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 Contents vii

Legislative and Judicial Landmarks 41

The Civil Rights Movement and the Schools 41
Judicial and Legislative Mandates Regarding Equity 42
Theoretical Approaches to Multicultural Education 49
Teaching the Culturally Different 49
Human Relations 50
Single-Group Studies 50
Inclusive Multicultural Education 51
Education That Is Multicultural and Social Reconstructionist 51
Outcomes of Multicultural Education 52
Student Outcomes 52
Program Outcomes 53
Where We Are Today 54
Public Responses to Multicultural and Bilingual Education Reforms 54
Recent Reaction to Multicultural Education 55
Resegregation: The Legacy of Neighborhood Schools 56
The Impact of Global Perspectives on Inequitable Education 58
Summary 59
Chapter Review 59
Key Terms 60
Active Exercise 60
Reflective Questions 60
References 61

Chapter 3 Culture and the Culture-Learning

Process 65

Exploring the Concept of Culture 66

Case Study: Beechland Heights: A Thought Experiment 67
Defining Culture 69
Culture in Everyday Use 70
Commonalities in Definitions of Culture 72
Humans Construct Culture 72
Culture Is Shared 73
Culture Is Both Objective and Subjective 74
Culture Is Nurtured 75
Applying the Concept of Culture 77
Culture-Specific Versus Culture-General Frameworks 78
The Culture-Learning Process 78
What Is Learned: The Sources of Cultural Knowledge 79
How Culture Is Learned: The Socializing Agents 86
When Culture Is Learned: The Process of Socialization 88
Primary Socialization and Cultural Similarities 88
viii Contents

Secondary Socialization 90
Some Consequences of Socialization 91
Perception and Categorization 92
Some Limits on Socialization 94
Understanding Cultural Differences 95
Variations in Cultural Environments: Returning
to Beechland Heights 95
Variations in Cultural Attributes, Socializing Agents,
and Cultural Learners 98
Summary 102
Chapter Review 102
Key Terms 102
Active Exercise 102
Reflective Questions 104
References 104

Chapter 4 Classrooms and Schools as Cultural

Crossroads 107

Case Study: Melinda’s Induction Year Dilemma 108

Schools and Classrooms: Where Cultures Intersect 109
Student Culture 110
Teacher Culture 110
Parent Culture 111
School Culture 112
Teachers as Cultural Mediators 112
Cross-Cultural Adaptation 113
Acculturation and Identity 115
Themes From Cross-Cultural Psychology 117
A Model of Intercultural Interaction 119
Stage 1: Understanding Emotional Responses
in Intercultural Interaction 119
Stage 2: Understanding the Cultural Basis
of Unfamiliar Behavior 122
Stage 3: Making Adjustments and Reshaping Cultural Identity 126
Applying the Culture-General Model 129
Identifying Commonalities Among Groups 130
Identifying Differences Within a Group 130
Critical Incidents at Wake Central High 131
Discussion of Critical Incidents 134
Summary 137
Chapter Review 137
Key Terms 137
 Contents ix

Active Exercise 137

Reflective Questions 138
References 139

Chapter 5 Intercultural Development: Considering

the Growth of Self and Others 141

Intercultural Competence 142

Case Study: Dissent at Maplewood School 143
Developing Intercultural Sensitivity 146
Ethnocentric Stages of the DMIS 148
Ethnorelative Stages of the DMIS 152
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere
in the World? 155
Critical Incidents at Maplewood 158
Summary 161
Chapter Review 162
Key Terms 162
Active Exercise 162
Reflective Questions 163
References 163

2 Multicultural Teaching in Action 165

Chapter 6 Creating Classrooms That Address

Race and Ethnicity 167

Case Study: The Chameleon 168

Lay Versus Scientific Understanding of Race and Ethnicity 171
Pedagogies: Old and New 171
Roles: Old and New 171
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 171
Assessment: Old and New 173
Understanding Prejudice and Racism 173
The Functions of Prejudice 174
Prejudice Formation: The Components
of Prejudice 175
How Children Learn Prejudice 175
Extreme Cases of Prejudice 177
Strategies for Prejudice Reduction 178
Parent and Teacher Talk 179
Curriculum Transformation 180
1. Improving Social Contact and Intergroup Relations 180
x Contents

Some Cautions in Applying the Contact Hypothesis 183

2. Increasing Cognitive Sophistication 184
3. Improving Self-Confidence and Self-Acceptance 185
4. Increasing Empathy for and Understanding of Others 185
Comprehensive Programs That Improve Intergroup Relations 186
Antibias Education for Young Children 186
Cooperative Learning 186
A World of Difference 187
Facing History and Ourselves 187
Critical Incidents 187
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 188
Summary 194
Chapter Review 194
Key Terms 194
Active Exercise 194
Classroom Activities 197
Reflective Questions 197
References 197

Chapter 7 The Classroom as a Global Community:

Nationality and Region 201

Case Study: A Global Classroom 202

Education in a Global Society 207
What Is Globalization? 208
Characteristics of Globalization 209
Teaching With a Global Purpose 210
Education for a Global Perspective 211
How Do We Achieve the Cognitive Demands Required for
a Global Mind-Set? 212
Is Technology Facilitating a Global Mind-Set? 213
Curriculum Transformation: The International Perspective 215
Perspective Consciousness 215
State of the Planet Awareness 216
Cross-Cultural Awareness 219
Knowledge of Global Dynamics or World Systems 220
Awareness of Human Choice 221
What, Specifically, Should Students Study? 222
Characteristics of a Global Classroom 222
Pedagogies: Old and New 223
Roles: Old and New 224
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 224
Assessment: Old and New 224
 Contents xi

Teaching the Global Perspective 225

Comprehensive International Education Frameworks 226
International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) 227
Asia Society/EdSteps 227
Programs That Link Schools 228
Perspectives on a Globally Oriented Curriculum 230
Ethical Concerns 231
International Perspective: What’s Happening
Elsewhere in the World? 232
Summary 233
Chapter Review 234
Key Terms 234
Active Exercise 234
Classroom Activities 236
Reflective Questions 237
References 237

Chapter 8 Developing Learning Communities:

Language and Learning Style 241

Case Study: Language and Learning Style in a Learning-Community

Classroom 242
Case Analysis 248
Characteristics of a Learning Community 249
Rationale for Learning-Community Classrooms 250
Pedagogies: Old and New 251
Roles: Old and New 252
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 252
Assessment: Old and New 253
Perspectives on Language Acquisition 253
Language and the Family 253
Institutional Aspects of Language in the Family 254
Perspectives on Language Variation 255
Verbal Communication 255
Nonverbal Communication 258
Culture, Language, and Learning Style 258
Components of Learning Style 258
Multiple Intelligences 259
Origins of Learning Style 260
The Relation of Language and Learning Style to Culture 260
Perspectives on Bilingual Education and Second-Language Acquisition 262
The Bilingual Education Backlash 263
Other Bilingual Education Issues 265
xii Contents

Perspectives on Second-Language Acquisition 265

Stages in Second-Language Acquisition 265
Other Important Concepts in Second-Language Acquisition 266
Ethical Issues: Local and Global 267
International Perspectives: What’s Happening Elsewhere
in the World? 268
Summary 270
Chapter Review 271
Key Terms 271
Active Exercise 271
Classroom Activities 272
Reflective Questions 272
Endnote 273
References 273

Chapter 9 Religious Pluralism in Secular

Classrooms 277

Case Study: Religion in a Secular Classroom 278

Rationale for Attending to Religion in Public Schools 280
Definitions of Religion 280
Religious Pluralism in the United States 282
European Influences on Religion in the United States 282
African Influences on Religion in the United States 283
Middle Eastern Influences on Religion in the United States 283
Characteristics of a Classroom That Attends to Religious Pluralism 285
Pedagogies: Old and New 285
Roles: Old and New 286
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 287
Assessment: Old and New 288
Case Analysis 288
Perspectives on Religion and Schooling in the United States 289
Private Freedoms: Religion and Compulsory School Attendance 290
Private Freedoms: The Practice of Religious Beliefs in Classrooms 291
Public Freedoms: Public Funding for Religious Schools 293
Charter Schools, Home Schooling,
and Voucher Programs 294
Public Freedoms: The Provision of Religious Instruction 295
Perspectives on Religious Identity 296
Religion as a Form of Personal Identity 296
Organized Religion and the Net Generation 298
The Influence of the Religious Right 299
Ethical Issues 301
 Contents xiii

International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 302

Summary 305
Chapter Review 305
Key Terms 306
Active Exercise 306
Classroom Activities 307
Reflective Questions 307
Endnote 308
References 308

Chapter 10 Developing a Collaborative Classroom:

Gender and Sexual Orientation 311

Case Study: Gender and Sexual Orientation in a

Collaborative Classroom 312
Case Analysis 314
Rationale for Collaborative Teaching and Learning 315
Characteristics of a Collaborative Classroom 316
Pedagogies: Old and New 317
Roles: Old and New 319
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 320
Assessment: Old and New 321
Perspectives on Gender Identity 322
Gender Role Socialization 323
Gender Role Socialization in the Middle Class 323
Gender Role Socialization in Popular Culture, Books, and Toys 324
Masculine and Feminine Behavior 325
Perspectives on Gender and Schooling 327
Schools as Socializing Agents 327
Gender Stereotypes in School 327
Gender as an Issue of Legal Equity in Schools 328
Legislation and Court Cases 329
Contemporary Concerns About the Education of Boys 330
Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality 331
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Rights Are
Human Rights 332
Ethical Issues 335
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere
in the World? 336
Summary 341
Chapter Review 341
Key Terms 342
Active Exercise 342
xiv Contents

Classroom Activities 343

Reflective Questions 343
Endnote 344
References 344

Chapter 11 Creating Developmentally Appropriate

Classrooms: The Importance of Age and
Developmental Status 349

Case Study: Age in Developmentally Appropriate Classrooms 350

Rationale for Developmentally Appropriate Educational Practice 353
Economic Aims for Schooling 356
Early Childhood Education and Developmentally Appropriate Practice 357
Constructivist Thought in Developmentally Appropriate Practice 358
Characteristics of a Developmentally Appropriate Classroom 359
Pedagogies: Old and New 359
Roles: Old and New 363
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 364
Assessment: Old and New 365
Perspectives on Age and Development 366
Sensitive Periods and Developmental Crises 366
Socioemotional Implications of Body Size and Body Image 367
Individual Differences and Developmental Domains 368
The Importance of Developmental Knowledge 369
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 371
Summary 374
Chapter Review 374
Key Terms 374
Active Exercise 375
Classroom Activities 375
Reflective Questions 376
Endnotes 376
References 376

Chapter 12 Creating Inclusive Classrooms: The

Ability/Disability Continuum and the
Health Dimension 379

Case Study: Schools That Include All Students 380

Rationale for Inclusive Classrooms 383
What Is Exceptionality? 385
The Ability/Disability Continuum 385
Historical Perspectives on Special Education 386
 Contents xv

New Perspectives: Being “Neuro-Atypical” and the Mental Health Continuum 389
The Health Dimension 390
Characteristics of an Inclusive Classroom 393
Inclusion and Human Diversity 393
Pedagogies: Old and New 395
Roles: Old and New 396
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 397
Assessment: Old and New 398
Making Inclusive Teaching Work 399
The Importance of Collaboration 399
What Does Flexibility Involve 401
Ethical Issues in Inclusive Education 402
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 405
Summary 408
Chapter Review 408
Key Terms 408
Active Exercise 408
Classroom Activities 409
Reflective Questions 409
Endnotes 410
References 410

Chapter 13 Improving Schools for All Children:

The Role of Social Class and Social
Status in Teaching and Learning 413

Case Study: Fulfilling the Promise in the Northeast Kingdom 414

Case Analysis 416
Pedagogies: Old and New 417
Roles: Old and New 418
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 419
Assessment: Old and New 419
Perspectives on Social Class and Social Status 421
Definitions of Social Class 422
Changes in the Definition of Social Class 423
Social Status 425
The Importance of Teacher Expectations 426
The Culturally Responsive Teacher 427
Social Class and School Funding 428
The Role of Social Class in Student Progress: A Little History 429
New Language for Considering Public Education 430
The Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act: A Bridge
Too Far? 433
xvi Contents

Perspectives on Multiple Forms of Assessment: Demand Versus Support 434

Ethical Issues 435
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 437
Summary 440
Chapter Review 440
Key Terms 441
Active Exercise 441
Classroom Activities 442
Reflective Questions 442
Endnotes 443
References 443

Glossary 447
Photo Credits 453
Name Index 455
Subject Index 461
About the Authors
Kenneth H. Cushner is Professor of Education in the College and Graduate School
of Education, Health and Human Services at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. In
addition to this text, Dr. Cushner is author or editor of several books and articles in
the field of intercultural education and training, including: Intercultural Student Teach-
ing: A Bridge to Global Competence (2007, Rowman Littlefield); Human Diversity
in Action: Developing Multicultural Competencies in the Classroom, 3rd edition
(2006, McGraw-Hill); International Perspectives on Intercultural Education (1998,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Improving Intercultural Interactions: Modules for
Cross-Cultural Training Programs, volume 2 (with Richard Brislin, Sage Publications,
1997); and Intercultural Interactions: A Practical Guide, 2nd edition (with Richard
Brislin, Sage Publications, 1996). A former East-West Center scholar, Dr. Cushner is
a Founding Fellow and past-president of the International Academy for Intercultural
Research; was a Fulbright Scholar to Sweden in 2008; coordinated the Teachers at
Sea program for Semester at Sea (summers of 2010 and 2011); and currently serves
as director of COST–the Consortium for Overseas Student Teaching. In his spare time,
Dr. Cushner enjoys music (percussion and guitar), photography, and travel. He has
developed and led intercultural programs on all seven continents.

Averil McClelland is currently Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Cultural

Foundations of Education program in the College and Graduate School at Kent State
University, from which she received her Ph.D. Dr. McClelland has had extensive
experience in curriculum design and program evaluation, as well as experience with
addressing issues of gender and education and cultural diversity in education. In addi-
tion to this text, she is the author of The Education of Women in the United States:
A Guide to Theory, Teaching, and Research (Garland, 1992), as well as a number of
articles in scholarly journals. She received the Distinguished Teaching award from
Kent State University in 1996, and has a long-standing relationship with the National
First Ladies Library, where she develops Web-based curricula based on the lives of
the nation’s 44 First Ladies. Her special interests are the history, sociology, and pol-
itics of education, the reconstruction of teacher education, and internationalizing the
college curriculum for preservice and practicing teachers.

Philip Safford, Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Case Western Reserve University,

is Emeritus Professor and former chair of Special Education at Kent State University.
Prior to earning his Ph.D. through the Combined Program in Education and Psychol-
ogy at the University of Michigan, with specialization in special education and child
development, he had been a teacher and administrator in residential treatment pro-
grams for children with emotional disorders. Dr. Safford has authored or edited six
books and numerous articles dealing with special education history, early intervention
for young children with disabilities, and related topics. He has directed or co-directed
a number of training, research, and demonstration projects in special education sup-
ported by federal and state grants.

xvii
Preface
People across the planet seem to be in constant flux and challenge—some seek and
embrace innovation and change at an ever-accelerating pace, while others struggle
through a variety of political and social resistance to retain older and more traditional
ways of doing things. In the few years since the previous edition of this book we have
witnessed, the Middle East alone has witnessed the emergence of the Arab Spring that
challenged long-standing dictatorships by a citizenry bent on establishing democracy;
the de-escalation of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; a major civil war emerging in
Syria; the death of Osama bin Laden; and the continuation of terrorist threats aimed
at Western interests. Elsewhere around the world significant changes continue to
emerge, with the African continent experiencing perhaps its greatest economic devel-
opment in a century; the continued emergence of China as a major economic force;
while the economies in many of the countries of the European Union struggle. On
the national level, but yet with global significance, we have encountered the dis-
semination of sensitive government documents leaked by the likes of Edward Snowden,
Private Bradley Manning, and Julian Assange’s Wikileaks, increasingly made possible
by the ubiquitous use of technology; global climate change has resulted in new and
unpredictable weather patterns, including the steady increase in the number of forest
fires, hurricanes, and tornadoes encountered across the country. Closer to home, peo-
ple continue to wrestle with questions surrounding same-sex marriage and gay rights;
the question of health care mandates alongside the accelerated identification of chil-
dren with autism and other disabilities and the aging of our population; issues of
immigration, minority rights, and the ethnic makeup of the nation; and the challenges
of a slow economic recovery and related issues posed by the Occupy Wall Street
protests in 2011. Such changes and challenges span cultural differences and cut across
geographic, political, and social boundaries; they continue to impact us all at the local,
national, and global levels.
Such problems continue to enter and impact our increasingly culturally diverse
classrooms and communities. In order to effectively address and potentially solve
these issues it is incumbent upon teachers to both understand their origin as well as
think about possible solutions. This requires people who have the knowledge, skills,
and motivations to reach beyond their own cultural boundaries and collaborate with
others. If people are not willing and able to do this, these, and other future problems,
simply will not be solved. Developing multicultural understanding and intercultural
competence, thus, underlies much that must be actively addressed throughout the
school curriculum.
As events continue to evolve across the globe, it is increasingly important that
teachers provide young people with a foundation that will assist them to better under-
stand the complex nature of the world in which they will live while developing the
skills that will enable them to be proactive problem solvers in an interdependent,
global society. This eighth edition of Human Diversity in Education: An Intercultural
Approach, continues to focus on the preparation of teachers and other human-service
providers who can teach and interact more effectively with the wide diversity of stu-
dents they are certain to encounter, and are able to transmit this knowledge and skill
to the individuals in their charge.

xviii
 Preface xix

New to This Edition

This book continues to receive overwhelmingly positive feedback from users around
the world, and because of this we have maintained much of the familiar format.
Regular users, however, will notice some changes in this edition. The book continues
to provide a broad treatment of the various forms of diversity common in today’s
schools, including nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, gender, social class, language
acquisition and use, sexual orientation, health concerns, and disability. We also main-
tain its research-based approach, with an increased cross-cultural and intercultural
emphasis. Because attention to diversity is not unique to the United States, and
because we can learn quite a lot from others, we have maintained the International
Perspectives that are featured beginning in Chapter 6. Scholars and practitioners from
around the world bring another voice to the discussion, sharing their perspectives on
how similar issues are addressed in their home countries of Australia, Canada, China,
the Republic of Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa.
We continue to stress that it is both at the level of the individual teacher as well
as the organizational structure of the school where significant change must occur with
regard to how diversity is understood and accommodated. Little institutional or sys-
tematic change will occur until individuals fully understand the role that culture plays
in determining their own thoughts and actions and how they can go about altering its
powerful influence. Culture learning of both teacher and student, along with intercul-
tural interaction, remain central to this book.
We also recognize that today’s generation of young people has been exposed to
greater diversity, both global and domestic, through the influence of global media,
demographic changes that have occurred in many local communities, as well as
through the increased use of technology by both individuals and schools. This edition,
thus, continues to see greater attention to the role that technology plays both in teach-
ing and learning as well as the international socialization of young people. This
edition also includes greater attention to the international aspects of curriculum by
featuring recent initiatives taken by the Asia Society/EdSteps, and the International
Baccaluareate (IB) programs. Also new to this edition are updates on the No Child
Left Behind mandates, the emergence of the Common Core Standards, new directions
in testing and assessment, and issues related to the growing number of children living
in poverty.
We have maintained the inclusion of the Active Exercises and Classroom Activities
at the end of each chapter, while links to the Online Learning Center continue to
provide students with additional activities and active exercises. Case Studies and
Critical Incidents, while continuing to be integral teaching devices throughout the
book, have been streamlined. Each chapter continues to open with a Case Study that
introduces major concepts and sets the context for that chapter. A number of related
Critical Incidents can be found at the end of each chapter. Each chapter also identifies
an expanded number of updated references and websites that students can access for
more information. An icon in the margin identifies these websites. A teacher’s guide
and other online learning resources are also available that provide directions for
instructors as well as classroom activities and test questions.
The general format of this edition remains similar to the previous one with a few
modifications. Part One provides background to the broad social, cultural and eco-
nomic changes that confront society today (Chapter 1), with a historical overview of
past multicultural effort (Chapter 2). We place particular emphasis on culture learning
xx Preface

and intercultural interaction in Chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 5 explores the development

of intercultural competence while providing a model that teachers can use to gauge
their own growth as well as that of their students.
Part Two examines what teachers can do to make their classrooms and schools
more responsive to diversity and more effective learning communities; that is, how to
structure classrooms that are collaborative, inclusive, developmentally appropriate,
globally oriented, and religiously pluralistic. Each of the chapters in Part Two centers
on a major aspect of diversity: race and ethnicity (Chapter 6), global understanding
(Chapter 7), language and learning style (Chapter 8), religious pluralism (Chapter 9),
gender and sexual orientation (Chapter 10), age and development (Chapter 11), excep-
tionality and ability (Chapter 12), and social class and social status (Chapter 13).
We hope you continue to find benefit from this edition, and we welcome feedback
from you.
Kenneth H. Cushner
Averil McClelland
Philip Safford

Supplemental Material
The eighth edition of Human Diversity in Education is accompanied by a supplemen-
tal website, www.mhhe.com/cushner8e. Instructor’s materials are offered on a pass-
word-protected section of the site and include an Instructor’s Manual and a Test Bank.
Instructors can contact their local McGraw-Hill sales representative for a username
and password to access the site. Students will find study resources including an online
glossary, PowerPoint presentations, and the Diversity in Action workbook

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
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for no other judge than this wise and virtuous prince. A sudden
change might cause a revolution and I do not intend to forsake
lightly a religion received and practised without interruption in my
kingdom for the last 2229 years. Besides this I am greatly surprised
at the eagerness with which this King upholds the cause of heaven,
it seems that God himself takes no interest whatever in the matter,
and that He has left the mode of worship which is due to Him to our
own discretion. For could not this true God who has created heaven
and earth and all the dwellers therein and has endued them with
diverse characters, in granting souls and bodies to mankind, have
inspired mankind with similar ideas on the religion they ought to
follow, and have indicated to them the mode of worship most
agreeable to Him and to have submitted all nations to a uniform law.
As He has not done so we ought to conclude that He has not wished
it to be so. This ordered unity of worship depends entirely upon a
divine Providence that could have introduced it into the world just as
easily as the diversity of sects that are established. It is then natural
to believe that the True God takes as much pleasure in being
worshipped in different ways as by being glorified by a vast number
of creatures who praise Him after one fashion. Would the diversified
beauty which we so admire in the physical, be less admirable in the
ethical world or less worthy of the Divine Wisdom? Whatever may
happen, since God is the absolute ruler and director of the world I
resign myself and my kingdom entirely to His good providence and
with all my heart I trust that His eternal wisdom will so order them
according to His good pleasure."

These brilliant sophisms showed that the Prince had no great

leanings towards Christianity. The Abbé de Choisy was quite capable
of understanding their hollowness but, convinced that the logic of
Kings is hard to refute, became tired of his apostleship owing to the
small hope he held of success.

The French were none the less well received, and in virtue of a
secret treaty, Mergui and Bangkok were banded over to the soldiery
to whom the King extended a welcome. These towns were reckoned
as two of the ramparts of the country the one on the Bay of Bengal
and the other on the Gulf of Siam. Des Farges was appointed
governor and commander in chief of the French soldiery.

These foreigners transferred to the Kingdom of Siam, were

regarded as its defenders. Twenty-four of them were selected to act
as a bodyguard to the prime minister, and the King himself never
appeared in public without a French escort. One of these men was
raised to the rank of colonel of the guards and others were placed in
command of Siamese regiments in order to instruct them in military
discipline. The soldier who fell ill was sent to Louvo where he
received better attention than he would have in his own home.
These privileges were extended to all Christians who enjoyed full
rights of citizenship. The French Jesuits were allowed to preach the
Gospel in all parts of the Kingdom. The King appointed many of
them to Buddhist temples under the pretext of their having to learn
Siamese, but in reality to observe their procedure as the priests were
neither suited for, nor willing to act as spies. The minister laid the
foundations of a college for the education of the younger member of
the nobility under the name of College of Constantine. M. the
Chevalier de Chaumont having brought the negociations to a
conclusion departed from Siam at the end of 1688. He was
accompanied by three Siamese Ambassadors equally distinguished
by birth and ability and who were in charge of some rich gifts for the
King of France.
 The object of this mission was to demand that engineers should
be sent to instruct the Siamese in the art of fortification and in the
methods of attack and defence of positions. They were also
empowered to request a body of troops to perfect the Siamese in
military evolutions.

The French officers and soldiers who remained in Siam abused the
consideration they had enjoyed. Convinced of their superiority in
power and knowledge, they were rash enough to presume upon it,
and instead of laying themselves out to please, desired to be
thought much of. With impudent mockery they condemned every
thing that differed from their own customs. The people and nobles
at first suffered the pride of their insolent guests in silence. The
Bishops and clergy alone were not exposed to the popular dislike.
Keeping within the seminary and devoting their time to labour, they
were neither vain nor ambitious, they were known by the services
they rendered to the public and above all to the unfortunate.

The Jesuits, animated without doubt by the same motives had

other means to attain their end; and it was by the brilliancy of their
accomplishments that they endeavoured to enjoy the public
confidence.

Surgeons, physicians, astronomers and mathematicians, they

beheld men of all stations in life coming to ask their advice and to
follow their teaching.

But while making converts, they multiplied enemies. The more

they displayed the superiority of their talents the more were they
suspected of dangerous designs. It was incredible that such learned
men should expose themselves to such fatigue and danger for the
mere purpose of dressing wounds free of charge, and to teach how
to calculate eclipses or the periodicity of comets. They were both
admired and hated, and the Siamese were told that it was merely by
this display of secular learning that they had succeeded in having a
powerful following in Japan. In such manner they decried the zeal of
these religious persons pure in their motives, but perhaps too
ostentatious in their methods.

Many of the Siamese, attached to their own habits and customs

were alarmed at seeing so many foreign priests and soldiers
introduced into the Kingdom. They could not but perceive that this
policy was a forecast of an approaching change in the laws and
religion of the country. Faulcon, the author of these innovations,
became the object of public execration. A zealous, but indiscreet
Malay informed the King that the minister, the accomplice of the
French, had conspired against him and the state. The Monarch
having been forewarned of this tale would not deign to listen to the
proofs he had to offer and instead of receiving the rewards that he
thought would be his due, was condemned to be devoured by tigers.

The Prince of Johore, a vassal of the King of Siam, wrote to the

King to induce him to expel these foreigners from his Kingdom;
alleging that the French after having been received as allies would
soon attempt to become masters. This prince with the connivance of
the Dutch, offered his troops to help in the liberation of the Kingdom
from these new oppressors. His advice was rejected in anger, and
the envoys would have been beheaded had not Faulcon been wise
enough to check an act of violence which might have led to
disastrous results.

A few remarks should be made here on this embassy which was a

brilliant, rather than a useful achievement.
 The French clergy who had been the primary occasion of the
embassy had only the interests of Christianity at stake, but the
political party regarded it as an advancement of the prestige of the
King of France, who, in his turn, surrounded by flatterers, was
misled by their counsels.

Father Tachard, ready to grasp anything that would advance the

interests of either his master or his sect, thought that the conquest
of Siam was reserved for his own society. He was seconded by Pere
de la Chaise, who removed all the opposition on the part of the
ministers to this expensive and useless alliance.

The Chevalier de Chaumont and the Abbé de Choisy had had but a
very superficial idea of the Siamese nation. They had been present
at banquets and hunting parties and the Royal Treasures had been
displayed to their view. They had been conducted round the temples
where they had been told that the colossal images therein were of
solid gold, whereas in reality they were only of plaster skilfully gilt.
The ambassadors, dazzled by what they saw, deceived the Court of
France in their turn.

Count Forbin, the head of the navy and a thorough Spartan, had
observed all this parade in a philosophic spirit. This brave soldier
who preferred the roar of cannon, to any more sensuous form of
music, perceived that the French were being blinded by a bogus
magnificence. The simple account he has given of this journey is a
complete refutation of the meretricious lies of Tachard and Choisy.

His insight into the wretched state of the country was keen, and
Faulcon, fearing lest he should discredit the reports that the
ambassadors were about to carry to the French Court, asked the
Chevalier de Chaumont that Forbin should be appointed Admiral of
the fleet. The Count was obliged to obey the orders of the
ambassador and was duly appointed Admiral and Commander-in-
chief of the land and sea forces of the Kingdom of Siam. This
grandiloquent title gave him opportunities of investigating the true
state of the country the misery and weakness of which he soon
discovered. Some days after he had an audience with the King
whom he found surrounded by officials seated on wicker-work mats.
A single lamp illuminated the hall and whoever wished to read,
pulled out a yellow wax taper from his pocket, lit it, and then
extinguished it with great economy when he had finished with it.

One day the mean and miserly Monarch asked the Count "Well
Admiral, do you not find great pleasure in your appointment at
Court?" Forbin was obliged to answer that he considered himself
highly favoured to be in his service. This plain-spoken sailor ground
his teeth as he uttered this polite lie.

The severity with which the slightest faults were punished made
him squeamish. Those who did not speak sufficiently had their
mouths slit from ear to ear and those who spoke too much had the
mouths sewed up. Petty offenders were burnt in the arm or
lacerated in the thigh, Forbin was surprised to see that the highest
officials were exposed to such shameful treatment, from which even
the King's brothers themselves were not exempt. He feared for his
personal safety, but was reassured by Faulcon who employed every
artifice to retain him in the service. He was not over-satisfied with
the allowance made for his pay and accomodation which was quite
out of proportion to his grandiloquent title.

He was given thirty six slaves to wait on him, and two elephants.
His house was small and poorly furnished. He was presented with
twelve plates two large silver cups, four dozen table napkins and a
daily allowance of two of yellow wax tapers.

Such were the emoluments of Count Forbin, Admiral and

Commander-in-chief of the forces of the Kingdom of Siam. This
mean equipage can give some idea of what an Asiatic monarch
considered to be luxury.

It seems that Fortune, in retaining Count Forbin in the service of a

nation incapable of profiting by his example, had foreseen that the
chance would be given him of acting as the country's defender, as
happened in the Macassar revolt which broke out two years later
and of which the circumstances shall now be related.
CHAPTER III.

THE REVOLT OF THE MACASSARS.

A people to whom the Kingdom of Siam had given refuge in their

misfortunes, were the cause of an event that shook it to its
foundations. The King of Macassar, a district in the island of Celebes,
had been dethroned by the Dutch. One of his sons, escaping from
the vengeance of the conquerors, had sought asylum in Siam. The
King of Siam, attracted by the rank of the unfortunate prince,
granted him land on which houses were built for him and his
followers who had accompanied his flight.

This locality which still retains its name of 'The field of the
Macassars' was situated adjacent to that assigned to the Malays who
were also a Mahommedan people.

The benefits showered on the fugitive Prince only made him

ungrateful, and when he ought to have sacrificed everything for his
benefactor, he made an attempt on his life, in order to place the
King's younger brother on the throne. The conspiracy was
discovered and the author of it deserved severe punishment, but
Narai overlooked the offence and magnanimously pardoned him.
Daen (this was the name of the treacherous Prince) emboldened by
impunity, considered himself more powerful than the Prince to whom
he was so much indebted.

Base characters regard clemency as a sign of weakness, not as a

virtue. Humiliated by an unmerited pardon, he rendered himself still
more unworthy by entering into a new conspiracy. As he needed
fellow-conspirators for the execution of his evil designs, he corrupted
by means of specious promises, the three Princes of Champa, who,
like himself had sought refuge in Siam, after the death of their father
to escape from the machinations of their brother, who having
succeeded to the throne, would have in accordance with
Mahommedan usage, laid violent hands on possible rivals.

These Princes conspired with the Prince of Macassar to open a

road to the throne. Their plot was, at first, to place the crown on the
head of the youngest of the King's brothers and to reign in the name
of the crowned phantom. They were resolved to compass his
destruction after having elevated him to the throne and to substitute
one of themselves by vote. It seemed that the interests of their
religion justified the conspiracy in their sight. They intended to offer
to Christians and Mahomedans alike, the alternatives of death or the
Koran.

One of these three Princes occupied a high position at Court. He

was the youngest, and the others placed him at the head of the
conspiracy. He was of an age at which ignorance of the risk he ran,
might lead him into crime without his perceiving the fatal results. He
followed the counsels of a bold Malay who had nothing to lose and
who was ready for any desperate deed. It was necessary to enlist
the sympathy of heaven for their cause so as to inspire their
followers with that fanatical enthusiasm which regards the present
life as a mere prelude to eternal felicity.

They received great assistance from the impostures of a

Mahomedan priest who informed the Malay and Macassar
encampments that a sign of evil omen had appeared in the sky and
that their nation was threatened by a grave disaster. For the space
of three months he published these dreadful tales. Fanatical
madness is contagious, and an imposter who misuses the name of
the Deity can soon reckon on a numerous following.

With the exception of three hundred Malays, everyone eagerly

drank in his words. When the plot was ripe, the three ringleaders
sought means to win over these three hundred to their side, as the
success of the plot largely depended on their co-operation. They
decided that on the appointed day, they would summon them to
their meeting and that they, seeing their compatriots armed for the
common cause, would no longer hesitate to throw in their lot with
them. It was resolved to break open the prisons and to liberate the
captives to augment their forces. As their financial resources were
limited, they signified their intention of looting the palace and the
treasury in the hope of encouraging the bravery of their fellow-
conspirators by the prospect of a rich booty.

On the appointed day, before striking the first blow, the two
Princes wrote to their brother, who was holding office in Louvo, to
advise him to put as great a distance as he could between himself
and the Court. He received the letter at nightfall and the messenger
disappeared without waiting for an answer. The hasty departure of
the messenger aroused the prince's suspicions and guessing that the
letter contained some important secret information, gave it
unopened to Faulcon, who alarmed at the news of the rising, hurried
off to inform the King. Three thousand men were sent to defend the
palace. The guards stationed near Louvo prevented the outbreak of
the revolt by their vigilance. Forbin was sent to Bangkok to attend to
the defence of that important port.

The conspirators ignorant of the discovery of their plot, assembled

to carry out their designs. When the three hundred Malays, whom
the conspirators had been endeavouring to win over, had discovered
the nature of the plot, they became highly indignant and protested
that far from wishing to betray the King their benefactor, they were
ready to shed their blood in his defence.

Their fidelity brought back many to a proper sense of their

position. The Mahomedan priest trembled for his life and saw no
better way out of his difficult position than by revealing the secrets
of those whom he had deceived. The princes no longer doubted that
they were discovered, especially when they learnt that the palace
was defended by three thousand men and that armed guards were
keeping watch on the ramparts.

They returned home without striking a blow. The King, although

he could have punished them very severely, showed his clemency
and pardoned them.

The Malay leader, who had been the arch-plotter deserted the
camp of the Princes whom he had so seriously compromised. He
divulged all the secrets and sources of the plot and avowed that he
had only served with the Princes in order to be able to disclose the
matter to the King.
 Faulcon was sent to interview the rebels and to induce them to
return to their allegiance. He pardoned all those who came and
acknowledged their faults. The Malays who had rebelled simply
because they had been prevailed upon by the others, gave
testimony of their repentance and obedience in future. But the
Macassars, who were unprincipled scoundrels, showed a ferocious
courage that feared death less than the shame of submission. Their
Prince was frequently ordered to appear before the King's tribunal,
not to be judged, but merely to acknowledge his guilt and to reveal
the names of his fellow-conspirators. He excused himself on various
pretexts and alleged that although he was not guilty, yet he could
not endure the shame of having to justify his actions. If he had
anything to reproach himself with, it was the fact that he was unable
to reveal the names of those who had entrusted him with their
secrets, but that his dignity would have been compromised had he
condescended to play the part of a spy and informer, and
furthermore that far from wishing to betray the King to whom he
owed so much, he was incapable of traducing the very least of his
friends. The King who could not subdue his pride by kindness, found
that he was obliged to resort to force. But the Macassars too hardy
to blench at the approach of death, gave him to understand that the
most formidable enemies are those who are prepared to die.

Hearing of their resistance, the King of Macassar sent slaves and

money to the rebellious princes to ensure them a means of
subsistance.

A Malay captain, one of the ringleaders of the revolt, thought that

he could take advantage of the ship which had brought these gifts to
Bangkok, to find a home in some other land. But the Chevalier de
Forbin by means of a warrant he had received for his arrest,
prevented his escape. He had asked for, and obtained a passport to
leave the Kingdom, but on his arrival at the chain stretched as a
barrier across the river, Forbin sent an order that he should land and
give an account of the members of his suite.

The Captain, perceiving the threatened danger, replied that he

would only submit to the governor's order on condition of his being
accompanied by all his suite bearing arms.

After some deliberation he was allowed to land with an escort of

eight soldiers armed with daggers. These daggers are formidable
weapons as they are usually poisoned. The possession of one of
these daggers is a mark of honourable distinction among the
Macassars, and the surrender of it to an enemy is considered to be
the greatest disgrace, and whoever draws his weapon and does not
succeed in killing his adversary is held to be dishonoured in the sight
of the nation. The captain, apprehensive of danger, fearlessly
disembarked from his ship and made it known to his companions
that it was his determination to plunge his dagger into the breast of
the first man that attempted to disarm him. On his arrival at the fort
he was ordered to send for the rest of his suite who remained in the
ship. He was obliged to yield as the hall was filled with soldiery. An
officer commanded him in the King's name, to surrender his dagger,
but instead of obeying, the Malay stabbed him to the heart. Two
Siamese soldiers tried to seize him, but they met with the same fate
as their officer, and a fourth man succumbed to his blows. Then in a
frenzy of rage he and his companions rushed on the soldiers who
were armed with pikes, and forced their way through in defiance of
death. They sprang upon a bastion, but the musketry fire compelled
them to leap into the fosse. Some, even were able to make a stand
against the guards posted to stop their flight, but, sorely wounded,
they received the fatal strokes they had desired to deal. When the
captain lay dying in the dust, a French officer advanced to seize his
dagger, but instead of grasping it by the handle, he only managed to
get the scabbard. The Macassar, recalled to action by the fear of
losing his weapon, snatched it and ripped up his adversary and
exhausted by the effort, died together with him. By this stubborn
resistance Forbin was assured that the survivors would sell their lives
dearly. He turned out the garrison which numbered four hundred.
There were only thirty-two Macassars and they were reduced to
desperation. These savages, more like wild beasts than men, wished
to dictate terms rather than to make them. They demanded the
body of their captain and threatened to punish the French if they
refused to give it up. When they perceived that Forbin was making
preparations to attack them, they made ready for a vigorous
defence. They twisted strips of cloth round their arms and shoulders
to serve as shields. An English captain, underrating the strength of
these fanatics, told the general that he would go forth and bring
them back in chains. He advanced, but soon fell a victim to his
daring. The Macassars fell upon him and stabbed both him and his
followers through and through with their daggers. The garrison on
seeing this rash venture, were panic-stricken and broke their ranks.
Forbin made vain efforts to rally them and ran a great risk of losing
his own life. If the Macassars had but known how to take advantage
of the terror they had inspired, they could have rendered themselves
masters of the fort. But as they were more desirous of the blood of
their enemies than of dictating terms; they massacred without mercy
all the soldiers, women and children who fell into their hands.
Having glutted their thirst for vengeance, they dispersed into the
jungle where they suffered greatly from hunger and the attacks of
leeches and mosquitoes. They were hunted like wild beasts, and in
spite of their desperate condition, they had the courage to face
death with their weapons in readiness. They appeared merely to
regret the fact of death in cases where they could not take the lives
of their adversaries.

Those who were taken alive, begged for death, and tired of life,
they merely desired the same fate as their companions whom they
did not wish to survive.

The Prince of the Macassars, to whom the fate of his companions

should have been a warning, ought to have yielded himself to the
mercy of the King; but he still persisted in his refusal to appear at
Court.

A force of 6000 men under the command of Faulcon was sent to

force his submission. This body of troops ought to have been more
than sufficient to crush a handful of undisciplined men, but the
Macassars are the bravest and most determined of the Eastern
races. Energetic and fearless in danger, they despise luxurious habits
that sap vitality and extinguish all sparks of courage.

On hearing the trumpets sounding the attack, they maddened

themselves with drugs and in a blind frenzy of passion fell upon the
foe. Faulcon, who relied on strategy more than on numerical
superiority, embarked in a ship with an Englishman the captain of a
war-vessel stationed at the bar of the river. He was accompanied by
a missionary and several Europeans who were more reliable than the
Siamese who trembled at the mere mention of the name of the
enemy.

The captain of the guard at, the head of fourteen slaves, made an
advance in the direction of the Macassar camp, without taking
precautions to cover his retreat. A Macassar with thirty men
springing from an ambush fell upon them and slew the captain and
seven of the slaves. The remainder of the party fled in the darkness.
At the same time the English captain of the war vessel made an
attack on the extreme point of the camp. Their musketry fire riddled
the Macassar huts and caused the inmates to beat a hasty retreat.
The captain, followed by a dozen Englishmen and a French officer
pursued them. The Macassars turned at bay and then with a
haughty defiance, advanced, armed with their daggers, determined
neither to ask nor to give quarter. The English captain fell dead on
the scene of the combat, his companions fled in terror, and the
French officer had to swim for his life.

The Macassars deserted their ruined camp and endeavoured to

reach the Portuguese quarter in order to make a furious attack on
the Christians. Faulcon seeing their plan, made arrangements to
circumvent it; and, followed by eight Frenchmen, two Siamese and
one Japanese, unwisely made a frontal attack. He advanced, but the
enemy had formed up in two parties to cut off his retreat. Maddened
by their drugs, they fell upon his little band like hungry tigers upon
their prey and Faulcon seeing that he was in danger of being
overwhelmed by numbers, beat a hurried retreat after losing half of
his men.

It was evident that the attack must be made more warily and that
it was useless to imagine that mere force of numbers would be
sufficient to crush them. Faulcon rallied his whole army and fell upon
the foe who fought with the courage born of despair. At length the
Macassars, overwhelmed by numbers, retired, some to their huts
and others behind hedges of bamboos. Twenty two of their number
took refuge in a temple and resolved to bury themselves in its ruins.
The huts were fired, but the Macassars did not emerge from them
until, they were nearly burnt. Then to cut short the agony, they
rushed forward sword in hand on the pikes of their foes and fought
till they died pierced through and through, The Macassar Prince,
wounded by a ball in the shoulder, perceived Faulcon, the man
whom he considered to be his most dangerous enemy. The thirst of
revenge lent him strength, and mad with rage, he advanced on his
hated rival, but as he was in the act of striking with his javelin; he
was shot by a French soldier.

Those who had taken refuge in the temple, surrendered without

striking a blow. Thirty three more who had been severely wounded
were taken prisoners. One of the sons of the Prince, a boy of 12
years of age, implored the mercy of the conqueror. He was shown
his father's corpse. "Alas," he exclaimed "he was the cause of our
country's miseries, but I feel his loss none the less keenly."

A few remarks on these curious people might be made here. It is

quite a novelty to find in an enervating climate, such an example of
ferocity. The Macassars have no knowledge of fire-arms and they
regard them as detrimental to personal prowess, because they
render modes of attack by bodily strength of no avail. Besides this
type of weapon hinders the user from tasting the fruits of vengeance
and leaves him ignorant of the number of the slain. On the other
hand, this dislike for fire arms may be due to the fact that they do
not know how to use them, as they would have to surrender their
superiority in the art of hurling lances and assegais. They show the
greatest skill in the use of the sword and dagger, and they employ
long blow pipes from which they shoot arrows tipped with a
poisoned fish-bone. Whoever is struck by one of these deadly
missiles has not more than three hours to live.
 Forbin cites an example of their intrepidity. One of these fanatics
was making a rush at him and he stopped him by a spear thrust in
the abdomen, but the Macassar, although mortally wounded was still
anxious to have his revenge. He continued to press forward on the
spear, so as to reach Forbin, who, stepping backwards, still holding
him off by the spear with which he had impaled him; gave time for
others to come to his assistance, and slay the Macassar. Especially
when they were subjected to tortures they evinced the greatest
firmness of demeanour.

Amongst the prisoners were found four soldiers who had deserted,
and these men were selected to serve as an example of severity. At
first they were tortured. Splinters were thrust under their nails, after
which their fingers were crushed. They were then burnt in the arm
and their heads were compressed between two boards. They
suffered all these torments without a murmur. A missionary thought
that, exhausted by torture, they would be easy subjects for
conversion and approached to lead them to Jesus Christ, but the
victims deaf to their entreaties gave no sign save those of pride in
the fact they knew how to die. After having been tortured in every
possible way, they were tied up to a post with their hands and feet
bound in order to be devoured by a hungry tiger that merely sniffed
at them. The executioners goaded on the tiger until it at last
devoured its prey. One of the prisoners watched it eat his own foot
without making any effort to withdraw it. Another hearing the
crunching of his own bones, uttered no sound. A third, while the
animal stood licking the blood which was running down his face did
not even care to glance round. The King of Siam spared the lives of
the two sons of the Macassar Prince. They were sent to Louvo under
the charge of a Christian, from Constantinople, who had entered the
Siamese service, and, later, they went to France where they served
in the navy. Faulcon had the bodies of all the rebels found armed
decapitated and exposed the heads in the then deserted
encampment. The English and French who had shared the dangers
and who had been instrumental in his success were loaded with
honours and presents.
CHAPTER IV.

THE REVOLUTION THAT BROUGHT ABOUT THE DOWNFALL OF FAULCON

AND THE FRENCH.

Whilst Faulcon was doing his best to ensure the prosperity of the
state, the nobles, jealous of his power and influence were humiliated
by having to be subservient to a foreigner. The priests discredited,
and without the enjoyment of Court favour, saw to their sorrow a
minister, who despised their religion and set an example to the
nation of forsaking their gods and superstitions. The common
people, blind to common sense, and ready to follow any leader as
foolish as themselves, espoused the cause of the priests who, to
promote the cause of Heaven, sowed dissensions broadcast. Kings
ought to have learnt by experience that when a people is
discontented, an ambitious man is all that is required to make it
rebellious. A single man suffices to instil into dull minds the fact that
union is strength, and to cause them to pass from the ignominy of
slavery to the desire for freedom.

The Siamese people, who were murmuring in secret, only awaited

a leader to break out in revolt. Men of all conditions yearned for a
deliverer and any ambitious personage had a chance of assuming
this imposing title.

An official by name Pitracha, took advantage of the popular

discontent as a basis on which to rear the fabric of his fortune. At
first he sheltered his aims under the cloak of religion; and a
hypocritical zealot in religious matters, he gained the confidence of
the priests and people, who regarded him as the protector of their
temples and of their ancestral form of worship. This imposter in
disguise took the surest means to stir up the fires of rebellion, as the
mob invariably supports those who take up arms on behalf of their
religion.

Some say that Pitracha was born to be galley-slave rather than to

succeed to a throne, but I can affirm that, from reliable information
received, that he was of the blood royal and even first cousin to the
reigning King. His mother who had been nurse to the King had two
children, Pitracha who has been mentioned, and a daughter. Both
these children had been brought up in the Palace and had been the
playmates of the King in his youth. First impressions are the most
durable, and the King had always a kindly feeling for the playfellow
of his youth, whom he afterwards advanced to the highest official
position in the Kingdom. The daughter who was comely and pleasing
withal, was admitted to the harem and became the favourite wife.
Unfortunately she conceived a guilty passion for the King's brother
and as there were too many spies about for the liaison to be kept
secret for long, the faithless wife was condemned to be devoured by
tigers.

Pitracha dissembled his resentment so as not to lose favour; and

the King, charmed with the apathy he exhibited, ordered him to
chastise the offending prince with a rattan.

Pitracha carried out his instructions with such effect that the
Prince dragged out a wretched existence; as the punishment had
caused severe injuries.

The other brother of the King had been implicated in the Macassar
plot, and this fact added to his natural vicious habits debarred him
from any possibility of obtaining the throne.

The fact of the King being in poor health, and of his having no
heirs was favourable to ambitious designs.

Pitracha though small in stature was high spirited. His

physiognomy was interesting; his glittering eyes seemed to pierce
the inmost depths of one's thoughts and although 56 years of age,
he still had the strength of youth. His natural eloquence won the
hearts of all. Popular amongst his subordinates, and haughty
towards his rivals, he adopted even with the King, the tone of a
censor animated by the public welfare. His frankness was a clever
artifice by which he might reproach the King with his faults or those
of his ministers, whom he rendered odious, by acting the part of the
zealous citizen. Although he managed to conceal his criminal
designs, his more indiscreet followers embittered the people by the
announcement that the minister (Faulcon) in calling in the French
soldiery was scheming to place the sceptre in their hands, and to
raise Christianity on the ruins of the faith of their forefathers.

The alarm or the nation was strengthened by the fact that

Bangkok and Mergui had been handed over to the French and the
same fact gave colour to their statements.
 Pitracha, calm in the midst of the general turmoil, pretended to
deplore the evils for which in reality he was responsible. He had a
rival for the King's favour, and he considered it wise to help his rival's
claims so that he might the more readily be able to compass his
downfall.

There was a favourite at Court named Monpit aged twenty-two

years whom the King had loaded with honours. The licence that both
he and his relatives enjoyed, gave credit to the rumour that he was
the offspring of a secret amour between the King and a concubine;
and that he had been chosen as heir to the throne. The eyes of all
were fixed on this rising star which was confidently expected to
preside one day over the destinies of the nation.

His inexperience rendered him an easy prey; and the favour he

enjoyed rendered him unsuspicious.

Pitracha, accustomed to Court life, where a kiss is the usual

prelude to treachery, found in him a suitable tool for the
accomplishment of his designs. He pointed out to him, that as he
had been adopted by the King as his son, he had only one step to
take to become his successor; but that he ought to act with boldness
so as not to render the promises of fortune worthless.

Monpit dazzled by visions of power, surrendered his will entirely to

the counsels of an enemy in the guise of a patron. He begged
Pitracha to act as his father and promised to share the throne with
him.

The Court was ruled by three men, all of whom were actuated by
different motives.
 The moribund King had but a shadow of that power of which the
favourites possessed the reality. The hearts of all the nation beat for
Pitracha, who artfully appeared to despise the power which in secret
he coveted. His devotion to the priests had enlisted them in his
cause, and there are no more zealous partisans than those who
imagine they perceive in an ambitious hypocrite, a defender of their
temples and rites.

His designs could not escape the notice of Faulcon who was
sufficiently clear sighted to see their aim, but was too weak to
circumvent them. Full of confidence in the French, he considered
that he could oppose them as a rampart against the assaults of
enemies.

He had been informed that Pitracha had counterfeited the seals of

state so as to be able to issue orders favourable to his schemes. His
emissaries, spread throughout the provinces, were raising forces
under pretext of guarding against imaginary dangers. Pitracha,
despairing of ingratiating himself with Faulcon, sought means to
undo him by pandering to his self esteem, by means of the
encomiums that the office holder invariably imagines are his due. "It
is unfortunate for you and for the State," he said, "that being a
foreigner, you are not eligible for the throne, as otherwise you would
rule as King, an Empire that you administer to-day in your official
capacity."

"The King, who is well aware of the incapacity of his brothers

would always have a scruple against giving us such masters. If by
some unlucky chance, they came into power, they would use it
against the favourites and officials whom they hate as the authors of
the punishments they have had to bear. Believe me, let us anticipate
their revenge and as soon as the King is dead, let us take possession
of the palace. I would see that you were conducted to Bangkok by
my friends and there you could bid defiance to any who might wish
to supplant you, Monpit is working in your interests and in mine. Our
safety is dependant on our union, but for my own part I have
resolved to bury myself in solitude and to consecrate the rest of my
life to the worship of our gods whom it is quite impossible to serve
amid the stress of state affairs." Faulcon did not believe a single
word of this, and was convinced that ambitious men have no
disinterested friends. He replied that he intended to remain faithful
to the service of his master, and that he considered it treasonable to
form any league; and assured those who looked for his co-operation
that he would only act on behalf of the King's interests.

He resisted the temptation of revealing the matter to the King and

besides the fear of aggravating the illness of the Royal patient
caused him to dissemble. He had no convincing proofs to bring
against the guilty parties and he might have exposed himself to the
risk of punishment inflicted for slander. The King would have with
difficulty given credence to his recital, and his deluded heart would
have justified his favourites. Had Pitracha been exposed, the plots
would only have come to a head, and as no precautionary measures
had been taken, it was necessary to dissemble.

It is politic to ignore crime that cannot be punished. Faulcon, in

order to retain his prestige in sight of the people, let it be
understood that it was he who had been the cause of Pitracha's
advancement; and in favouring his cause so as to the more easily
bring about his downfall determined that the dying King should hand
over the regency of the Kingdom to him. Pitracha made great
protestations of gratitude in order to be afterwards ungrateful for his
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