly used.
5. Sensor Network Organization and Tracking:
 Organization: Describes the arrangement and structure of sensor nodes
within the network (e.g., star, mesh, cluster-based).
 Tracking: Involves locating and monitoring the movement of objects or
nodes within the sensor network. Localization techniques like GPS or
triangulation may be employed.
6. Computation:
 Definition: Processing capabilities of sensor nodes, ranging from simple data
aggregation to complex computations.
 Functions: Execution of algorithms for data processing, filtering, and analysis.
May include distributed computing where nodes collaborate on computation
tasks.
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7. Data Management:
 Definition: The processes related to handling and storing data collected by
sensor nodes.
 Functions: Data storage, retrieval, and organization for efficient processing
and analysis. Databases or data aggregation points may be utilized.
8. Security:
 Definition: Measures to protect sensor network data and operations from
unauthorized access, tampering, or attacks.
 Aspects: Encryption, authentication, access control, and intrusion detection
systems to ensure the integrity, confidentiality, and availability of sensor
network data.
9. Network Design Issues:
 Issues: Challenges and considerations in designing a robust sensor network.
 Examples: Energy efficiency to prolong node battery life, scalability for
accommodating a growing number of nodes, fault tolerance for maintaining
network functionality in the presence of failures, and adaptability to dynamic
environmental conditions.

These elements collectively form the architectural foundation of a sensor network,

influencing its performance, reliability, and suitability for specific applications.

Advantages of Wireless Sensor Network

Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy,
making them a cost-effective solution for many applications.

Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections,

which can be costly and difficult to install. Wireless communication also
enables flexible deployment and reconfiguration of the network.

Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve

energy, enabling long-term operation without the need for frequent battery
replacements.

Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing

sensors, making them suitable for a range of applications
and environments.

Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical

phenomena in the environment, providing timely information for decision
making and control.
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Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited,
which can be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments
with obstacles that obstruct radio signals.

Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have
limited processing power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex
computations or support advanced applications.

Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as

eavesdropping, tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can
compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.

Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to

interference from other wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade
the quality of data transmission.

Challenges in WSN
1. Quality of Service (QoS): Ensuring reliable and timely data delivery in WSNs is
challenging due to the dynamic and unpredictable nature of the environment.
Maintaining QoS metrics such as latency, reliability, and packet delivery ratio
becomes crucial, especially in applications where real-time data is essential.

2. Security Issues: WSNs are vulnerable to various security threats such as

eavesdropping, data tampering, and node compromise. The limited resources of
sensor nodes make it challenging to implement robust security mechanisms.
Developing secure communication protocols and encryption techniques is crucial to
protect sensitive data in WSNs.

3. Energy Efficiency: Energy constraints are a critical challenge in WSNs as sensor

nodes are often powered by batteries, which have limited capacity. Maximizing the
lifespan of sensor nodes and the overall network by optimizing energy consumption
is essential. Energy-efficient routing, data aggregation, and sleep/wake mechanisms
are common strategies to address this challenge.

4. Network Throughput: Achieving high throughput in WSNs while maintaining

energy efficiency is a delicate balance. Efficient data aggregation, adaptive routing
protocols, and optimized communication patterns are necessary to enhance the
network throughput without depleting energy resources.

5. Performance: WSN performance is influenced by factors such as network latency,

data accuracy, and overall system responsiveness. Designing and implementing
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

efficient algorithms, protocols, and hardware architectures are critical to achieving

satisfactory performance in WSNs.

6. Ability to Cope with Node Failure: Due to the harsh and dynamic deployment
environments, sensor nodes in WSNs may fail or become unreliable. Developing
fault-tolerant mechanisms and adaptive protocols to handle node failures without
compromising the overall network performance is a significant challenge.

7. Cross-Layer Optimization: WSNs typically involve multiple layers (physical, MAC,

network, transport, and application layers) that need to work together efficiently.
Cross-layer optimization involves designing protocols and algorithms that consider
interactions between different layers to improve overall network performance,
reliability, and energy efficiency.

8. Scalability to Large-Scale Deployment: As WSNs expand to cover larger

geographical areas or involve a higher number of nodes, scalability becomes a
challenge. Designing scalable protocols and architectures that can handle the
increased complexity and communication overhead associated with large-scale
deployments is essential for the success of WSNs in diverse applications.

Applications :-
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) find applications across various domains due to their
ability to collect and transmit data from the physical world in a wireless and distributed
manner.

1. Internet of Things (IoT): WSNs are a fundamental component of the Internet of

Things (IoT). They enable the seamless integration of physical devices, sensors, and
actuators into the digital world. WSNs provide the data acquisition and
communication infrastructure necessary for IoT applications, facilitating smart homes,
smart cities, and industrial IoT.

2. Surveillance and Monitoring for Security, Threat Detection: WSNs are extensively
used in surveillance systems for security and threat detection. They can monitor areas
for unauthorized intrusions, detect abnormal activities, and provide real-time alerts.
WSNs contribute to enhancing the overall security of various environments, including
public spaces, critical infrastructure, and military installations.
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

3. Environmental Monitoring (Temperature, Humidity, Air Pressure): WSNs are

deployed in environmental monitoring to collect data on temperature, humidity, air
pressure, and other environmental parameters. This is valuable for studying climate
patterns, predicting natural disasters, and managing resources efficiently.
Environmental monitoring WSNs play a crucial role in applications such as weather
forecasting and ecological research.

4. Noise Level Monitoring: WSNs can be employed to monitor and measure noise
levels in urban or industrial areas. This is important for assessing noise pollution,
ensuring compliance with regulations, and implementing measures to mitigate the
impact of excessive noise on the environment and human health.

5. Medical Applications (Patient Monitoring): WSNs are used in healthcare for

continuous and remote patient monitoring. These networks can collect vital signs,
monitor patient activity, and transmit data to healthcare professionals in real-time.
WSNs contribute to improving the quality of patient care, especially in situations
where continuous monitoring is required, such as in intensive care units or for
patients with chronic conditions.

6. Agriculture: WSNs are applied in precision agriculture for monitoring soil

conditions, crop health, and environmental parameters. By collecting data on factors
like soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient levels, farmers can make informed
decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and pest control. This enhances agricultural
productivity and resource efficiency.

7. Landslide Detection: WSNs can be deployed in landslide-prone areas to monitor

soil stability and detect early signs of potential landslides. By sensing changes in soil
conditions and transmitting this information in real-time, WSNs contribute to early
warning systems that help minimize the impact of landslides on communities and
infrastructure.

Sensor Node Technology

Sensor node technology refers to the integration of various sensors, communication
capabilities, and processing units into a single compact device. These nodes are
typically part of larger sensor networks, often deployed in IoT (Internet of Things)
applications, environmental monitoring systems, industrial automation, and smart
city infrastructure.

Here are some key components and features commonly found in sensor nodes:
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

1. Sensors: Sensor nodes are equipped with one or more sensors to collect data from
the environment. These sensors can measure various parameters such as
temperature, humidity, pressure, light intensity, motion, gas concentration, etc.
2. Processing Unit: Sensor nodes include a microcontroller or a microprocessor
responsible for processing the data collected by the sensors. This processing may
involve filtering, aggregation, or even simple analysis of the data before transmission.
3. Communication: Sensor nodes are designed to communicate with each other or
with a central network gateway. They typically use wireless communication protocols
such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, or cellular networks to transmit data to a
central server or other nodes in the network.
4. Power Management: Since sensor nodes are often deployed in remote or
inaccessible locations, power efficiency is crucial. They may include power
management systems to optimize energy consumption, such as low-power modes,
sleep modes, or energy harvesting techniques.
5. Compact Design: Sensor nodes are designed to be compact, lightweight, and often
rugged to withstand harsh environmental conditions. This allows for easy
deployment in various locations and applications.
6. Scalability and Flexibility: Sensor node networks can vary in size from a few nodes
to thousands or even millions. The technology is designed to be scalable, allowing
for easy addition or removal of nodes as needed. Additionally, sensor nodes are
often programmable, allowing for flexibility in adapting to different use cases and
environments.

Overall, sensor node technology plays a crucial role in enabling the collection of real-
time data from the physical world, facilitating applications ranging from
environmental monitoring and smart agriculture to industrial automation and smart
infrastructure.

Sensor taxonomy
Sensor taxonomy is essentially a hierarchical classification system that organizes
sensors into categories based on their characteristics, functionality, and application
domains. This classification aids in understanding the diverse range of sensors
available and helps in selecting the appropriate sensor for a specific use case. Here's
an explanation of how sensor taxonomy works:

1. Classification Criteria:
 Physical Phenomenon: Sensors can be categorized based on the type of
physical phenomenon they detect, such as temperature, pressure, light,
motion, etc.
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

 Technology: Sensors can be classified based on the underlying technology

they employ, such as resistive, capacitive, optical, etc.
 Application: Sensors can be grouped based on the application or industry
they are used in, such as environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics,
automotive systems, etc.
 Mode of Operation: Sensors can be categorized based on how they operate,
such as analog vs. digital, active vs. passive, contact vs. non-contact, etc.
2. Hierarchical Structure:
 Sensor taxonomy typically follows a hierarchical structure, where broader
categories are subdivided into more specific subcategories.
 For example, under the "Physical Phenomenon" category, you may have
subcategories like "Temperature Sensors," "Pressure Sensors," "Light Sensors,"
etc., each further divided based on the specific type of measurement they
perform.
3. Organization and Clarity:
 By organizing sensors into categories and subcategories, sensor taxonomy
provides clarity and structure, making it easier to navigate the vast landscape
of sensor technologies.
 It helps users quickly identify sensors relevant to their needs and understand
their capabilities and limitations.
4. Practical Application:
 Sensor taxonomy is particularly useful in fields such as engineering, research,
product development, and industrial applications where sensor selection is
critical.
 Engineers and designers can use sensor taxonomy to compare different
sensors, understand their specifications, and make informed decisions when
designing systems or selecting components.
5. Dynamic Nature:
 Sensor taxonomy is not static and evolves over time with advancements in
technology and new discoveries.
 New sensor types may emerge, existing categories may be refined, and the
hierarchy may be adjusted to accommodate changes in the sensor landscape.

In summary, sensor taxonomy is a systematic approach to categorizing sensors

based on various criteria, providing a structured framework for understanding and
selecting sensors for specific applications.
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Wireless network Operating Environment

1. Physical Surroundings:
 Building Layout: The layout of the building, including the presence of walls,
floors, and partitions, can affect the propagation of wireless signals. Thick
walls or metallic structures may attenuate signals, leading to dead zones or
reduced coverage.
 Construction Materials: Different building materials have varying effects on
signal penetration and reflection. For instance, concrete, metal, and glass can
impede signal transmission, while wood and drywall may have less impact.
 Obstructions: Objects such as furniture, equipment, and vegetation can
obstruct signal paths and degrade network performance if they absorb or
reflect radio waves.
2. Interference:
 Co-channel Interference: When multiple wireless networks operate on the
same channel or nearby channels, they can interfere with each other, leading
to degraded performance.
 Non-Wi-Fi Interference: Other electronic devices operating in the same
frequency range, such as cordless phones, Bluetooth devices, and microwave
ovens, can cause interference and disrupt wireless communications.
 Environmental Interference: Natural phenomena like electromagnetic
interference from lightning, solar activity, or atmospheric conditions can affect
wireless signals.
3. Network Topology:
 Access Point Placement: Strategic placement of access points (APs) ensures
optimal coverage and minimizes signal attenuation. Factors such as building
layout, user density, and application requirements influence AP placement
decisions.
 Mesh Networks: In large or complex environments, mesh networking can be
employed to extend coverage and improve resilience by allowing nodes to
communicate with each other and dynamically route traffic.
 Roaming Support: Seamless roaming between APs is essential for mobility
support in environments where users move between different areas while
maintaining network connectivity.
4. Device Characteristics:
 Client Devices: The capabilities and characteristics of client devices, such as
laptops, smartphones, tablets, IoT devices, and wearables, impact their ability
to connect to the network, transmit data, and maintain a stable connection.
 Antenna Diversity: Some devices may have multiple antennas or support
advanced antenna technologies like beamforming to enhance signal strength,
range, and reliability.
5. Security:
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

Encryption Protocols: Implementing robust encryption protocols such as

WPA3 ensures data confidentiality and integrity, protecting against
eavesdropping and unauthorized access.
 Authentication Mechanisms: Strong authentication mechanisms, such as
802.1X/EAP, certificate-based authentication, or pre-shared keys, verify the
identity of users and devices before granting access to the network.
 Intrusion Detection and Prevention: Deploying intrusion detection and
prevention systems (IDPS) helps detect and mitigate security threats, such as
rogue access points, denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, and unauthorized
network access attempts.
6. Management and Maintenance:
 Network Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of network performance
metrics, signal strength, throughput, and packet loss enables proactive
troubleshooting and optimization.
 Firmware Updates: Regular firmware updates for access points, routers, and
other network infrastructure devices patch security vulnerabilities, add new
features, and improve compatibility with emerging technologies.
 Configuration Management: Proper configuration management practices
ensure consistency across network devices, minimize misconfigurations, and
facilitate rapid deployment of changes or updates.

Radio Technology
Radio technology is used in a wide number of applications, and the list is growing all the time.
Some of the earliest applications were to enable communications where wired links were not
possible. Marconi, one of the early pioneers saw a need for radio communications between ships
and the shore, and of course radio is still used for this today. However as radio became more
established people started to use the medium for broadcasting. Today a huge number of stations
broadcast both sound and vision using radio to deliver the programmes to the listener.

There are many more applications for radio. Apart from being used for ship to shore
communications, radio is used for other forms of communications. Short wave radio was one of
the first applications for radio. With ships sailing over vast distances it was seen that radio could
provide a means for them to communicate when they were in the middle of an ocean. By
"bouncing" the signals off reflecting layers in the upper atmosphere, great distances could be
achieved. Once it was sent hat this could be done, many others also started to use the short
wave bands were long distance communications could be made. It was used by everyone from
the military to news agencies, weather stations, and even radio hams.

Radio is also used for telecommunications links. Signals with frequencies in the microwave
region are normally used. These signals have frequencies much higher than those in the short
wave band and they are not affected by the ionosphere. However they provide reliable direct line
of sight links that are able to carry many telephone conversations or other forms of traffic.
However as they are only line of sight, they require towers on which to mount the antennas to
enable them to transmit over sufficiently long distances.

Satellites
Satellites are also used for radio communication. As short wave communications are unreliable,
and cannot carry the level of traffic required, higher frequencies must be used. It is possible to
WSN/Unit 1/Notes

transmit signals up to satellites in outer space. These can receive the signals and broadcast
them back down to Earth. Using this concept it is possible to transmit signals over vast distances,
such as over the oceans. Additionally it is possible to use the satellites for broadcasting.
Transmitting a signal up to the satellite, it is then relayed on a different frequency, and can give
coverage over a whole country using just one satellite. A land based system may require many
transmitters to cover the whole country.
Satellites may also be used for many other applications. One of these is for observation. Weather
satellites, for example, take images of the Earth and relay them back to Earth using radio signals.
Another application for satellites is for navigation. GPS, the Global Positioning System uses a
number of satellites in orbit around the Earth to provide very accurate positioning. Now further
systems including Galileo (a European based system) and Glonass (a Russian based system)
are being planned and put into operation.

Radar
Radar is an application of radio technology that has proved to be very useful. It was first used by
the British in the Second World War (1939 - 1945) to detect incoming enemy bombers. By
knowing where they were, it was possible to send up fighters to intercept them and thereby gain
a significant advantage. The system operates by sending out a short burst of wireless energy.
The signal is sent out and reflects back from the objects in the area that is 'illuminated' by the
radio signal. By knowing the angle at which the signal is returned, and the time it takes for the
reflection to be received, it is possible to pinpoint the object that reflected the signal.
Mobile communications
In recent years there has been an explosion in personal communications. One of the first major
applications was the mobile phone. Since their introduction in the last 20 years of the 20th
century, their use has mushroomed. Their growth has shown the value of mobile
communications and mobile connectivity. Accordingly other applications such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
and others been developed and are now part of the wireless scene.

Network architectures
There is infinite knowledge sitting in the palm of our hands. With a few swipes, we
can log on to any website and get the information we want in seconds. It’s so
convenient that we often take for granted the complex and incredible mechanisms –
the wires, cables, and servers – that make it all possible.

This is what network architecture is all about. It’s how data flows efficiently from one
computer to another. And for businesses with an online component, it’s an important
concept that has a significant impact on their operation. Let’s start with the
networking architecture definition.

What is Network Architecture?

Network architecture refers to a network’s structural and logical layout. It describes

how the network devices are connected and the rules that govern data transfer
between them.

There are many ways to approach network architecture design, which depend on the
purpose and size of the network. Wide area networks (WAN), for example, refer to a
group of interconnected networks often spanning large distances. Its network
architecture will be vastly different from that of a local area network (LAN) of a
smaller office branch.
WSN/Unit 1/Notes

Planning the network architecture is vital because it either enhances or hinders the
performance of the entire system. Choosing the wrong transmission media or
equipment for a particular expected server load, for instance, can cause slowdowns
on the network.

Network architecture can also facilitate security, becoming increasingly important as

more user devices connect to the network. The design and protocols of the network
need to support quick and efficient user recognition and authorization.

Most network architectures adopt the Open Systems Interconnection Model or OSI.
This conceptual model separates the network tasks into seven logical layers, from
lowest to highest abstraction.

The Physical layer, for instance, deals with the wire and cable connections of the
network. The highest layer, the Application layer, involves APIs that deal with
application-specific functions like chat and file sharing.

The OSI model makes it easier to troubleshoot the network by isolating problem
areas from each other.

Types of Networking Architecture

While there are myriads ways to design your network architecture, you’ll find that
most fall into one of two types. These are the peer-to-peer and client/server
architectures.

In a peer-to-peer model, all devices in a network have equal responsibilities and

privileges with each other. This means tasks are allocated equally throughout the
network. Files in one computer can be shared with every other computer, essentially
making every node a network storage drive. Resources like a printer connected to
one device are also visible to every other device on the network.

A peer-to-peer architecture is suitable for small networks, such as a branch office.

Your home network, by the way, often uses a peer-to-peer model.

In a client/server architecture, all devices in the network, called “clients,” are

connected to a central hub, called a “server.” The server handles the bulk of the
network operations – data storage, processing of client requests, cybersecurity, and
access control.

Most large networks, such as WANs, often use the client/server model. The web
server you’re accessing this article on, for instance, is a perfect example. In this
case, your computer or smartphone is the client device. Client/server is also the
preferred enterprise network architecture.

There’s also a hybrid architecture called edge computing, which is becoming more
popular with the Internet of Things (IoT). It’s similar to a client/server architecture.
However, instead of the server being responsible for all storage and processing
tasks, some of it is delegated to computers located closer to the client machine,
called edge devices.
WSN/Unit 1/Notes

Network Architecture Design

The design of any digital network architecture involves optimizing its building blocks.
These include:

 Hardware
These are the equipment that forms the components of a network, such as user
devices (laptops, computers, mobile phones), routers, servers, and gateways. So, in
a way, the goal of any network architecture is to find the most efficient way to get
data from one hardware point to another.
 Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the physical connections between the hardware
devices on a network. Different media have various properties that determine how
fast data travels from one point to another.

They come in two forms: wired and wireless. Wired media involve physical
cables for connection. Examples include coaxial and fiber optic. Wireless
media, on the other hand, relies on microwave or radio signals. The most
popular examples are WiFi and cellular.

 Protocols
Protocols are the rules and models that govern how data transfers between devices
in a network. It’s also the common language that allows different machines in a
network to communicate with each other. Without protocols, your iPhone couldn’t
access a web page stored on a Linux server.

There are many network protocols, depending on the nature of the data.
Examples include the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) used by networks to connect to the Internet, the Ethernet protocol for
connecting one computer to another, and the File Transfer Protocol for
sending and receiving files to and from a server.

 Topology
How the network is wired together is just as important as its parts. Optimizing this is
the goal of network topology.

Topology is the structure of the network. This is important because factors like
distance between network devices will affect how fast data can reach its
destination, impacting performance. There are various network topologies,
each with strengths and weaknesses.

A star topology, for example, describes a layout where all devices in the
network are connected to a central hub. The advantage of this layout is that
it’s easy to connect devices to the network. However, if the central hub fails,
the whole network goes down.

On the other hand, a bus topology is where all network devices are connected
to a single pathway, called the bus. The bus acts like a highway that carries
data from one part of the network to the other. While cheap and easy to
implement, its performance tends to slow down as more devices are added to
the network.
WSN/Unit 1/Notes

Today, most network architectures use a hybrid topology, combining different

topologies to compensate for each individual’s weakness.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Network Architecture

Different network architectures have their pros and cons; and knowing them is the
key to picking out the right one for your needs.

Peer-to-peer models are often inexpensive and easy to put up because you don’t
need to invest in a powerful server. Theoretically, all you need are network cables or
a router, and you’re good to go. It’s also quite robust; if one computer goes down,
the network stays up. The distributed nature also lessens or at least spreads out the
network load to prevent congestions.

However, peer-to-peer models are harder to manage. Since there’s no centralized

hub, you’d need to configure each computer individually to set up, for example,
security software. Thus, peer-to-peer networks are also less secure. One hacked
computer is all it takes to hijack the network.

Client/server models, on the other hand, are easier to manage because they take on
a centralized approach. You can set up access privileges, firewalls, and proxy
servers to boost the network’s security. Thus, a client/server setup is best for large
networks over larger distances.

The disadvantage of this approach is that a client/server architecture is more

expensive to set up, as you need a powerful server to handle the network load. It
also requires a dedicated administrator to manage the server, which adds to payroll.

But the biggest con of a client/server model is that the server is a weak link. If the
server goes down, the entire network shuts down. Thus, security is often the most
robust at and near the server.

Computer Network Architecture Examples

Let’s take a look at how network architecture works in practice. Let’s use a
manufacturing company with various locations globally as an example.

Each location, such as a factory, will have its own network. If the manufacturing site
uses Internet of Things (IoT) sensors on its equipment, it will most likely use edge
computing. These sensors will be connected via WiFi to an edge gateway device or
an on-site server. This can also accept user devices on the factory, such as
employee workstations and mobile phones.

These mini networks will then be connected to the company’s wide area network
(WAN), often using a client/server architecture. Corporate headquarters will often
house the central server, although a server on the cloud is also a possibility these
days. Regardless, network administrators on HQ can monitor and manage the whole
WAN infrastructure.
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

The enterprise WAN is also connected to the Internet via a broadband connection,
courtesy of their service provider.

Design principles for WSNs

Designing wireless sensor networks (WSNs) involves considering various factors to

ensure efficient and reliable operation. Here are some design principles to guide the
development of WSNs:

1. Energy Efficiency: Since sensor nodes are often battery-powered and have limited
energy resources, energy efficiency is crucial. Design protocols and algorithms that
minimize energy consumption through techniques such as duty cycling, data
aggregation, and energy-aware routing.
2. Scalability: WSNs may need to accommodate a varying number of nodes and adapt
to changes in network size. Design protocols and architectures that can scale
effectively without significant performance degradation.
3. Reliability: Develop mechanisms to ensure reliable data transmission despite the
challenges posed by wireless communication, such as interference, fading, and node
failures. This may involve techniques like error detection and correction, redundancy,
and reliable routing protocols.
4. Fault Tolerance: WSNs should be resilient to node failures and environmental
disturbances. Employ redundancy and self-healing mechanisms to ensure continued
operation even in the presence of faults.
5. Low Latency: Depending on the application, minimizing communication delays
(latency) can be critical. Design protocols and algorithms with low latency to support
real-time or near-real-time applications such as industrial monitoring or emergency
response systems.
6. Security: Protect data confidentiality, integrity, and availability against various
security threats such as eavesdropping, tampering, and denial of service attacks.
Implement encryption, authentication, and access control mechanisms to secure
communication and data storage.
7. Localization: In many WSN applications, knowing the physical location of sensor
nodes is essential. Develop localization algorithms and techniques that accurately
determine node positions using available information such as signal strength, time-
of-flight, or GPS.
8. Data Aggregation: Minimize the amount of data transmitted over the network by
aggregating and summarizing information at intermediate nodes. This reduces
communication overhead and conserves energy.
9. Adaptability: WSNs often operate in dynamic and unpredictable environments.
Design protocols and algorithms that can adapt to changes in network conditions,
such as node mobility, varying traffic loads, and environmental changes.
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

10. Interoperability: Ensure that different components of the WSN, including sensors,
gateways, and applications, can communicate seamlessly by adhering to
standardized communication protocols and data formats.

Service interfaces of WSNs

Service interfaces in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) define the interaction points
between different layers, components, or entities within the network. These interfaces
enable communication, data exchange, and control between various elements of the
WSN architecture. Here are some common service interfaces found in WSNs:

1. Physical Layer Interface: This interface defines how the physical layer interacts with
the hardware components of the sensor nodes, including transceivers, antennas, and
sensors. It includes specifications for modulation, coding, transmission power control,
and channel access mechanisms.
2. Data Link Layer Interface: The data link layer interface governs communication
between neighboring nodes and manages data transmission over the wireless
medium. It includes services such as frame synchronization, error detection and
correction, medium access control (MAC), and link quality estimation.
3. Network Layer Interface: This interface provides services for routing and forwarding
data packets between sensor nodes within the network. It includes functionalities
such as addressing, routing protocol interactions, packet forwarding, and congestion
control.
4. Transport Layer Interface: The transport layer interface ensures end-to-end
communication between sensor nodes and higher-level network entities. It includes
services such as segmentation and reassembly of data packets, flow control, and
reliability mechanisms.
5. Application Layer Interface: At the highest level, the application layer interface
facilitates interaction between sensor nodes and application-specific services or
middleware. It includes services for data aggregation, event detection, localization,
and interfacing with external applications or services.
6. Management Interface: The management interface provides services for
configuring, monitoring, and maintaining the operation of the WSN. It includes
functionalities such as node configuration, network monitoring, energy management,
and fault detection.
7. Security Interface: In secure WSNs, the security interface governs interactions
related to authentication, encryption, access control, and key management. It ensures
the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data exchanged within the network.
8. Time Synchronization Interface: For applications requiring synchronized operation,
the time synchronization interface provides services for synchronizing the clocks of
sensor nodes within the network. It includes protocols for time distribution and clock
synchronization accuracy.
 WSN/Unit 1/Notes

Gateway concepts :-
In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), gateways serve as intermediaries between the
sensor nodes deployed in the field and higher-level networks or systems, such as the
internet or local area networks (LANs). Here are some key concepts related to
gateways in WSNs:

1. Data Aggregation: Gateways collect data from multiple sensor nodes within the
network and aggregate it before transmitting it to the higher-level network. This
aggregation reduces the amount of data sent over the network, conserving
bandwidth and energy.
2. Protocol Translation: Gateways often perform protocol translation to enable
communication between the sensor nodes, which typically use low-power, resource-
constrained protocols such as Zigbee or Bluetooth, and the higher-level network,
which may use standard internet protocols such as TCP/IP.
3. Interfacing with External Systems: Gateways provide interfaces for connecting
WSNs with external systems, applications, or services. This enables integration with
existing infrastructure and allows for seamless data exchange between the sensor
network and other systems.
4. Network Management: Gateways play a role in network management by
monitoring the status and performance of the sensor nodes, configuring network
parameters, and facilitating software updates or reprogramming of sensor nodes
remotely.
5. Security Gateway: In secure WSNs, gateways may act as security gateways,
enforcing security policies, performing encryption and decryption of data, and
authenticating sensor nodes before allowing data transmission to higher-level
networks.
6. Scalability: Gateways facilitate the scalability of WSNs by serving as access points for
adding new sensor nodes to the network or expanding the coverage area. They
manage the communication and coordination between sensor nodes and ensure
efficient data routing and delivery.
7. Reliability and Redundancy: Gateways can improve the reliability of WSNs by
providing redundancy and failover mechanisms. Multiple gateways can be deployed
to ensure continuous operation even in the event of gateway failure or network
partitioning.
8. Edge Processing: In some cases, gateways may perform edge processing tasks, such
as data filtering, aggregation, or preprocessing, before transmitting data to higher-
level networks. This reduces the amount of data transferred and can enable faster
response times for real-time applications.
9. Energy Efficiency: Gateways may employ energy-efficient communication protocols
and algorithms to minimize energy consumption, especially in battery-powered
WSNs. They can schedule communication activities and optimize transmission
parameters to conserve energy.
 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) operating systems are specialized platforms designed to
manage the resources and tasks of sensor nodes within a WSN. These operating systems are
tailored to the unique requirements and constraints of sensor networks, such as limited
processing power, memory, energy, and communication bandwidth. Here are some popular
WSN operating systems:
1. TinyOS:
 Design Philosophy: TinyOS is designed for highly resource-constrained
sensor nodes. It follows a component-based architecture where functionality
is implemented as reusable components called "Tiny Components" (TinyC).
 Concurrency Model: TinyOS uses an event-driven programming model,
where tasks are executed in response to events such as sensor readings or
incoming messages. This model helps conserve energy by allowing nodes to
remain in low-power sleep modes when not actively processing tasks.
 Networking Support: It provides support for various networking protocols,
including low-power wireless protocols like IEEE 802.15.4. TinyOS applications
typically use the TinyOS network stack for communication between nodes.
 Energy Efficiency: TinyOS emphasizes energy efficiency through techniques
such as duty cycling, where nodes alternate between active and sleep modes
to conserve power.
2. Contiki:
 Multi-Threading: Contiki provides a multi-threaded kernel that allows
applications to run concurrent tasks. This enables more complex applications
and better utilization of resources compared to event-driven models.
 IPv6 Support: Unlike many other WSN operating systems, Contiki offers full
support for IPv6 networking, enabling seamless integration with the Internet
and facilitating communication with other devices and services.
 Low-Power Modes: Contiki supports low-power operation through
mechanisms like power-aware scheduling and low-power sleep modes. It
allows nodes to dynamically adjust their power consumption based on
workload and environmental conditions.
 Rich Set of Protocols: Contiki includes a comprehensive set of networking
protocols, including CoAP, MQTT, RPL, and 6LoWPAN, making it suitable for a
wide range of IoT applications beyond traditional WSNs.
3. RIOT:
 Preemptive Kernel: RIOT features a preemptive multitasking kernel that
allows tasks to be preempted and scheduled based on priority. This enables
real-time responsiveness and predictable behavior, crucial for many WSN
applications.
 Supported Platforms: RIOT supports a wide range of hardware platforms,
from low-power microcontrollers to more capable single-board computers,
providing developers with flexibility in choosing hardware for their WSN
deployments.
  Energy Management: RIOT includes energy-efficient scheduling algorithms
and power management features to optimize energy consumption. It allows
developers to specify power-saving policies based on application
requirements and device capabilities.
 Networking Stack: RIOT provides support for various networking protocols,
including IEEE 802.15.4, 6LoWPAN, and IPv6, enabling seamless
communication between sensor nodes and integration with other IoT devices
and networks.

These are just a few examples of WSN operating systems, each with its own strengths
and capabilities tailored to the specific requirements of wireless sensor networks.
Developers often choose an operating system based on factors such as resource
constraints, application complexity, real-time requirements, and interoperability with
existing systems.

What is a wireless ad hoc network (WANET)?

A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a type of local area network (LAN)

that is built spontaneously to enable two or more wireless devices to be
connected to each other without requiring typical network infrastructure
equipment, such as a wireless router or access point.

Because the devices in the ad hoc network can access each other's
resources directly through basic peer-to-peer (P2P) or point-to-multipoint
modes, central servers are unnecessary for functions such as file sharing
or printing. In a WANET, a collection of devices, or nodes -- such as a
wireless-capable PC or smartphone -- is responsible for network
operations, such as routing, security, addressing and key management.

How does an ad hoc network work?

Devices configured for ad hoc functionality require a wireless network

adapter or chip, and they need to be able to act as a wireless router when
connected. When setting up a wireless ad hoc network, each wireless
adapter must be configured for ad hoc mode instead of infrastructure
mode. All wireless devices connecting to an ad hoc device need to use the
same service set identifier (SSID) and wireless frequency channel number.
Instead of relying on a wireless base station, such as a wireless access
point (WAP) or Wi-Fi router, an ad hoc device takes on this role and
coordinates the flow of messages to each node in the network. The
individual wireless endpoints connected to an ad hoc network forward
packets to and from each other. Makeshift by nature, ad hoc wireless
networks are most useful when wireless infrastructure isn't available -- for
example, if there aren't any access points or routers within range and
cabling cannot extend to reach the location where additional wireless
communication is needed.

It's important to note that not all ad hoc networks are built using a PC or
smartphone. In fact, Wi-Fi access points can be configured to work in either
ad hoc or infrastructure mode as well. Typically, Wi-Fi networks configured
for infrastructure mode are created and managed using equipment such as
Wi-Fi routers or a combination of WAPs and wireless controllers that
provide the necessary network intelligence. Ad hoc networks are also
commonly set up to provide temporary wireless network access created by
a computer or smartphone. The use of more sophisticated network
protocols and network services found on infrastructure-based wireless
networks, such as IEEE 802.1x authentication, usually are not suitable or
necessary for short-lived ad hoc networks.

When should you use an ad hoc wireless network?

Deciding when to employ ad hoc versus infrastructure mode depends on

the use. For example, users who want a WAP to act as a permanent
access point should choose infrastructure mode with an on-site or cloud-
based wireless LAN (WLAN) controller. But ad hoc mode might be a good
option for a user setting up a temporary wireless network between a small
number of devices. A perfect example of this is to use a cellular-connected
smartphone that is configured in Wi-Fi ad hoc mode so that Wi-Fi capable
laptops can connect to the Wi-Fi ad hoc network to gain internet access
over the smartphone's cellular internet link. This method bypasses any
need for a WAP or WLAN controller.
Ad hoc networks require minimal configuration and can be deployed
quickly, which makes them suitable for emergencies, such as natural
disasters, military conflicts or when traveling. Thanks to the presence of
dynamic and adaptive routing protocols, these networks can be configured
quickly. These impromptu, on-demand networks are useful for putting
together a small, inexpensive all-wireless LAN without the need for wireless
infrastructure equipment. They also work well as temporary access to the
internet if wireless access points or routers fail.

Types of ad hoc wireless networks

Types of WANETs vary by application need and use. Choosing a wireless

ad hoc network type depends on the wireless equipment capabilities,
physical environment and purpose of the communication.

MANET

A mobile ad hoc network involves mobile devices communicating directly

with one another. A MANET is a network of wireless mobile devices without
an infrastructure that are self-organizing and self-configuring. A MANET is
sometimes referred to as an "on-the-fly" or "spontaneous network."
Examples of MANETs include smart home lighting, ad hoc streetlight
networks, ad hoc networks of robots, disaster rescue ad hoc networks and
hospital ad hoc networks. In many cases, these networks use proprietary or
non-TCP/IP networking standards for communication.

IMANET

Internet-based mobile ad hoc networks support internet protocols, such as

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP). The iMANET employs a TCP/IP network-layer
routing protocol on each connected device to link mobile nodes and set up
distributed routes automatically. IMANETs may also be used in the
collection of sensor data for data mining for a variety of use cases, such as
air pollution monitoring.
SPAN

Smartphone ad hoc networks employ existing hardware, such as Wi-Fi and

Bluetooth, and software protocols built into a smartphone operating system
(OS) to create P2P networks without relying on cellular carrier networks,
wireless access points or other traditional network infrastructure equipment.
Different from traditional hub-and-spoke networks, such as Wi-Fi Direct,
SPANs support multi-hop relays. Multi-hop relay is the process of sending
traffic from device A to device C using intermediary device B. Therefore,
device A and C do not need to have a direct P2P connection established
for traffic to reach its destination. Because SPANs are fully dynamic in
nature, there is no group leader in this type of application and, thus, peers
can join or leave without harming the network.

Vehicular ad hoc network

This network type involves devices in vehicles that are used for
communicating between them and roadside equipment. An example is the
in-vehicle safety and security system OnStar.

WMN

Wireless mesh networks are comprised of radio networks set up in a mesh

topology and frequently consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and
gateways. In mesh networking, the devices -- or nodes -- are connected so
at least some, if not all, have many paths to other nodes. This creates
many routes for information between pairs of users, increasing the
resilience of the network if a node or connection fails. WMNs are useful in
situations where a temporary wireless network is required or in more
permanent scenarios where network cabling cannot be run to create an
infrastructure-based wireless network.

Advantages of an ad hoc network

Ad hoc mode can be easier to set up than infrastructure mode when just
connecting a handful of devices without requiring a centralized access
point. For example, if a user has two laptops and is in a hotel room without
Wi-Fi, they can be connected directly in ad hoc mode to create a temporary
Wi-Fi network without a router. The Wi-Fi Direct standard -- a specification
that allows devices certified for Wi-Fi Direct to exchange data without an
internet connection or a wireless router -- also builds on ad hoc mode. It
enables devices to communicate directly over Wi-Fi signals.

Other benefits of wireless ad hoc networks include the following:

 Because ad hoc networks do not require infrastructure hardware such

as access points or wireless routers, they provide a low-cost way of
direct client-to-client or client-to-internet communication.

 Ad hoc networks are easy to configure and offer an effective way to

communicate with devices nearby when time is of the essence and
running cabling is not feasible.

 The temporary, often impromptu qualities of ad hoc networks can make

them less vulnerable to security threats.

 An ad hoc network linking a small number of devices might be more

practical than a traditional infrastructure-based network that can connect
many more devices.

Disadvantages of ad hoc networks

One major drawback of wireless ad hoc networking is that some Wi-Fi-

enabled technology, including certain Android devices, wireless printers
and custom IoT sensors, don't support ad hoc mode because of its
limitations and will only connect to networks in infrastructure mode by
default. In some cases, third-party software can be installed on endpoint
devices to enable ad hoc communications.

Infrastructure mode is a better option than ad hoc mode for setting up a

larger and more permanent network that can support far more
endpoints. Wireless routers that serve as access points typically have
higher-power wireless radios and antennas that provide coverage of a
wider area. Ad hoc networks often suffer from poor wireless communication
range issues, because antennas built into endpoints were not designed to
be as powerful as purpose-built WAPs.

Ad hoc networks also do not scale well. As the number of devices in an ad

hoc network increases, it becomes harder to manage because often there
is not a central device through which all traffic flows. For example, when
several devices are connected via a P2P MANET ad hoc network, more
wireless interference can occur, as each device must establish a direct P2P
connection to each of the other devices, instead of going through a single
access point in a hub-and-spoke architecture. When a device is too far
from a device it needs to connect to, it will pass the data through other
devices on the way; this is slower than passing it through a single access
point acting as a centralized wireless bridge.

Other disadvantages of ad hoc wireless networks include the following:

 Devices in an ad hoc network cannot disable SSID broadcasting like

devices in infrastructure mode can. As a result, attackers can find and
connect to an ad hoc device if they are within signal range.

 Security options are limited due to a lack of network infrastructure

services, such as access to a RADIUS (remote authentication dial-in
user service) server for 802.1x authentication purposes.

 Some wireless ad hoc networks cannot bridge wired LANs or connect to

the internet without installing a special-purpose network gateway.

Devices can only use the internet if one of them is connected to and
sharing it with the others, such as a cellular-connected smartphone
operating in "hotspot" mode, which is a variation of an ad hoc network.
When internet sharing is enabled, the client performing this function may
face performance problems, especially if there are many interconnected
devices. Ad hoc mode requires the use of more endpoint system
resources, as the physical network layout changes when devices are
 moved around; in contrast, an access point in infrastructure mode typically
remains stationary from an endpoint perspective.

Ad hoc network security

As mentioned, many ad hoc networks suffer from the fact that they were
built to be temporary and thus lack many of the advanced security features
often found in stationary, infrastructure WLANs. As such, many types of ad
hoc networks can only be configured with basic security functionality.

A great example of this is the use of a smartphone operating in ad hoc

mode. In this case, an ad hoc-capable smartphone device can be
configured to broadcast a Wi-Fi SSID so others can join. However, this
SSID cannot be hidden from others. Additionally, the smartphone device
cannot operate using more secure authentication standards such as WPA-
Enterprise, which uses 802.1x authentication to a RADIUS server. Instead,
only WPA-Personal is available, which requires the use and exchange of a
static private key to protect against unauthorized access.

That said, because this type of ad hoc network is used temporarily, covers
a smaller area and often moves, the likelihood of an attacker gaining
access to it is far lower compared to a wireless infrastructure that is
stationary and operational at all times.

Ad-hoc networks are decentralized wireless networks formed by a collection of

autonomous nodes communicating with each other without the need for any pre-
existing infrastructure, such as routers or access points. Here are some characteristics
and challenges associated with ad-hoc networks:

Characteristics:

1. Decentralization: Ad-hoc networks are decentralized, meaning there is no central

authority controlling network operations. Each node in the network acts as both a
host and a router, forwarding data packets to other nodes.
2. Dynamic Topology: The topology of an ad-hoc network is dynamic and can change
rapidly as nodes move around, join, or leave the network. This dynamic nature poses
challenges for routing and maintaining network connectivity.
3. Self-Organization: Ad-hoc networks rely on self-organization mechanisms for
network formation and operation. Nodes must autonomously discover and establish
communication links with nearby nodes without relying on any central configuration.
4. Limited Resources: Nodes in ad-hoc networks typically have limited resources such as
battery power, processing capabilities, and bandwidth. Optimizing resource usage
and network protocols is essential to prolong the network's lifetime and improve
performance.
5. Multi-hop Communication: Communication in ad-hoc networks often occurs through
multi-hop routes, where data packets are relayed through intermediate nodes to
reach their destination. Efficient routing protocols are needed to establish and
maintain these routes.

Challenges:

1. Routing: One of the primary challenges in ad-hoc networks is designing efficient

routing protocols capable of adapting to the dynamic topology and resource
constraints. Traditional routing algorithms may not be suitable for ad-hoc
environments due to their centralized nature or assumptions about network stability.
2. Network Scalability: Ad-hoc networks can vary greatly in size, from small networks
with a few nodes to large-scale deployments spanning a wide geographic area.
Ensuring scalability to support varying network sizes while maintaining performance
and reliability is a significant challenge.
3. Security: Ad-hoc networks are susceptible to various security threats, including
eavesdropping, data tampering, and denial-of-service attacks. Securing
communication channels, authenticating nodes, and implementing encryption
techniques are essential for protecting against these threats.
4. Quality of Service (QoS): Providing QoS guarantees in ad-hoc networks is challenging
due to the dynamic nature of the network topology and resource constraints.
Ensuring timely delivery of data packets, minimizing latency, and managing network
bandwidth are critical for supporting applications with stringent QoS requirements.
5. Energy Efficiency: Since nodes in ad-hoc networks are often powered by batteries,
energy efficiency is crucial for prolonging network lifetime. Energy-efficient
communication protocols, sleep scheduling algorithms, and power management
techniques are essential for maximizing the lifespan of battery-powered nodes.

Addressing these characteristics and challenges requires innovative research and the
development of specialized protocols and algorithms tailored to the unique
requirements of ad-hoc networks.
 Energy efficiency is a critical consideration in ad-hoc networks
due to the limited power resources of the individual nodes, which are often battery-
powered. Here are some key energy efficiency considerations in ad-hoc networks:

1. Low-Power Communication Protocols: Designing communication protocols that

minimize energy consumption is essential. Techniques such as low-duty cycle
operation, where nodes switch between active and sleep states to conserve power,
can significantly reduce energy consumption.
2. Localized Communication: Limiting communication to nearby nodes can reduce the
energy expended in transmitting data over long distances. Localized communication
protocols, such as geographic routing or clustering algorithms, help minimize the
number of hops required to reach the destination.
3. Efficient Routing Algorithms: Routing algorithms play a crucial role in energy
efficiency. Energy-aware routing protocols consider the remaining battery levels of
nodes when selecting paths to minimize energy consumption. These protocols aim
to balance energy usage across the network and avoid routing packets through
nodes with low battery levels.
4. Dynamic Sleep Scheduling: Sleep scheduling algorithms enable nodes to enter low-
power sleep modes when they are not actively transmitting or receiving data. By
synchronizing sleep schedules and ensuring that nodes wake up only when
necessary, these algorithms can significantly extend the battery life of individual
nodes.
5. Adaptive Transmission Power Control: Adjusting the transmission power based on
the distance between communicating nodes can reduce energy consumption. By
using lower transmission power levels for nearby nodes and higher power levels for
distant nodes, nodes can conserve energy without sacrificing communication
reliability.
6. Data Aggregation and Fusion: Aggregating and fusing data at intermediate nodes
before forwarding it to the destination can reduce the number of transmissions and
conserve energy. Data aggregation techniques group related data packets together,
reducing redundancy and saving energy.
7. Cross-Layer Optimization: Coordinating optimizations across different layers of the
protocol stack can further improve energy efficiency. By considering interactions
between the physical, MAC, and network layers, cross-layer optimization techniques
can minimize energy consumption while meeting performance requirements.
8. Topology Control: Controlling the topology of the ad-hoc network can help reduce
energy consumption. Techniques such as selective node activation, where only a
subset of nodes remains active while others remain in sleep mode, can reduce idle
listening and improve energy efficiency.

By incorporating these energy efficiency considerations into the design of ad-hoc

network protocols and algorithms, researchers and engineers can prolong the
 lifespan of battery-powered nodes and improve the overall performance of the
network.

Security and privacy are significant concerns in ad-hoc networks due to

their decentralized and dynamic nature. Here are some key considerations for
addressing security and privacy challenges in ad-hoc networks:

1. Authentication: Ensuring that nodes can authenticate each other before establishing
communication is essential for preventing unauthorized access and attacks such as
spoofing or impersonation. Authentication mechanisms, such as digital signatures or
pre-shared keys, can be used to verify the identity of communicating nodes.
2. Encryption: Encrypting data transmissions can prevent eavesdropping and ensure
the confidentiality of communication in ad-hoc networks. Techniques such as
symmetric or asymmetric encryption can be employed to encrypt data packets and
protect them from unauthorized access.
3. Key Management: Managing cryptographic keys securely is crucial for maintaining
the effectiveness of encryption techniques in ad-hoc networks. Key distribution
protocols and mechanisms for key establishment and revocation help ensure that
only authorized nodes have access to encryption keys.
4. Secure Routing: Securing the routing process is essential for preventing attacks such
as routing attacks or packet spoofing. Secure routing protocols incorporate
mechanisms for authenticating routing information and detecting malicious nodes
attempting to disrupt or manipulate routing paths.
5. Intrusion Detection and Prevention: Deploying intrusion detection and prevention
systems can help detect and mitigate security threats in ad-hoc networks. These
systems monitor network traffic for suspicious activity and take proactive measures
to prevent attacks or isolate compromised nodes.
6. Privacy-Preserving Protocols: Protecting the privacy of users' data and identities is
critical in ad-hoc networks, where nodes may have limited trust in each other.
Privacy-preserving protocols employ techniques such as anonymization,
pseudonymization, or data obfuscation to prevent the disclosure of sensitive
information.
7. Secure Group Communication: Supporting secure group communication is
essential for applications such as multicast or collaborative computing in ad-hoc
networks. Group key management protocols enable secure communication among
members of a group while preventing unauthorized access by non-members.
8. Trust Management: Establishing trust relationships among nodes in ad-hoc
networks is challenging due to the lack of centralized authorities. Trust management
mechanisms allow nodes to assess the trustworthiness of their neighbors based on
past interactions, reputation systems, or recommendations from trusted sources.
9. Denial-of-Service (DoS) Mitigation: Protecting ad-hoc networks against DoS
attacks is essential for maintaining network availability and performance. DoS
 mitigation techniques such as rate limiting, packet filtering, or traffic shaping help
prevent attackers from overwhelming network resources or disrupting
communication.
10. Energy-Aware Security: Considering the energy constraints of ad-hoc network
nodes is crucial when designing security mechanisms. Energy-aware security
protocols minimize the energy overhead associated with security operations to
prolong the battery life of individual nodes.

By addressing these security and privacy considerations, developers and researchers

can enhance the trustworthiness and resilience of ad-hoc networks, enabling secure
communication and collaboration in dynamic and decentralized environments.
Routing Challenges in WSNs
The design of routing protocols in WSNs is influenced by many challenging factors
that must be overcome before efficient communication can be achieved in WSNs.
Some of these challenges and some design guidelines to be considered in the
design process include:

• Ad hoc deployment. Sensor nodes are deployed randomly. This requires that the
system be able to cope with the resultant distribution and form connections between
the nodes. Thus, the system should be adaptive to changes in network connectivity
as a result of node failure.

• Energy consumption without losing accuracy. Sensor nodes can use up their
limited supply of energy performing computations and transmitting information in a
wireless environment. As such, energy-conserving forms of communication and
computation are essential. Sensor node lifetime shows a strong dependence on
battery lifetime. In a multihop WSN, each node plays a dual role as data sender and
data router. The malfunctioning of some sensor nodes because of power failure can
cause significant topological changes and might require rerouting packets and
reorganizing the network.

• Computation capabilities. Sensor nodes have limited computing power and

therefore may not be able to run sophisticated network protocols. Therefore, new or
light-weight and simple versions of traditional routing protocols are needed to fit in
the WSN environment.

• Communication range. Intersensor communication exhibits short transmission

ranges. Therefore, it is most likely that a route will generally consist of multiple
wireless hops.

• Fault tolerance. Some sensor nodes may fail or be blocked due to lack of power,
physical damage, or environmental interference. The failure of sensor nodes should
not affect the overall task of the sensor network. If many nodes fail, MAC and routing
protocols must accommodate formation of new links and routes to the data collection
base stations. This may require actively adjusting transmit powers and signaling
rates on the existing links to reduce energy consumption, or rerouting packets
through regions of the network where more energy is available. Therefore, multiple
levels of redundancy may be needed in a fault-tolerant sensor network.

• Scalability. The number of sensor nodes deployed in the sensing area may be in
the order of hundreds or thousands or more. Any scheme must be able to work with
this huge number of sensor nodes. Also, change in network size, node density, and
topology should not affect the task and operation of the sensor network. In addition,
sensor network routing protocols should be scalable enough to respond to events in
the environment. Until an event occurs, most of the sensors can remain in the sleep
state, with data from the few remaining sensors providing a coarse quality. Once an
event of interest is detected, the system should be able to configure so as to obtain
very high-quality results.

• Hardware constraints. Consisting of many hardware components, a sensor node

may be smaller than a cubic centimeter. These components consume extremely low
power and operate in an unattended mode; nonetheless, they should adapt to the
environment of the sensor network and function correctly.

• Transmission media. In a multihop sensor network, communicating nodes are

linked by a wireless medium. The traditional problems associated with a wireless
channel (e.g., fading, high error rate) may also affect the operation of the sensor
network. In general, the required bandwidth of sensor data will be low, on the order
of 1 to 100 kb/s. Related to the transmission media is the design of medium access
control (MAC). One approach of MAC design for sensor networks is to use TDMA-
based protocols that conserve more energy compared to contention-based protocols
like CSMA (e.g., IEEE 802.11). However, although TDMA-based protocols work fine
in a flat network, they do not adapt well to clustered WSNs. Management of
intercluster communication and dynamic adaptation of the TDMA protocol to
variation in the number of nodes in the cluster — in terms of its frame length and
time slot assignment — are key challenges for the MAC protocol in hierarchical
network. In WSNs, sensors use the Bluetooth technology for transmission. Bluetooth
is based upon low-cost, low-complexity, and short range radio communication of
data and voice in stationary and mobile environments.

• Connectivity. High node density in sensor networks precludes their complete

isolation from each other. Therefore, sensor nodes are expected to be highly
connected. This, however, may not prevent the network topology from being variable
and the network size from being changed due to sensor nodes' failures for different
reasons.

• Control overhead. When the number of retransmissions in a wireless medium

increases due to collisions, latency and energy consumption will also increase.
Therefore, control packet overhead increases linearly with node density. As a result,
trade-offs among energy conservation, self-configuration, per-node fairness, and
latency may exist. However, fairness and throughput are of secondary importance in
WSNs.

• Quality of service. In some applications, the data should be delivered within a

certain period of time from the moment they are sensed; otherwise the data will be
useless. Therefore, bounded latency for data delivery is another condition for time-
constrained applications.

The communication architecture of the sensor network is shown in Figure 6.2. The
sensor nodes are usually scattered in a sensor field — an area in which the sensor
nodes are deployed. The nodes in these networks coordinate to produce high-quality
information about the physical environment. Each sensor
S-MAC Protocol in WSNs
S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is a low-power, duty-cycled MAC (medium access
control) protocol designed for wireless sensor networks. It tries to save
energy by reducing the time a node spends in the active (transmitting) state
and lengthening the time it spends in the low-power sleep state. S-MAC
achieves this by implementing a schedule-based duty cycling mechanism. In
this system, nodes coordinate their sleeping and waking times with their
neighbors and send the data only at predetermined time slots. As a result of
this mechanism, there are fewer collisions and idle listening events, which
leads to low energy usage.
SMAC (Sensor MAC) is a wireless sensor network(WSNs) protocol that is
designed to reduce the overhead and power consumption of
MAC protocols.

The term “S-MAC” refers to the entire S-MAC protocol, which contains every
component of our new system. A unique MAC protocol specifically created
for wireless sensor networks is called sensor-MAC (S-MAC). This protocol
has good scaling and collision avoidance capabilities, even if reducing
energy consumption is the main objective. By applying a hybrid scheduling
and contention-based approach, it achieves good scalability and collision
avoidance. We must determine the main causes of inefficient energy usage,
as well as the trade-offs that can be made to lower the usage of energy, in
order to achieve the primary goal of energy efficiency.
S-MAC saves energy mostly by preventing overhearing and effectively
sending a lengthy message. Periodic sleep is crucial for energy conservation
when inactive listening accounts for the majority of total energy usage. S-
MAC’s energy usage is mostly unaffected by the volume of traffic. To reduce
the capacity of transmissions and data transmitted in the network, S-MAC
also has capabilities like packet aggregation and route discovery. This
improves the network’s scalability and also helps to reduce overhead.

Due to its abundance to offer low-power and energy-efficient communication

in wireless sensor networks, S-MAC is widely employed in a variety of
applications, including environmental monitoring, industrial automation, and
military sensings.
Design and Implementation of S-MAC
To save energy, this protocol’s ability to modify sleep duration based on
traffic patterns is intriguing. The node sleeps for longer periods when there is
less traffic; also, the node is limited by the duty cycle protocol. Nodes spend
more time in transmissions as a result of fewer opportunities for periodic
sleep as traffic volume increases.
Since the traffic load does alter over time, sensor network applications can
benefit from this feature. The amount of traffic is relatively lower when there
is no sensing event. A large sensor, such as a camera, may be activated
when some nodes detect an event, creating a lot of traffic. The S-MAC
protocol can adjust to changes in traffic. In contrast, the message-passing
module with overhearing avoidance lacks periodic sleep, and when traffic
demand reduces, nodes spend an increasing amount of time idle listening.

Although to minimize the frequency of transmissions and the amount of data

transmitted in the network, S-MAC uses the packet aggregation technique,
which involves combining multiple data packets into a single bigger packet.
This improves the network’s scalability and also helps to decrease overhead.
In addition, it also has a route discovery mechanism that enables nodes to
select the fastest and most efficient overall, path for data transmission. By
doing so, the network becomes more efficient overall and the need for
energy for data transmission is reduced.

The implementation of this protocol generally involves the use of a network

protocol stack, with the MAC layer acting as the implementation layer of the
protocol and the lower levels acting as its supporting infrastructure for data
transmission and reception. The low-power constraints of wireless sensor
networks, as well as the need for security, scalability, and robustness, must
be taken into account in the design and implementation of S-MAC.

After implementation, it also showed a fascinating property: according to the

condition of the traffic, they made their trade-off between latency and energy.
S-MAC has been widely integrated into many different systems and devices
and is commonly used in wireless sensor networks because of its flexibility,
adaptability, and versatility as a solution for low-power and energy-
constrained wireless networks because its design can fit the needs of
applications.
Design Goals of S-MAC
 Reduce energy consumption
 Support good scalability
 Self-configurable
Features of the S-MAC
S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is designed specifically for wireless sensor networks
and has several key features, including:
 Synchronized sleep schedule: To minimize the overhead and power
usage related to MAC protocols, it adopts a synchronized sleep schedule.
To save energy, nodes alternately take turns sleeping and waking up,
which reduces idle listening and maximizes battery life.
 Packet aggregation: Packet aggregation is a feature of this protocol that
combines multiple data packets into a single larger packet to reduce the
 quantity and frequency of transmissions in the network. This improves the
network’s scalability and hence decreases overhead.
 Route discovery: The S-MAC protocol has a route discovery mechanism
that enables nodes to select the fastest and most efficient path for data
transmission. This improves the network’s overall efficiency and lowers
the energy use associated with data transmission.
 Low overhead: It is because S-MAC limits the amount of data carried
through the network and lowers the number of transmissions, it has a low
overhead. This increases the network’s effectiveness and helps to
conserve energy.
 Robustness: S-MAC is designed to be resilient and robust in the face of
failures and changes to the network. It has tools and mechanisms for
handling failures, identifying them, and adjusting to network changes like
node mobility and changes in network topology.
 Security: To protect against unauthorized access and malicious attacks.
This makes it easier to guarantee the security and privacy of data sent
across the network.
Performance Evaluation
The performance evaluation of S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is a crucial part of its
development and implementation since it enables researchers and
practitioners to evaluate the protocol’s efficacy and efficiency.
There are several metrics that are commonly used to evaluate the
performance of S-MAC, including:
 Energy efficiency: Energy efficiency is a crucial indicator for wireless
sensor networks because the node’s battery life is constrained and they
must run for extended periods without maintenance. The average energy
use per node per unit of time and the network’s overall energy use is
frequently used to measure energy efficiency.
 Latency: The amount of time it takes for data to be transmitted from a
source node to a destination node is known as latency. For real-time
applications, where data must be delivered quickly to be usable, low
latency is crucial.
 Throughput: The amount of data that can be transferred in a given
amount of time is known as throughput. If some of the applications need
more throughput and a sudden requirement of larger data, then it might
be crucial.
 Scalability: A protocol’s scalability refers to how well it can manage an
expanding network of nodes and a growing amount of traffic. Sometimes
scalability may be crucial according to the higher needs and demands.
 Reliability: It is reliable for the crucial data to be sent without getting any
errors or leakage of data. It should have a reliable and confidential
mechanism to provide data.
Application of S-MAC

1. Environmental monitoring: Environmental monitoring systems can be

used for animal tracking, flood detection, forest surveillance, and weather
forecasting where a large number of wireless sensor nodes are deployed
to collect data about the environment by operating for longer periods of
time without maintenance which makes it energy efficient.
2. Industrial control: Senosrs working under S-MAC protocol makes it
economically feasible to monitor the status of machines and ensures
safety by installing sensor nodes into machines.
3. Health monitoring: Sensors are effectively and widely used in health
monitoring systems by getting embedded into a hospital building to track
and monitor patients and medical resources. There are different kinds of
sensors that can measure blood pressure, body temperature, and ECG.
BSN(Body sensor network) where wireless sensors are worn or implanted
for healthcare purposes and are used to collect data about a person’s
health and well-being.
4. Disaster response: Sensors can effectively act to prevent the
consequences of natural disasters like floods, landslides, forest fires, etc.
Its response mechanism in disaster management systems plays a key
role in the collection of data in the field and also in the incoming impact of
the disaster.
5. Military surveillance and safety: Wireless sensors can be immediately
deployed for surveillance and used to provide battlefield intelligence
regarding location, moments & motions, the identity of troops & vehicles,
and also the detection of weapons.
6. Agricultural monitoring: Wireless sensor nodes are deployed to collect
data about crop conditions and soil moisture. With the use of many
wireless distributed networks, we can easily track down the usage of
water and other resources.

Benefits of S-MAC

Sensor MACs are simply developed to overcome the challenges faces by

sensors while their working period. These networks consist of small, battery-
powered devices that are planted in remote areas, that is they are difficult to
reach. These nodes are designed to sense, collect, and transmit data to a
central server location, where the data is analyzed and processed.
 It cut down the main challenge of wireless sensor networks of
conservation of the energy, as the nodes are limited by their battery
power so it concentrated on creating low-power MAC protocols that may
decrease power usage and increase the battery life of the nodes and
must operate for long periods without maintenance.
 Installation and adaptation of these protocols in wireless networks are
beneficial and make it the only viable option where hard wiring and
construction limitations couldn’t limit its usage.
 To address these issues and increase the energy effectiveness of
wireless sensor networks, S-MAC was developed. It was created to use a
synchronized sleep schedule and other energy-saving methods to reduce
the overhead and power consumption associated with MAC protocols.
 Nowadays it is widely used for many useful and valuable purposes such
as environmental monitoring, military surveillance, and the health sector,
etc.
Minimal disruptions to the workforce and a system that gets up and runs
much sooner.

Limitation of S-MAC

Despite its many advantages, there are some limitations to S-MAC that
should be considered when evaluating its suitability for a particular
application:
 Complexity: It seems complex because it requires better understanding
and a higher level of technical knowledge for its implementation and
working, which also makes it costly for its fulfillment.
 Scalability: When embedded in large-scale networks, its performance
gets reduced for high-speed communication, and hence it is expensive to
build and not affordable by all.
 Latency: It focuses more on the duty-cycling mechanism for energy
consumption, due to which there is a reduction in both latency and per-
hop fairness, so some of the real-time applications get affected, which
require low latency.
 Interference: Although it has the mechanism to avoid interference, it fails
to do so due to high levels of interference coming from the outside
surrounding the sensing nodes.
 Overhead: Due to its communication mechanism, it has an increased
overhead in comparison with other MAC protocols.
 Overhearing: Here nodes receive a packet that is destined for another
node, and it is kept silent until it meets its requirement.
 Security: It doesn’t have its own in-built security mechanism, so it is prone
to hacking by hackers.
 RTS/CTS/ACK overhead.
Challenges in S-MAC

 There is no single controlling authority, so global synchronization is

difficult.
 Power efficiency issue.
 Frequent topology changes are due to mobility and failure.
MAC protocol for sensor network :
It establishes an infrastructure for communication among sensor nodes.
There are three types of MAC protocols used in sensor
networks:
 Fixed-allocation: It shares a common medium through a predetermined
assignment. It is suitable for sensor networks that continuously monitor
and generate deterministic data traffic. Each node is given a bounded
delay. The channel requirements of each node may vary over time, and in
the case of bursty traffic, it may lead to inefficient usage of the channel.
 Demand-based: This is useful in cases where the channel is allocated
according to node demand. It is suitable for variable-rate traffic, as it can
be efficiently transmitted. It requires the additional overhead of a
reservation process.
 Contention-based: Random access-based contention is used for the
channel when packets need to be transmitted. It has no guarantees for
delays and has possibility of colliding. It is not suitable for delay-sensitive
and real-time traffic. Overall, S-MAC is a useful protocol for wireless
sensor networks where energy conservation is a critical requirement.

IEEE 802.15.4 Technology

IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for
devices that are operated or work on batteries. This describes how low-rate
wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs) function.

IEEE 802.15.4e:

802.15.4e for industrial applications and 802.15.4g for the smart utility
networks (SUN)
The 802.15.4e improves the old standard by introducing mechanisms such
as time slotted access, multichannel communication and channel hopping.
 IEEE 802.15.4e introduces the following general functional
enhancements:
1. Low Energy (LE): This mechanism is intended for applications that can
trade latency for energy efficiency. It allows a node to operate with a very low
duty cycle.
2. Information Elements (IE) It is an extensible mechanism to exchange
information at the MAC sublayer.
3. Enhanced Beacons (EB): Enhanced Beacons are an extension of the
802.15.4 beacon frames and provide a greater flexibility. They allow to
create application-specific frames.
4. Multipurpose Frame: This mechanism provides a flexible frame format that
can address a number of MAC operations. It is based on IEs.
5. MAC Performance Metric: It is a mechanism to provide appropriate
feedback on the channel quality to the networking and upper layers, so that
appropriate decision can be taken.
6. Fast Association (FastA) The 802.15.4 association procedure introduces a
significant delay in order to save energy. For time-critical application latency
has priority over energy efficiency.
 IEEE 802.15.4e defines five new MAC behavior modes.
1. Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH): It targets application domains
such as industrial automation and process control, providing support for
multi-hop and multichannel communications, through a TDMA approach.
2. Deterministic and Synchronous Multi-channel Extension (DSME): It is
aimed to support both industrial and commercial applications.
3. Low Latency Deterministic Network (LLDN): Designed for single-hop and
single channel networks
4. Radio Frequency Identification Blink (BLINK): It is intended for application
domains such as item/people identification, location and tracking.
5. Asynchronous multi-channel adaptation (AMCA): It is targeted to
application domains where large deployments are required, such as smart
utility networks, infrastructure monitoring networks, and process control
networks.

Properties:

1. Standardization and alliances: It specifies low-data-rate PHY and MAC

layer requirements for wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
IEEE 802.15. Protocol Stacks include:
 ZigBee: ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with a low rate
task group 4. It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee is a
technological standard created for controlling and sensing the network. As
we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is
based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
 6LoWPAN: The 6LoWPAN system is used for a variety of applications
including wireless sensor networks. This form of wireless sensor network
 sends data as packets and uses IPv6 – providing the basis for the name –
IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks.
 ZigBee IP: Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology that was
developed for low-cost and low-power wireless machine-to-machine
(M2M) and internet of things (IoT) networks.
 ISA100.11a: It is a mesh network that provides secure wireless
communication to process control.
 Wireless HART: It is also a wireless sensor network technology, that
makes use of time-synchronized and self-organizing architecture.
 Thread: Thread is an IPv6-based networking protocol for low-power
Internet of Things devices in IEEE 802.15. 4-2006 wireless mesh network.
Thread is independent.
2. Physical Layer: This standard enables a wide range of PHY options in
ISM bands, ranging from 2.4 GHz to sub-GHz frequencies. IEEE 802.15.4
enables data transmission speeds of 20 kilobits per second, 40 kilobits per
second, 100 kilobits per second, and 250 kilobits per second. The
fundamental structure assumes a 10-meter range and a data rate of 250
kilobits per second. To further reduce power usage, even lower data rates
are possible. IEEE 802.15.4 regulates the RF transceiver and channel
selection, and even some energy and signal management features, at the
physical layer. Based on the frequency range and data performance needed,
there are now six PHYs specified. Four of them employ frequency hopping
techniques known as Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). Both PHY
data service and management service share a single packet structure so that
they can maintain a common simple interface with MAC.
3. MAC layer: The MAC layer provides links to the PHY channel by
determining that devices in the same region will share the assigned
frequencies. The scheduling and routing of data packets are also managed
at this layer. The 802.15.4 MAC layer is responsible for a number of
functions like:
 Beaconing for devices that operate as controllers in a network.
 used to associate and dissociate PANs with the help of devices.
 The safety of the device.
 Consistent communication between two MAC devices that are in a peer-
to-peer relationship.
Several established frame types are used by the MAC layer to accomplish
these functions. In 802.15.4, there are four different types of MAC frames:
 frame of data
 Frame for a beacon
 Frame of acknowledgement
 Frame for MAC commands
4. Topology: Networks based on IEEE 802.15.4 can be developed in a star,
peer-to-peer, or mesh topology. Mesh networks connect a large number of
nodes. This enables nodes that would otherwise be out of range to interact
with each other to use intermediate nodes to relay data.
5. Security: For data security, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard employs the
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key length as the basic
encryption technique. Activating such security measures for 802.15.4
significantly alters the frame format and uses a few of the payloads. The very
first phase in activating AES encryption is to use the Security Enabled field in
the Frame Control part of the 802.15.4 header. For safety, this field is a
single bit which is assigned to 1. When this bit is set, by taking certain bytes
from its Payload field, a field known as the Auxiliary Security Header is
formed following the Source Address field.
6. Competitive Technologies: The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers
serve as a basis for a variety of networking profiles that operate in different
IoT access scenarios. DASH7 is a competing radio technology with distinct
PHY and MAC layers.

The architecture of LR-WPAN Device:

IEEE 802.15.4

Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages:

 cheap cost
 long battery life,
 Quick installation
 simple
 extensible protocol stack
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include:

 IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.
 doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
 unbounded latency
 interference susceptibility

Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 Applications:

 Wireless sensor networks in the industry
 Building and home automation
 Remote controllers and interacting toys
 Automotive networks
 Routing Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks

Raul Aquino-Santos1, Luis Villasenor-Gonzalez2, Jaime Sanchez2, Jose Rosario

Gallardo2
1
Faculty of Telematics, University of Colima
28040, Av. Universidad 333, Colima, Colima, Mexico
2
CICESE, Research Centre
22860, Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, k. 113
Emsenada, B.C.N., Mexico
aquinor@ucoljnx; {luisvi, jasan, [email protected]}

Abstract. This paper evaluates three routing strategies for wireless sensor
networks: source, shortest path, and hierarchical-geographical, which are the
three most commonly employed by wireless ad-hoc and sensor networks
algorithms. Source routing was selected because it does not require costly
topology maintenance, while shortest path routing was chosen because of its
simple discovery routing approach and hierarchical-geographical routing was
elected because it uses location information via Global Positioning System
(GPS). The performance of these three routing strategies is evaluated by
simulation using OPNET, in terms of latency, End to End Delay (EED), packet
delivery ratio, routing overhead, overhead and routing load.

Keywords: Wireless sensor networks, multi-hop networks, unicast routing,

hierarchical and flat routing mechanisms.

1 Introduction
Recent advances in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology have
made the deployment of wireless sensor nodes a reality [1] [2], in part, because they
are small, inexpensive and energy efficient. Each node of a sensor network consists of
three basic subsystems: a sensor subsystem to monitor local environment parameters,
a processing subsystem to give computation support to the node, and a
communication subsystem to provide wireless communications to exchange
information with neighboring nodes. Because each individual sensor node can only
cover a relatively limited area, it needs to be connected with other nodes in a
coordinated manner to form a sensor network (SN), which can provide large amounts
of detailed information about a given geographic area. Consequently, a wireless
sensor network (WSN) can be described as a collection of intercommunicated
wireless sensor nodes which coordinate to perform a specific action. Unlike
traditional wireless networks, WSNs depend on dense deployment and coordination to
carry out their task. Wireless sensor nodes measure conditions in the environment
surrounding them and then transform these measurements into signals that can be

Please use the following format when citing this chapter:

Aquino-Santos, R., Villasenor-Gonzalez, L., Sanchez, J., Gallardo, J. R., 2007, in IFIP International Federation for
Information Processing, Volume 248, Wireless Sensor and Actor Networks, eds. L. Orozco-Barbosa, Olivares, T.,
Casado, R., Bermudez, A., (Boston: Springer), pp. 191-202.
192 Raul Aquino-Santos, Luis Villaseflor-Gonzalez, Jaime Sanchez, JosS Rosario Gallardo

processed to reveal specific information about phenomena located within a coverage

area around these sensor nodes.
WSNs have a variety of applications. Examples include environmental monitoring -
which involves monitoring air, soil and water, condition-based maintenance, habitat
monitoring (determining the plant and animal species population and behavior),
seismic detection, military surveillance, inventory tracking, smart spaces, etc. [3][4].
Despite their many diverse applications, WSNs pose a number of unique technical
challenges due to the following factors: fault tolerance (robustness), scalability,
production costs, operating environment, sensor network topology, hardware
constraint, transmission media and power consumption.
To date, the ZigBee Alliance is developing a communication standard for WSNs to
support low-cost, low-power consumption, two-way wireless communications.
Solutions adopting the ZigBee standard will be embedded in consumer electronics,
home and building automation, industrial controls, PC peripherals, medical sensor
applications, toys and games [5].
Sensor networks are generally deployed into an unplanned infrastructure where
there is no a priori knowledge of their specific location. The resulting problem of
estimating the spatial coordinates of the node is referred to as location. Most of the
proposed localization methods today depend on recursive trilateration/multilateration
techniques [6].
In WSNs, obtaining data is sometimes more important than knowing the specific Id
of the originating node. Because the data collected by many sensors in WSNs is
typically based on a common phenomenon, there is a high probability that this data
has some degree of redundancy. Data redundancy needs to be exploited by the routing
protocol to optimize energy and bandwidth utilization.
Many researchers are currently engaged in developing strategies to meet these many
diverse requirements. This paper focuses on a performance analysis of three basic
routing strategies which are commonly used in routing protocols in wireless ad-hoc
and sensor networks. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2
considers various routing protocols that deal with state-of-the-art routing techniques
for wireless sensor networks. Section 3 provides an explanation of the scenario
simulated and finally, Section 4 summarizes our work and proposes future research.

2 State-of-the-art of Routing Techniques for Wireless Sensor

Networks
Routing protocols for wireless sensor networks can be classified as data-centric,
hierarchical or location-based [7]. In these three categories, source, shortest path, and
hierarchical-geographical strategies play an important role to develop all of the
routing protocols.
 Routing Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks 193

2.1 Data-centric protocols

In data-centric protocols, the sensor nodes broadcast an advertisement for the

available data and wait for a request from an interested sink. Flooding is a simple
technique that can be used to broadcast information in wireless sensor networks,
however it requires significant resources because each node receiving a message must
rebroadcast it, unless a maximum number of hops for the packet are reached, or the
destination of the packet is the node itself. Flooding is a reactive technique that does
not require costly topology maintenance or complex route discovery algorithms.
However, it does have several additional deficiencies such as: implosion, overlap and
resource blindness [8]. A derivation of flooding is gossiping, in which nodes do not
broadcast. Instead, they send the incoming packets to a randomly selected neighbor.
Sensor protocols for information via negotiation (SPIN) address the deficiencies of
classic flooding by providing negotiation and resource adaptation [9]. However, SPIN
data advertisement mechanism cannot, by itself, guarantee data delivery [10]. SPIN
employs a shortest path strategy based on three types of messages to communicate:

ADV- new data advertisement. When a SPIN node has data to share, it can
advertise this fact by transmitting an ADV message containing meta-data.
REQ - request for data. A SPIN node sends an REQ message when it wishes to
receive some actual data.
DATA - data message. DATA messages contain actual sensor data with a meta-data
header.

Unlike traditional networks, a sensor node does not necessarily require an identity
(e.g. an address). Instead, applications focus on the different data generated by the
sensors. Because data is identified by its attributes, applications request data by
matching certain attribute values. One of the most popular algorithms for data-centric
protocols is direct diffusion and it bases its routing strategy on shortest path [11]. A
sensor network based on direct diffusion exhibits the following properties: each
sensor node names data that it generates with one or more attributes, other nodes may
express interests based on these attributes, and network nodes propagate interests.
Interests establish gradients that direct the diffusion of data. In its simple form, a
gradient is a scalar quantity. Negative gradients inhibit the distribution of data along a
particular path, and positive gradients encourage the transmission of data along the
path.
The Energy-Aware Routing protocol is a destination-initiated reactive protocol that
increases the network lifetime using only one path at all times, it seems very similar
to source routing [12]. Rumor routing [13] is a variation of direct diffusion that is
mainly intended for applications where geographic routing is not feasible. Gradient-
based routing is another variant of direct diffusion [14]. The key idea of gradient-
based routing is to memorize the number of hops when the interest is diffused
throughout the network. Constraint Anisotropic Diffusion Routing (CADR) is a
general form of direct diffusion [15] and lastly, Active Query Forwarding in Sensor
Networks (ACQUIRE) [16] views the network as a distributed database, where
complex queries can be further divided into several sub queries.
194 Raul Aquino-Santos, Luis Villasefior-Gonzalez, Jaime Sanchez, Jose Rosario Gallardo

2.2 Hierarchical protocols

Hierarchical protocols are based on clusters because clusters can contribute to more
scalable behavior as the number of nodes increases, provide improved robustness, and
facilitate more efficient resource utilization for many distributed sensor coordination
tasks.
Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) is a cluster-based protocol
that minimizes energy dissipation in sensor networks by randomly selecting sensor
nodes as cluster-heads [17]. Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information System
(PEGASIS) [18] is a near optimal chain-based protocol. The basic idea of the protocol
is to extend network lifetime by allowing nodes to communicate exclusively with
their closest neighbors, employing a turn-taking strategy to communicate with the
Base Station (BS). Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient protocol (TEEN) [19] and
Adaptive Periodic TEEN (APTEEN) [20] have also been proposed for time-critical
applications. In TEEN, sensor nodes continuously sense the medium, but data
transmission is done less frequently. APTEEN, on the other hand, is a hybrid protocol
that changes the periodicity or threshold values used in the TEEN protocol, according
to user needs and the application type.

2.3 Location-based protocols

In location-based routing, the forwarding decision by a node is primarily based on

the position of a packet's destination and the position of the node's immediate one-
hop neighbor. The position of the destination is contained in the header of the packet.
If a node has a more accurate position of the destination, it may choose to update the
position in the packet before forwarding it. The position of the neighbors is typically
learned through a one-hop broadcast beacon. These beacons are sent periodically by
all nodes and contain the position of the sending node.
We can distinguish three main packet-forwarding strategies for position-based
routing: greedy forwarding, restricted directional flooding, and hierarchical
approaches. For the first two, a node forwards a given packet to one (greedy
forwarding) or more (restricted directional flooding) one-hop neighbors that are
located closer to the destination than the forwarding node itself. The selection of the
neighbor in the greedy case depends on the optimization criteria of the algorithm. The
third forwarding strategy is to form a hierarchy in order to scale to a large number of
mobile nodes.
Minimum Energy Communication Network (MECN) [21] establishes and maintains
a minimum energy network for wireless networks by utilizing low-power geographic
positioning system (GPS). The main idea of MECN is to find the sub-network with
the smallest number of nodes that requires the least transmission power between any
two particular nodes (shortest path). The Small Minimum Energy Communication
Network (SMECN) [22] is an extension of MECN. The major drawback with MECN
is that it assumes every node can transmit to every other node, which is not always
possible. One advantage of SMECN is that it considers obstacles between pairs of
nodes. Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF) [23] is an energy-aware location-based
 Routing Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks 195

routing algorithm primarily designed for ad-hoc networks that can also be applied to
sensor networks. GAF conserves energy by turning off unnecessary nodes in the
network without affecting the level of routing fidelity. Finally, Geographic and
Energy Aware Routing [24] uses energy-awareness and geographically informed
neighbor selection heuristics to route a packet toward the destination region.

2.4 ZigBee Protocol

The IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard defines the lower two layers: the physical (PHY)
layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer. The ZigBee alliance builds on
this foundation by providing the network (NWK) layer and the framework for the
application layer, which includes the application support sub-layer (APS), the ZigBee
device objects (ZDO) and the manufacturer-defined application objects.
IEEE 802.15.4-2003 has two PHY layers that operate in two separate frequency
ranges: 868/915 MHz and 2.4 GHz. The 2.4 GHz mode specifies a Spread Spectrum
modulation technique with processing gain equal to 32. It handles a data rate of 250
kbps, with Offset-QPSK modulation, and a chip rate of 2 Mcps.
The 868/915 MHz mode specifies a DSSS modulation technique with data rates of
20/40 kbps and chip rates of 300/600 kcps. The digital modulation is BPSK and the
processing gain is equal to 15.
On the other hand, the MAC sub-layer controls access to the radio channel using a
CSMA-CA mechanism. Its responsibilities may also include transmitting beacon
frames, synchronizing transmissions and providing a reliable transmission
mechanism.
The responsibilities of the ZigBee NWK layer includes mechanisms used to join
and exit a network, in order to apply security to frames and to route frames to their
intended destinations based on shortest path strategy. In addition, the discovery and
maintenance of routes between devices transfer to the NWK layer. Also, the
discovery of one-hop neighbors and the storing of pertinent neighbor information are
done at the NWK layer. The NWK layer of a ZigBee coordinator is responsible for
starting a new network, when appropriate, and assigning addresses to newly
associated devices.
The responsibilities of the APS sub-layer include maintaining tables for binding,
which is the ability to match two devices together based by their services and their
needs, and forwarding messages between bound devices. The responsibilities of the
ZDO include defining the role of the device within the network, initiating and/or
responding to binding requests and establishing a secure relationship between
network devices. The ZDO is also responsible for discovering devices on the network
and determining which application services they provide.
196 Raul Aquino-Santos, Luis Villaseilor-Gonzalez, Jaime Sanchez, Jose Rosario Gallardo

3 Scenarios Simulated
The routing protocols described in section 2 make use of one, or a combination of the
following strategies: source, shortest path or hierarchical-geographical routing
strategies. The performance of these basic strategies is evaluated using the following
metrics:

• Route discovery time (Latency): is the time the sink has to wait before
actually receiving the first data packet.
• Average end-to-end delay of data packets: are all possible delays caused by
queuing, retransmission delays at the MAC and propagation and transfer
times.
• Packet delivery ratio: is the ratio of the number of data packets delivered to
the destination and the number of data packets sent by the transmitter. Data
packets may be dropped en route for several reasons: e.g. the next hop link is
broken when the data packet is ready to be transmitted or one or more
collisions have occurred.
• Routing load: is measured in terms of routing packets transmitted per data
packets transmitted. The latter includes only the data packets finally
delivered at the destination and not the ones that are dropped. The
transmission at each hop is counted once for both routing and data packets.
This provides an idea of network bandwidth consumed by routing packets
with respect to "useful" data packets.
• Routing overhead: is the total number of routing packets transmitted during
the simulation. For packets sent over multiple hops, each packet transmission
(hop) counts as one transmission.
• Overhead (packets): is the total number of routing packets generated divided
by the sum of total number of data packets transmitted and the total number
of routing packets

3.1 Basic Routing Strategies implemented

In source routing, each packet header carries the complete ordered list of nodes
through which the packet must pass. The key advantage of source routing is that
intermediate nodes do not need to maintain up-to-date routing information in order to
route the packets they forward, since the packets themselves already contain all the
routing information. This fact, coupled with the on-demand nature of the protocol,
eliminates the need for the periodic route advertisement and neighbor detection
packets present in other protocols such as the Energy Aware Routing.
In the shortest path strategy, when a node S needs a route to destination D, it
broadcasts a route request message to its neighbors, including the last known
sequence number for that destination. The route request is flooded in a controlled
manner through the network until it reaches a node that has a route to the destination.
 Routing Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks 197

Each node that forwards the route request creates a reverse route for itself back to
node S. Examples are SPIN, Direct Diffusion, MECN, and the ZigBee standard.
When the route request reaches a node with a route to D, that node generates a route
reply containing the number of hops necessary to reach D and the sequence number
for D most recently seen by the node generating the reply. Importantly, each node that
forwards this reply back toward the originator of the route request (node S) creates a
forward route to D. The state created in each node remembers only the next hop and
not the entire route, as would be done in source routing.
Hierarchical-geographical strategy improves the traditional routing strategies based
on non-positional routing by making use of location information provided by GPS as
it minimizes flooding of its Location Request (LREQ) packets. Flooding, therefore, is
directive for traffic control by using only the selected nodes, called gateway nodes to
diffuse LREQ messages. The purpose of gateway nodes is to minimize thefloodingof
broadcast messages in the network by reducing duplicate retransmissions in the same
region.
Member nodes are converted into gateways when they receive messages from more
than one cluster-head. All the members of the cluster read and process the packet, but
do not retransmit the broadcast message. This technique significantly reduces the
number of retransmissions in a flooding or broadcast procedure in dense networks.
Therefore, only the gateway nodes retransmit packets between clusters (hierarchical
organization). Moreover, gateways only retransmit a packet from one gateway to
another in order to minimize unnecessary retransmissions, and only if the gateway
belongs to a different cluster-head.
We decided to evaluate source, shortest path and hierarchical-geographical routing
strategies since they represent the foundation of all of the above mentioned routing
protocols.
The simulator for evaluating the three routing strategies for our wireless sensor
network is implemented in OPNET 11.5, and the simulation models a network of 225
MICAz sensor nodes [2]. This configuration represents a typical scenario where
nodes are uniformly placed within an area of 1.5 km2.
We used a 2405- 2480 MHz frequency range and a 250 kbps data rate for our
simulation, with a MICAz sensor node separation of 75 m. This scenario represents a
typical wireless sensor network with one sink node acting as a gateway to
communicate the WSN with a separate network (Internet). In our scenario one sensor
node communicates with the sink, and the sensor node sends a packet every second
(constant bit rate).

3.2 Simulation Results

Figure 1 shows the latency between the sink and the source in milliseconds. Source
and shortest path routing strategies show a similar behavior. However, hierarchical-
geographical routing shows the poorest behavior due to the transmission of position
information via hello packets which produce more collision in the wireless medium,
in addition, the cluster formation mechanism also increase the latency.
198 Raul Aquino-Santos, Luis Villasefior-Gonzalez, Jaime Sanchez, Jos6 Rosario Gallardo

- Hierarchical and Geographical

i Shortest Path
Source Routing

1120

Distance from sink to source (m)

Fig. 1. Latency (milliseconds).

Figure 2 shows the End-to-End Delay (EED) between the sink and the source in
milliseconds. The hierarchical-geographical routing strategy shows the worst behavior
because the static nature of the wireless sensor nodes causes synchronization of the
packets. Synchronization arises from the simultaneous transmission of packets
between neighbors. As results, the frequent transmission of Hello packets produces
more collision with data packets.

- • - Hierarchical and Geographical

* Shortest Path
~kr Source Routing

X
/
E.50
O /
JU40- s

/-""*
+ -•-•"""
± * - jr:;:...„ ...» m
0
» . », : , r
Distance from sink to source (m)

Fig. 2. End-to-End Delay (milliseconds).

The three routing mechanisms show a similar behavior in terms of packet delivery
ratio because of their static nature, as illustrated in figure 3.
 Routing Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks 199

100 i N H
- * • f —
90

tde ivery ra
•••*•• Shortest Path

••«•• Source Routing

• •*•• Hierarchical and geographical

Q.
60

50

Distance from sink to source (m)

Fig. 3. Packet delivery ratio.

Figure 4 shows the Routing Overhead between the sink and the source. Routing
overhead is the total number of routing packets transmitted during the simulation.
Again, the shortest path routing strategy performs the best and the hierarchical-
geographical strategy the worst. This is due to the Hello packets used for the cluster
formation mechanism.

• • __ZHJ; —^# ^

20000
- • - Hierarchical and Geographical
ts)

••»- Shortest Path

je -*~ Source Routing
Q.

n
01
Jk

O
$
> uting

cc 5000

0 m- , • ; m ~« *

Distance from sink to source (m)

Fig. 4. Routing Overhead (packets).

Figure 5 shows the overhead between the sink and the source. The shortest path
technique also has the best performance, with source routing and hierarchical-
geographical mechanism performing in a similar fashion.
200 Raul Aquino-Santos, Luis Villasefior-Gonzalez, Jaime Sanchez, Jose Rosario Gallardo

X-
A_ = £ = : * •
95
* - -A- .
90
8
(pac kets)
5

m ••• •• Hierarchical and Geographical

- * ••«•• Shortest Path
•a •-
z \ ••*•• Source Routing

•£70. \
°65^
^
60-

50

Distance from sink to source (m)

Fig. 5. Overhead (packets).

Figure 6 shows the Routing Load between the sink and the source. This metric
provides an idea of how much network bandwidth is consumed by routing packets in
relation to the useful data packets actually received. Once again, the shortest path
routing strategy has the best performance, and the hierarchical-geographical
mechanism the worst.

- • - Hierarchical and Gepgraphical

* Shortest Path
- * - Source Routing

Distance from sink to source (m)

Fig. 6. Routing Load (packets).

4 Conclusions and Future Work

In this paper, we have evaluated three basic routing strategies widely used in routing
protocols for wireless sensor networks. Source routing only improves shortest path
and hierarchical-geographical routing in terms of latency. The main disadvantage of
 Routing Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks 201

source routing is that it lacks a number of hops metric, which can frequently result in
longer path selection. Shortest path behaves well in terms of EED, routing overhead,
overhead and routing load. Hierarchical-geographical routing performs the worst
because it must send hello packets in order to acquire and transmit location
information. This consideration makes hierarchical-geographical routing in wireless
sensor networks more weighty because it transmits hello packets more frequently,
requiring greater bandwidth and energy resources. However, despite these significant
disadvantages, hierarchical-geographical routing remains the routing option most
often used in health, military, agriculture, robotic, environmental and structural
monitoring. An important area of future research is to optimize hierarchical-
geographical routing algorithm to facilitate its use in large geographical areas
requiring dense sensor distribution.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the support received by the National Council of Science
and Technology (CONACYT) under project grant No. 48391.

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Traditional TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport layer protocol that
serves as an interface between client and server. The TCP/IP protocol is
used to transfer the data packets between transport layer and network layer.
Transport protocol is mainly designed for fixed end systems and fixed, wired
networks. In simple terms, the traditional TCP is defined as a wired network
while classical TCP uses wireless approach. Mainly TCP is designed for
fixed networks and fixed, wired networks. The main research activities in
TCP are as listed below.

1. Congestion control: During data transmission from sender to receiver,

sometimes the data packet may be lost. It is not because of hardware or
software problem. Whenever the packet loss is confirmed, the probable
reason might be the temporary overload at some point in the transmission
path. This temporary overload is otherwise called as Congestion. Congestion
is caused often even when the network is designed perfectly. The
transmission speed of receiver may not be equal to the transmission speed
of the sender. if the capacity of the sender is more than the capacity of
output link, then the packet buffer of a router is filled and the router cannot
forward the packets fast enough. The only thing the router can do in this
situation is to drop some packets. The receiver sense the packet loss but
does not send message regarding packet loss to the sender. Instead, the
receiver starts to send acknowledgement for all the received packets and the
sender soon identifies the missing acknowledgement. The sender now
notices that a packet is lost and slows down the transmission process. By
this, the congestion is reduced. This feature of TCP is one of the reason for
its demand even today.

2. Slow start: The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is
called as slow start. The sender always calculates a congestion window for a
receiver. At first the sender sends a packet and waits for the
acknowledgement. Once the acknowledgement is back it doubles the packet
size and sends two packets. After receiving two acknowledgements, one for
each packet, the sender again doubles the packet size and this process
continues. This is called Exponential growth. It is dangerous to double the
congestion window each time because the steps might become too large.
The exponential growth stops at congestion threshold. As it reaches
congestion threshold, the increase in transmission rate becomes linear (i.e.,
the increase is only by 1). Linear increase continues until the sender notices
gap between the acknowledgments. In this case, the sender sets the size of
congestion window to half of its congestion threshold and the process
continues.

3. Fast re-transmission: In TCP, two things lead to a reduction of the

congestion threshold. One of those is sender receiving continuous
acknowledgements for the single packet. By this it can convey either of two
things. One such thing is that the receiver received all the packets up to the
acknowledged one and the other thing is the gap is due to packet loss. Now
the sender immediately re-transmit the missing packet before the given time
expires. This is called as Fast re-transmission.

Example: Assume that few packets of data are being transferred from
sender to receiver, and the speed of sender is 2 Mbps and the speed of
receiver is 1 Mbps respectively. Now the packets that are being transferred
from sender sender to receiver makes a traffic jam inside the network. Due
to this the network may drop some of the packets. When these packets are
lost, the receiver sends the acknowledgement to the sender and the sender
identifies the missing acknowledgement. This process is called as
congestion control. Now the slowstart mechanism takes up the plan. The
sender slows down the packet transfer and then the traffic is slightly reduces.
After sometime it puts a request to fast re-transmission through which the
missing packets can be sent again as fast as possible. After all these
mechanisms, the process of next packet begins.
What is Transport Layer?
The Transport Layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is
responsible for end-to-end delivery over a network. Whereas the network
layer is concerned with the end - to- end delivery of individual packets and it
does not recognize any relationship between those packets.

 This layer treats each packet independently because each packet

belongs to a different message.
 The transport layer ensures that each message should reach its
destination completely and in order so that it maintains error and flow
control to the source to destination to ensure proper data transmission.
 The transport layer establishes a connection between two end ports. A
connection is a single logical path from source to destination which is
associated with all the packets in a message.
 Transport Layer uses some standard protocols to enhance its
functionalities are TCP(Transmission Control Protocol), UDP( User
Datagram Protocol), DCCP( Datagram Congestion Control Protocol), etc.

This figure shows the relationship of the transport layer to the network and
session layer.

Design Issues with Transport Layer

The following are the design issues with transport layer:

 Efficient delivery of data with proper correction.

 From the technological changes separate all upper layers.
 Managing error control and flow control.
 Obtaining data from the Session layer, divide it into segments and
transmit to the network layer.

Functions of the transport layer

Specific functions of the transport layer are as follows:
1. Service-point addressing

 Computers often run many programs at the same time. Due to this,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery from a specific job
(currently running program) on one computer to a specific job (currently
running program) on the other system not only one computer to the
next.
 For this reason, the transport layer added a specific type of address to
its header, it is referred to as a service point address or port address.
 By this address each packet reaches the correct computer and also
the transport layer gets the complete message to the correct process
on that computer.

2. Segmentation and Reassembly

 In segmentation, a message is divided into transmittable segments;

each segment containing a sequence number. This number enables this
layer to reassemble the message.
 Upon arriving at its destination system message is reassembled
correctly, identify and replaces packets that were lost in transmission.

3. Connection Control

It can be either of two types:

i. Connectionless Transport Layer

ii. Connection Oriented Transport Layer

3.1. Connectionless Transport Layer

 This Transport Layer treats each packet as an individual and delivers it to

the destination machine.
 In this type of transmission, the receiver does not send an
acknowledgment to the sender about the receipt of a packet. This is a
faster communication technique.
3.2. Connection Oriented Transport Layer

 This Transport Layer creates a connection with the Transport Layer at

the destination machine before transmitting the packets to the
destination.
 To Create a connection following three steps are possible:
o Connection establishment
o Data transfer
o Connection termination

When all the data are transmitted connection is terminated. Connectionless

Service is less reliable than connection Oriented Service.

4. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

 Multiple packets from diverse applications are transmitted across a

network needs very dedicated control mechanisms, which are found in
the transport layer.
 The transport layer accepts packets from different processes. These
packets are differentiated by their port numbers and pass them to the
network layer after adding proper headers.
 In Demultiplexing, at the receiver's side to obtain the data coming from
various processes. It receives the segments of data from the network
layer and delivers it to the appropriate process running on the receiver's
machine.

5. Flow control

 The transport layer also responsible for the flow control mechanism
between the adjacent layers of the TCP/IP model.
 It does not perform across a single link even it performs an end-to-end
node.
 By imposing flow control techniques data loss can be prevented from
the cause of the sender and slow receiver.
 For instance, it uses the method of sliding window protocol in this
method receiver sends a window back to the sender to inform the size
of the data is received.
6. Error Control

 Error Control is also performed end to end like the data link layer.
 In this layer to ensure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without any error(damage, loss or duplication). Error
Correction is achieved through retransmission of the packet.
 The data has arrived or not and checks for the integrity of data, it uses
the ACK and NACK services to inform the sender.

Middleware Architecture of WSN:

i. The middleware generally gathers information from both the application and
network protocols, determines how to support the connected applications, and at the
same time adjust network protocol parameters.
ii. Sometimes the middleware goes under the network protocols layer and interfaces
with the operating system directly. WSN middleware needs to dynamically adjust
network protocol parameters and configure the sensor nodes based on application
requirements in terms of performance improvement, QoS, and energy conservation.
iii. The WSN middleware can abstract the common properties of applications and offer
general purpose services that can be used by a wide range of applications.

iv. In general, a middleware solution may consist of three components: resource

management, which is a functional element that monitors the network status and
gets application requirements, event detection and management that is used to
detect and manage events, and API (Application Programming Interface) which is
invoked by the applications in order to use services of the middleware and achieve
the required performance and QoS parameters. Figure below shows a general
architecture of a WSN middleware.
vi. WSN middleware should provide data management functions since it is dealing
with a data centric technology. These data management functions can include the
following:
• Data dissemination:
i. In WSN the data sensed by the sensor nodes need to be transmitted to a special
node or a sink for more analysis, control, and management.
ii. Data dissemination protocols which are related to routing protocols are required to
provide an effective data transmission.
iii. The major difference between a data dissemination protocol and a routing
protocol is that the former is general and designed to find a path between source and
destination, and the latter should guarantee successful transmission from nodes to
sink.
The initial phase of triggering data transmission that is initiated by the sink, and the
data transmission phase when sensor nodes report data to the sink.
• Data compression:
Many characteristics of WSN make it possible to implement effective data
compression techniques.
i. First, neighboring sensor nodes tend to collect correlated data especially when
their deployment is dense in the network.
ii. Second, this correlation may become more apparent on the path from the sensor
nodes to the sink due to the treelike logical topology of most Wireless Sensor
Networks.
iii. Third, the occurrence of an event in WSN may be assimilated as a random
process whose information content can be extracted easily.
iv. Fourth, the application semantics in WSN may enable data aggregation and data
fusion.
vi. Fifth, the data reading and reporting in WSN can be reduced thanks to the
tolerance of applications for possible errors in data.
Compression includes the following techniques: Information theoretic-based
techniques such as Distributed Source Coding Using Syndromes (DISCUS), data
aggregation-based compression schemes such as tiny aggregation service for TAG,
and sampling of a random process.
• Data storage:
i. Data storage sensor nodes store data related to the sensed events for future use.
When considering data storage, several questions need to be answered concerning
the type of data that need to be stored, where this data should be stored, and for
how long.
ii. This will help defining the data storage requirements of WSN. There exist two
types of data in WSN: the raw data collected directly by the sensor nodes and the
results from the processed data collected initially.
Multiple Access Protocols in Computer
Network

1. Random Access Protocol: In this, all stations have same superiority that
is no station has more priority than another station. Any station can send
data depending on medium’s state( idle or busy). It has two features:
1. There is no fixed time for sending data
2. There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
The Random access protocols are further subdivided as:
(a) ALOHA – It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for
shared medium. In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the
same time and can hence lead to collision and data being garbled.

 Pure Aloha:
When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. If the
acknowledgement doesn’t come within the allotted time then the station
waits for a random amount of time called back-off time (Tb) and re-sends
the data. Since different stations wait for different amount of time, the
probability of further collision decreases.

 Slotted Aloha:
It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and
sending of data is allowed only at the beginning of these slots. If a station
misses out the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot. This reduces
the probability of collision.

(b) CSMA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as the
station is required to first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before
transmitting data. If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the
channel becomes idle. However there is still chance of collision in CSMA due
to propagation delay. For example, if station A wants to send data, it will first
sense the medium.If it finds the channel idle, it will start sending data.
However, by the time the first bit of data is transmitted (delayed due to
propagation delay) from station A, if station B requests to send data and
senses the medium it will also find it idle and will also send data. This will
result in collision of data from station A and B.
CSMA access modes-
 1-persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data,
otherwise it continuously keeps on checking the medium for being idle
and transmits unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon as the channel
gets idle.
 Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data,
otherwise it checks the medium after a random amount of time (not
continuously) and transmits when found idle.
 P-persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with
p probability. If the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits
for some time and checks the medium again, now if it is found idle then it
send with p probability. This repeat continues until the frame is sent. It is
used in Wifi and packet radio systems.
 O-persistent: Superiority of nodes is decided beforehand and
transmission occurs in that order. If the medium is idle, node waits for its
time slot to send data.
(c) CSMA/CD – Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection.
Stations can terminate transmission of data if collision is detected.
(d) CSMA/CA – Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance. The
process of collisions detection involves sender receiving acknowledgement
signals. If there is just one signal(its own) then the data is successfully sent
but if there are two signals(its own and the one with which it has collided)
then it means a collision has occurred. To distinguish between these two
cases, collision must have a lot of impact on received signal. However it is
not so in wired networks, so CSMA/CA is used in this case.
CSMA/CA avoids collision by:
1. Interframe space – Station waits for medium to become idle and if found
idle it does not immediately send data (to avoid collision due to
propagation delay) rather it waits for a period of time called Interframe
space or IFS. After this time it again checks the medium for being idle.
The IFS duration depends on the priority of station.
2. Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots. If the
sender is ready to send data, it chooses a random number of slots as wait
time which doubles every time medium is not found idle. If the medium is
found busy it does not restart the entire process, rather it restarts the
timer when the channel is found idle again.
3. Acknowledgement – The sender re-transmits the data if
acknowledgement is not received before time-out.
2. Controlled Access:
In this, the data is sent by that station which is approved by all other stations.

Reservation
 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before
sending data.
 The time line has two kinds of periods:
1. Reservation interval of fixed time length
2. Data transmission period of variable frames.
 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and
each station has one slot.
 Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot
1. No other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
 In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by
inserting a 1 bit into i th slot. After all N slots have been checked, each
station knows which stations wish to transmit.
 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that
order.
 After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
 Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any
collisions.
The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five-slot
reservation frame. In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made
reservations. In the second interval, only station 1 has made a reservation.

Polling
 Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the
teacher, a controller sends a message to each node in turn.
 In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are
secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the
controller.
 The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node
being selected for granting access.
 Although all nodes receive the message but the addressed one responds
to it and sends data, if any. If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK)
message is sent back.
 Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high
dependence on the reliability of the controller.

Token Passing
 In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in
form of ring and access to stations is governed by tokens.
 A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from one
station to the next in some predefined order.
 In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in
the ring whereas incase of Token bus, each station uses the bus to send the
token to the next station in some predefined order.
 In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has a frame
queued for transmission when it receives the token, it can send that frame
before it passes the token to the next station. If it has no queued frame, it
passes the token simply.
 After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself)
to send the token to their neighbours and the other N – 1 stations to send a
frame, if they have one.
 There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or insertion of
new station, removal of a station, which need be tackled for correct and reliable
operation of this scheme.
3. Channelization:
In this, the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency and
code to multiple stations to access channel simultaneously.
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) – The available bandwidth
is divided into equal bands so that each station can be allocated its own
band. Guard bands are also added so that no two bands overlap to avoid
crosstalk and noise.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) – In this, the bandwidth is
shared between multiple stations. To avoid collision time is divided into
slots and stations are allotted these slots to transmit data. However there
is a overhead of synchronization as each station needs to know its time
slot. This is resolved by adding synchronization bits to each slot. Another
issue with TDMA is propagation delay which is resolved by addition of
guard bands.
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – One channel carries all
transmissions simultaneously. There is neither division of bandwidth nor
division of time. For example, if there are many people in a room all
speaking at the same time, then also perfect reception of data is possible
if only two person speak the same language. Similarly, data from different
stations can be transmitted simultaneously in different code languages.

What is an Ethernet Protocol?

Ethernet protocol definition: The most popular and oldest LAN technology
is Ethernet Protocol, so it is more frequently used in LAN environments
which is used in almost all networks like offices, homes, public places,
enterprises, and universities. Ethernet has gained huge popularity because
of its maximum rates over longer distances using optical media.

The Ethernet protocol uses a star topology or linear bus which is the
foundation of the IEEE 802.3 standard. The main reason to use Ethernet
widely is, simple to understand, maintain, implement, provides flexibility,
and permits less cost network implementation.

Ethernet Protocol Architecture

In the OSI network model, Ethernet protocol operates at the first two layers
like the Physical & the Data Link layers but, Ethernet separates the Data
Link layer into two different layers called the Logical Link Control layer &
the Medium Access Control layer.

The physical layer in the network mainly focuses on the elements of

hardware like repeaters, cables & network interface cards (NIC). For
instance, an Ethernet network like 100BaseTX or 10BaseT indicates the
cables type that can be used, the length of cables, and the optimal
topology.

The data link layer in the network system mainly addresses the way that
data packets are transmitted from one type of node to another. Ethernet
uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where every computer listens
to the cable before transmitting anything throughout the network.

Applications
The applications of Ethernet protocol include the following.

 It is simply used for connecting several devices within a network through

each other.
 It is also used for connecting Wi-Fi router to the entry port of an internet
otherwise telephone line.
 It can also be used to connect devices wirelessly that need a network or
internet to work like laptops, TV, electronic gadgets, etc.
 These are used in different organizations like hospitals. Companies,
schools, etc
 These are very famous due to their security, dependability & speed.

Standard Ethernet
Standard Ethernet is also referred to as Basic Ethernet. It uses 10Base5 coaxial cables for
communications. Ethernet provides service up to the data link layer. At the data link layer,
Ethernet divides the data stream received from the upper layers and encapsulates it into
frames, before passing them on to the physical layer.

The main parts of an Ethernet frame are

 Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission.
 Destination Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address of
destination stations.
  Source Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
 Length − It stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data and Padding − This carries the data from the upper layers.
 CRC − It contains error detection information.

S.NO Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet

Fast Ethernet provides 100 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet offers 1 Gbps

1. speed. speed.

Fast Ethernet is simple While Gigabit Ethernet is more

2. configured. complicated than Fast Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet generate more Gigabit Ethernet generates less

3. delay comparatively. delay than Fast Ethernet.

The coverage limit of Fast While the coverage limit of Gigabit

4. Ethernet is up to 10 km. Ethernet is up to 70 km.

The round-trip delay in Fast While the round-trip delay in

5. Ethernet is 100 to 500 bit times. Gigabit Ethernet is 4000 bit times.

Fast Ethernet is the Successor of While Gigabit Ethernet is the

6. 10-Base-T Ethernet. successor of Fast Ethernet.

Fast ethernet is less scalable than Gigabit ethernet is more scalable

7. Gigabit ethernet. than Fast ethernet.
Fast Ethernet
In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry
data traffic at 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN). It was
launched as the IEEE 802.3u standard in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till
the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum
throughput, i.e. 100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is
the type of medium used, which is TX or FX.

 100-Base-T4
o This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which are bi-directional
and the other two are unidirectional.
o In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for data
transmission.
o Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of 25Mbaud
data. Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum of 75Mbaud data.
o It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight binary/six ternary).
 100-Base-TX
o This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) category 5
wires or two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 1 wires. One pair
transmits frames from hub to the device and the other from device to
hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.
 100-BASE-FX
o This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from hub
to the device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
 o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The frame format of IEEE 802.3u is same as IEEE 802.3. The fields in the frame
are:
 Preamble − It is a 7 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field that contains an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Length − It a 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.

Gigabit Ethernet
In computer networks, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) is the family of Ethernet technologies that
achieve theoretical data rates of 1 gigabit per second (1 Gbps). It was introduced in 1999
and was defined by the IEEE 802.3ab standard.

Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet

The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-
T and 1000Base-CX.
1000BASE-CX
 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard
 The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet
 Uses shielded twisted pair cables with DE-9 or 8P8C connector
 Maximum segment length is 25 metres
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/6B block encoding

1000BASE-SX
 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard
 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a shorter wavelength having 770 – 860 nm
diameter
 The maximum segment length varies from 220 – 550 metres depending upon the
fiber properties.
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding

1000BASE-LX
 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard
 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a longer wavelength having 1270 – 1355 nm
diameter
 Maximum segment length is 500 metres
 Can cover distances up to 5 km
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding

1000BASE-T
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ab standard
 Uses a pair four lanes of twisted-pair cables (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat-7)
 Maximum segment length is 100 metres
10-Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet 802 committee was asked by IEEE to start on 10-
Gigabit Ethernet. The work pattern was the same as the
previous Ethernet standards. 10 Gbps is a truly great speed, 1000
times faster than the original Ethernet. It could be needed inside data
centers and exchanges to connect high-end routers, switches, and
servers, as well as in long-distance, high bandwidth trunks between
offices that are enabling entire area networks based on Ethernet and
fiber. The short-distance connections may use copper or fiber, while
the long connections may use optical fiber. 10-gigabit Ethernet
supports the only full-duplex operation. They concentrate on the details
of physical layers that can run at very high speed. CSMA/CD is no
more a part of 10-gigabit Ethernet. Compatibility still matters, though,
so 10-gigabit Ethernet interfaces auto-negotiate and fall back to the
highest speed supported by both ends of the line. The main kinds of
10-gigabit Ethernet are listed in the table below. Multimode fiber with
the 0.85µ (short) wavelength is used for medium distances, and single-
mode fiber at 1.3µ (long) and 1.5µ (extended) is used for long
distances. To make it suitable for wide-area applications, one can use
10GBase-ER which can run for distances of 40 km. All the versions of
10-gigabit Ethernet send a serial stream of information that is produced
by scrambling the data bits, then encoding them with a 64B/66B code.
Table: 10-Gigabit Ethernet Cabling
Name Cable Max. segment Advantages

10GBase-SR Fiber Optics Up to 300 m Multimode fiber (0.85µ)

10GBase-LR Fiber Optics 10 km Single-mode fiber (1.3µ)

10GBase-ER Fiber Optics 40 km Single-mode fiber (1.5µ)

10GBase-ZR Fiber Optics 80km Single-mode fiber

10GBase-CX4 4 pairs of twinax 15 m Twinaxial copper

10GBase-T 4 pairs of UTP 100 m Category 6a UTP

 Where 10 Gigabit Ethernet Usually Used for?
This 10G Ethernet telecommunication technology made it possible to super-
fast transfer of data in the network.
It is usually used at:
 Small and Medium Businesses/Organizations
 Enterprise networks
 Home networks
 Data center networks
 Studio networks and many more.
Advantages of 10G Ethernet:
1. Provides reliable superfast speed
2. Prevent data bottlenecks
3. Provides reliable security
4. Expands server capabilities
5. Provides greater scalability
Disadvantages of 10G Ethernet:
1. Not for personal use
2. Setup may be difficult
3. Requires higher power input
4. Cost may be a little high
5. No Mobility

10GBase-SR
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 300 m
 Deployed using multimode fibers having 0.85μ frequency

10GBase-LR
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 10 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.3μ frequency

10GBase-ER
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 40 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.5μ frequency

10GBase-CX4
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ak standard
 Uses 4 pairs of twin-axial cables
 Maximum segment length is 15 m
 Uses 8B/10B coding
10GBase-T
 Defined by IEEE 802.3an standard
 Uses 4 pairs of unshielded twisted pair cables
 Maximum segment length is 100 m
 Uses low-density parity-check code (LPDC code)

Telephone Network
Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication. Telephone
Network uses Circuit Switching. Originally, the entire network was referred to
as a plain old telephone system (POTS) which uses analog signals. With the
advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer era, there comes a feature
to carry data in addition to voice. Today’s network is both analogous and
digital.
Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major
components of the telephone network:
1. Local loops
2. Trunks
3. Switching Offices

There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem
offices, and regional offices. The entire telephone network is as shown in
the following figure:

Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to
connect a subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or local central
office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth is 4000 Hz. It is very interesting to
examine the telephone number that is associated with each local loop. The
office is defined by the first three digits and the local loop number is defined
by the next four digits defines.
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the
communication between offices. Through multiplexing, trunks can handle
hundreds or thousands of connections. Mainly transmission is performed
through optical fibers or satellite links.
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two
subscribers. To avoid this, the telephone company uses switches that are
located in switching offices. A switch is able to connect various loops or
trunks and allows a connection between different subscribes.

Advantages of Telephone Network:

 It is a circuit-switched network.
 There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
 It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
Disadvantages of Telephone Network:
 It requires a large time for connection.
 It has a low transmission speed.
Applications of Telephone Network:
 It helps to connect people.
 It is used by business organizations to advertise their products.
 It is also used around the world for recreational purposes.

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a
communication protocol, developed by Bellcore – that is used to transmit a
large amount of data over relatively large distances using optical fibre. With
SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same time over
the optical fibre.
Key Points:
 Developed by Bellcore
 Used in North America
 Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in Europe
and Japan.
Why SONET is called a Synchronous Network?
A single clock (Primary Reference Clock, PRC) handles the timing of
transmission of signals & equipments across the entire network.

SONET Network Elements:

1. STS Multiplexer:
 Performs multiplexing of signals
 Converts electrical signal to optical signal
2. STS Demultiplexer:
 Performs demultiplexing of signals
 Converts optical signal to electrical signal
3. Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates (increases
the strength) it.

4. Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or
remove a signal.

Why SONET is used?

SONET is used to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal so that it
can travel longer distances.

SONET Connections:
 Section: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring devices.
 Line: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring multiplexers.
 Path: End-to-end portion of the network.
SONET Layers:

SONET includes four functional layers:

1. Path Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signals from its optical source to
its optical destination.
 STS Mux/Demux provides path layer functions.
2. Line Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.
 STS Mux/Demux and Add/Drop Mux provides Line layer functions.
3. Section Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical section.
 Each device of network provides section layer functions.
4. Photonic Layer:
 It corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
 It includes physical specifications for the optical fibre channel
(presence of light = 1 and absence of light = 0).
Advantages of SONET:
 Transmits data to large distances
 Low electromagnetic interference
 High data rates
 Large Bandwidth

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in

Computer Network
Why ATM networks?

1. Driven by the integration of services and performance requirements of

both telephony and data networking: “broadband integrated service
vision” (B-ISON).
2. Telephone networks support a single quality of service and are expensive
to boot.

3. Internet supports no quality of service but is flexible and cheap.

4. ATM networks were meant to support a range of service qualities at a

reasonable cost- intended to subsume both the telephone network and
the Internet.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):

It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications
Standards Section (ITU-T) efficient for call relay and it transmits all
information including multiple service types such as data, video, or voice
which is conveyed in small fixed-size packets called cells. Cells are
transmitted asynchronously and the network is connection-oriented.
ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband
ISDN in the 1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of
packet switching. Each cell is 53 bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes
payload. Making an ATM call requires first sending a message to set up a
connection.
Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle
both constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple
types of traffic with end-to-end quality of service. ATM is independent of a
transmission medium, they may be sent on a wire or fiber by themselves or
they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems. ATM
networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. Its design helps
in the implementation of high-performance multimedia networking.
ATM Cell Format –
As information is transmitted in ATM in the form of fixed-size units
called cells. As known already each cell is 53 bytes long which consists of a
5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.

1. UNI Header: This is used within private networks of ATMs for

communication between ATM endpoints and ATM switches. It includes
the Generic Flow Control (GFC) field.
2. NNI Header: is used for communication between ATM switches, and it
does not include the Generic Flow Control(GFC) instead it includes a
Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) which occupies the first 12 bits.

Working of ATM:
ATM standard uses two types of connections. i.e., Virtual path connections
(VPCs) which consist of Virtual channel connections (VCCs) bundled
together which is a basic unit carrying a single stream of cells from user to
user. A virtual path can be created end-to-end across an ATM network, as it
does not rout the cells to a particular virtual circuit. In case of major failure,
all cells belonging to a particular virtual path are routed the same way
through the ATM network, thus helping in faster recovery.
Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the
cells which are Virtual Path and Virtual Connection switches that can have
different virtual channel connections between them, serving the purpose of
creating a virtual trunk between the switches which can be handled as a
single entity. Its basic operation is straightforward by looking up the
connection value in the local translation table determining the outgoing port
of the connection and the new VPI/VCI value of connection on that link.

ATM vs DATA Networks (Internet) –

 ATM is a “virtual circuit” based: the path is reserved before transmission.

While Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless and end-to-end resource
reservations are not possible. RSVP is a new signaling protocol on the
internet.
 ATM Cells: Fixed or small size and Tradeoff is between voice or data.
While IP packets are of variable size.
 Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and
32-bit locally assigned labels in cells. While IP uses 32-bit global
addresses in all packets.

ATM Layers:
1. ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) –
It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of ATM
processes and prepares for conversion of user data into cells and
segments it into 48-byte cell payloads. AAL protocol excepts transmission
from upper-layer services and helps them in mapping applications, e.g.,
voice, data to ATM cells.

2. Physical Layer –
It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two
parts physical medium-dependent sublayer and transmission
convergence sublayer. The main functions are as follows:
 It converts cells into a bitstream.
 It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.
 It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
 Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.
3. ATM Layer –
It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header
processing, sequential delivery, etc., and is responsible for
simultaneously sharing the virtual circuits over the physical link known as
cell multiplexing and passing cells through an ATM network known as cell
relay making use of the VPI and VCI information in the cell header.

ATM Applications:

1. ATM WANs –
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, a router
serving as an end-point between ATM network and other networks, which
has two stacks of the protocol.

2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services –

It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable
of full-service virtual private networking, which includes integrated access
to multimedia.

3. Residential broadband networks –

ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the
establishment of residential broadband services in the search of highly
scalable solutions.

4. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks –

To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by
building the ATM infrastructure for carrying the telephonic and private-line
traffic.
 Radio frequency (RF) refers to the rate at which electromagnetic waves oscillate in a
transmission. It is a crucial aspect of radio communication as it determines the
behavior of the signals being transmitted and received. Here's a breakdown of key
aspects related to radio frequency in transmission:

1. Frequency Bands: RF spectrum is divided into various frequency bands, each with
distinct properties and applications. These bands range from very low frequencies
(VLF) to extremely high frequencies (EHF), covering a wide range of electromagnetic
waves. Each band has its specific characteristics, such as propagation range, ability to
penetrate obstacles, and bandwidth.
2. Waveform Characteristics: The frequency of a radio transmission directly influences
its waveform characteristics. Lower frequencies produce longer wavelengths, while
higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths.
3. Propagation: Different frequency bands exhibit different propagation characteristics.
Lower frequencies, such as those in the LF and MF bands, tend to propagate over
long distances and penetrate obstacles like buildings and foliage. However, they
typically require larger antennas for efficient transmission and reception. Higher
frequencies, like those in the VHF, UHF, and above bands, are more susceptible to
attenuation by obstacles but offer higher data rates and require smaller antennas.
4. Regulatory Considerations: The use of radio frequencies is regulated by
governmental bodies to prevent interference and ensure efficient spectrum
utilization. Regulatory agencies allocate specific frequency bands for various
purposes, such as broadcasting, mobile communication, aviation, military, and
amateur radio. Users must adhere to these regulations to operate radio equipment
legally.
5. Modulation Techniques: Radio signals carry information through modulation,
where the characteristics of the electromagnetic wave are varied to represent data.
Common modulation techniques include Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency
Modulation (FM), and Phase Modulation (PM). The choice of modulation scheme
depends on factors like bandwidth efficiency, noise resilience, and compatibility with
existing systems.

In summary, the frequency for radio transmission plays a fundamental role in

determining how radio signals behave, propagate, and interact with the environment.
Understanding the characteristics of different frequency bands is essential for
designing effective radio communication systems and complying with regulatory
requirements.

1. Very Low Frequency (VLF): 3 kHz to 30 kHz - Used for submarine communication due
to its ability to penetrate seawater.
2. Low Frequency (LF): 30 kHz to 300 kHz - Used for navigation beacons and AM radio
broadcasting.
3. Medium Frequency (MF): 300 kHz to 3 MHz - Used for AM radio broadcasting and
aviation communications.
4. High Frequency (HF): 3 MHz to 30 MHz - Used for long-distance communication,
including amateur radio, international broadcasting, and military communications.
5. Very High Frequency (VHF): 30 MHz to 300 MHz - Used for FM radio broadcasting,
television broadcasting, aircraft communication, and air traffic control.
6. Ultra High Frequency (UHF): 300 MHz to 3 GHz - Used for terrestrial television
broadcasting, satellite communication, and mobile phones.
7. Super High Frequency (SHF): 3 GHz to 30 GHz - Used for satellite communication,
microwave links, and radar systems.
8. Extremely High Frequency (EHF): 30 GHz to 300 GHz - Used for satellite
communication and some types of radar systems.

The specific frequency within each band may vary depending on the application and
regulatory requirements in a particular region. Different frequency bands offer
different propagation characteristics and are suitable for different purposes.

Signals
Wireless signals, also known as radio signals or electromagnetic waves, are a form of
energy that travels through space without the need for a physical medium like wires.
These signals are crucial for various types of wireless communication, including radio
communication, Wi-Fi, cellular networks, and satellite communication. Here are some
key aspects of wireless signals:

1. Electromagnetic Spectrum: Wireless signals are part of the broader electromagnetic

spectrum, which encompasses a wide range of frequencies and wavelengths. This
spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Each segment of the spectrum has
unique characteristics and applications.
2. Propagation: Wireless signals propagate through the air or space, carrying
information encoded in their amplitude, frequency, or phase. The propagation of
these signals depends on factors such as frequency, antenna design, atmospheric
conditions, and obstacles in the environment. For example, lower frequency signals
tend to propagate over longer distances and penetrate obstacles better than higher
frequency signals.
3. Modulation: Information is transmitted over wireless signals through modulation
techniques. Modulation involves varying one or more properties of the signal, such
as amplitude, frequency, or phase, to encode data. Common modulation techniques
include Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation
 (PM), and more advanced schemes like Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
used in digital communication systems.
4. Antennas: Antennas are essential components for transmitting and receiving
wireless signals. They convert electrical signals into electromagnetic waves for
transmission and vice versa for reception. Antennas come in various designs,
including dipole antennas, Yagi antennas, parabolic reflectors, and phased arrays,
each suited to different applications and frequency ranges.
5. Applications: Wireless signals enable a wide range of applications, including:
 Radio and television broadcasting
 Cellular and mobile communication
 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity
 Satellite communication
 Radar systems for navigation and surveillance
 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) systems for asset tracking and inventory
management
 Wireless sensor networks for environmental monitoring, industrial automation,
and smart infrastructure.
6. Regulation: The use of wireless signals is regulated by governmental agencies to
prevent interference and ensure efficient spectrum utilization. Regulatory bodies
allocate specific frequency bands for different purposes and enforce standards to
promote interoperability and compatibility among wireless devices.

Overall, wireless signals play a critical role in modern communication systems,

enabling connectivity and data exchange across various devices and applications
without the constraints of physical wires.

What is an antenna?
An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts electric current into
electromagnetic (EM) waves or vice versa. Antennas are used to transmit and
receive nonionizing EM fields, which include radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation (IR) and visible light.

Radio wave antennas and microwave antennas are used extensively throughout
most industries and in our day-to-day lives. Infrared and visible light antennas are
less common. They're still deployed in a variety of settings, although their use
tends to be more specialized.

How are antennas categorized?

Antennas are often categorized as either transmitting or receiving. However, many
antennas can do both through a transceiver. A transmitting antenna receives current
from a transmitting device. From this current, the antenna generates EM waves at a
specific frequency that radiate out through the air, where they can then be received
by one or more other antennas.

For example, a radio station might broadcast music as an FM signal, which is a

type of radio wave in the EM spectrum. The station's transmitter sends the music to
the antenna in the form of electric current at the desired frequency. The antenna
converts the electric current to radio waves that are transmitted out in all
directions.

A receiving antenna intercepts EM waves transmitted through the air. From these
waves, the antenna generates a small amount of current, which varies depending on
the strength of the signal. The current is passed to the receiving device, where it is
transformed for its specific environment. For example, a car's antenna might pick
up the FM signal from the radio station. The antenna converts the signal's radio
waves to current, which is fed to the car's radio. The radio amplifies the current and
in other ways transforms it and delivers it as music to the speakers.

What are the main types of antennas?

Antennas support different use cases, depending on their design. To help
distinguish between the different types, they are often grouped into specific
categories, although there is no industry-wide agreement on what
constitutes each group. Even so, several common categories are often
used in describing and distinguishing one antenna type from another.

 Aperture. An antenna with an opening in its surface that helps direct

EM transmission or reception to achieve larger gain. The antenna's size
and shape depend on how the antenna is used. Aperture antennas are
often deployed in situations that require a flush mounting, such as
aircraft or spacecraft.

 Array. An antenna made up of smaller connected antennas that work

together to produce a single radiation pattern. Array antennas can
 increase gain and reduce interference, while providing greater control
over its directionality. Array antennas are used in a variety of settings,
including wireless communications, 5G networks and military radar
systems.

 Reflector. An antenna that includes one or more components that

reflect the EM waves in order to better focus or direct them. Reflector
antennas are often used in microwave and satellite communications.
Many include a parabolic structure that reflects EM waves, such as
those used in satellite dishes.

 Lens. An antenna that includes an embedded lens made up of glass,

metal or a dielectric material. The antenna uses the convergence and
divergence properties of the lens to transmit or receive EM waves,
typically at higher frequencies. Lens antennas are often used for radar
systems and microwave communications.

 Log periodic. A directional antenna with multiple elements that can

support a broad range of frequencies. The supported range depends on
the size of the elements and how they're arranged, which is based on a
logarithmic function of frequency. Log periodic antennas can be useful
in situations that require variable bandwidth or that support high-
frequency communications, such as analog televisions, cellular
communications or shortwave radios.

 Microstrip. A small antenna printed into a circuit board. The antenna

itself is a patch made out of a conductive material that is mounted on a
dielectric substrate, which itself sits on a ground plate. Microstrip
antennas are used extensively in wireless communication and mobile
devices including cell phones.

 Traveling-wave. A directional antenna in which the EM waves travel

through the antenna in one direction, unlike many other types of
antennas in which the waves travel in multiple directions. The
unidirectional waves make it possible to support a wider range of
frequencies. Traveling-wave antennas are used for analog televisions,
amateur radios, telecommunications and other use cases.
  Wire. An antenna that is nothing more than a length of wire, connected
at one end to a transmitter or receiver. Wire antennas are the simplest
and most portable type of antenna. They're used extensively with
radios, automobiles, ships, aircraft, buildings and a variety of other
devices and structures.

Signal Prapogation
Signal propagation refers to the process by which electromagnetic signals travel
from a transmitter to a receiver through a medium, such as air, water, or space.
Understanding signal propagation is essential in designing and optimizing wireless
communication systems. Here are some key aspects of signal propagation:

1. Path Loss: Path loss refers to the reduction in signal strength as the signal travels
through the propagation medium. It occurs due to factors such as distance,
absorption, scattering, and diffraction. Path loss increases with distance, higher
frequencies experience more significant path loss due to increased absorption and
scattering.
2. Free Space Path Loss (FSPL): In free space, where there are no obstacles or
reflections, signal strength decreases with the square of the distance from the
transmitter.
3. Multipath Propagation: In real-world environments, signals often reach the receiver
through multiple paths due to reflections, diffraction, and scattering off objects in the
environment. This phenomenon is known as multipath propagation and can lead to
constructive or destructive interference at the receiver, affecting signal quality.
4. Fading: Fading refers to the variation in signal strength experienced by a receiver
over time or distance due to multipath propagation. Fading can be classified into two
main types:
 Slow Fading: Occurs over large distances or time scales and is typically
caused by changes in the environment, such as terrain or atmospheric
conditions.
 Fast Fading: Occurs over short distances or time scales and is caused by rapid
changes in the signal path due to movement of objects or the
transmitter/receiver.
5. Shadowing: Shadowing occurs when obstacles such as buildings, hills, or vegetation
block or attenuate the signal, creating regions of reduced signal strength known as
shadow zones. Shadowing effects are particularly significant at higher frequencies,
where signals are more susceptible to obstruction.
6. Doppler Effect: The Doppler Effect occurs when there is relative motion between the
transmitter, receiver, or both. It causes a shift in the frequency of the received signal,
 which can affect the performance of communication systems, especially in mobile
applications such as cellular networks and satellite communication.
7. Channel Models: To model and predict signal propagation in various environments
accurately, researchers have developed empirical and theoretical channel models.
These models consider factors such as path loss, multipath propagation, fading, and
shadowing to simulate real-world communication scenarios.

Understanding signal propagation characteristics is essential for designing robust

and reliable wireless communication systems, optimizing coverage, and mitigating
interference and fading effects. Engineers use techniques such as antenna design,
power control, diversity reception, and adaptive modulation to enhance signal
propagation and improve communication performance.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used in the area of electronics and signal processing. In

mobile computing, telecommunications and computer networks, Multiplexing is a
method that can be used to combine multiple analog or digital signals into one
signal over a shared medium. The main aim of using this method is to share a scarce
resource.

Example: You can see a real-life example of Multiplexing in the telecommunication

field where several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing is also
called as muxing.

Key points of Multiplexing

o Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple simultaneous analogs or digital signal
transmission across a single data link.
o The main motive behind the development of Multiplexing is to provide simple and
easy communication, proper resource sharing and its utilization. This is the best way
to utilize and share a limited resource equally among multiple devices.

Multiplexing can be classified into the following four types:

o Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

o Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
o Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
o Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
Use Image of Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency division multiplexing or FDM is inherently an analog technology. As the name
specifies, in Frequency Division Multiplexing, the frequency dimension spectrum is split into
smaller frequency bands. It combines several smaller distinct frequency ranges signals into
one medium and sends them over a single medium. In FDM, the signals are electrical signals.

FDM's most common applications are a traditional radio or television broadcasting, mobile or
satellite stations, or cable television.

For example: In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached to the customer's
locality, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals
simultaneously over that cable to all customers without any interference. The customers have
to tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the required signal.

In FDM, several frequency bands can work simultaneously without any time constraint.

Advantages of FDM

o The concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) applies to both analog signals
and digital signals.
o It facilitates you to send multiple signals simultaneously within a single connection.

Disadvantages of FDM

o It is less flexible.
o In FDM, the bandwidth wastage may be high.

Usage
It is used in Radio and television broadcasting stations, Cable TV etc.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

The Time Division Multiplexing or (TDM) is a digital or analog technology (in rare cases)
that uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. It is used
for a specific amount of time in which the whole spectrum is used.

The Time frames of the same intervals are divided so that you can access the entire frequency
spectrum at that time frame.

Advantages of TDM

o It facilitates a single user at a time.

o It is less complicated and has a more flexible architecture.

Disadvantages of TDM

o It isn't easy to implement.

Usage

o It is mainly used in telephonic services.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

The Code Division Multiplexing or (CDM) allots a unique code to every channel so
that each of these channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously at the same
time.
Advantages of CDM

o It is highly efficient.
o It faces fewer Inferences.

Disadvantages of CDM

o The data transmission rate is low.

o It is complex.

Usage

o It is mainly used in Cell Phone Spectrum Technology (2G, 3G etc.).

Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

The Space Division Multiplexing or (SDM) is called a combination of Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
It passes messages or data-parallel with the use of specific frequency at a specific. It
means a particular channel will be used against a specific frequency band for some
amount of time.

Advantages of SDM

o In SDM, the data transmission rate is high.

o It uses Time and Frequency bands at its maximum potential.

Disadvantages of SDM

o An inference may occur.

o It faces high inference losses.

Usage

o It is used in GSM (Global Service for Mobile) Technology.

Modulation
Modulation is a process of mixing signals with a sinusoid to produce a new form of
signals. The newly produced signal has certain benefits over an un-modulated signal.
Mixing of low-frequency signal with a high-frequency carrier signal is called Modulation.

o In other words, you can say that "Modulation is the process of converting one
form of signals into another form of signals." For example, Analog signals to
Digital signals or Digital signals to Analog signals.
o Modulation is also called signal modulation.
o Example: Let's understand the concept of signal modulation by a simple example.
Suppose an Analog transmission medium is available to transmit signals, but you
have a digital signal that needs to be transmitted through this Analog medium. So, to
complete this task, you have to convert the digital signal into an analog signal. This
process of conversion of signals from one form to another form is called Modulation.

Need for Modulation/ Why Use Modulation?

The baseband or low-frequency signals are not such strong and compatible signals
that can be used for direct transmission. To make these signals travel longer
distances, we have to increase their strength by modulating them with a high-
frequency carrier wave. This process doesn't affect the parameters of the modulating
signal.
Modulation is used to make the message carrying signal strong to be transmitted
over a long distance and establish a reliable communication. A high-frequency signal
can travel up to a longer distance without getting affected by external disturbances.
In Modulation, these high-frequency signals are used as a carrier signal to transmit
the message signal. This process is called Modulation. In Modulation, the carrier
signals' parameters are changed according to the instantaneous values of the
modulating signal.

Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow a smaller antenna as we know that a

low-frequency signal would need a huge antenna. An antenna needs to be about
1/10th the length of the wavelength of the signal to be efficient. Modulation
converts the low-frequency signal into a much higher frequency signal, which has
much smaller wavelengths and allows a smaller antenna.

Advantages of Modulation
Following is the list of some advantages of implementing Modulation in the
communication systems:

o By implementing Modulation, the antenna size gets reduced. Before modulation

technology, the antenna used for transmission had to be very large. The range of
communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a distance without getting
modulated.
o The range of communication has increased.
o The reception quality is immensely improved.
o Receivers are allowed to adjust to the bandwidth.
o Multiplexing of signals occurs.
o No signal mixing occurs.

Types of Modulation
Primarily Modulation can be classified into two types:

o Digital Modulation
o Analog Modulation

Digital Modulation
Digital Modulation is a technique in which digital signals/data can be converted into
analog signals. For example, Base band signals.
 Digital Modulation can further be classified into four types:

o Amplitude Shift Key(ASK) Modulation

o Minimum Shift Key (MSK) Modulation
o Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation
o Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation

1. Amplitude Shift Key (ASK) Modulation:

 ASK modulation involves varying the amplitude of a carrier signal to convey
digital data.
 Binary data is represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier signal,
typically a high amplitude for one binary state and a low amplitude for the
other.
 ASK is simple and easy to implement but can be susceptible to noise and
interference.
2. Minimum Shift Key (MSK) Modulation:
 MSK modulation is a form of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying
(CPFSK).
 It has a constant envelope, meaning the amplitude remains constant, while
the phase and frequency change to represent digital data.
 MSK offers spectral efficiency and is particularly suitable for applications with
limited power, such as satellite communication and mobile networks.
3. Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation:
 FSK modulation involves changing the frequency of the carrier signal to
convey digital information.
 Binary data is represented by two different frequencies of the carrier signal,
typically one frequency for '1' and another for '0'.
 FSK is widely used in applications such as wireless communication, RFID
systems, and modulation of analog signals for transmission.
4. Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation:
 PSK modulation alters the phase of the carrier signal to encode digital
information.
 Binary data is represented by different phase shifts of the carrier signal,
typically 0° and 180° (binary PSK) or multiple phase shifts (quadrature PSK).
 PSK offers robustness against amplitude variations and is commonly used in
digital communication systems such as wireless LANs, satellite
communication, and digital modems.
 What is Spread Spectrum?

The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to limited
spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation. The use of spread spectrum
communication has simplified these problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from
different sources are combined to fit into larger bandwidth.
Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to
share the medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming
from a malicious intruder. To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add
redundancy means it uses extended bandwidth to accommodate signals in a
protective envelope so that more secure transmission is possible. The spread code
is a series of numbers that looks random but are actually a pattern. The original
bandwidth of the signal gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code as shown
in the figure.

Principles of Spread Spectrum process:

1. To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each
station should be much larger than needed.
2. The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.
Conditions of Spread Spectrum are:
1. The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal BW is
much larger than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide band
scheme.
2. A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the same code
is to be used to despread the signal at the receiver.
Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum are:
1. Higher channel capacity.
2. Ability to resist multipath propagation.
3. They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
 4. They are resistant to jamming.
5. The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath
propagation.
6. The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.

Cellular Networks

A Cellular Network is formed of some cells. The cell covers a geographical region and
has a base station analogous to 802.11 AP which helps mobile users attach to the
network and there is an air interface of physical and data link layer protocol between
mobile and base station. All these base stations are connected to the Mobile
Switching Center which connects cells to a wide-area net, manages call setup, and
handles mobility.
There is a certain radio spectrum that is allocated to the base station and to a
particular region and that now needs to be shared. There are two techniques for
sharing mobile-to-base station radio spectrum:
 Combined FDMA/TDMA: It divides the spectrum into frequency channels and
divides each channel into time slots.
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): It allows the reuse of the same spectrum
over all cells. Net capacity improvement. Two frequency bands are used one of
which is for the forwarding channel (cell-site to subscriber) and one for the
reverse channel (sub to cell-site).
Cell Fundamentals
In practice, cells are of arbitrary shape(close to a circle) because it has the same
power on all sides and has same sensitivity on all sides, but putting up two-three
circles together may result in interleaving gaps or may intersect each other so order
to solve this problem we can use equilateral triangle, square or a regular hexagon in
which hexagonal cell is close to a circle used for a system design. Co-channel
reuse ratio is given by:
DL/RL = Square root of (3N)
Where,
DL = Distance between co-channel cells
RL = Cell Radius
N = Cluster Size
The number of cells in cluster N determines the amount of co-channel interference
and also the number of frequency channels available per cell.
Cell Splitting
When the number of subscribers in a given area increases allocation of more
channels covered by that channel is necessary, which is done by cell splitting. A
single small cell midway between two co-channel cells is introduced.
 Cell Splitting

Need for Cellular Hierarchy

Extending the coverage to the areas that are difficult to cover by a large cell.
Increasing the capacity of the network for those areas that have a higher density of
users. An increasing number of wireless devices and the communication between
them.
Cellular Hierarchy
 Femtocells: The smallest unit of the hierarchy, these cells need to cover only a
few meters where all devices are in the physical range of the uses.
 Picocells: The size of these networks is in the range of a few tens of meters,
e.g., WLANs.
 Microcells: Cover a range of hundreds of meters e.g. in urban areas to support
PCS which is another kind of mobile technology.
 Macrocells: Cover areas in the order of several kilometers, e.g., cover
metropolitan areas.
 Mega cells: Cover nationwide areas with ranges of hundreds of kilometers, e.g.,
used with satellites.
Fixed Channel Allocation
For a particular channel, the frequency band which is associated is fixed. The total
number of channels is given by
Nc = W/B
Where,
W = Bandwidth of the available spectrum,
B = Bandwidth needed by each channels per cell,
Cc = Nc/N where N is the cluster size
Adjacent radio frequency bands are assigned to different cells. In analog, each
channel corresponds to one user while in digital each RF channel carries several
time slots or codes (TDMA/CDMA). Simple to implement as traffic is uniform.
Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communications
GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an 8-slot Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) system. There is a frequency band that is also fixed.
Transmitting and receiving do not happen in the same time slot because the GSM
radios cannot transmit and receive at the same time and it takes time to switch
from one to the other. A data frame is transmitted in 547 microseconds, but a
transmitter is only allowed to send one data frame every 4.615 microseconds since
it is sharing the channel with seven other stations. The gross rate of each channel is
270, 833 bps divided among eight users, which gives 33.854 kbps gross.
Control Channel (CC)
Apart from user channels, there are some control channels which is used to
manage the system.
1. The broadcast control channel (BCC): It is a continuous stream of output from
the base station’s identity and the channel status. All mobile stations monitor
their signal strength to see when they move into a new cell.
2. The dedicated control channel (DCC): It is used for location updating,
registration, and call setup. In particular, each base station maintains a database
of mobile stations. Information needed to maintain this database is sent to the
dedicated control channel.
Common Control Channel
Three logical sub-channels are:
1. Is the paging channel, that the base station uses to announce incoming calls.
Each mobile station monitors it continuously to watch for calls it should answer.
2. Is the random access channel that allows the users to request a slot on the
dedicated control channel. If two requests collide, they are garbled and have to
be retried later.
3. Is the access grant channel which is the announced assigned slot.
Advantages of Cellular Networks
 Mobile and fixed users can connect using it. Voice and data services also
provided.
 Has increased capacity & easy to maintain.
 Easy to upgrade the equipment & has consumes less power.
 It is used in place where cables can not be laid out because of its wireless
existence.
 To use the features & functions of mainly all private and public networks.
 Can be distributed to the larger coverage of areas.
Disadvantages of Cellular Networks
 It provides a lower data rate than wired networks like fiber optics and DSL. The
data rate changes depending on wireless technologies like GSM, CDMA, LTE, etc.
 Macrophage cells are impacted by multipath signal loss.
 To service customers, there is a limited capacity that depends on the channels
and different access techniques.
 Due to the wireless nature of the connection, security issues exist.
 For the construction of antennas for cellular networks, a foundation tower and
space are required. It takes a lot of time and labor to do this.

What Does Satellite Broadcasting Mean?

Satellite broadcasting is the distribution of multimedia content or broadcast signals

over or through a satellite network. The broadcast signals usually originate from a
station such as a TV or radio station and then are sent via a satellite uplink
(uploaded) to a geo-stationary artificial satellite for redistribution or retransmission
to other predetermined geographic locations through an open or a secure channel.
Downlinks are then received by base stations such as small home satellite dishes or
by base stations owned by the local cable network for redistribution to their
customers.

Satellite Broadcasting

Satellite broadcasting is a system of content distribution using broadcast signals

relayed to and from communication satellites, which are then received by parabolic
antennae better known as satellite dishes. The signals are then passed through a
low-noise block converter for conditioning.

A satellite receiver decodes the incoming signals and presents them to the user
through standard television or satellite radio. In the case of satellite television, the
signals coming in are encoded and digitally compressed so as to minimize the size
and so that the provider can bundle more channels into the signal. The user can then
select which channel to decode and view. The compression used for satellite digital
TV is often MPEG compression so that quality can be retained.
GSM (or Global System for Mobile Communications) is defined as a set
of mobile communications standards and protocols governing second-
generation or 2G networks, first developed and deployed in Europe.

How Does GSM Work?

The Working of a GSM Network

GSM is a digital cellular communication standard that is universally accepted. The European
Telecommunications Standards Institute created the GSM standard to define the procedures for second-
generation digital mobile networks that are used by devices such as mobile phones. It is a wide-area
communications technology program that utilizes digital radio channeling to bring forth audio,
information, and multimedia communication systems.
GSM is a mobile network and not a computer networkOpens a new window – this implies that devices
interact with it by looking for nearby cells. GSM, including other technological advances, has influenced
the evolution of mobile wireless telecommunication services. A GSM system manages communication
between mobile stations, base stations, and switching systems.

Every GSM radio channel is 200 kHz wide and is additionally divided into frames of 8-time slots. The
global system for mobile communication (GSM) was first known as Groupe Special Mobile, which is the
reason for the acronym. The GSM system comprises mobile stations, base stations, and intertwining
switching systems.

The GSM program enables 8 to 16 audio users to share every radio channel, and every radio transmission
location may have multiple radio channels. Because of its simplicity, affordability, and accessibility, GSM
is presently the most commonly used network technology in the applications.

However, this is likely to change in the coming years. Various programs have been designed without the
advantage of standardized provisions all through the transformation of mobile telecommunication services.

This significantly created many issues tied directly to consistency as digital radio technology advanced.
The global system for mobile communication is designed to address these issues. GSM accounts for about
70% of the world’s digital cellular services. GSM automates and encodes the information before
transmitting it via a channel including three distinct streams of user information inside each time slot. For
the vast majority of the world, it is also the leading 2G digital cell phone standard. It governs how cell
phones interact with the land-based tower system.

In Europe, GSM operates in the 900MHz and 1.8GHz bands, while in the United States, it functions in the
1.9GHz PCS band. GSM describes the overall mobile network, not just the Time division multiple access
air interface, as it is centered on a circuit-switched structure that splits every 200 kHz channel into eight 25
kHz time frames. It is a rapidly expanding transmission technique, with over 250 million GSM users by the
early 2000s. The one billionth GSM consumer was linked by mid-2004.

How Does GSM Work?

While using the 900 MHz bandwidth was one of the initial plans for the Global System of the mobile
communication path, it is no longer mandatory. GSM systems since then have grown and can now operate
in a variety of frequency bands.

The GSM frequency bandwidths are generally separated into two paths: 900/1800 MHz and 850/1900
MHz. Most of Europe, Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Australia use the 900 MHz / 1800 MHz band.
North and South America, as well as the United States, Canada, Mexico, and other countries, use the 850
MHz / 1900 MHz band. In the Global system for mobile communication, 900 MHz bandwidth spans 880
to 960 MHz, while the 1800 MHz band spans 1710 to 1880 MHz.

The 850 MHz frequency band, on the other hand, spans 824 to 894 MHz, while the 1900 MHz band spans
1850 to 1990 MHz. GSM-based cellular systems use a series of numbers or unique codes to recognize
cellular subscribers and deliver the appropriate assistance to them. IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity) is a unique serial code for every SIM card. To conceal the permanent identity, the phone network
can create a short-term code called Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity for each IMSI.

The Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number is the complete phone number for a
particular SIM, including all prefixes. Lastly, MSRN is an abbreviation for Mobile Subscriber Roaming
Number, and it is a short-term cellphone number given to a cellular station if it is not on the local network
(roaming). Therefore, any calls or communication systems can be tied to it.

Numerous GSM network carriers have roaming agreements with foreign corporations, allowing people to
use their phones when traveling internationally. SIM cards with household network access designs can be
changed to those with a metered local connection, lowering roaming costs while maintaining service. The
global system for mobile communication organizes the geographical area into hexagonal cells, the size of
which is controlled by the transmitter’s power and the number of end-users. The middle of the cell has a
base station consisting of a transceiver (which combines the transmitter and reception) and an antenna.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) are the two
critical approaches used by GSM:

 FDMA is the technique of subdividing frequency bands into many bands, each of which is
allocated to specific users. In GSM, FDMA separates the 25MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier
frequencies by 200 kHz. Every base station has one or more carrier frequencies assigned to it.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is the practice of allocating the same frequency to multiple
users by separating the bandwidths into various time slots. Every subscriber is assigned a
timeslot, allowing different stations to split the same transmission area.

TDMA is used to divide each subdivided carrier frequency into different time slots for GSM. Each Time-
division multiple access frame does have 8-time slots and takes 4.164 milliseconds (ms). This means that
every time slot or physical channel in this structure should take 577 microseconds, and information is
transferred in bursts during that time. A GSM system has several cell sizes, including macro, micro, Pico,
and umbrella cells. Each cell differs depending on the execution domain.

A GSM network has five cell sizes: macro, micro, pico, and umbrella. Depending on the option provided,
the connectivity of each cell differs. The time division multiple access (TDMA) method works by giving
every client a varying time slot on a similar frequency. This can easily be adapted to sending and receiving
data and voice communication and it can hold bandwidths ranging from 64kbps to 120Mbps.

See More: Distributed Computing vs. Grid Computing: 10 Key ComparisonsOpens a new window

The Architecture of GSM

The GSM architecture is made up of three central systems. The following are the primary components of
the GSM architecture:

 The network switching system (NSS)

 The mobile station (MS)
 The base station system (BSS)
 The operations and support system (OSS)

1. The network switching system (NSS)

NSS is a GSM element that provides flow management and call processing for mobile devices moving
between base stations. The switching system consists of the functional units listed below.

 Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC): Mobile Switching Center is integral to the GSM
network architecture’s central network space. The MSC supports call switching across cellular
phones and other fixed or mobile network users. It also monitors cellular services, including
registration, location updates, and call forwarding to a roaming user.
 Home Location Register (HLR): It is a set of data items used for storing and managing
subscriptions. It provides data for each consumer as well as their last known position. The HLR is
regarded as the most significant database because it preserves enduring records about users.
When a person purchases a membership from one of the operators, they are enlisted in that
operator’s HLR.
 Visitor Location Register (VLR): VLR is a database that provides subscriber information necessary
for the MSC to service passengers. This includes a short-term version of most of the data stored
 in the HLR. The visitor location register can also be run as a standalone program, but it is usually
implemented as a component of the MSC.
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It is the component that determines if one can use particular
mobile equipment on the system. This consists of a list of every functioning mobile device on the
system, with each mobile device recognized by its own International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI) number.
 Authentication Center (AuC): The AUC is a unit that offers verification and encryption factors to
ensure the user’s identity and the privacy of every call. The verification center is a secure file that
contains the user’s private key in the SIM card. The AUC shields network operators from various
types of fraud prevalent in the modern-day cellular world.

2. The mobile station (MS)

The mobile station is a cell phone with a display, digital signal processor, and radio transceiver regulated
by a SIM card that functions on a system. Hardware and the SIM card are the two most essential elements
of the MS. The MS (Mobile stations) is most widely recognized by cell phones, which are components of a
GSM mobile communications network that the operator monitors and works.

Currently, their size has shrunk dramatically while their capabilities have skyrocketed. Additionally, the
time between charges has been significantly improved.

3. The base station system (BSS)

It serves as a connection between the network subsystem and the mobile station. It consists of two parts:

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS is responsible for radio connection protocols with
the MS and contains the cell’s radio transceivers. Companies may implement a significant
number of BTSs in a big metropolitan area. Each network cell has transceivers and antennas that
make up the BTS. Based on the cell’s consumer density, every BTS includes anywhere from one
to sixteen transceivers.
 The Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC is responsible for managing the radio resources of
one or more BTS(s). This manages radio channel configuration and handovers. The BSC serves as
the link seen between mobile and MSC. It allocates and emits MS frequency bands and time
slots. Additionally, the BSC is responsible for intercell handover and transmits the BSS and MS
power within its jurisdiction.

4. The operations and support system (OSS)

The operation support system (OSS) is a part of the overall GSM network design. This is linked to the NSS
and BSC components. The OSS primarily manages the GSM network and BSS traffic load. As the number
of BS increases due to customer population scaling, a few maintenance duties are shifted to the base
transceiver stations, lowering the system’s financial responsibility. The essential purpose of OSS is to have
a network synopsis and assist various services and maintenance organizations with their routine
maintenance arrangements.

Applications of GSM

The critical applications of GSM technology include:

1. Sending and receiving short messages

The ability to send and receive text messages to and from mobile phones is known as the Short Message
Service (SMS). SMS provides services related to two-way paging, except with more features incorporated
into the cell device or port. Text messaging allows a cell phone user to receive a quick short message on
their cell phone. Similarly, that user can compose a brief message to send to other users.

SMS delivers short text messages of up to 140 octets over the GSM platform’s control system air interface.
The Short Message Service Center (SMSC) stores and transmits short messages from mobile users to their
intended recipients. One may use it to send and receive brief messages, saving time due to the rapid
transmission of communications. Furthermore, there is no need to go online; the mobile device has a
signal, and it can send and receive short messages.

2. GSM and data security

Data security is the most crucial factor for usage operators. Specific aspects are now implemented in GSM
to improve security. There is currently an indication for ME and MS in this framework. The system
proposes two subsystems. The appliance control subsystem allows users to remotely control household
appliances, while the security alert subsystem provides fully automated security monitoring.

This same system can instruct users via SMS from a particular phone number on how to change the
condition of the home appliance based on the person’s needs and preferences. The client is configured via
SIM, allowing the system to observe Mobile subscribers on the database. GSM also includes features for
signal encryption.

The second element of GSM security is security alert, which would be accomplished in such a way that
upon identification of an invasion, the system would allow for the automatic creation of SMS, thereby
notifying the user of a potential threat.

GSM technology will enable communication with anyone, wherever, at any moment. GSM’s functional
architecture employs sophisticated networking principles, and its idea offers the advancement of GSM as
the first move towards an authentic personal communication network with sufficient homogeneity to
guarantee compatibility.

3. GSM for mobile system handover

The procedure of handover in any mobile system is critical. It is a necessary process, so handover could
lead to call loss if done improperly. Undelivered calls could be especially aggravating to subscribers, and
as the percentage of undelivered calls grows, so does user dissatisfaction, so they’re more likely to switch
to another network.

As a result, GSM handover was given special consideration when creating the standard. Whenever a
cellular customer switches cells, the radio signal shifts from past to new. Even though the GSM network is
complicated, in contrast to other systems, the flexibility of the GSM procedure provides better
performance to subscribers. In a GSM network, there are four basic types of handoffs:

 Intra-cell handover: This type of handover is used to improve data traffic in the cell or to
strengthen connection performance by modifying the carrier signal.
 Inter-cell handover: Additionally, it is known as intra-BSC handover. In this instance, the mobile
changes cells while remaining in the BSC. Here, the BSC is in control of the transfer procedure.
 Inter-BSC handover: It’s also known as an intra-MSC handover. Because BSC can only handle a
restricted number of cells, we may have to move a phone from one BSC to the other. Here, the
handover is managed by the MSC.
 Inter-MSC handoff: This occurs when a mobile device moves from one MSC area to the next.
MSC is spread over a wide area.
GSM - Protocol Stack
GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow
communications between two different systems. The lower layers
assure the services of the upper-layer protocols. Each layer
passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has
been formatted, transmitted, and received accurately.

The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown below −

MS Protocols

Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled

into three general layers −

 Layer 1 − The physical layer. It uses the channel structures

over the air interface.
 Layer 2 − The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the
data-link layer is a modified version of the Link access
protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN,
called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm).
Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP),
Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
 Layer 3 − GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into
three sublayers −
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).
MS to BTS Protocols

The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio
and fixed, between the MS and the MSC. For this formation, the
main components involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC. The
responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the
time when a mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio
channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.

The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the

functions that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as
the authentication and security aspects. Location management is
concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know
the current location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call
routing can be completed.

The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This
layer is responsible for Call Control, Supplementary Service
Management, and Short Message Service Management. Each of
these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer.
Other functions of the CC sublayer include call establishment,
selection of the type of service (including alternating between
services during a call), and call release.

BSC Protocols

The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data
from the BTS. The Abis interface is used between the BTS and
BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower portion of
Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station
Management (BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay
function at the BTS to the BSC.

The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and

reallocation of traffic channels between the MS and the BTS.
These services include controlling the initial access to the system,
paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites,
power control, and call termination. The BSC still has some radio
resource management in place for the frequency coordination,
frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network
layer for the Layer 2 interfaces.
To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application
part or the direct application part is used, and SS7 protocols is
applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the
prime architecture.

MSC Protocols

At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped

across the A interface to the MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base
Station System Management Application Part (BSS MAP) is said
to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is
finished by the layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3
protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes
the relay process. To find and connect to the users across the
network, MSCs interact using the control-signalling network.
Location registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in
the role of determining how and whether connections are to be
made to roaming users.

Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the

user’s location and subscribed services. VLR is a separate register
that is used to track the location of a user. When the users move
out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find
the location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the
control network, signals the HLR of the MS’s new location. With
the help of location information contained in the user’s HLR, the
MT calls can be routed to the user.

GSM Localisation and Calling

GSM Localisation and Calling

One of the main features of GSM system is the automatic, worldwide localisation of it’s
users. The GSM system always knows where a user is currently located, and the same phone
number is valid worldwide. To have this ability the GSM system performs periodic location
updates, even if the user does not use the MS, provided that the MS is still logged on to the
GSM network and is not completely switched off. The HLR contains information about the
current location, and the VLR that is currently responsible for the MS informs the HLR about
the location of the MS when it changes. Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability of all
services is also called roaming. Roaming can take place within the context of one GSM
service provider or between two providers in one country, however this does not normally
happen but also between different service providers in different countries, known as
international roaming.
To locate an MS and to address the MS, several numbers are needed:

MSISDN (Mobile Station International ISDN Number)The only important number for the
user of GSM is the phone number, due to the fact that the phone number is only associated
with the SIM, rather than a certain MS. The MSISDN follows the E.164, this standard is also
used in fixed ISDN networks.

IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity). GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique
identification of a subscriber.
TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity). To disguise the IMSI that would give the exact
identity of the user which is signaling over the radio air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte TMSI
for local subscriber identification. The TMSI is selected by the VLR and only has temporary
validity within the location area of the VLR. In addition to that the VLR will change the TMSI
periodically.

MSRN (Mobile Station [Subscriber] Roaming Number)This is another temporary address that
disguises the identity and location of the subscriber. The VLR generates this address upon
request from the MSC and the address is also stored in the HLR. The MSRN is comprised of
the current VCC (Visitor Country Code), the VNDC (Visitor National Destination Code) and
the identification of the current MSC together with the subscriber number, hence the MSRN
is essential to help the HLR to find a subscriber for an incoming call.

All the numbers described above are needed to find a user within the GSM system, and to
maintain the connection with a mobile station. The following scenarios below shows a MTC
(Mobile Terminate Call) and a MOC (Mobile Originated Call).

Digital Enhanced Cordless

Telecommunications (DECT)
The acronym DECT stands
for Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications. It is a technology
that offers wireless communication services for the transmission of
voice, data, fax, multimedia, etc. This mechanism has brought cordless
telephone systems into existence.
DECT is regarded as Digital Wireless Technology that was invented in
Europe but has gained worldwide importance.

The acronym DECT stands

for Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications. It is a technology
that offers wireless communication services for the transmission of
voice, data, fax, multimedia, etc. This mechanism has brought cordless
telephone systems into existence.
DECT is regarded as Digital Wireless Technology that was invented in
Europe but has gained worldwide importance.

System Architecture

There are several uses of DECT systems and depending upon the
usage there can be multiple physical techniques for the implementation
of the system. But one thing which is to be kept in mind is that there is a
single logical reference model of the system architecture which is the
basis of all the implementations.

The figure given below shows the reference model of DECT system
architecture:

There is a local communication structure that is connected to the outside

world through a global network and the services are offered via interface
D1. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Public Land Mobile
Network (PLMN), Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), etc. are
the global networks. These networks allow the data transmission along
with that the transfer of addresses and data routing between local
networks also takes place.
A local network of DECT can provide local telecommunication services
such as simple switching to any call forwarding, any type of address
translation, etc. Some of its major examples are private branch
exchanges i.e., the ones belonging to the family of LANs. The overall
implementation of the system is simple and therefore, the overall
functions that the network possesses are to be integrated within the local
or global network, containing databases such as home database (HDB)
and visitor database (VDB). The database operations here are similar to
that of GSM systems.
In this case whenever there is a call in the local network then it gets
automatically forwarded to the desired DECT user in the network and
the necessary changes that occurred in the location are notified to the
HDB by the VDB.
It is clearly shown in the above figure that there is a Fixed Radio
Terminal (FT) and Portable Radio Terminal (PT) which are responsible
for multiplexing of the signals to take place whenever necessary. The
fixed radio terminal is placed at the fixed network side while the portable
radio terminal exists at the mobile network side of the network. Along
with these here we have multiple portable applications abbreviated
as PA that a device can implement.

Protocol Architecture

The protocol architecture of the DECT system is based on the OSI

reference model. Here we have shown the layers in the architectural
representation containing physical layer, medium access control, and
data link control that works for both Control Plane (C-Plane) as well as
the User Pane (U-Plane).
The C-plane contains the additional network layer used for forwarding
the user data from one of the layers to the User-Plane. The lower layers
of the DECT system belong to the management plane.

Let us now understand the operation of each layer briefly.

1. Physical Layer: The physical layer of the network is responsible for

functions like detection of the incoming signal, performing modulation
and demodulation, maintaining synchronization between sender and
receiver along with collecting the status information for the management
plane. The physical channel structure is obtained by this layer with
guaranteed throughput. When data is required to get transferred which is
notified by the MAC layer then the physical layer allocates the channel
for the transmission of data.
In DECT, the standard TDMA frame structure used is shown here along
with some data packets. The fundamental connection orientation over
here is that there are 12 slots for uplink and downlink and the frame
duration is 10 ms. While if we talk about an advanced connections
scheme then in that case various allocation schemes can be
implemented.
2. Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer: This layer is responsible for
the activation and deactivation of physical channels in order to establish
or release channels for higher layers. In the MAC layer, multiplexing of
multiple logical channels onto physical channels is performed. While the
logical channels that are present here are responsible for the
transmission of user data, broadcasting or sending messages, paging,
the network controlling, etc. Other than these some additional services
provided by this layer are error controlling and correction along with
division or reassembling of the packets.
3. Data Link Control Layer: It is abbreviated as DLC and is mainly
responsible for forming connections between the mobile terminal and the
base station. In this layer the Control Panel has assigned two services
namely, one is paging which is assigned for connectionless broadcasting
while the other is the point-to-point approach. Not only this, some other
services include forward error correction, rate adaptation, and other
services for enhancing the future system requirements.
Suppose if ISDN data is to be transferred at 64 kbit/s then the data
transferred from DECT will also be 64 kbit/s. But in case, there is an
error in the transmitted sequence then the rate of transfer is increased
to 72 kbit/s and forward error correction is implemented. Also, ARQ is
performed where a buffer of up to eight blocks is maintained. Due to this
buffer delay of around 80 ms is also introduced in the transmitted
sequence.
4. Network Layer: This layer works only for the control panel of the
DECT structure and works in a similar manner as in ISDN and GSM.
Mainly the services related to requesting, reserving checking, releasing,
or controlling resources at fixed and mobile stations are offered by this
layer. The necessary management relative to identity, authentication, or
location is done by the Mobility Management (MM) present within the
network layer. While there is Call Control (CC) which is responsible for
handling the setting up, releasing, or managing the connection.
The DECT system is connected with the outside world through this layer
as it enables connection-oriented message service and connectionless
message service so that data transfer can take place between the
networking unit.

ETRA (Enhanced Third Generation Radio Access): ETRA was a concept developed
by Nortel Networks in the late 1990s as part of their vision for enhancing third-
generation (3G) mobile telecommunications technology. It aimed to provide higher
data rates, improved coverage, and better spectral efficiency compared to existing
3G technologies.
1. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): UMTS is a third-
generation (3G) mobile telecommunications technology that was standardized by the
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). It was developed to succeed GSM (Global
System for Mobile Communications) and provide higher data rates and multimedia
services. UMTS supports both circuit-switched and packet-switched data services and
serves as the foundation for the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family of
technologies, including HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) and HSUPA
(High-Speed Uplink Packet Access).
2. IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000): IMT-2000 is a global
standard for third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications systems developed by
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It encompasses various
technologies, including UMTS, CDMA2000, and TD-SCDMA, among others. IMT-2000
aims to provide high-speed data transmission, multimedia services, and global
roaming capabilities. It sets the framework for the evolution of mobile networks
beyond the second-generation (2G) systems like GSM.

Introduction to Satellite Systems

o A satellite is an artificial object which is placed intentionally into an orbit of
any natural satellite. Satellites are used for many purposes i.e. weather
forecasting, digital transmission, scientific research and development etc.
o In a communication context, a satellite is a specialized wireless
transmitter/receiver that is launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around
the earth.
o A satellite can be natural, like the moon, or artificial (human made). So we can
say that a satellite is an object that moves in a curved path around a planet.
o Satellite can travel around planets or around stars such as our sun. All the
planets are satellites around the sun.
o Satellites which are far away from the surface of the earth can cover a wide
area on the surface of the earth.
o The moon is earth's original, natural satellite, and there are many man-made
(artificial) satellites for example: SPUTNIK, ECHO, and SYNCOM.

Types of Satellite Systems

Satellites have been put in space for various purposes and their placement in space
and orbiting shapes have been determined as per their specific requirements.
Four different types of satellites orbits have been identified.
These are:

o GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) at about 36,000km above the earth's surface.
o LEO (Low Earth Orbit) at about 500-1500km above the earth's surface.
o MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit) at about 6000-
20,000 km above the earth's surface.
o HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit)

1. GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit)

o If a satellite should appear in fixed in the sky, it requires a period of 24 hours. Using
the equation of distance earth and satellite, r = (g.r2 /2.r.f)2)1/3 and the period of 24
hours f = 1/24 h. the resulting distance is 35,786 km. the orbit must have an
inclination of 0 degree.
o Geostationary satellites have a distance of almost 36,000 km to the earth. Examples
are almost all TV and radio broadcast satellites, any weather satellites and satellites
operating as backbones for the telephone network.
o Objects in GEO moves around the earth at the same speed as the earth rotates. This
means geostationary satellites remain in the same position relative to the surface of
earth.
Advantages of GEO satellite
o Three Geostationary satellites are enough for a complete coverage of almost any spot
on earth.
o Receivers and senders can use fixed antenna positions, no adjusting is needed.
o GEOs are ideal for TV and radio broadcasting.
o Lifetime expectations for GEOs are rather high, at about 15 years.
o Geostationary satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
o GEOs typically do not need handover due to the large footprints.
o GEOs don't exhibit any Doppler shift because the relative movement is zero.

Disadvantages of GEO satellite

o Northern or southern regions of the earth have more problems receiving these
satellites due to the low elevation above latitude of 60 degree, i.e. larger antennas are
needed in this case.
o Shading of the signals in cities due to high buildings and the low elevation further
away from the equator limits transmission quality.
o The transmit power needed is relatively high (about 10 W) which causes problems for
battery powered devices.
o These satellites can't be used for small mobile phones.
o The biggest problem for voice and also data communication is high latency of over
0.25s one way-retransmission schemes which are known from fixed networks fail.
o Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

2. LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

o As LEOs circulate on a lower orbit, it is obvious that they exhibit a much shorter
period (the typical duration of LEO periods are 95 to 120 minutes). Additionally, LEO
systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high
quality communication link.
o Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for about ten minutes.
o A further classification of LEOs into little LEOs with low bandwidth services (some 100
bit/s), big LEOs (some 1,000 bit/s) and broadband LEOs with plans reaching into the
Mbits/s range can be found in Comparetto (1997).
 o LEO satellites are much closer to earth than GEO satellites, ranging from 500 to 1,500
km above the surface. LEO satellites do not stay in fixed position relative to the
surface, and are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.

Advantages of LEO satellite

o Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be
enough for voice communication.
o LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with omni-directional
antennas using low transmit power in the range of 1 W.
o A LEO satellite smaller area of coverage is less of a waste of bandwidth.
o Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be
enough for voice communication.
o A LEO satellite's proximity to earth compared to a Geostationary satellite gives it a
better signal strength and less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to
point communication.
o Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better frequency reuse, similar to the concepts
used for cellular networks.

Disadvantages of LEO satellite

o The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global
coverage is to be reached.
o The high number of satellites combined with the fast movement's results in a high
complexity of the whole satellite system.
o The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanism for
connection handover between different satellites.
o One general problem of LEO is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to
atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt.
o The low latency via a single LEO is only half of the story.
o Other factors are the need for routing of data packets from satellite to satellite (or
several times from base stations to satellites and back) if a user wants to
communicate around the world.
o A GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as senders and receivers are most
likely in the same footprints.
 3. MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)
o A MEO satellite situates in orbit somewhere between 6,000 km to 20,000 km above
the earth's surface.
o MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in the context of functionality.
o MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellite in functionality.
o Medium earth orbit satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO
satellites usually between 2 to 8 hours.
o MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than Low Earth Orbit satellites.
o MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of MEO
o Using orbits around 10,000km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is
more than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO system.
o These satellites move more slowly relative to the earth's rotation allowing a simpler
system design (satellite periods are about six hours).
o Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger populations, so requiring fewer
handovers.
o A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer
satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network.

Disadvantages of MEO
o Again due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70-80 ms.
o The satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints.
o A MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than LEO
satellite.

In satellite communication systems, routing, localization, and handover are crucial

aspects for ensuring seamless connectivity and efficient data transmission. Here's an
overview of each:

1. Routing:
 Routing in satellite systems involves determining the path that data packets
should take from the source to the destination through the satellite network.
 This can be challenging due to the long propagation delay inherent in satellite
communication, as well as the dynamic nature of the satellite constellation
and varying link conditions.
  Different routing protocols may be used, such as Distance Vector Routing
(DVR), Link State Routing (LSR), or newer protocols designed specifically for
satellite networks.
 Efficient routing algorithms take into account factors such as link quality,
traffic load, and latency to ensure optimal data transmission.
2. Localization:
 Localization refers to determining the geographical location of ground
stations or mobile terminals in satellite communication networks.
 Accurate localization is essential for satellite systems, especially for mobile
terminals and IoT devices that may be moving.
 Various techniques are used for localization, including GPS (Global Positioning
System), which relies on satellite signals for accurate positioning.
 In cases where GPS signals are not available or insufficient, alternative
methods such as triangulation based on signal strength from multiple
satellites or ground-based reference stations may be employed.
3. Handover:
 Handover, also known as handoff, is the process of transferring an ongoing
communication session from one satellite or beam to another as the user
moves.
 Handover is critical for maintaining continuous connectivity, particularly for
mobile satellite communication systems such as those used in maritime,
aviation, or land-based mobile applications.
 Handover decisions are typically based on factors such as signal strength, link
quality, Doppler shift, and beam coverage.
 Seamless handover mechanisms are essential to minimize service disruption
during transitions between satellites or beams.