Volume 10, Issue 3, March – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158

The Defensive Cyber Security Readiness

Model for Higher Education
William Kipkoech Too1; Alex Kibet 2
1
Department of Information Communication Technology, Egerton University, Kenya
2
Department of Computing and Informatics, Laikipia University, Kenya

Publication Date: 2025/04/02

Abstract: Cybersecurity entails a variety of concepts, tools and practices that are closely related to those of security
aligned to information and operational technology. Citizens worldwide now have easy access to the internet, broadband,
and fiber connectivity due to recent technology adoption. Threats to general cyber security, such as financial fraud, social
engineering schemes, and virus attacks, have grown. Despite the fact that numerous standards like NIST and ISO have
came up with a number of security models, the majority of businesses and organizations, as well as the cyber-security
industry itself, are ill-prepared for the growing number of cyberattacks. This is due to the fact that the majority of security
analysis systems now in use are primarily concerned with attack detection. Because of this circumstance, the attack
surface has been continuously expanding in institutions of higher learning where sensitive data and valuable assets are
highly valued by staff and students. This study was to evaluate the defensive cyber security preparedness model for
Universities. The study utilized a goal-based method to evaluate the model based on its functionality, usability, reliability,
efficiency, and maintainability metrics. The evaluation results from the experts conducted indicate that the model is over
80% satisfactory. This study is very significant as universities will be able to ascertain their preparedness status as well
responding to outlined recommendations that will ensure they stay safe from future evolving cyber threats.

Keywords: Fiber, Cybersecurity, Cyber-Attack, Preparedness, Metrics.

How to Cite: William Kipkoech Too; Alex Kibet (2025). The Defensive Cyber Security Readiness Model for Higher Education.
International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 10(3), 1763-1771.
https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158

I. INTRODUCTION In addition to facing rising expectations from students

and faculty for greater digital capabilities, educational
Global connectivity and users' access to information institutions are also seeing an increase in hackers targeting
from outside the company raise risk beyond what general them. The attack surface has increased as a result of this, as
and application controls in IT have traditionally been able to more gadgets and apps are connected to the network per
handle. Traditional assessments of IT general and person (Biddle, 2017). Given that 72% of students connect
application controls are insufficient to provide assurance two or more devices to campus networks simultaneously,
over cyber security due to organizations' dependence on schools must strike a balance between providing a seamless
information systems and the advancement of new IT experience for staff and students and protecting against
technologies (GTAG, 2016). By installing terrestrial and an influx of endpoints that they do not own. In order to give
underwater cables and networks, expanding the availability students the flexibility to work from wherever at any time,
of mobile and wireless technology, and advancing e- broadband has also been installed in the nearby dorms. As
government services, the Kenyan government is students connect their personal devices to the network, this
encouraging the use of ICT by both the government and the situation leads to unchecked network growth. Because every
Kenyan populace (Ministry of ICT, 2014). firm tends to go online for their services, such as cloud
computing, which is primarily used in Kenyan institutions
In Kenya, university education is one of the areas of that embrace e-learning programmes, it is a prevalent
the education system that is growing the fastest. Many standard in the nation with a high number of technological
students who cannot be accepted into Kenyan universities dependences brought on by several assault sites; these
are applying to universities abroad, which has increased uncontrolled nodes/devices hooked to the network are
demand for higher education (Ministry of Education, 2016). avenues for cyber-attacks (Update, 2017).
E-learning program implementation in Kenyan universities
and determining the requirements and readiness of students As public and private organizations migrate more of
to participate in e-learning environments also call for a great their critical functions to the Internet, studies reveal that
deal of research and study (Shahmoradi et al., 2018). criminals have more opportunity and incentive to gain

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ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158
access to sensitive information through the Web application Mean-Time-to-Respond (MTTR) and the ability for a
(Beniwal, 2015). This is due to the expansion usage of their defender to close more cases (Trull, 2017). Mean Time To
cutting-edge tools, where hackers attempt to break into their Identify (MTTI) and Mean Time To Contain (MTTC) for
security by using the vulnerable security link or the less- US companies indicates that the Detect and Respond Phases
informed computer user, therefore, universities stand at are suffering. The MTTC in 2017 was 208 days and the
great risk to cyber-attacks occasioned by outsiders as well as MTTI was 52 days. At the same time, the likelihood of
insider students and staff who use their expertise to hack incurring a mean breach cost of $2.25M is almost 28% over
(Neaimi et al., 2015). the next 24 months for U.S. companies.

 Problem Statement One of the main causes of breach expenses is subpar

Kenya's government has enacted policies to increase MTTI and MTTC performance. When assessing information
access to higher learning especially the university education. security, these two KPIs ought to be your top priorities. For
This has in turn resulted in an unprecedented increase in the long-term improvement, CISOs can measure and present
number of students joining universities in comparison to the this KPI to their board. Enhancing these two KPIs should be
infrastructure that is now in place, including ICT. In order to a top priority for every member of the security team.
improve the current ICT infrastructure, institutions of higher
learning has instituted a Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) Continuous risk assessment that automatically
policy and student and employees personal devices can now recognizes and ranks cyber security threats, permits
be easily connected to the university network. These effective distribution of cyber security resources, and
connected devices pose a great danger to institution’s improves defense against contemporary cyberthreats is
sensitive data and valuable assets as threats to general cyber necessary for defending company networks (Lippmann &
security, such as financial fraud, social engineering Riordan, 2016). The effectiveness of security projects can be
schemes, and virus attacks are advancing their threat ensured by following these recommendations for cyber
landscape daily. Despite the fact that numerous standards security metrics that can and should be monitored.
like NIST and ISO have came up with a number of security
models, the majority of businesses and organizations, as A crucial cyber security indicator for assessing the risk
well as the cyber-security industry itself, are ill-prepared for your company faces is knowing how many assets in your
the growing number of cyberattacks. environment are at risk.To guarantee that systems are kept
Therefore, in order to provide a solid model for the current and less vulnerable to common vulnerabilities, all
institution's competitive advantage, universities must software patches and hardware updates must be completed
regularly evaluate their cybersecurity posture to stay up with on schedule. In order to prevent vulnerabilities that could be
the rate at which threats are expanding their attack surface. exploited in your environment, patch and update
management is a complicated process (Lykou et al.,
 Objective of the Study 2018).An asset-wide vulnerability check will show you what
needs to be done to strengthen your company's security
 To evaluate the defensive cyber security readiness model posture. Rather than being a polite gesture, a vulnerability
for higher education. management program is essential.It is crucial to ascertain
the quantity of SSL certificates that are improperly setup.
 Research Question
It is possible to keep certificates out of the wrong
 How to evaluate the defensive cyber security readiness hands and ensure that your company's digital identity is not
model for higher education? used to steal user information by keeping an eye on each
certificate's security requirements and making sure servers
II. LITERATURE REVIEW are installed correctly. There is an increase in data traffic on
business networks. A new network design will be necessary
 Metrics for Monitoring Defensive Cybersecurity for company success in the future (Molck-Ude, 2019). You
Readiness can spot resource abuse if your employees have unfettered
The difference between a project that is useful and access to the internet via the workplace network by keeping
efficient and one that is a total waste of money can be an eye on traffic volume.
determined by how well certain information security
performance metrics are managed. Users that download software, movies, videos, and
applications may be opening the door for botnets and
Despite the fact that managers have been using KPIs in malware to infiltrate their environments. This is especially
information security for a while,,This phenomenon is rare true if the downloads come from websites that are known to
and still evolving practice to track cyber security metrics be harmful. One of the most important aspects of
(Cipher, 2017). To guarantee the effectiveness of security information security management best practices is having
projects, several recommendations for cyber security metrics complete control over user access to company resources.
that can and should be monitored are covered here. Only the systems, information, and resources required for
their job must be accessible to employees.Permitting users
Based on the degree of automation implemented, there to use their own devices to connect to the network might
is a corresponding reduction in Mean-Time-to-Detect and cause chaos because it is hard for IT departments to regulate

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Volume 10, Issue 3, March – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158
(Poremba, 2017). All network users' access levels can be  Model Evaluation
categorized so that you can prohibit any illogical Model evaluation is a crucial step in the model creation
administrators or superusers and change them as necessary. process. In this study, the model was assessed in relation to
the predetermined goals using the "Goal-based evaluation of
When an employee leaves, it is not only crucial but IT systems as such" approach. This approach only requires
also required to protect company data (Preston, 2019). You the the involvement of the evaluator hence the end users are
can determine whether IT teams and human resources are not involved. This means definition and specification of the
working together by keeping an eye on these cyber security systems requirements serve as the basis for the evaluation
metrics. Ideally, users who are fired from the company criteria that are employed (Cronholm & Goldkuhl, 2003).
should have their access immediately revoked.Maintaining
them in use poses a serious danger since it might result in The model was assessed based on user registration,
compromised devices and the loss of private data. For which involved adding a user to the database so that the
security reasons, it's also important to keep an eye on how database server could validate it upon completion of a
many communication ports are open at any given time. The request. The authentication procedure ensured that
two main categories of port scanning are horizontal and unauthorized users were rejected and verified that the
vertical scanning. While the more popular horizontal scans correct users could log in to the system without any issues.
are used to identify hosts for a certain open port, vertical Additionally, to guarantee that service-choosing customers
scans are used to identify open ports of a single host (Ring can obtain the appropriate services they need when they ask
et al., 2018). Generally speaking, you should not let for them.
NetBIOS inbound traffic (TCP 135-139 and 445, UDP 137
and 138). Keep an eye out for SSL (TCP 443) outbound Program and acceptance testing criteria were used to
traffic: a prolonged session may indicate an SSL VPN evaluate the new model's functionality under a variety of
tunnel that permits bi-directional activity. For a considerable conditions, including normal and peak loads. The evaluation
amount of time, any common ports for protocols that permit was conducted by asking actual users of the finished model
remote sessions, such as TCP 22 (SSH), TCP 3389 (RDP), to rate how well it satisfies their needs and expectations,
TCP 23 (telnet), and TCP 20 and 21 (FTP should be which include completeness, accuracy, reliability,
watched. consistency, efficiency, integrity, user-friendliness,
maintainability, resilience, tracking, and performance
In order for third parties to finish a project or activity, measurement.
IT administrators typically allow them access to their
networks.After developers and IT specialists, third-party III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
vendors pose the second-highest safety risk to the company
(Walsh, 2017). This study was achieved through a goal-based method
where 11 ICT experts were conducted to evaluate the
It's critical to keep an eye on whether access is defensive cybersecurity preparedness model for universities
terminated at the conclusion of service delivery. If you don't, based on its functionality, usability, reliability, efficiency,
you put your surroundings at risk in case the third party and maintainability metrics.
returns to steal data or engage in other harmful activities.
For example, they might work for a rival company. Even  Evaluation of the Model Procedure
worse, you can put your network at risk if the third party's After the design phase, the model was tested to see if it
network is compromised. In the context of security, it is could accomplish the goals it was created for. The intended
crucial to map out the company's vital systems and identify objectives were established prior to the design process and
the users who have access to them.Both the use of third- were utilized as a deliverables checklist for evaluation after
party providers and the breaches linked to them are common the design was completed. Besides the designer’s objective
(Francis, 2017). evaluation, the model remote URL was sent out to as many
(ICT experts) users as was possible to verify the model by
Tracking efforts by unauthorized individuals to access registering as users, logging in, and performing
servers or programs that shouldn't be accessible could reveal cybersecurity preparedness assessments which was the
wrongdoing and attempts to compromise your environment. primary purpose of the model. These experts (mainly ICT
Even if cyberattacks are getting more frequent, the majority Managers/Directors, IT Security Managers, System
of firms admit that their defenses are insufficient (Levin, Administrators, Network Administrators, and IT Support
2018). Monitoring the percentage of business partners with Officers) upon successful login and running assessments
effective cyber security policies is important. You must were expected to evaluate the model based on its
maintain strict control and monitor the cyber security functionality, usability, reliability, efficiency, and
metrics of the companies that provide services for your maintainability metrics as outlined in the model evaluation
business. Giving access to your environments to this questionnaire that was provided to them. The delivered
outsourced company can be a huge risk if it does not have outcomes were reported alongside the desired aims in table
effective policies for its safety in the first place. It is not too 1 below. All of the objectives were met, as stated in the
much to say that if your company invests in security but has table. To summarize, the system performs the functions it
third parties connected to your systems that do not, you have was designed to do.
no security at all.

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Volume 10, Issue 3, March – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158
Table 1 Objective Assessment
Evaluation Metric Aims Expert Evaluation Outcomes
Functionality 1. Check for data accuracy 1. The model outputs the correct results from the right user
2. Explore the suitability of the model data input
3. Check for the model role compliance2. All the information provided by the model helps the user to
effectively complete the available tasks.
3. All key model functionalities are working as expected
Usability To check the model for: 1. The model is easy to learn and use with clear information
1. Learnability displayed on the screen
2. Efficiency 2. Users can complete tasks provided quickly
3. Errors 3. The model provides clear information on how to fix error
4. Memorability problems when they occur
5. Attractiveness 4. It is easier to get re-established to the model even after a
6. Subjective Satisfaction long period of not using it
5. The model user interface is user friendly
6. The model comfort of use and overall performance is very
satisfactory
Reliability To measure the model reliability in 1. The model is complete and well designed with dashboard
terms of its: panels providing links to various other pages
1. Maturity 2. Whenever an error is made, the model makes it easy to
2. Recoverability recover quickly
3. Availability 3. The model is hosted online, easy to access and use by any
registered user
Efficiency To test the model efficiency by looking1. The model performance is time responsive and satisfying.
at its response to : It gives quick statistics panels for assessment questions, active
1. Time behavior assessments, runs assessments, and delete assessments
2. The model adequately utilizes all its supplied resources to
2. Resource utilization help effectively perform specified tasks

Maintainability To check how the model responds to 1. The model can be diagnosed to identify areas for
its maintainability attributes such as: improvement
1. Analyzability 2. The model can be modified to make it more resilient
2. Changeability without compromising its goal
3. Testability 3. The objectives of the model can effectively and efficiently
be performed. For example, Cybersecurity preparedness scores
can be posted to the database.

The evaluation was done by experts filling the successful cybersecurity preparedness assessments for
questionnaire and submitting it after which their responses various users who logged in. To strictly preserve ethical
were analyzed and summarized in bar graphs as given in standards of anonymity, users’ institutions and their emails
7.1. In addition, figures 1 and 2 below presents the output of could not be displayed.

Fig 1 User Verification – Professional Analysis

Source: Researcher (2021)

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Volume 10, Issue 3, March – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158

Fig 2 User Assessments Report

Source: Researcher (2021)

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 Model Evaluation Results

The bar graphs below assess and summarize the extent to which the experts consulted to evaluate the model agreed on the
measures under consideration. The bar graph Keys are rated on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with 1 indicating Strongly Disagree, 2
indicating Disagree, 3 indicating Neutral, 4 indicating Agree, and 5 indicating Strongly Agree.

Fig 3 Functionality Metric

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ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158
As shown on the graph above, it’s noted that 9 compliance. 2 respondents took a neutral position
respondents agree to the model accuracy and suitability concerning the model accuracy and suitability while
functionalities with 8 respondents believing in its compliance remained neutral among the 3 respondents.

Fig 4 Usability Metric

Fig 5 Usability Metric

From the above graph, the general output displays that respondents from a sample of 11 experts conducted. Only 1
the model usability sub-metrics (learnability, efficiency, respondent disagreed to the model memorability,
errors, memorability, attractiveness, and subjective attractiveness, and subjective satisfaction component.
satisfaction) were agreed upon by at least 7 to 10

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Volume 10, Issue 3, March – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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Fig 6 Reliability Metric

From the graph above, it was observed that at least 10 respondent disagreed to its maturity and recoverability with
respondents agree to the model maturity and availability 1 choosing neutral position concerning the model
with 5 respondents believing in its recoverability. Only I availability.

Fig 7 Efficiency Metric

As analyzed from the graph above, the efficiency of respectively. Only I respondent took a neutral position on
the model is agreeable by 10 respondents and 9 respondents model time behavior and 2 respondents choosing neutral
in terms of time behavior and resource utilization position resource utilization.

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Volume 10, Issue 3, March – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1158

Fig 8 Maintainability Metric

From the graph above, it was observed that at least 10 respondent disagreed to its maturity and recoverability with
respondents agree to the model maturity and availability 1 choosing neutral position concerning the model
with 5 respondents believing in its recoverability. Only I availability.

Fig 9 Overall Performance

In conclusion, 8 out of 11 respondents advocate the were first (new users) expected to register before logging
approach to their colleagues or contacts within their into the system. When a registered user logs in with the right
organization, with only one expert taking a neutral position credentials, one will be permitted into the system and can
and two others disagreeing. perform system activities such as running assessments and
submitting scores, managing questions, reading their
V. CONCLUSION preparedness status, viewing their scores and reports as well
as retrieving recommendations. All these processes undergo
After the model was developed, it was hosted to make system validation to ensure system goals and functionalities
it available online for users to access. Validation of the are working as expected. This activity of model evaluation
model was achieved by giving the URL to ICT experts who is very critical to any organization as it provides insights

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