MAT 115, Week 5

Dr. Miles Askes

Stellenbosch University

1. Derivatives and Rates of Change

In our previous explorations, we established a rigorous definition of limits and developed techniques
for their computation. Building upon this foundation, we now revisit the foundational problems of
determining tangent lines to curves and calculating instantaneous velocities. These seemingly disparate
problems share a common mathematical core, which leads us to the definition of a powerful concept
known as the derivative.

Tangents and the Derivative

Imagine we have a curve defined by the equation y = f (x). Our goal is to find the tangent line to this
curve at a specific point, let’s call it P (a, f (a)). A tangent line is essentially a straight line that ”just
touches” the curve at that point, indicating the curve’s direction at that precise location.
To find this tangent line, we start by considering another point on the curve, Q(x, f (x)), where x is close
to a but not equal to it. We can draw a line connecting P and Q, which we call a secant line. The slope
of this secant line, denoted as mP Q , is calculated as:

f (x) − f (a)
mP Q =
x−a
Now, here’s the key idea: we want to see what happens to the secant line as Q gets closer and closer to
P . In other words, we let x approach a. If the slope of the secant line, mP Q , approaches a specific value,
let’s call it m, then this value m represents the slope of the tangent line at point P .
We define the tangent line l at P as the line that passes through P with slope m. This means the tangent
line is the limiting position of the secant line P Q as Q approaches P .

1
 y

Tangent Line
Q(x, f (x))

P (a, f (a)) Secant Line

In the graph above, the maroon curve represents y = f (x) = x2 . The gold line is the tangent line at
point P (1, 1), and the dashed line is a secant line connecting P and another point Q. As Q approaches
P , the secant line’s slope approaches the slope of the tangent line.
There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes easier to use. If h = x − a,
then x = a + h and so the slope of the secant line P Q is

f (a + h) − f (a)
mP Q =
h
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h = x − a) and so the expression for the slope of
the tangent line becomes
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim
h→0 h

Example 1.1 Determine the equation of the tangent line to the parabola

y = x2 at P (1, 1)

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 Example 1.2 Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y = 3
x at the point
(3, 1).

Limits of the form:

f (a + h) − f (a)
lim
h→0 h
arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the sciences or engineering, such as a rate of
reaction in chemistry or a marginal cost in economics. Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given
a special name and notation.

Definition 1.1

The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 0 (a), is:

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.

Thus, the derivative is essentially the instantaneous rate of change of the function at a specific point.
If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x − a and h approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore
an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative is:

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 f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a

Example 1.3 Use Definition 4 to find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9
at the numbers
(a) 2

(b) a

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 √
Example 1.4 Consider the function f (x) = 1 + 3x. Determine the equation of the
tangent line at (1, 2). Sketch the graph of f together with this tangent line.

The Derivative as a Function

In our previous discussions, we focused on the derivative of a function f at a specific, fixed point a,
defined as:

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
Now, let’s broaden our perspective. Instead of considering the derivative at a single point, we’ll examine
how the derivative changes as the point varies. To do this, we replace the fixed value a with a variable x
in the preceding equation, resulting in:

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
This new expression, f 0 (x), defines a function in its own right. For any value of x where this limit exists,
we assign the value f 0 (x). Consequently, we can view f 0 as a new function, aptly named the derivative
function of f , defined by the limit above.
Recall that the value of f 0 at x, denoted f 0 (x), has a significant geometric interpretation: it represents
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f (x)). In essence, f 0 (x) provides the
instantaneous rate of change of f at any given x.
The term “derivative” is used because f 0 is “derived” from f through the limiting process defined in
the equation. The domain of f 0 is the set of all x values for which the limit defining f 0 (x) exists. It’s
important to note that the domain of f 0 may be smaller than the domain of the original function f , as
there might be points where the limit defining the derivative does not exist.

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Example 1.5 If f (x) = 1−4x ,
x
determine a formula for f 0 (x).

6
Example 1.6

(a) If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f 0 (x).

(b) Illustrate this formula by comparing the graphs of f and f 0 .

7
 √
Example 1.7 If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f . State the domain of f 0 .

Example 1.8 Find f 0 if f (x) = 2+x .

1−x

Other Notations for Derivatives

There are several common notations used to represent derivatives. If f (x) is a function, its derivative
can be written in the following ways:

• Leibniz notation: dy
dx or dx ,
df
which emphasizes the derivative as the rate of change of y with
respect to x.
• Lagrange notation: f 0 (x), which is compact and widely used in calculus.
• Newton notation: ẏ (used in physics and mechanics, especially for derivatives with respect to
time).

• Euler notation: Df (x), where D is the differentiation operator.

• Higher derivatives:

– f 00 (x) or dx2 for the second derivative.

d2 y

– f (n) (x) or dx n for the nth derivative.

dn y

When we want to specify the value of the derivative at a particular point x = a, we use the following
notation:

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 dy
dx x=a

The vertical bar |x=a indicates that the derivative is being evaluated at x = a. This notation is commonly
used when determining the slope of a tangent line to a curve at a specific point.
Consider the function:

f (x) = x3 − 4x
Its derivative is:
dy
= 3x2 − 4
dx
To find the value of the derivative at x = 2, we write:

dy
= 3(2)2 − 4 = 12 − 4 = 8.
dx x=2

Thus, at x = 2, the derivative of f (x) is 8, meaning the slope of the tangent line to the curve at x = 2 is
8.

Definition 1.2

A function f is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval

(a, b) [or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)] if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

Example 1.9 Determine if f is differentiable at 1, where

(
2 − x, x≤1
f (x) =
2x − 1, x > 1

For f from the previous example, what are f 0 (0) and f 0 (2)?

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Example 1.10 Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?

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Example 1.11 Consider the function
(
2 − x2 , x ≤ 1
f (x) =
ax + b, x > 1

• For which values of a and b will f be differentiable at x = 1?

• Sketch f for these values of a and b.

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 Theorem 1.1
If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

Proof:
We are given that f is differentiable at a. By definition, this means that the following limit exists:

f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x−ax→a

We want to show that f is continuous at a. By definition, this means we need to show that:

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

To do this, let’s consider the expression f (x) − f (a). We can rewrite this as:

f (x) − f (a)
f (x) − f (a) = · (x − a)
x−a
Now, let’s take the limit as x approaches a:
 
f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim · (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a
Using the limit laws, we can separate the limit of the product into the product of the limits:

f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim · lim (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a x→a

We know that:

• limx→a f (x)−f (a)

x−a = f 0 (a) (since f is differentiable at a)
• limx→a (x − a) = 0

Therefore:

lim [f (x) − f (a)] = f 0 (a) · 0 = 0

x→a

Now, we can rewrite this as:

lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim f (x) − lim f (a) = 0

x→a x→a x→a

Since f (a) is a constant, limx→a f (a) = f (a). Thus:

lim f (x) − f (a) = 0

x→a

Adding f (a) to both sides, we get:

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

This is precisely the definition of continuity at a. Therefore, if f is differentiable at a, then f is

continuous at a.

Ways a Function Can Fail to be Differentiable

While differentiability implies continuity, the converse is not always true. A function can be continu-
ous at a point but fail to be differentiable there. This section explores the common scenarios where
differentiability breaks down.

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Sharp Corners or Cusps
A function fails to be differentiable at points where its graph has sharp corners or cusps. At such points,
the left-hand and right-hand limits of the derivative do not coincide. This means that the slope of the
tangent line is not uniquely defined.

Corner x

The function f (x) = |x| is a classic example. It is continuous at x = 0 but not differentiable there, due
to the sharp corner.

Vertical Tangents
A function fails to be differentiable at points where it has a vertical tangent. At these points, the slope
of the tangent line becomes infinite, and the derivative does not exist.

Vertical Tangent
x

The function f (x) = x1/3 has a vertical tangent at x = 0, hence it is not differentiable there.

Discontinuities
A function must be continuous at a point to be differentiable at that point. Therefore, any discontinuity,
such as a jump discontinuity or a removable discontinuity, will cause the function to be non-differentiable.
y
Jump
1

−1

(
−1, x < 0
The function f (x) = has a jump discontinuity at x = 0, so it is not differentiable there.
1, x≥0
In summary, differentiability is a stronger condition than continuity. A function can fail to be differentiable
at a point due to sharp corners, vertical tangents, or discontinuities.

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Higher Derivatives
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f 0 is also a function, so f 0 may have a derivative of its
own, denoted by (f 0 )0 = f 00 . This new function f 00 is called the second derivative of f because it is the
derivative of the derivative of f . Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of y = f (x) as:

d2 y
 
d dy
= 2
dx dx dx

Example 1.12 If f (x) = x3 − x, find and interpret f 00 (x).

In general, we can interpret a second derivative as a rate of change of a rate of change. The most familiar
example of this is acceleration, which we define as follows.
If s = s(t) is the position function of an object that moves in a straight line, we know that its first
derivative represents the velocity v(t) of the object as a function of time:
ds
v(t) = s0 (t) =
dt
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the acceleration a(t) of the
object. Thus the acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity function and is therefore the second
derivative of the position function:

a(t) = v 0 (t) = s00 (t)

or, in Leibniz notation:

dv d2 s
a= = 2
dt dt
Acceleration is the change in velocity you feel when speeding up or slowing down in a car.
The third derivative f 000 is the derivative of the second derivative: f 000 = (f 00 )0 . So f 000 (x) can be
interpreted as the slope of the curve y = f 00 (x) or as the rate of change of f 00 (x). If y = f (x), then
alternative notations for the third derivative are:

d d2 y d3 y
 
000 000
y = f (x) = =
dx dx2 dx3
We can also interpret the third derivative physically in the case where the function is the position function
s = s(t) of an object that moves along a straight line. Because s000 = (s00 )0 = a0 , the third derivative of
the position function is the derivative of the acceleration function and is called the jerk:

da d3 s
j= =
dt dt3
Thus the jerk j is the rate of change of acceleration. It is aptly named because a large jerk means a
sudden change in acceleration, which causes an abrupt movement.

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 Example 1.13 If f (x) = x3 − x, find f 000 (x) and f (4) (x).

Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

Constant Functions
Let’s start with the simplest of all functions, the constant function f (x) = c. The graph of this function
is the horizontal line y = c, which has slope 0, so we must have f 0 (x) = 0. A formal proof, from the
definition of a derivative, is also easy:

f (x + h) − f (x) c−c
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

In Leibniz notation, we write this rule as follows:

d
(c) = 0
dx

Power Functions
We next look at the functions f (x) = xn , where n is a positive integer. If n = 1, the graph of f (x) = x
is the line y = x, which has slope 1. So:
d
(x) = 1
dx
We have also seen that:
d 2 d 3
(x ) = 2x (x ) = 3x2
dx dx
For n = 4 we find the derivative of f (x) = x4 as follows:

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)4 − x4
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x4 + 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 − x4
= lim
h→0 h
4x h + 6x h + 4xh3 + h4
3 2 2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (4x3 + 6x2 h + 4xh2 + h3 ) = 4x3
h→0

Thus:
d 4
(x ) = 4x3
dx
Comparing these equations, we see a pattern emerging. It seems to be a reasonable guess that, when n
is a positive integer, dx
d
(xn ) = nxn−1 . This turns out to be true.

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 Theorem 1.2 The Power Rule
If n is a positive integer, then:
d n
(x ) = nxn−1
dx

Proof:

The formula:

xn − an = (x − a)(xn−1 + xn−2 a + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 )

can be verified simply by multiplying out the right-hand side (or by summing the second factor as
a geometric series). If f (x) = xn , then:

f (x) − f (a) xn − an
f 0 (a) = lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x − a

= lim (xn−1 + xn−2 a + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 )

x→a
= an−1 + an−2 a + · · · + aan−2 + an−1
= nan−1

Some examples:
• If f (x) = x6 , then f 0 (x) = 6x5 .
• If y = x1000 , then y 0 = 1000x999 .
• If y = t4 , then dy
dt = 4t3 .
• d 3
dr (r ) = 3r2 .
What about power functions with negative integer exponents? We can verify from the definition of a
derivative that:
 
d 1 1
=− 2
dx x x
We can rewrite this equation as:
d −1
(x ) = (−1)x−2
dx
and so the Power Rule is true when n = −1. In fact, we will show that it holds for all negative integers.
What if the exponent is a fraction? For instance:
d √ 1
( x) = √
dx 2 x
which can be written as:
d 1/2 1
(x ) = x−1/2
dx 2
This shows that the Power Rule is true even when the exponent is 12 . In fact, we will (at a later stage)
show it is true for all real exponents n.

Theorem 1.3 The Power Rule (General Version)

If n is any real number, then:

d n
(x ) = nxn−1
dx

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 Example 1.14 Differentiate:
(a) f (x) = x12
√
(b) y = x2
3

Note that the tangent line to a curve at a point represents the best linear approximation of the curve
at that point. It ”touches” the curve at that point and has the same instantaneous slope as the curve
there. The normal line is a line that is perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of tangency. In
many applications, the normal line is important for describing directions that are orthogonal (perpen-
dicular) to the curve’s direction. For instance, in physics, it can represent the direction of a force acting
perpendicularly on a surface.

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 √
Example 1.15 Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve y = x x
at the point (1, 1). Illustrate by graphing the curve and these lines.

New Derivatives from Old

When new functions are formed from old functions by addition, subtraction, or multiplication by a
constant, their derivatives can be calculated in terms of derivatives of the old functions. In particular,
the following formula says that the derivative of a constant times a function is the constant times the
derivative of the function.

Theorem 1.4 The Constant Multiple Rule

If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then:

d d
[cf (x)] = c f (x)
dx dx

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 Proof:
Let g(x) = cf (x). Then:

g(x + h) − g(x) cf (x + h) − cf (x)

g 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
 
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim c
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= c lim (by Limit Law 3)
h→0 h
= cf 0 (x)

For example
d 4 d
3x = 3 x4 = 3(4)x3 = 12x3
dx dx
The next rule tells us that the derivative of a sum (or difference) of functions is the sum (or difference)
of the derivatives.

Theorem 1.5 The Sum and Difference Rules

If f and g are both differentiable, then:
d d d d d d
[f (x) + g(x)] = f (x) + g(x) [f (x) − g(x)] = f (x) − g(x)
dx dx dx dx dx dx

Proof:

To prove the Sum Rule, we let F (x) = f (x) + g(x). Then:

F (x + h) − F (x)
F 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
[f (x + h) + g(x + h)] − [f (x) + g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
 
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim +
h→0 h h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim + lim (by a Limit Law)
h→0 h h→0 h
= f 0 (x) + g 0 (x)
To prove the Difference Rule, we write f − g as f + (−1)g and apply the Sum Rule and the Constant
Multiple Rule.

The Sum Rule can be extended to the sum of any number of functions. For instance, using this theorem
twice, we get:

(f + g + h)0 = [(f + g) + h]0 = (f + g)0 + h0 = f 0 + g 0 + h0

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the Difference Rule can be combined with the Power
Rule to differentiate any polynomial, as the following examples demonstrate:

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 Example 1.16
d 8
(x + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5)
dx

Example 1.17 Find the points on the curve y = x4 − 6x2 + 4 where the tangent line
is horizontal.

Exponential Functions
Let’s try to compute the derivative of the exponential function f (x) = bx using the definition of a
derivative:

f (x + h) − f (x) bx+h − bx
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
bx bh − bx bx (bh − 1)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
The factor b doesn’t depend on h, so we can take it in front of the limit:
x

bh − 1
f 0 (x) = bx lim
h→0 h
Notice that the limit is the value of the derivative of f at 0, that is:

bh − 1
lim = f 0 (0)
h→0 h
Therefore we have shown that if the exponential function f (x) = bx is differentiable at 0, then it is
differentiable everywhere and:

f 0 (x) = f 0 (0)bx
This equation says that the rate of change of any exponential function is proportional to the function
itself. (The slope is proportional to the height.)
We will see that e lies between 2.7 and 2.8. Later we will be able to show that, correct to five decimal
places:

e ≈ 2.71828

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Numerical evidence for the existence of f 0 (0) is given in the table below for the cases b = 2 and b = 3.
(Values are stated correct to four decimal places.)

2h −1 3h −1
h h h
0.1 0.71773 1.16123
0.01 0.69556 1.10467
0.001 0.69339 1.09922
0.0001 0.69317 1.09867
0.00001 0.69315 1.09862

It can be proved that the limits exist and:

for b = 2, f 0 (0) = limh→0 2h −1

h ≈ 0.693
for b = 3, f 0 (0) = limh→0 3h −1
h ≈ 1.099
Thus, we have:
d x d x
(2 ) ≈ (0.693)2x (3 ) ≈ (1.099)3x
dx dx
Of all possible choices for the base b, the simplest differentiation formula occurs when f 0 (0) = 1. In view
of the estimates of f 0 (0) for b = 2 and b = 3, it seems reasonable that there is a number b between 2 and
3 for which f 0 (0) = 1. It is traditional to denote this value by the letter e. Thus we have the following
definition.
Definition of the Number e:

eh − 1
e is the number such that lim =1
h→0 h
Geometrically, this means that of all possible exponential functions y = bx , the function f (x) = ex is the
one whose tangent line at (0, 1) has a slope f 0 (0) that is exactly 1.

If we put b = e and, therefore, f 0 (0) = 1, it becomes the following important differentiation formula.

Theorem 1.6 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

d x
(e ) = ex
dx

Thus the exponential function f (x) = ex has the property that it is its own derivative. The geometrical
significance of this fact is that the slope of a tangent line to the curve y = ex at a point (x, ex ) is equal
to the y-coordinate of the point.

y
8 y = ex

4
(1, e)

2
(0, 1)
(−1, e−1 )
x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

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Comparison of Exponential Functions:

y
10 y = ex
y = 2x
y = 3x
8

x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

Example 1.18 If f (x) = ex − x, find f 0 and f 00 . Compare the graphs of f and f 0 .

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 Example 1.19 At what point on the curve y = ex is the tangent line parallel to the
line y = 2x?

The Product and Quotient Rules

The formulas of this section enable us to differentiate new functions that are formed from old functions
by using multiplication or division.

The Product Rule

When you first learn about derivatives, you might think that the derivative of a product of two functions
is just the product of their derivatives. However, this isn’t correct. Let’s see why with an example.
Suppose we have two functions:
f (x) = x
g(x) = x2
Using the Power Rule, we find:
f 0 (x) = 1
g 0 (x) = 2x
The product of these functions is:
(f g)(x) = x · x2 = x3
The derivative of this product is:
(f g)0 = 3x2
Notice that (f g)0 6= f 0 g 0 . This shows that the derivative of a product isn’t just the product of the
derivatives.
So, what is the correct rule? It’s called the Product Rule, and it was discovered by Leibniz (however,
it’s worth noting that there has been discussion and some arguments suggesting that Isaac Barrow may
have had earlier insights that contributed to the development of this rule). Here’s how we can understand
it:
Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be two differentiable functions. We want to find the derivative of their product
uv.
Imagine u and v as the side lengths of a rectangle. The area of the rectangle is uv. If x changes by a
small amount ∆x, then u and v change by ∆u and ∆v, respectively.
The new area of the rectangle is:
(u + ∆u)(v + ∆v)
The change in the area is:

∆(uv) = (u + ∆u)(v + ∆v) − uv = u∆v + v∆u + ∆u∆v

Dividing by ∆x, we get:

∆(uv) ∆v ∆u ∆v
=u +v + ∆u
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
As ∆x approaches 0, the term ∆u ∆x
∆v
becomes 0 because ∆u approaches 0. Thus, we get the derivative:

d dv du
(uv) = u +v
dx dx dx

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This is the Product Rule. It tells us that the derivative of a product of two functions is the first function
times the derivative of the second, plus the second function times the derivative of the first.

∆v u∆v ∆u∆v

v∆u
v uv

u ∆u

Theorem 1.7 The Product Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then:
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)]
dx dx dx

In words, the Product Rule says that the derivative of a product of two functions is the first function times
the derivative of the second function plus the second function times the derivative of the first function.

Example 1.20
(a) If f (x) = xex , find f 0 (x).
(b) Find the nth derivative, f (n) (x).

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 √
Example 1.21 Differentiate the function f (t) = t(a + bt).

Example 2 shows that it is sometimes easier to simplify a product of functions before differentiating than
to use the Product Rule. In Example 1, however, the Product Rule is the only possible method.
√
Example 1.22 If f (x) = xg(x), where g(4) = 2 and g 0 (4) = 3, find f 0 (4).

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 Example 1.23 Differentiate the function
√
  
5 1 3 1
y = x +4− 12 x + 2 − √
x x 5
x

The Quotient Rule

We find a rule for differentiating the quotient of two differentiable functions u = f (x) and v = g(x) in
much the same way that we found the Product Rule. If x, u, and v change by amounts ∆x, ∆u, and ∆v,
then the corresponding change in the quotient u/v is:
u u + ∆u u (u + ∆u)v − u(v + ∆v)
∆ = − =
v v + ∆v v v(v + ∆v)
so:

d u ∆(u/v) v ∆u − u ∆x
∆v
= lim = lim ∆x
dx v ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 v(v + ∆v)

As ∆x → 0, ∆v → 0 also, because v = g(x) is differentiable and therefore continuous. Thus, using the
Limit Laws, we get:

d  u  v lim∆x→0 ∆u
∆x − u lim∆x→0
∆v
∆x v du dv
dx − u dx
= =
dx v v lim∆x→0 (v + ∆v) v2
Theorem 1.8 The Quotient Rule

If f and g are differentiable, then:

d d
[f (x)] − f (x) dx
 
d f (x) g(x) dx [g(x)]
= 2
dx g(x) [g(x)]

In words, the Quotient Rule says that the derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative
of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square
of the denominator.

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 Example 1.24 Let y = x3 +6 .
x2 +x−2
Find y 0

Example 1.25 Consider the function

x
y=
1−x

(a) Determine dy
dx

(b) Give an equation of the tangent line at (2, −2)

(c) Determine d2 y
dx2

Example 1.26 Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = ex

1+x2 at the point
(1, 12 e).

Note: Don’t use the Quotient Rule every time you see a quotient. Sometimes it’s easier to rewrite a
quotient first to put it in a form that is simpler for the purpose of differentiation. For instance, although
it is possible to differentiate the function:
√
3x2 + 2 x
F (x) =
x
using the Quotient Rule, it is much easier to perform the division first and write the function as:

F (x) = 3x + 2x−1/2
before differentiating.

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Table of Differentiation Formulas:
d d n
(c) = 0 (x ) = nxn−1
dx dx
(cf )0 = cf 0 (f + g)0 = f 0 + g 0
 0
f gf 0 − f g 0
(f g)0 = f g 0 + gf 0 =
g g2

Example 1.27 Compute the following limit (if it exists) using the concept of the
derivative
x33 + 1
lim
x→−1 x + 1

Example 1.28 Determine the equations of all tangent lines to the curve
x−1
y=
x+1
that are parallel to the line x − 2y = 2.

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Example 1.29
√
(a) Differentiate the function f (t) = t(a + bt), where a, b ∈ R
√
(b) Determine the derivative of F (x) = 3x2 +2 x
x

(c) Given g(3) = 5 and g 0 (3) = 2, determine h0 (3), where h(x) = xg(x)

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