LESSON - 1

Ecology ‘Oikos’ meaning home or place to live in and ‘logos’ meaning study.
Literally it is the study of the home of nature.

Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living

organisms with each other and with their environment

The environment is defined as ‘the sum total of living, non-living components;

influences and events, surrounding an organism.

A biome is large geographical area with a specific climate, landscape, and

plant and animal life

The main levels of organisation of ecology are six that are

individual,population,community,ecosysytem,biome,biosphere.

Population is a group of organisms usually of the same species, occupying a

defined area during a specific time.

In a community the number of species and size of their population vary

greatly. A community may have one or several species.

(a) Major Community These are large-sized, well organized and relatively
independent. They depend only on the sun’s energy from outside and are
independent of the inputs and outputs from adjacent communities. E.g:
tropical ever green forest in the North-East

(b) Minor Communities These are dependent on neighbouring communities

and are often called societies.

An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere

consisting of community of living beings and the physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging materials between them.
It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and
people.

Difference between ecology, environment and ecosystem For example, let us

take Shankar IAS Academy and its students. Let’s say that ecology would be
the scientific study of student’s relationship with the Shankar IAS Academy as
a whole. The Shankar IAS Academy being the environment in which the
student studies, and the set of circumstances surrounding the student in
which environment would be the teachers, books, other students, etc are said
to be ecosystem. Substratum - adi moolakkooru

Organisms can be terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial animals live on land.

Aquatic plants, animals and microbes live in fresh water as well as in the sea.
Some microbes live even in hot water vents under the sea
(i) Organic compound such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humic
substances are formed from inorganic compound on decomposition.

(ii) Inorganic compound such as carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates,

phosphates, and ions of various metals

Primary producers - Autotrophs (selfnourishing).In terrestrial ecosystem,

producers are basically herbaceous and woody plants, while in aquatic
ecosystem producers are various species of microscopic algae.

Consumers – Heterotrophs or phagotrophs (other nourishing)

Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state of equilibrium. They can

regulate their own species structure and functional processes. This capacity
of ecosystem of self regulation is known as homeostasis

Goods and Services provided by ecosystems include:

• Provision of food, fuel and fibre
• Provision of shelter and building materials
• Purification of air and water.

Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. For

e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and
terrestrial ecosystem.

A well developed ecotones contain some organisms which are entirely

different from that of the adjoining communities. Sometimes the number of
species and the population density of some of the species is much greater in
this zone than either community. This is called edge effect.The organisms
which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge
species.

In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For

example the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone
between the forest and the desert

Nagar Vana Udyan Yojana aims to create at least one city forest in each city
with a minimum area of 25 ha.The School Nursery Yojana aims to build a
lasting bond of students with nature.

The climate determines the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants

and animals found in each one of them

Tundra biome - Northern and Southern most region of world adjoining the ice
bound poles., ground flora includes lichen, mosses and sedges. The typical
animals are reindeer, arctic fox, polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare,
ptarmigan. Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.

Amphibians - are small vertebrates that need water or moist environment to

survive.eg frogs, toads , salamanders
Tropical rain forest Tropical biome - areas in the equatorial regions, which is
abound with life. Temperature and rainfall high. Multiple storey of broad-leafed
evergreen tree species are in abundance.

Savannah Tropical region biome - Savannah is most extensive in Africa.

Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny shrubs. The fauna
include antelopes, buffaloes, zebras, elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores
include lion, cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents.

Desert biome - Continental interiors with very low rainfall with low humidity.
The days are very hot but nights are cold. The flora is drought resistance such
as cactus, euphorbias, sagebrush. Fauna: Reptiles, Small Mammals and
birds.

Estuaries,are fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and the two are mixed
by action of tides

LESSON - 2

The flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called energy flow
which is unidirectional.

A sequence of organisms that feed on one another, form a food chain. A food
chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.

Hibernation - urakka nilai.True hibernation (like we see in ground squirrels)

involves a drastic drop in body temperature Bears like the Asiatic Bear live in
warmer climates where food is readily available all year long and there is no
need to hibernate.

Detritus food chain It starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and
plant bodies consumed by the micro-organisms and then to detritus feeding
organism called detrivores or decomposer

“A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among
the organisms in an ecosystem, where as a food chain traces only one
pathway of the food”.If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, the
succeeding links of the chain will be affected largely.

Non degradable pollutants mean materials, which cannot be metabolized by

the living organisms. Example: chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:

i) Bioaccumulation
ii) Biomagnification.

Bioaccumulation • It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. • In

bioaccumulation there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from the
environment to the first organism in a food chain.
Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants on the concentration •
Thus in biomagnification there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant
from one link in a food chain to another.

Biogeochemical cycle is the movement and transformation of chemical

elements and compounds between living organism,the atmosphere, and the
earths crust

The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrients move from the
physical environment to the living organisms, and subsequently recycled back
to the physical environment

most important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle and the nitrogen
nutrient cycle. Both of these cycles make up an essential part of the overall
soil nutrient cycle

Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two types of cycles namely
Gaseous and sedimentary cycle
• Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere,
• Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s crust.

water acts as a solvent medium for their uptake of nutrients by organisms

Carbon is the element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the compound that carries genetic information).

In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for millions of years till
geological movement may lift these rocks above sea level. These rocks may
be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonates and
bicarbonates into streams and rivers.

Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic building block of

all living tissue

Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting nitrogen in air to nitrogen

compounds using bacteria which can be used by plants

Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways:

(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
(ii) By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories) and
(iii) To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomenon such as thunder and
lighting
Algal blooms - paasi pookkal, leguiminous - paruppu vagai

Eutrophication Is the process in which water body becomes overly enriched

with nutrients leading to plenty growth of simple plant life.The excessive
growth of algae and plankton are indicators of this process
Nitrogen has become a pollutant which can disrupt the balance of nitrogen. It
may lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Blooms.

nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and anaerobic Clostridium) and

symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in association with leguminous plants and
symbiotic bacteria living in non leguminous root nodule plants (e.g.
Rhizobium) as well as blue green algae (e.g. Anabaena, Spirulina)

Nitrosomonas bacteria promote transformation of ammonia into nitrite. Nitrite

is then further transformed into nitrate by the bacteria Nitrobacter.

The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil are taken up by plants and
converted into amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. These
then go through higher trophic levels of the ecosystem. During excretion and
upon the death of all organisms nitrogen is returned to the soil in the form of
ammonia.

Phosphorus, calcium , sulphur and magnesium circulate by means of the

sedimentary cycle. The element involved in the sedimentary cycle normally
does not cycle through the atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of flow
through erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity and
biological transport through the excreta of marine birds.

phosphorus occurs in large amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and

enters the cycle from erosion and mining activities. This is the nutrient
considered to be the main cause of excessive growth of rooted and free-
floating microscopic plants in lakes.

The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth’s crust. On land phosphorus
is usually found in the form of phosphates.

The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its compounds

hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) add a gaseous
component to its normal sedimentary cycle

LESSON - 3

The interrelations between organisms and environment on the land constitute

“Terrestrial Ecology”.

Tundra means a “barren land” since they are found where environmental
conditions are very severe. There are two types of tundra - arctic and alpine.

Distribution: Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt below the polar ice
cap and above the tree line in the northern hemisphere.On the south pole,
tundra is very small since most of it is covered by ocean

The forest ecosystems have been classified into three major categories:
coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical forest.
Dart Frogs got their name because hunters would tip their arrows in the frog’s
poisons

Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal climates with long winters and
short summers are characterised by boreal coniferous forest

These soils are acidic and are mineral deficient. This is due to movement of
large amount of water through the soil

Rainfall is high, and fog may be very heavy. It is the important source of water
than rainfall itself. • The biotic diversity of temperate rain forests is high as
compared to other temperate forest.

Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.

• Both temperature and humidity remain high and more or less uniform

The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical rain forests remains vertically
stratified with tall trees often covered with vines, creepers, lianas, epiphytic
orchids and bromeliads. •

• Soil of tropical rainforests are red latosols, and they are very thick

Tropical seasonal forests also known as monsoon forest occur in regions

where total annual rainfall is very high but segregated into pronounced wet
and dry periods.
• This kind of forest is found in South East Asia, central and south America,
northern Australia, western Africa and tropical islands of the pacific as well as
in India.

subtropical rain forests: • Broad-leaved evergreen subtropical rain forests are

found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature differences
between winter and summer
• Epiphytes are common here. Ephiphytes are plants grow on another plant
but does not feed
• Animal life of subtropical forest is very similar to that of tropical rainforests

Elephants’ ears act as cooling devices. When the animal flaps its ears, the
blood temperature lowers by as much as 5°C.

Shifting cultivation • In this practice a patch of land is cleared, vegetation is

burned and the ash is mixed with the soil thus adding nutrients to the soil.
• This patch of land is used for raising crops for two to three years, and the
yield is modest.

Reptiles are cold-blooded animals that raise their body temperature by lying in
the sun or lower it by crawling into the shade. Their body temperature
changes to the temperature of its surroundings.
Deforestation also results from overgrazing, agriculture, mining, urbanization,
flood, fire, pest, diseases, defence and communication activites.

Transpiration is process of movement of water through plant to environment

by its areial parts. It is massive process so no energy is taken by plant for this
process

Forests, recycle moisture from soil into their immediate atmosphere by

transpiration where it again precipitates as rain.

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by nearly continuous

cover of gases.

The grasslands are found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year.
In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s
grasslands are mainly composed of steppes and savannas.

Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil; in western
Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid

Grassland biomes are important to maintain the population of many

domesticated and wild herbivores.
• Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi - UP and Central
Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur - Rajasthan

Sri Venkateshwara Zoological Park located in Tirupati city in Andhra Pradesh

is the largest zoo in the country.

Desert plants are under hot and dry conditions. These plants conserve water
by following methods:
• They are mostly shrubs.
• Leaves are absent or reduced in size.
• Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.
• In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
• Root system is well developed and spread over large area.
desert animal as are fast runner.

In cold deserts Heavy snowfall occurs between November and march.

• Soil type - sandy to sandy loam - manal kaliman
• Soil pH - neutral to slight alkaline.- kaaram
• Soil nutrient - Poor organic matter content.
Oak, pine, deodar, birch and rhododendron are the important trees.

Some of the major programmes currently implemented that address issues

related to land degradation and desertification are
• Integrated Watershed Management Programme
• National Afforestation Programme
• National Mission for Green India
• The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
• Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Project and Flood Prone
River
• National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas. Rainfed
agriculture refers to type of faming that relies on rainfall for crop cultivation
without use of irrigation
• Desert Development Programme

LESSON - 4

Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as aquatic

ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems are classified based on their salt content.

Neuston: • These are unattached organisms which live at the airwater

interface such as floating plants, etc.

Periphyton: • These are organisms which remain attached to stems and

leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such
as sessile algae and their associated group of animals.

Plankton: • This group includes both microscopic plants like algae

(phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton)
found in all aquatic ecosystems,

Sunlight and oxygen are most important limiting factors of the aquatic
ecosystems whereas moisture and temperature are the main limiting factors
of terrestrial ecosystem

Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are classified as photic
and aphotic zones

Photic zone; It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to which light
penetrates and within which photosynthetic activity is confined

Aphotic zone: • The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light
penetration and plant growth are restricted forms the aphotic zone.

In fresh water the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 0.0010 per

cent (also expressed as 10 parts per million or 10 ppm) by weight, which is
150 times lower than the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of
air

Oxygen is less soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances

decomposer activity. Therefore, increasing the temperature of a waterbody
increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted from water

Transparency affects the extent of light penetration. • Suspended particulate

matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc make the water turbid. •
Consequently it limits the extent of light penetration and the photosynthetic
activity in a significant way
The water temperature changes less rapidly than the temperature of air
because water has a considerably higher specific heat than air, i.e. larger
amounts of heat energy must be added to or taken away from water to raise
or lower its temperature.

Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms
have narrow temperature tolerance limit.

. LAKE ECOLOGY Any - body of standing water, generally large enough in

area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology , ecology, and other
characteristics is generally known as lake.

The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic

plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural eutrophication.

• Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps the oldest man-
made lake in India, dating back to 300 BC.

In lakes On the basis of their nutrient content, they are categorized as

Oligotrophic (very low nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and
Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich). • Vast majority of lakes in India are either
eutrophic or mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their
surroundings or organic wastes entering them.

Ameenpur Lake - First Biodiversity Heritage Site Ameenpur Lake gets the
status of the first Biodiversity Heritage Site in the country under the
biodiversity act, 2002. it is an ancient man-made lake in a western part of
Telangana.

Under Green India Mission (GIM), perspective plans and annual plans of
operations of six States have been approved in the first sitting of the National
Executive Council held in May 2015

. EUTROPHICATION • Greek word – Eutrophia means adequate & healthy

nutrition. • Eutrophication is a syndrome of ecosystem, response to the
addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates
through fertilizer, sewage, etc that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem

The growth of green algae which we see in the lake surface layer is the
physical identification of an Eutrophication. •
Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess ions and a
population explosion covers almost entire surface layer is known as algal
bloom. This growth is unsustainable, however

The world’s tallest tree is a coast redwood in California, measuring more than
360 ft or 110 m

Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that can be found naturally

in coastal waters. They are major producers of oxygen and food for many of
the animals that live in these waters.
When environmental conditions are favorable for their development, these
cells may multiply rapidly and form high numbers of cells and this is called an
algal bloom.
A bloom often results in a color change in the water. Algal blooms can be any
color, but the most common ones are red or brown. These blooms are
commonly referred to as red or brown tides.

Wetlands are areas of critical ecological significance: as they support

biodiversity, support millions of people directly and indirectly, protect from
storms, flood control, improve water quality, supply food, fiber and raw
materials

Kannimara teak is one of the largest living teak tree in the world.
According to the local tribal belief here when this tree was tried to cut down,
the blood spurted out from the place of cut.
This tree was being since then worshipped by the local tribes in
Parambikulam as “Virgin tree”. Kannimara - ‘ Kanni’ means ‘Virgin’. This tree
has been awarded ‘Mahavriksha Puraskar’ by the Government of India.

Montreux Record is the principal tool under the Ramsar Convention, is a

register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance

Estuaries is the most productive region as it receives the high amount of

nutrients from fresh and marine water. • Estuaries are most heavily populated
areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the world’s population living
along estuaries and the coast.

Estuary Formation:
Most estuaries can be grouped into four geomorphic categories based on the
physical processes responsible for their formation: (1) rising sea level; (2)
movement of sand and sandbars; (3) glacial processes; and (4) tectonic
processes.

Changes in water flow in various estuaries, either far in excess or much lower
than required (e.g., Hooghly, Narmada, Krishna, Godavari, Pulicat etc.)

Snakes generally lay eggs, some snakes, such as boas, rattlesnakes and
garter snakes, give birth to live young

Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and

subtropical sheltered coastlines. Mangroves are trees and bushes growing
below the high water level of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity
for salt water tolerance.

racteristics of mangroves • They are basically evergreen land plants growing

on sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and
the barrier islands.

The word amphibian means two-lives. Amphibians spend their lives in the
water and on land.
The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic
mangroves of the world. The major species of this dense mangrove forest
include Herritiera fames, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., Ceriops decandra,
Sonneratia spp. and Avicennia spp., Nypa fruticans are found along the
creeks.
This mangrove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.
Mangrove areas are being cleared for agricultural use

On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby and degraded occur
along the intertidal region of estuaries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and
Karnataka.

Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as prop roots

The King Cobra is not only an excellent climber but a super swimmer as well.
They live in forests near streams.
Fine, anoxic sediments deposited under mangroves act as sinks for a variety
of heavy (trace) metals which are scavenged from the overlying seawater by
colloidal particles in the sediments. By cleaning our air, they taking in carbon
dioxide, storing the carbon in their roots, leaves, branches and in its
surrounding silt, and release oxygen back to the atmosphere, along with a
little methane gas

functions of Coral Reefs

• Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against erosion and storm surge.
• The coral animals are highly adapted for capturing plankton from the water,
thereby capturing nutrients
• Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer
• They provide substrate for mangroves
• Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of animals and plants including
avifauna.

Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM)

• Launched in 1998
• Aims at integrated management of coastal and marine areas.
• Model plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch being prepared

GANGA ACTION PLAN ; The Ganga Action Plan was launched on 14th
January 1986 with the main objective of pollution abatement, to improve water
quality by interception, diversion and treatment of domestic sewage and toxic
and industrial chemical wastes present, from identified grossly polluting units
entering in to the river.

After reviewing the effectiveness of the “Ganga Action Plan”, the Government
announced the “Mission Clean Ganga” project on 31st December, 2009 with
the objective that by 2020, no municipal sewage and industrial waste would
be released in the river without treatment, with the total budget of around
Rs.15,000 crore.
The Government also established the National Ganga River Basin Authority
(NGRBA), chaired by the Prime Minister, with the objective to ensure effective
abatement of pollution and conservation of the river Ganga, by adopting a
river basin approach for comprehensive planning and management.
LESSON - 5
Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which they are added to the
environment e.g. DDT, plastic. •
Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among the primary
pollutants.
For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.

Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and become pollutant when

their concentration reaches beyond a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxide.
Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and are man-made. E.g.
fungicides, herbicides, DDT et

It is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the incomplete burning of

carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood
It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. It can slow our reflexes
and make us confused and sleepy

These are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and
refrigeration. • When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere,
where they come in contact with few other gases, which lead to a reduction of
the ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the
sun

Lead can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in
some cases, cause cancer.

Vehicles and industries are the major source of groundlevel ozone emissions.
• Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our resistance to cold
and pneumonia. • Nitrogen oxide (Nox) • It causes smog and acid rain. It is
produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. • Nitrogen oxide
can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters.

Some industrial processes, such as production of paper and smelting of

metals, produce sulphur dioxide. • It is a major contributor to smog and acid
rain. Sulfur dioxide can lead to lung disease

Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe air pollution that is a

result of the interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere. •
One of the primary components of photochemical smog is ozone

Ground-level ozone is formed through a complex reaction involving

hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and sunlight. It is formed when pollutants
released from gasoline, dieselpowered vehicles and oil-based solvents react
with heat and sunlight

Heavy smog results in the decrease of natural vitamin D production leading to

a rise in the cases of rickets.

Formaldehyde • Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation foam. It

causes irritation to the eyes and nose and allergies.

Radon • It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to modern houses
having poor ventilation, it is confined inside the house and causes lung
cancers

Fly ash is one such residue which rises with the gases into the atmosphere.
Fly ash is a very fine powder and tends to travel far in the air. The ash which
does not rise is termed as bottom ash.

Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron,
calcium, and magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt,
and copper.

Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35%, thus reducing the cost of
construction, making roads, etc. • Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer
high strength and durability. • Fly ash can increase the crop yield and it also
enhances water holding capacity of the land

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were notified in the year
1982, duly revised in 1994 based on health criteria and land uses.

Ganga and yamuna river become most 0 populated polluted river in the world

BS engines - Bharat Stage.

The animal excreta such as dung waste from poultry etc are raech the water
through runn off and surface laeching duing rainy season

Environmental performance index is conducted by envi research centres

atyale and colombia universities

DO - dissolved oxygen
BOD - biological oxygen demand
COD - chemical oxygen demand
Dicarded materials in soil are asphalt leather glass plastic etc

Ironising radiation has high penetrateion power and breaking of macrro

molecule

Warmwater cntains less oxygen.elevated temperature typically decreses the

level of dissolved oxygen
 LESSON - 6
Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural resources that are
continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides,
water, and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is
constantly renewed

But biomass though a renewable source, is a major contributor of indoor

pollution

Co-generation - producing two forms of energy from one fuel

The states with very high solar radiation are Rajasthan, northern Gujarat and
parts of Ladakh region, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

International Solar Alliance (ISA) is launched at the CoP21 Climate

Conference in Paris on 30th November as a special platform for mutual
cooperation among 121 solar resource rich countries lying fully or partially
between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.Prime Minister coined the
new term “Surya Putra” for all the nations which fall between Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn

A luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) is a device that uses a thin sheet of

material to trap solar radiation over a large area, before directing the energy
(through luminescent emission) to cells mounted on the thin edges of the
material layer.

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) IRENA has 150 member

nations with Headquarters in Abu Dhabi.

Air density is a function of altitude, temperature and pressure.

National Offshore Wind Energy Policy, 2015: Under this Policy, the Ministry of
New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been authorized as the Nodal Ministry
for use of offshore areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the
country
National Wind Energy Mission (Proposed):
Initiated the process of establishing National Wind
Energy Mission. The setting up of a Mission would help in (a) achieving the
targets of 12th Plan and energy generation from renewable energy as set
under NAPCC, and
(b) addressing the issues and challenges which
the wind sector is faced with, such as precise resource assessment, effective
grid integration, improvement in technology and manufacturing base, to
maintain its comparative advantage in the wind sector.

The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment

facility. An impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a
dam to store river water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows
through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce
electricity.
Waves result from the interaction of the wind with the surface of the sea and
represent a transfer of energy from the wind to the sea. The first wave energy,
project with a capacity of 150MW, has been set up at Vizhinjam near
Trivandrum.

Biomethanation, or methanogenesis, is a scientific process whereby

anaerobic microorganisms in an anaerobic environment decompose
biodegradable matter producing methane-rich biogas and effluent. The three
functions that take place sequentially are hydrolysis, acidogenosis and
methanogenesis

Pyrolysis is a process of chemical decomposition of organic matter brought

about by heat. In this process, the organic material is heated in the absence
of air until the molecules thermally break down to become a gas comprising
smaller molecules (known collectively as syngas)

The gases produced by pyrolysis mainly comprise carbon monoxide (25%),

hydrogen and hydrocarbons (15%), and carbon dioxide and nitrogen (60%)

Co-generation is producing two forms of energy from one fuel. One of the
forms of energy must always be heat and the other may be electricity or
mechanical energy

The Government plans to meet 20% of the countries diesel requirements by

using biodiesel. Potential sources of biodiesel production have been identified
in wild plants such as jatropha curcas, neem, mahua, karanj, Simarouba
(exotic tree) etc

Waste-to-energy has the potential to divert waste from landfills and generate
clean power without the emission of harmful greenhouse gas. This
significantly reduces the volume of waste that needs to be disposed of and
can generate power Pyrolysis and gasification are emerging technologies
apart from the common incineration and biomethanation.

Waste to energy costs of the projects especially based on biomethanation

technology are high as critical equipment for a project is required to be
imported.

Geothermal generation refers to harnessing of the geothermal energy or the

vast reservoir of heat stored in the earth’s inner core. Below the earth’s crust,
there is a layer of hot and molten rock called ‘magma’. Heat is continually
produced there, mostly from the decay of naturally radioactive materials such
as uranium and potassium.

gradual change in temperature is known as the geothermal gradient, which

expresses the increase in temperature with depth in the earth’s crust. The
average geothermal gradient is about 2.5-3 °C/100 m.)
In 2013,India’s first geothermal power plant was announced to be set up in
Chhattisgarh. The plant would be set up at Tattapani in the Balrampur district.
Satellites like the IRS-1 have played an important role, through infrared
photographs, in locating geothermal areas.

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a
fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away
with combustion. The most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a
mixture of compounds containing hydrogen.

Fuel cells can supply combined heat and power to commercial buildings,
hospitals, airports and military installation at remote locations. The emissions
are significantly lower (CO2 and water vapour being the only emissions)

REN21 is the global renewable energy policy multi-stakeholder network

REN21 promotes renewable energy to meet the needs of both industrialized
and developing countries that are driven by climate change, energy security,
development and poverty alleviation.

REN21 is an international non-profit association and committed to the

following objectives:
• Providing policy-relevant information and researchbased analysis on
renewable energy to decision makers, multipliers and the public to catalyse
policy change

• Offering a platform for interconnection between multistakeholder actors

working in the renewable energy field worldwide and identifying barriers as
well as working to bridge existing gaps to increase the largescale deployment
of renewable energy worldwide

LESSON - 7
The Naini Lake is the sole source of drinking water for Nainital town, an
important tourist destination in Uttarakhand state.To conserve the water body,
the residents have switched on to a scientic garbage disposal system – under
the project name ‘Mission Buttery’ by Nainital Lake Conservation Project.

It has then increased the minimum thickness of plastic carry bags to 70

microns of virgin material, which exceeded the 20 micron thickness
recommended by Central Rules

Dal Lake a favorite tourist destination attracting thousands of tourists in

Jammu & Kashmir state, The lake has been included in the lake conservation
programme of the MoEF, GOI.

The Himalayas is known to be a home of saints, destination of pilgrimage

since time immemorial. • For example, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri-
Yamunotri and Hemkund Sahib in Uttarakhand, Manimahesh, Jwala Devi,
Chintpurni, Naina Devi in Himachal Pradesh and Vaishnav Devi and
Amarnath in Jammu & Kashmir, Khecheopalri and other sacred lakes in
Sikkim are particularly important destinations
Rivers affet due to sand mining.Rivers affected: Cauvery, Vaigai, Palar,
Cheyyar, Araniyar and Kosathalaiyar, Bhavani, Vellar , Vaigai Thamiraparani,
Kollidam. coastal districts of Nagapattinam, Tuticorin, Ramanatha-puram and
Kanyakumari. hill regions of Salem and Erode districts

Guidelines for Sustainable Sand & Minor Mineral Mining 1. Where to mine
and where to prohibit mining: District Survey Report for each district in the
country, taking the river in that district as one ecological system. Use of ISRO,
remote sensing data and ground truthing

Involvement of District authorities in the process: The District-level

Environment Impact Assessment Authority (DEIAA) headed by District
Collector. The District Collector is to be assisted by the District Level Expert
Appraisal Committee (DEAC) headed by Executive Engineer (Irrigation
Department) being assigned the responsibility of granting environment
clearance up to 5 hectare of mine lease area for minor minerals , mainly sand

The monitoring of mined out mineral, Environmental Clearance, EC conditions

and enforcement of Environment Management Plan (EMP) will be ensured by
the District Collector and the State Pollution Control Board. The monitoring of
enforcement of EC conditions can be done by the Central Pollution Control
Board, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the agency
nominated by Ministry for the purpose

The ideal locations for oil palm trees are within eight degrees latitude north
and south of the Equator.
Irrigation: Palms need regular rainfall throughout the year. However, they can
withstand dry periods of 3-4 months depending on soils type without irrigation

Neonicotinoids are a new class of insecticides chemically related to nicotine.

The name literally means “new nicotine-like insecticides”. Like nicotine, the
neonicotinoids act on certain kinds of receptors in the nerve synapse. They
are much more toxic to invertebrates, like insects, than they are to mammals,
birds and other higher organisms

Article 48A (DPSP) of the Indian Constitution, it is stated that the State shall
endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests
and wild life of the country. Article 51A (Fundamental Duties) to protect and
improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life
and to have compassion for living creatures

How the cell phone tower’s radiation affects the birds and bees?
• The surface area of bird is relatively larger than their body weight in
comparison to human body so they absorb more radiation.
• Also the fluid content in the body of the bird is less due to small body weight
so it gets heated up very fast.
• Magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds’ navigation skills hence when
birds are exposed to EMR they disorient and begin to fly in all directions.
• A large number of birds die each year from collisions with telecommunication
masts.

How the cell phone tower’s radiation affects human?

• EMR may cause cellular and psychological changes in human beings due to
thermal effects that are generated due to absorption of microwave radiation.
• The exposure can lead to genetic defects, effects on reproduction and
development, Central Nervous System behaviour etc.
• EMR can also cause non thermal effects which are caused by radio
frequency fields at levels too low to produce significant heating and are due to
movement of calcium and other ions across cell membranes.

Genetically engineered trees is ArborGen a subsidiary of Monsanto, oil

companies like British Petroleum and Chevron that are investing in this
technology. For these companies GE trees offer a viable alternate to fossil
fuels as GE trees could produce ethanol, a green fuel.

The first experiment with genetically engineered tree was with rubber tree
developed by the Rubber Research Institute in Kerala.

The annual cost of environmental degradation in India is about Rs. 3.75

trillion, or 5.7% of India’s 2009 gross domestic product (GDP), according to a
report released by the World Bank. The impact of outdoor air pollution on
GDP is the highest and accounts for 1.7% of the GDP loss, said the report.
Indoor air pollution is the second-biggest offender and costs India 1.3% of
GDP.

LESSON - 17
Black Panther is not a separate species. Blackness, the general darkening of
colour is due to the excessive presence of a substance called Melanin which
intensifies pigmentation. The production of melanin is increased where there
is a combination of high temperature, humidity and reduced light. Both black
and normalcoloured cubs may be produced in the same litter.

The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets the

earth lower atmosphere and warms it, maintaining the temperature suitable
for living things to survive

Water vapour is the biggest overall contributor to the greenhouse effect and
humans are not directly responsible for emitting this gas in quantities sufficient
to change its concentration in the atmosphere. However, CO2 and other
greenhouse gases is increasing the amount of water vapour in the air by
boosting the rate of evaporation

Unlike CO2 , which can persist in the air for centuries, water vapour cycles
through the atmosphere quickly, evaporating from the oceans and elsewhere
before coming back down as rain or snow

Methane (CH4 ) is emitted by natural sources such as wetlands, as well as

human activities such as leakage from natural gas systems and the raising of
livestock. • Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions in the
atmosphere help remove CH4 from the atmosphere.

Natural emissions of N2 O are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in

soils and the oceans.

Transportation. Nitrous oxide is emitted when transportation fuels are burned.

• Industry. Nitrous oxide is generated as a byproduct during the production of
nitric acid, which is used to make synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the
production of adipic acid, which is used to make fibers, like nylon, and other
synthetic products.

Nitrous oxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by certain

types of bacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions

Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents,

and fire retardants.

Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a byproduct of various

industrial processes associated with aluminum production and the
manufacturing of semiconductors

Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission equipment, including

circuit breakers.

Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol, (though not a gas) contributes
to warming of the atmosphere. • Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a
form of particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete combustion

Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is shown to be a major

source of brown carbon.Global warming potential describes the impact of
each gas on global warming.

Spices and condiments are flavoring agents obtained from plants. Because
they have little nutritive value, they are not classified as foods. They contain
essential oils, which impart flavor and aroma to food and add greatly to the
pleasure of eating. They stimulate the appetite and increase the flow of gastric
juices.

Shola forest, Temperate forest is an evergreen ecosystem found at the high

altitude regions. It is distributed in Nilgris and Palani hills of Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka. Sholas are found at sites where adjacent slope
converges The main role of shola forest is conservation of water in that
region. It needs well drained soils and avoids swampy soils

LESSON 9
Sea snakes are very poisonous. The most poisonous one is the Beaded Sea
Snake. Just 3 drops of venom can kill about 8 people! Their other methods of
defense include to spray a stinky, musky liquid or to poop. Eew!
Genetic diversity: • It is concerned with the variation in genes within a
particular species. • Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing
environments.• The genetic diversity gives us beautiful butterflies, roses,
parakeets or coral in a myriad hues, shapes and sizes.

) Species diversity: • It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth. •

Species differ from one another, markedly in their genetic makeup, do not
inter-breed in nature • ‘Zero’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ represents
only one species present.

Ecosystem/ Community diversity: • This refers to the different types of

habitats. A habitat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation and
geography of a region. • There are several kinds of habitats around the world.
Corals, grasslands, wetland, desert, mangrove and tropical rain forests are
examples of ecosystems.

The most dangerous sharks are the Great White shark, the Tiger shark, the
Hammerhead shark, the Mako shark and the Bull shark

shark livers were used as a vitamin A supplement. Shark fin soup and shark
steaks are both eaten in many countries. So... who’s the dangerous predator?

Biodiversity is measured by two major components:

i. species richness, and
ii. ii. species evenness

The building blocks of plants, animals and humans are identical, and are
made of the four elements - carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen.

Fangs are sharp, long, hollow teeth that are hooked up to small sacs in the
snake’s head behind their eyes

Purpose of botanical gardens

1. To study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants.
2. To study the introduction and acclimatization process of exotic plants
3. It acts as a germplasm collection.
4. It helps development of new hybrids.
5. . It augments conserving rare and threatened species

Species judged as threatened are listed by various agencies as well as by

some private organizations. The most cited of these lists is the Red Data
Book.This volume is continually updated and is issued by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) located in Morges, Switzerland.

The pink pages in this publication include the critically endangered

species.Green pages are used for those species that were formerly
endangered,

A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates

that it meets any of the criteria for Critically Endangered.
The ‘pit’ is a special organ in between the eyes and the nostrils. The pit
senses body heat from animals and gives the snake a ‘picture’ of that animal

LESSON -21
Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS or carbon sequestration,
describes the technologies designed to tackle global warming by capturing
CO2 at power stations, industrial sites or even directly from the air and
permanently storing it underground
Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping carbon into ‘carbon
sinks’— an area that absorbs carbon. • Natural sinks - Oceans, forests, soil
etc. • Artificial sinks - Depleted oil reserves, unmineable mines, etc.

There are three main steps to carbon capture and storage (CCS) – • trapping
and separating the CO2 from other gases, • transporting this captured CO2 to
a storage location, and • storing that CO2 far away from the atmosphere
(underground or deep in the ocean).

Types of Sequestration: • There are number of technologies under

investigation for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. These can be
discussed under three main categories:
Ocean Sequestration: Carbon stored in oceans through direct injection or
fertilization.
• Geologic Sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve as
reservoirs for long-term carbon dioxide storage.
• Terrestrial Sequestration: A large amount of carbon is stored in soils and
vegetation, which are our natural carbon sinks. Increasing carbon fixation
through photosynthesis, slowing down or reducing decomposition of organic
matter, and changing land use practices can enhance carbon uptake in these
natural sinks.

Geologic Sequestration Trapping Mechanisms

• Hydrodynamic Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be trapped as a gas under low-
permeability cap rock (much like natural gas is stored in gas reservoirs).
• Solubility Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be dissolved into a liquid, such as
water or oil.
• Mineral Carbonation: Carbon dioxide can react with the minerals, fluids, and
organic matter in a geologic formation to form stable compounds/minerals;
largely calcium, iron, and magnesium carbonates. • Carbon dioxide can be
effectively stored in the earth’s subsurface by hydrodynamic trapping and
solubility trapping - usually a combination of the two is most effective.

Asian golden cat prefer forest habitats interspersed with rocky areas, and are
found in dry deciduous, subtropical evergreen and tropical rainforests. In India
it is distribution in assam& arunachal Pradesh. IUCN Status – near threatened

Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants

and soil of natural ecosystems and is a vital part of the global carbon cycle
Furthermore, forests can accumulate large amounts of CO2 in relatively short
periods, typically several decades.
• Afforestation and reforestation are measures that can be taken to enhance
biological carbon sequestration

Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the
indicative vegetation, marine organism and sediments.
• In particular, coastal ecosystems such as tidal marshes, mangroves, and
seagrasses remove carbon from the atmosphere and ocean, storing it in
plants and depositing it in the sediment below them by natural processes

Why is Blue Carbon Ecosystem Important?

• Preventing degradation and destruction and promoting restoration of coastal
ecosystems is a significant tool to mitigate climate change. • The coastal
ecosystems of mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrasses are some of the
most rapidly disappearing natural systems on Earth.
• When lost they not only stop sequestering carbon but also release their
stores of carbon and become new sources of climate change causing carbon
emissions which can last for centuries.

The seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa, in the family Arecaceae, commonly

called “ivory nut” or “tagua palm tree,” is the chief source of vegetable ivory. It
is extensively used as a substitute for true ivory. It can be carved and used in
the manufacture of buttons, chess pieces, poker chips, dice, knobs, inlays,
billiard balls, toys, etc.
Metroxylon amicarum, in the Arecaceae family, can likewise be used for
these purposes

A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate or permit representing the right to

emit one tonne of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e).
• One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, or in some markets,
carbon dioxide equivalent gases.

A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate or permit representing the right to

emit one tonne of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). • One carbon
credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon
dioxide equivalent gases.

Several species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria of Rhizobium, live inside the root

nodules of leguminous trees. Similarly, Frankia, a nitrogen-fixing mycelial
bacterium, is associated symbiotically with the root nodules of several non-
legume plants, including Alnus, Casuarina, Coriaria, Myrica and Rubus. Both
Rhizobium and Frankia are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

Carbon offsets are credits for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions made
at another location, such as wind farms which create renewable energy and
reduce the need for fossil-fuel powered energy

Carbon tax is the potential alternative to the ‘cap and trade’ method currently
used by the protocol.
This tax is based on the amount of carbon contained in a fuel such as coal,
etc.
 The aim of this tax is to cause less fossil fuel use and hopefully cause an
incentive to use other sources of energy.

Geo-engineering primarily aims at modifying and cooling Earth’s environment,

defeating the environmental damage and ensuing climate changes to make
the planet more inhabitable. Geoengineering, at this point, is still only a
theoretical Concept
• Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space, whitening the stratosphere with
sulfate aerosols, whitewashing building roofs to reflect sunlight or flinging iron
filings into the ocean to promote carbon-gulping algae are some of the modes.

How sequestrated CO2 can be commercials used? • Horticulturists need CO2

in greenhouses for plants to use during photosynthesis, • For dry ice
production, and • For developing new kinds of plastic and concrete that can
be made with CO2 .

LESSON - 18
Oceans are an important reservoir for CO2 , absorbing a significant quantity
of it (one-third) produced by anthropogenic activities and effectively buffering
climate change

Ocean acidification is the change in ocean chemistry - lowering of ocean pH

(i.e. increase in concentration of hydrogen ions) driven by the uptake of
carbon compounds by the ocean from the atmosphere.

As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the

concentration of hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, the concentration of
carbonate ions decreases, the pH of the oceans decreases and the oceans
become less alkaline – this process is know as ocean acidification.

The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is occurring at a rate exceeding the

natural buffering capacity of the ocean.

That is because acidification is the direction of travel, the trend, regardless of

the starting point. Acidification refers to lowering pH from any starting point to
any end point on the pH scale.

Forms of calcium carbonate:

Calcite and aragonite are two different forms of calcium carbonate.
1. Calcite is the mineral form found in the shells of planktonic algae, amoeboid
protists, some corals, echinoderms, and some molluscs (e.g. oysters); it is
relatively less soluble.
2. 2. Aragonite is a more soluble form of calcium carbonate; it is found in most
corals, most mollusks (small planktonic snails), as well as some species of
algae.

. Acid rain Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and 6 and has impact on
surface ocean chemistry. It has major effect on ocean acidification locally and
regionally but very small globally.
. Eutrophication : Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs,
mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, fertilizers and sewage. The resulting
eutrophication leads to large plankton blooms, and when these blooms
collapse and sink to the sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria
decomposing the algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen and an
increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).

When co2 reacts with sea water Two reactions are particularly important.
Firstly, the formation of carbonic acid with subsequent release of hydrogen
ions .The above reaction and release of hydrogen ions increases acidity and
thus pH level is reduced.
A second reaction, between carbonate ions, CO2 and water produces
bicarbonate ions. The combined effect of both these reactions not only
increases acidity but also lowers the availability of carbonate ions.

Seawater absorbs CO2 to produce carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ), bicarbonate

(HCO3 --) and carbonate ions (CO32-).
These carbonate ions are essential to the calcification process that allows
certain marine organisms to build their calcium carbonate shells and
skeletons (e.g. hard tropical corals, cold water corals, molluscs, crustaceans,
sea urchins, certain types of plankton, lobsters, etc).
However, increases in atmospheric CO2 levels lead to decrease in pH level,
increase in the concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions, causing a
decrease in the concentration of carbonate ions.
Thus carbonate ions are less available and calcification is therefore harder to
achieve, and may be prevented altogether.

Mitigation techniques
• Reducing CO2
• promoting government policies to cap CO2 emissions,
• eliminate offshore drilling,
• by advocating for energy efficiency and
• Alternative energy sources such as wind power, solar, etc.

The saturation horizon is the level below which calcium carbonate minerals
undergo dissolution.
Deep, cold ocean waters are naturally under saturated with carbonate ions
• Surface waters are over saturated with carbonate ions and do not readily
dissolve shells of calcifying organisms.

As ocean acidification causes this horizon to rise vertically in the water

column so more and more calcifying organisms will be exposed to under
saturated water and thus vulnerable to dissolution of their shells and
skeletons.

• The saturation horizon of calcite occurs at a greater ocean depth than that
for aragonite,
On long timescales (>100,000 years) there is a natural balance maintained
between the up-take and release of CO2 on Earth; the CO2 produced by
volcanoes, the main natural source of CO2 , is taken up by the production of
organic matter by plants and by rock weathering on land.

Surface Coastal regions periodically experience upwelling events where

deeper ocean water circulates onto continental shelves and near-shore areas.
This exposes the productive upper ocean ecosystems to colder water
containing more nutrients & more CO2 .
As ocean acidification makes the upper oversaturated layer of sea water
shallower each year, these natural upwelling events will more often cause
undersaturated water to well up and flow to the shore

However, rock weathering takes tens of thousands of years so will not remove
the current anthropogenic input of CO2 to the atmosphere and ocean fast
enough.

On shorter time scales (>1,000 years), the ocean has an internal stabilizing
feedback linking the ocean carbon cycle to the underlying carbonate rich
sediment known as carbonate compensation

The upper layers of the ocean tend to be supersaturated with CaCO3 so little
dissolution takes place, whilst the deep ocean is undersaturated and
carbonate readily dissolves.
The first boundary between these two states is known as the lysocline, the
depth at which dissolution strongly increases in the deep ocean. The CaCO3
in the form of dead shells sink to the sea bed.

CDD refers to level of depth of the ocean till where carbon doesn t dissolve
and is present in adequate amount.The current increased rate of dissolution
of atmospheric CO2 into the ocean results in an imbalance in the carbonate
compensation depth (CCD), the depth at which all carbonate is dissolved.

As the pH of the ocean falls, it results in a shallowing of the lysocline and the
CCD, thus exposing more of the shells trapped in the sediments to
understaturated conditions causing them to dissolve, which will help buffer
ocean acidification but over a long time scale of a thousand years.

LESSON - 19
Ozone is a natural gas; it is an allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms
of oxygen bound together in a non-linear fashion. The chemical symbol of
ozone is O3

It is found in two different layers of the atmosphere. Ozone in the troposphere

is “bad” because it dirties the air and helps to form smog, which is not good to
breathe. Ozone in the stratosphere is “good” because it protects life on Earth
by absorbing some of the sun’s harmful Ultra Violet (UV) rays.ozone thus
acting like a sun-screen
The UV rays cause direct damage to the genetic material or DNA of animal
and plant cells. Exposure of mammals to UV light has been shown to act on
the immune system, thereby making the body more susceptible to diseases.

• Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found in India. Rest of the monkeys are all
macaques and langurs. In India is distributed in the northeast India. • Palms
are typically unbranched trees with only one trunk (columnar stem), called the
“caudex,” which ends in a crown of large leaves.Too much UV rays can cause
skin cancer and will also harm all plants and animals

OZONE DEPLETION:
Change in equilibrium;
• The equilibrium between the formation and destruction of ozone, has been
upset by the influx of several substances into the atmosphere which react with
ozone and destroy it.
• The rate at which ozone is being destroyed is much faster than the rate at
which it is being formed.
• It implies that there is a significant decrease in the concentration of ozone in
a particular region of the atmosphere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’.
• The best example of such an Ozone Depletion is the atmosphere over the
Antarctic which has only about 50 percent of the ozone that originally
occurred there.

CFC are used as refrigerants, propellents in aerosol sprays, foaming agents

in plastic manufacturing, fire extinguishing agents, solvents for cleaning
electronic and metallic components, for freezing foods etc . Two-thirds of CFC
is used as refrigerants while one-third is used as blowing agents in foam
insulation products.

CFCs has a wide and varied application due to its properties like non-
corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxicity and chemical stability,
etc.Unlike other chemicals, CFCs cannot be eliminated from the atmosphere
by the usual scavenging processes like photodissociation, rain-out and
oxidation.

Since the CFCs are thermally stable they can survive in the troposphere. But
in the stratosphere, they are exposed to UV radiation.

The molecules of CFCs when exposed to UV radiation break up, thus freeing
chlorine atoms. A free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule to form
chlorine monoxide (ClO). The molecules of chlorine monoxide further combine
with an atom of oxygen. This reaction results in the formation of an oxygen
molecule (O2 ) and reformation of the free chlorine atom (CI).The element
that destroys O3 (i.e chlorine) is being reformed at the end of cycle

CFC-12 (R-12) is a widely used refrigerant. HFC 134a (R-134a) is the most
promising alternative (R143a) and (R-152a) can also be used.
The sources of nitrogen oxides are mainly explosions of thermonuclear
weapons, industrial emissions and agricultural fertilizers.Nitric oxide (NO)
catalytically destroys ozone.

Nitrous oxide (N2 O) is released from solid through denitrification of nitrates

under anaerobic conditions and nitrification of ammonia under aerobic
conditions. This N2 O can gradually reach the middle of the stratosphere,
where it is photolytically destroyed to yield nitric oxide which in turn destroys
ozone

Bromine containing compounds called halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromo

fluorocarbons [both used in fire extinguishers and methyl bromide (a widely
used pesticide)]

Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic solvent) and methyl chloroform

(used as a cleaning solvent for clothes and metals, and a propellant in a wide
range of consumer products, such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays,
spray adhesives) and other aerosols

Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine from molecular

reservoirs, and convert reactive nitrogen into inert forms thus preventing the
formation of chlorine reservoirs.

There are three types of stratospheric clouds. They are:

1. Nacreous clouds extend from 10 to 100km in length and several kilometers
in thickness. They are also called ‘mother-of-pearl’ clouds due to their glow
with a seashell like iridescence.
2. The second type of clouds contain nitric acid instead of pure water.
3. The third type of clouds have the same chemical composition as nacreous
clouds, but form at a slower rate, which results in a larger cloud with no
iridescence.

There is a correlation exist between the cycle of ozone depletion and the
presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) i.e. the ice particles of the
cloud provided substrates for chemical reactions which freed chlorine from its
reservoirs.

The chlorine released by the breakdown of CFCs exists initially as pure

chlorine or as chlorine monoxide (active chlorine / instable) but these two
forms react further to form compounds Chlorine nitrate and HCL that are
stable (inactive chlorine).

Dimer of chlorine monoxide: Stratospheric chlorine monoxide reacts with itself

forming a dimer Cl2O2. This dimer is easily dissociated by sunlight, giving rise
to free chlorine atoms which can further react to destroy ozone.

The Antarctic stratosphere is much colder. The low temperature enables the
formation of Polar stratospheric Clouds (PSCs), below 20 km.The vortex is a
ring of rapidly circulating air that confines the ozone depletion in the Antarctic
region.
Ozone absorbs sunlight, causing the characteristic increase in temperature
with increase in altitude in the stratosphere. If ozone is being depleted, the air
becomes cooler

The vortex remains, in fact, throughout the polar winter, well into midspring
whereas the vortex in the Arctic disintegrates by the time the polar spring
(MarchApril) arrives

In June Antarctic winter begins, the vortex develops and the temperature falls
enough for the clouds to form.

The Ozone Depletion has been increasingly evident over the Arctic as well. •
The Arctic Ozone Depletion which swept across Britain in March 96 was the
greatest depletion of ozone ever seen in the northern hemisphere.

The ozone measurement instruments and techniques are varied. Some of

them are the Dobson spectrophotometer and the filter ozonometer called
M83, and total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) in the Nimbus-7
satellite.

The most common measure of total ozone abundance is the Dobson unit
(named after the pioneering atmospheric physical Gordon Dobson) which is
the thickness of the ozone column (compressed at Standard Temperature and
Pressure (STP)) in milli-centimeters. At STP one Dobson unit is equal to
2.69x1020 molecules per square mete

UV radiation has been shown in experimental systems to damage the cornea

and lens of the eye

In susceptible (light-skin coloured) populations, UV-B radiations is the key risk

factor for development of nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC).

Psychological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UV-B

radiation.
• Response to UV-B also varies considerably among species and also
cultivars of the same species. In agriculture, this will necessitate using more
UV-B tolerant cultivars and breeding new ones

Reduction in stratospheric ozone and the concomitant increase in UV-B

radiation penetrating to the lower atmosphere result in higher photo
dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical reactivity of the
troposphere.
• This can increase both production and destruction of ozone (O3 ) and
related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 )

Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring bio-polymers, as well as some other

materials of commercial interest are adversely affected by solar UV radiation.

LESSON - 20
 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Agriculture will be adversely affected not only by an increase or decrease in
the overall amounts of rainfall but also by shifts in the timing of the rainfall.

Summer rainfall accounts for almost 70 per cent of the total annual rainfall
over India and is crucial to Indian agriculture.

Relatively small climate changes can cause large water resources problems
particularly in arid and semi arid regions such as northwest India.

This apart, there would be a decline in the productivity of rabi as compared to

kharif season crops.
Rising temperature would increase fertilizer requirement for the same
production targets and result in higher GHG emissions, ammonia volatilization
and cost of crop production.

The sloth bear, also known as the labiated bear, is a nocturnal insectivorous
species of bear f

• Spreading water scarcity is contributing to food insecurity and heightened

competitions for water both within and between countries.

In coastal areas, sea level rise will exacerbate water resource constraints due
to increased salinisation of groundwater supplies.
Water resources will come under increasing pressure in the Indian
subcontinent due to the changing climate.

Glacial melt is expected to increase under changed climate conditions, which

would lead to increased summer flows in some river systems

Water security in terms of quantity and quality pose problems for both
developed and developing countries

Indian Flying Fox are the fruit eating bats.Sea level rise is both due to thermal
expansion as well as melting of ice sheets

Warming seas will also fuel more intense tropical storms.Sea water
percolation due to inundations can diminish freshwater supplies making water
scarcer

People living in the Ganges Delta share the flood risks associated with rising
sea levels.

• WWF asserted that one-fifth of the world’s most vulnerable natural areas
may be facing a “catastrophic” loss of species.

Grizzled giant squirrel is distributed in the patches of riparian forest along the
Kaveri River and in the hill forests in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of
southern India.
Mountain ecosystems are hot spots of biodiversity.The Himalayan Ecosystem
is considered as the lifeline not only to India

The Himalayan rivers are closely interlinked with the Indo-Gangetic

Ecosystem, which is primarily an agricultural ecosystem, nearly 65-70% of
Indians having agriculture as their primary occupation.

The mangrove forests (wetlands) of the rivers and the coasts acts as carbon
sink as well as a habitat for a unique and diverse species of plants and
animals.

The wetlands act as a natural barrier to flooding (that may be caused by the
rising sea levels) and cyclones.
The most explicit event in the perspective of climate change affecting the
marine ecosystem is the example of coral bleaching.

In the Peninsular India, even the rivers of the Peninsula are dependent on the
monsoons, thus the Peninsular Ecosystem is basically a monsoon dependent
ecosystem.
Climate change is linked with the changing patterns observed in the
monsoons of India.

Narcotic substances that are used for smoking purposes are called
“fumitories,” and those that are used for chewing purposes are called
“masticatories.”

A warmer and more variable climate would result in higher levels of some air
pollutants, increased transmission of diseases through unclean water and
through contaminated food.

Climate change and the resulting higher global temperatures are causing
increasing frequency of floods and droughts leading to the risk of disease
infections.

The World Health Organization (WHO) in their studies have indicated that due
to rising temperatures, malaria cases are now being reported for the first time
from countries like Nepal and Bhutan

Saponins are a group of water-soluble glucosides that yield soap froth in

water, form emulsions with oils and fats, and are capable of absorbing large
amounts of gases such as carbon dioxide. Soap nut tree yields saponins

LESSON - 10
The spider’s body has an oil on it to keep the spider free from sticking to it’s
own web.

INDIA REPRESENTS:
a) Two Realms
b) Five Biomes
c) Ten Bio-geographic Zones
d) Twenty five Bio-geographic provinces

Realm is a continent or sub continent sized area with unifying features of

geography and fauna & flora.The Indian region is composed of two realms.
They are: 1) the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and 2)
the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm

Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are recognized.

1. Nearctic realm
2. Palearctic realm
3. Africotropical realm
4. Indo-Malayan realm
5. Ocenaia realm
6. Australian realm
7. Antarctic realm
8. Neotropical realm

The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in areas
of certain climate patterns. It includes the way in which animals, vegetation
and soil interact together.
The plants and animals living in the area are adapted to that environment.
The five biomes of India are:
1) Tropical Humid Forests
2) Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon Forests)
3) Warm deserts and semi-deserts
4) Coniferous forests and
5) Alpine meadows.

Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and

animals.There are 10 biogeographic zones which are distinguished clearly in
India
Trans-Himalayas. An extension of the Tibetan plateau, harboring high-altitude
cold desert in Laddakh (J&K) and Lahaul Spiti (H.P) comprising 5.7 % of the
country’s landmass.
Semi-arid. The zone between the desert and the Deccan plateau, including
the Aravalli hill range. 15.6 % of the country’s landmass.
Deccan peninsula.; The largest of the zones, covering much of the southern
and southcentral plateau with a predominantly deciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of
the country’s landmass.

Biogeography is divided into branches:

i. Phyto-geography (plant geography) deals with origin, distribution and
environmental interrelationships of plants.
ii. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distribution of animals.

Bio-geographic Province is a ecosystematic or biotic subdivision of realms.

India is divided into 25 bio geographic zones.
biogeographic provinces classification was done using various factors such as
altitude, moisture, topography, rainfall, etc. Biogeographic zones were used
as a basis for planning wildlife protected areas in India.

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has agreed to construct a

fourth underpass for animals on national highway 6 (NH-6) between Sakoli
and Deori near the Nagzira Tiger Reserve (TR).

Wrinkles help elephants keep their body temperature down. Wrinkles increase
the surface area, so that more skin becomes wet when the animal bathes. A
wrinkly elephant keeps cooler for longer than it would with smooth skin.

Eels are sometimes mistaken for Sea Snakes. Eels are part of the fish family
and have gills for breathing. Sea snakes do not have gills but lungs instead
and need to go to the surface for air.)

Amphibians - • Cold blooded • Live on land & water • Webbed feet

Reptiles - cold blooded,usually lays eggs
Aves - warm blooded,lays eggs
Mammals - warm blooded

Elephants’ ears act as cooling devices. When the animal flaps its ears, the
blood temperature lowers by as much as 5°C.

Invertebrates don’t have an internal skeleton made of bone. Many

invertebrates have a fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeleton, like the jelly fish or
worm. Others have a hard outer shell, like insects and crustaceans

Annelids
• Annelids have bodies that are divided into segments.
• They have very well-developed internal organs.
• They don’t have any limbs.
• E.g: earthworms, leeches, roundworms, etc.

Mollusks
• Most mollusks have a soft, skin-like organ covered with a hard outside
shell. .
• Other mollusks live in water, such as the oyster, mussel, clam, squid and
octopus.

Echinoderms
• Echinoderms are marine animals that live in the ocean.
• Common echinoderms include the sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar and sea
cucumber

Protozoa
• Protozoa are simple, single-celled animals.
• They are the smallest of all animals.
• Most protozoa are microscopic
E. g: amoebas, Flagellates,etc

Arthropods
• Arthropods have limbs with joints that allow them to move.
• They also have an exoskeleton, which is a hard, external skeleton

Crustaceans have a hard, external shell which protects their body

• Most commonly known crustaceans are the crab, lobster and barnacle.

Arachnids
• Common arachnids are spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites.
• Arachnids do not have antennae.
• Arachnids have 2 body parts and 4 pairs of legs

The fresh-water algae are generally green or blue-green in colour, whereas

the marine ones are red or brown. These are autotrophic plants, as they can
manufacture their own food.

Fungi. They grow either on dead, rotten organic matters as saprophytes or

live as parasites on other living bodies, which are referred to as hosts. Moulds
and mushrooms are the familiar examples of saprophytic fungi.

Bacteria - Non-chlorophyllous micro-organisms which lead saprophytic or

parasitic existence.; Saprophytic bacteria are rather beneficial. They are soil
borne and many of them are used in industries

ichens A lichen is a peculiar combination of an alga and a fungus– the two live
deriving mutual benefit. They are group of greyish green plants which grow on
rocks, tree-trunks, dead wood, etc.They are most common in wetlands, rare in
rivers and streams and are not found in ground water

A symbiont is an organism that is very closer associated with anothery,usually

larger organism
bryophytes - The plant body is differentiated into a small stem and simple
leaves, but true roots are absent.
They usually grow in moist places.
eg. Liverworts, mosses
F. They are the second largest group of green plants in India distributed
largely in Eastern Himalaya, North-eastern India, Western Himalaya and the
Western Ghats

The pteridophytes have well-differentiated plant bodies, consisting of roots,

stems and leaves. Moreover, they possess vascular bundles. Most of them
are terrestrial plants flourishing well in moist and shady places, and some of
them are aquatic
The north-eastern region (including Eastern Himalaya) is rich in pteridophytic
diversity, followed by south India (including Eastern and Western Ghats) and
north India (including Western Himalaya).

Gymnosperms (gymnos=naked, sperma=seed) are the naked-seeded plants.

They have very simple flowers without accessory whorls and stamens and
carpels
Ovules are present on the surface of the carpels and are directly pollinated
by the pollen grains, naturally there is no fruit. e.g. Cycas, Pinus, Gnetum.
Pine is the largest family. Gnetum and Cycas

Angiosperms (angeion=a case) are the closed-seeded plants. These are the
most highly developed plants which bear flowers having conspicuous
accessory and essential whorls.

The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic Resources

(NBPGR), Delhi is primarily responsible for conservation of unique accessions
on long-term basis, as base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form
of seeds

The name ‘white rhinoceros’ is taken from the Afrikans word describing its
mouth: “weit”, meaning “wide”.
. White rhinos are also sometimes called ‘the squarelipped rhinoceros’.
The white rhino is the largest species of land mammal after the elephant

The west Himalayas have low rainfall, heavy snowfall (temperate conditions),
whereas in east Himalayas, there is heavy rainfall, snowfall only at very high
altitudes, where as at lower altitudes conditions are similar to the tropical rain
forests
peninsular - Indian sub-region It has two zones.
(i) peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of the Ganges
river system, and
(ii) desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert region
Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in southern plateau
are dominant trees. West Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna
similar to evergreen rainforests of north eastern of India.

polar bears have the ability to slow down their metabolism, after 7-10 days of
not being able to feed

Indian desert Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and fauna. Flora:
Throny trees with reduced leaves; cacti, other succulents are the main plants.

tropical rain forest region ;

Distributed in areas of western ghats and north east India. Flora: Extensive
grass lands interspersed with densely forested gorges of evergreen
vegetation known as sholas occur in the Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western
ghats). Sholas also occur in Aanaimalai and Palani hills. Mosses, ferns,
epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat
andaman and Nicobar Islands Flora These are home for tropical rain forests.
Mangroves are also distributed in the coastal areas.

Penguins are warm blooded, Just like whales, penguins have a

layerExamples of animals listed in schedule 1 are lion tailed macaque,
rhinoceros, great indian bustard, narcondam hornbill, nicobar megapode,
black buck, etc. • Examples of animals listed in schedule 2 are rhesus
macaque, dhole, Bengal porcupine, king cobra, flying squirrel, himalyan
brown bear, etc. of fat under their skin called “blubber

Sunderbans are delta of the Ganges where both the Brahmaputra and
Ganges join and drain into the Bay of Bengal. The lower tidal zones are
pioneer trees like Sonneratia and avicennia.

LESSON - 12
WPA - wildlife protection act
Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972 consists of 6 schedule lists, which give
varying degrees of protection. Poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of
animals listed Schedule 1 to schedule 4 are prohibited

Examples of animals listed in schedule 1 are lion tailed macaque, rhinoceros,

great indian bustard, narcondam hornbill, nicobar megapode, black buck, etc.
• Examples of animals listed in schedule 2 are rhesus macaque, dhole,
Bengal porcupine, king cobra, flying squirrel, himalyan brown bear, etc.
Examples of animals listed in schedule 3 are hyaena, hogdeer, nilgai, goral,
sponges, barking deer, etc.
• Examples of animals listed in schedule 4 are mangooses, vultures, etc.
Animals listed in schedule 5 are called “vermin” which can be hunted.
• Mice, rat, common crow and flying fox (fruit eating bats) are the list of
animals (only 4 nos) in schedule 5 [i.e. vermin].
Cultivation, Collection, extraction, trade, etc. of Plants and its derivatives listed
in schedule 6 are prohibited.
• Red Vanda, blue Vanda, kuth, pitcher plant, beddomes cycad and ladies
slipper orchid are the list of plants listed in schedule 6

LESSON - 13
Herb is defined as a plant whose stem is always green and tender with height
of not more than 1 meter.
Shrub is defined as a woody perennial plant differing from a perennial herb in
its persistent and woody stem. It differs from a tree in its low stature and its
habit of branching from the base. Not more than 6 meters in height,
nourishment - nutrients

Parasites - An organism that draws a part or whole of its nourishment from

another living organism. These plants do not draw moisture and mineral
nutrients from the soil. They grow on some living plant called host and
penetrate their sucking roots, called haustoria, into the host plants.
Epiphytes - plant growing on the host plant but not nourished by the host
plant. They do not draw food from the host plant. They only access to light..
Eg. Vanda

Bats are MAMMALS. They are warm blooded

Extremely high intensity favours root growth than shoot growth which results
in increased transpiration, short stem, smaller thicker leaves. On the other
hand low intensity of light retards growth, flowering and fruiting.
• When the Intensity of light is less than the minimum, the plants ceases to
grow due to accumulation of CO2 and finally dies.
• Plant grown in blue light are small, red light results in elongation of cells
results in etiolated plants. Plants grown in ultraviolet and violet light are dwarf

Death of plants due to damage to cells - As a result of frost, water in the

intercellular spaces of the plant gets frozen into ice which withdraws water
from the interior of the cells. This results in increasing concentration of salts
and dehydration of cells. Thus coagulation and precipitation of the cell colloid
results in death of plant. • Leads to Formation of canker.

Snow influences the distribution of deodar, fir and spruce.

• Snow acts as blanket, prevents further drop in temperature and protects
seedlings from excessive cold and frost.
• It results in mechanical bending of tree stem.
• Shortens the period of vegetative growth also uproots the trees. .

Die back Refers the progressive dying usually backwards from the tip of any
portion of plant. This is one of the adaptive mechanisms to avoid adverse
conditions. In this mechanism, the root remains alive for years together but
the shoots dies. Eg. Sal, Red sanders, Terminalia tomentosa, Silk cotton tree,
Boswellia serrata

Males elephants do not maintain long-term social bonds, remaining in the unit
only into their teens. They then live out their lives in loose bachelor groups or
wandering on their own.

The passive plants have a ‘pitfall’ mechanism, having some kind of jar or
pitcher-like structure into which the insect slips and falls, to eventually be
digested. The insectivorous plants often have several attractions such as
brilliant colours, sweet secretions and other curios to lure their innocent
victims.

wetlands are acidic due to anaerobic conditions, which cause partial

decomposition of organic matter releasing acidic compounds into the
surroundings.

Insectivorous plants of India

1 Drosera or Sundew inhabiting wet infertile soils or marshy places
The tentacles on the leaves secrete a sticky fluid that shines in the sun like
dewdrops. Therefore the Drosera. are commonly known as ‘sundews’
Aldrovanda is a freefloating, rootless aquatic plant, the only species found in
India, occurs in the salt marshes of Sunderbans, south of Calcutta
Nepenthes: The members of the family are commonly known as ‘pitcher
plants’ because their leaves bear jar-like structures.- It is confined to the high
rainfall hills and plateaus of north-eastern region, at altitudes ranging from 100
– 1500 m, particularly in Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya.
utricularia or Bladderworts,pinguicula or Butterwort.

Drosera are capable of curdling milk, its bruised leaves are applied on
blisters, used for dyeing silk.
Nepenthes in local medicine to treat cholera patients, the liquid inside the
pitcher is useful for urinary troubles, it is also used as eye drops.
Utricularia is useful against cough, for dressing of wounds, as a remedy for
urinary disease.

Gardening trading for medicinal properties is one of the main causes for their
decline.

Even though tiger is a powerful predator with plenty of tactics, it is observed

that only one in twenty attempts of hunting is really successful.Tiger,
delineates its own territory by urinating on the trees and rocks along the
boundary and lives within that

Biological invasion by alien species is recognised as one of the major threats

to native species and ecosystems. The effects on biodiversity are enormous
and often irreversible.

The invasions potentially lead to an increase in species richness, as invasive

species are added to the existing species pool. But it also leads to extinction
of native species, resulting in decrease of species richness

Are black rhinos really black? No, black rhinos are not black at all. The
species probably derives its name as a distinction from the white rhino (which
is not white at all either) or from the dark-colored local soil that often covers its
skin after wallowing in mud.
A new invasive gall forming insect of Eucalyptus in Southern India.
• Leptocybe invasa - a new insect pest detected from few pockets of coastal
Tamil Nadu and it has spread to peninsular India

wild buffaloes at the Kolamarka Conservation Reserve at Sironcha in

Gadchiroli,at Maharastra

The world’s oldest trees are 4,600 year old Bristlecone pines in U.S.A.

The crown is made up of the leaves and branches at the top of a tree. • The
crown shades the roots, collects energy from the sun (photosynthesis) and
allows the tree to remove extra water to keep it cool (transpiration -- similar to
sweating in animals)

Leaves are the food factories of a tree.

Trees trap more of the sun’s energy than any other group of organisms on
earth 4. Trees do not restore and repair wood that is injured and infected,
instead they compartmentalize off the damaged tissue

The trunk of the tree provides its shape and support and holds up the crown. •
The trunk transports water and nutrients from the soil and sugar from the
leaves.

Annual rings
• Inside the trunk of a tree there are a number of growth rings. • Each year of
the tree’s life, a new ring is added so it is referred as the annual rings.
• It is used to calculate Dendro-Chronology (Age of a tree) and Paleo-
Climatology.
• The age of a tree can be determined by the number of growth rings. The
size of the growth ring is determined in part by environmental conditions -
temperature, water availability

Bark:
• The outside layer of the trunk, branches and twigs of trees. • The bark
serves as a protective layer of the tree.
• Trees actually have inner bark and outer bark. The inner layer of bark is
made up of living cells and the outer layer is made of dead cells, sort of like
our fingernails.
• The scientific name for the inner layer of bark is Phloem. The main job of this
inner layer is to carry sap full of sugar from the leaves to the rest of the tree.

The thin layer of living cells just inside the bark is called cambium. • It is the
part of the tree that makes new cells allowing the tree to grow wider each
year.

The scientific name for sapwood is xylem.

• It is made up of a network of living cells that bring water and nutrients up
from the roots to the branches, twigs and leaves.
• It is the youngest wood of the tree -- over the years,

The heartwood is dead sapwood in the center of the trunk.

• It is the hardest wood of the tree giving it support and strength. • It is usually
darker in colour than the sapwood

Pith is the tiny dark spot of spongy living cells right in the center of the tree
trunk.
• Essential nutrients are carried up through the pith.
• It’s placement right in the center means it is the most protected from damage
by insects, the wind or animals.
Lateral Root - Roots that arise from the tap root and spread laterally to
support the tree
Adventious root
Butress root - eg silk cotton tree
Prop root - banyan tree
Mycorrhiza - structure produced from the combination of the modified rootlet
with fungal tissue.

Storage roots are modified roots for storage of food or water, such as carrots
and beets. They include some taproots and tuberous roots

A tree can absorb as much as 48 pounds of carbon dioxide per year and can
sequester
1 ton of carbon dioxide by the time it reaches 40 years old.
3. Tree wood is a highly organized arrangement of living, dying, and dead
cells.
Phenology - Science that deals with the time of appearance of characteristic
periodic events such as leaf shedding etc.

Pneumatophore: • Ex: Heretiera spp, Bruguiera spp.

Etiolation - With the absence of adequate light, plants become pale yellow
and have long thin internodes.
• Autumn tints - in some trees, leaves undergo a striking change in colour
before falling from the tree. • Ex: Mango, Cassia fistula, Quercus incana

Tepering generally associated with the absence of long taproot system due to
either shallow soil are badly aerated and infertile subsoil.

Sandal tree is a partial-root parasite.Sandle tree manufactures its own food

but depends upon the host like other partial parasites for water and mineral
nutrients.

Aerial seeding is the process of dispersing the seed aerially. In India, aerial
seeding has been done on experiment basis in Chambal ravines in UP,
Rajasthan, West Bengal and Western Ghats of Maharashtra eg r Prosopis
juliflora and Acacia nilotica respectively

LESSON - 14
The term ‘plankton’ refers to the group of organisms which float in the surface
waters of the rivers, lakes and oceans.
• Includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like
crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems,
except certain swift moving waters.

• The growth rate, productivity and species diversity of plankton in tropical

waters especially in mangrove waters are high

PHYTOPLANKTON
• Derived from the Greek words phyto (plant) and plankton (made to wander
or drift), phytoplankton are microscopic plant organisms that live in aquatic
environments, both salty and fresh

Some phytoplankton are bacteria, some are protists, and most are single-
celled plants

Phytoplankton produce more than 60% of oxygen produced from all plants.

• Like land plants, all phytoplankton have chlorophyll to capture sunlight, and
they use photosynthesis to turn it into chemical energy. They consume carbon
dioxide, and release oxygen. All phytoplankton photosynthesize, but some get
additional energy by consuming other
organisms.
These micro-algae are present throughout the lighted regions of all the seas
and oceans including the Polar Regions.

Sea Kraits are one of the few sea snakes that go to land to lay their eggs
while most others, like the Olive sea snake will give birth in the water

The major inorganic nutrients required by phytoplankton for growth and

reproduction are nitrogen and phosphorus.

Diatoms and silicoflagellates also require silicate (SiO2) in significant

amounts.

Besides light and temperature, salinity also is known to influence primary

productio of phytoplanktons

Marine phytoplankton are distributed at high latitudes,in high levels of

exposure to solar UV-B radiation that normally occur within the tropics and
subtropics may play a role in phytoplankton distributions.

Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic zone,sea snakes are

usually found in shallow waters of the Indian Ocean, and warmer areas of the
Pacific Ocean.

Phytoplankton are responsible for most of the transfer of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere to the ocean. Carbon dioxide is consumed during
photosynthesis, and the carbon is incorporated in the phytoplankton, just as
carbon is stored in the wood and leaves of a tree.

Worldwide, this “biological carbon pump” transfers about 10 gigatonnes of

carbon from the atmosphere to the deep ocean each year. Even small
changes in the growth of phytoplankton may affect atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations

Sharks have a sensory organ called the “ampullae of Lorenzini” which they
use to “feel” the electrical field coming from its prey. 2. Silverfish is an insect
that can be found in old unused books
Zooplankton play vital role in food web of the food chain, nutrient recycling,
and in transfer of organic matter from primary producers to secondary
consumers like fishes.
• They are more abundant within mangrove water-ways, and a large
proportion of the juvenile fish of mangrove habitat are zooplanktivorous.

Sea grasses are (angiosperms) marine flowering plants that resemble grass
in appearance.
. • Major Sea grass meadows in India occur along the south east coast of
Tamil Nadu and in the lagoons of a few Lakshadweep Islands. There are few
grass beds around Andaman and Nicobar islands also due to high salinity,
clarity of the water and sandy substratum.

Sea grass beds physically help

• to reduce wave and current energy,
• to filter suspended sediments from the water and
• stabilise bottom sediments to control erosion

Seagrass beds are widespread in lagoon & in such areas, the population of
fish and migratory birds are also higher due to the availability of food and
shelter.

The five species of turtle that nest on Indian coast are Leatherback sea turtle,
Green turtle, the Olive Ridley, the Hawksbill, and the Loggerhead turtle.

Seaweeds are (thalloid plants) macroscopic algae, which mean they have no
differentiation of true tissues such as roots, stems and leaves

Seaweeds, the larger and visible marine plants are found attached to rocks,
corals

Based on the colour of their pigmentation, sea weeds are broadly classified
into different classes such as • blue- green, • green, • brown, • red etc

Seaweeds are important as food for humans, feed for animals, and fertilizer
for plants.
• Seaweeds are used as a drug for goiter treatment, intestinal and stomach
disorders.
• Products like agar-agar and alginates, iodine which are of commercial value,
are extracted from seaweeds
By the biodegradation of seaweeds methane like economically important
gases can be produced in large quantities.
• Extracts of some seaweed species show antibacterial activity.
• Seaweeds are also used as the potential indicators of pollution in coastal
ecosystem, particularly heavy metal pollution due to their ability to bind and
accumulate metals strongly.

Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide, It can cause vomiting

and diarrhoea.
 LESSON - 15
National Parks are declared in areas that are considered to be of adequate
ecological, geomorphological and natural significance although within the law

National Parks enjoy a greater degree of protection than sanctuaries. •

Certain activities which are regulated in sanctuaries, such as grazing of
livestock, are prohibited in National Parks

Wildlife sanctuary can be created for a particular species (for e.g. grizzled
giant squirrel w.l.s in srivalliputhur) whereas the national park is not primarily
focused on a particular species

Spiders can’t chew or swallow inject their prey with poison using their fangs.
The poison turns the insides of insect to a watery goop and the spider just
sucks it up

No alteration of boundaries of a sanctuary/National Park shall be made except

on recommendation of the National Board for Wild Life.

• (The Amendment Act of 1991 provided for the inclusion of territorial waters
in areas to be declared as sanctuaries for the protection of off-shore marine
flora and fauna)

The State Government appoints an officer as a ‘Collector’ under the Act to

inquire into and determine the existence, nature and extent of rights of any
person in or over the land comprised within the sanctuary/ National Park
which is to be notified

The term “crocodilians” refers to members of three families: the Family

Crocodylidae, Alligatoridae, Gavialidae (gharial). The term “crocodiles” refers
only to crocodiles.

Claim of rights:
• In the case of a claim to a right in or over any land referred to, the Collector
shall pass an order admitting or rejecting the same in whole or in part
If such claim is admitted in whole or in part, the Collector may either
(a) exclude such land from the limits of the proposed sanctuary or
(b) proceed to acquire such land or rights, except where by an agreement
between the owner of such land or holder of rights and the Government, the
owner or holder of such rights has agreed to surrender his rights to the
Government, in or over such land, and on payment of such compensation, as
is provided in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894
(c) allow, in consultation with the Chief Wild Life Warden, the continuation of
any right of any person in or over any land within the limits of the sanctuary

• Conservation Reserve and Community Reserves are the outcome of

Amendments to the Wild life protection act in 2003.
The Amendment Act of 2003 provided for the creation of a new type of
protected area called a Conservation Reserve.
• It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent to National Parks and
sanctuaries for protecting the landscape, seascape and habitat of fauna and
flora. It is managed through a Conservation Reserve Management Committee

Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve in Tirunelveli, tamil nadu is the first

conservation reserve established in the Country.

The State Government may notify any community land or private land as a
Community Reserve, provided that the members of that community or
individuals concerned are agreeable to offer such areas for protecting the
fauna and flora, as well as their traditions, cultures and practices.

The declaration of such an area is aimed at improving the socio-economic

conditions of the people living in such areas as well as conserving wildlife.
The Reserve is managed through a Community Reserve Management
Committee

Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary in the Gulf of Kutch form one unit
(one MPA). Similarly Bhitarkanika National Park and Bhitarkanika Sanctuary
are an integral part of one MPA. Thus, there a total of 31 MPAs in India.

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) declared 2010-2020 as the

United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification, to
raise awareness about desertification, land degradation and drought.

Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests or natural vegetation – from a

few trees to forests of several acres – that are usually dedicated to local folk
deities.

The Marble Palace Zoo in Calcutta city which was established in the year
1854 is the oldest existing zoo in the country.
• Delhi has the largest fleet of busses operating on compressed natural gas,
which is a successful example of low-carbon sustainable transport
• Nesting sites of an amphibious snake is reported from the shores of North
Andaman Islands.
• Traditional Wetland agriculture (locally known as pokkali in Kerala and
Gazhani in Karnataka)

THE MAN AND BIOSPHERE (MAB); It predicts the consequences of today’s

actions on tomorrow’s world and thereby increases people’s ability to
efficiently manage natural resources for the well-being of both human
populations and the environment.

The death of one 70-year old tree would return over three tons of carbon to
the atmosphere. Do cut!!
• The cottonwood tree seed is the seed that stays in flight the longest.
• Aloe vera is also called as fountain of youth
• During periods of increased or decreased temperature, cracks may develop
in the tree trunk -- referred to as frost cracks and sun cracks. Both can lead to
decay

The International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of UNESCO, November, 1971,

introduced the designation ‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural areas. The concept
of Biosphere Reserves was refined by a Task Force of UNESCO’s MAB
Programme in 1974, and BR network was formally launched in 1976.

Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for

representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large
area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof.

Slender loris (primate) found only in the tropical rainforests of Southern India
and Sri Lanka. • The Indian star tortoise found in scrub forests of India and Sri
Lanka

The national Biosphere Reserve Programme was initiated in 1986. • To

ensure participation of local inhabitants for effective management and devise
means of improving livelihood of the local inhabitants through sustainable use.

Frogs are found all over the world, and in every climate, except Antarctica.
Frogs cannot live in the sea or any salt water.

structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves •

Biosphere Reserves are demarcated into three inter-related zones

The core zone should be kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable
habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order
predators and may contain centres of endemism. A core zone secures legal
protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural
processes and wildlife are allowed

. In buffer zone the Research and educational activities are to be encouraged.

Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to be permitted to continue if
these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

Biodiversity hot spot concept was put forth by Norman Myers in 1988
• To qualify as a hot spot, a region must meet two strict criteria: a. Species
endemism - it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5%
of the world’s total) as endemics, and b. Degree of threat - it has to have lost
at least 70% of its original habitat.

Five key factors have been taken into consideration and those biodiversity hot
spot tops the list with respect to these five factors are considered as hottest
hot spots.
Factors
1. Endemic plants
2. Endemic vertebrates
3. Endemic plants/area ratio (species per 100km2 )
4. Endemic vertebrates/area ratio (species per 100km2 )
5. Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent

There are 4 biodiversity hot spots present in India. They are:

1. The Himalayas
2. Indo- Burma and
3. The western Ghats & Sri Lanka
4. Sunderland

The Eastern Himalayas Hot Spot About the region: • The Eastern Himalayas
is the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastern India, and southern, central,
and eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and shows high
altitudinal variation

Western Ghats, also known as the “Sahyadri Hills” encompasses the

mountain forests in the southwestern parts of India and highlands of
southwestern Sri Lanka.

BIODIVERSITY COLDSPOTS • Areas that have relatively low biological

diversity but are also experiencing a high rate of habitat loss. Although a
biodiversity coldspot is low in species richness, it can also be important to
conserve, as it may be the only location where a rare species is found

World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of various areas or objects inscribed
on the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) World Heritage List”.
• The sites are designated as having outstanding universal value under the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage.

The first list of World Heritage state was published in 1978.

• The World Heritage Convention reiterates that the protection on sites should
be dovetailed with regional planning programmes. This is not happening
always. (Agra city developments do not go well the conversation of Taj Mahal
is a point).

The United Nations declared 2010 to be the International Year of Biodiversity.

It is a celebration of life on earth and of the value of biodiversity for our
lives.There is no parrot in India. They are parakeets.

In December 2000, the UN General Assembly adopted 22 May as IDB, to

commemorate the adoption of the text of the Convention on 22 May 1992 by
the Nairobi Final Act of the Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of
the Convention on Biological Diversity

Gymnosperms produce their seeds on the surface or tips of an appendage

such as a pine cone.
• Angiosperms produce their seeds inside a fruit such as an acorn.
• Dendrochronology is the science of calculating a tree’s age by its rings.
• “Heat islands,” created by tree loss, also exponentially increase air
pollutants.
• Aspirin is derived from the bark of a willow tree

LESSON - 22

Energy sector includes - electricity production, fuel combustion in industries,

transport and fugitive emissions.

• India will continue to be a low-carbon economy (World Bank study). • India’s

primary focus is on “adaptation”, with specific focus for “mitigation”.

The Himalayas possess one of the largest resources of snow and ice and its
glaciers form a source of water for the perennial rivers such as the Indus, the
Ganga, and the Brahmaputra

Tripura is one of the highest CVP (Climate, Vegetation, Precipitation) index

zones (a measure of potential productivity) in the country

CURRENT ACTIONS FOR ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION

• Adaptation, in the context of climate change, comprises the measures taken
to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change, e.g. relocating the
communities living close to the sea shore, for instance, to cope with the rising
sea level or switching to crops that can withstand higher temperatures.
• Mitigation comprises measures to reduce the emissions of greenhouse
gases that cause climate change in the first place, e.g. by switching to
renewable sources of energy such as solar energy or wind energy, or nuclear
energy instead of burning fossil fuel in thermal power stations.

Two risk-financing programmes support adaptation to climate impacts. The

Crop Insurance Scheme sup-ports the insurance of farmers against climate
risks, and the Credit Support Mechanism facilitates the extension of credit to
farmers, especially for crop failure due to climate variability

CROP IMPROVEMENT • The present programmes address measures such

as development of arid-land crops and pest management, as well as capacity
building of extension workers and NGOs to support better vulnerability
reducing practices

The afforestation process was accelerated by the enactment of the Forest

Conservation Act of 1980

vector borne diseases such as Malaria, Kala-azar, Japanese Encephalitis,

Filaria and Dengue

A Chapter on Sustainable Development and Climate Change has been for the
first time introduced in the annual Economic Survey
The Economic Survey 2011-12, suggests to make lower carbon sustainable
growth a central element of our Twelfth Five Year Plan commencing in April
2012

Orang National Park

Manas National Park

The National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE), which seeks
to strengthen the market for energy efficiency by creating conducive
regulatory and policy regime.

• NMEEE has been envisaged to foster innovative and sustainable business

models to the energy efficiency sector.Promoting innovative policy and
regulatory regimes, financing mechanisms, and business models which not
only create, but also sustain markets for energy efficiency

NATIONAL MISSION ON SUSTAINABLE HABITAT

A rainforest is a forested biome with high annual rainfall. Tropical rainforests

arise due to the intertropical convergence zone. The largest tropical
rainforests exist in the Amazon basin, Nicaragua, equatorial Africa,
southeastern Asia from Myanmar to Indonesia, eastern Queensland and part
of Australia

Mercury in the environment can be reduced by using alternative products that

don’t contain mercury, cleaning up spills properly, recycling mercury-
containing products and properly handling and disposing of mercury-
containing equipment.

. NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINING THE HIMALAYAN ECOSYSTEM

(NMSHE) • The most crucial and primary objective of the mission is to
develop a sustainable National capacity to continuously assess the health
status of the Himalayan Ecosystem and enable policy bodies in their policy-
formulation functions and assist States in the Indian Himalayan Region with
their implementation of actions selected for sustainable development.

NATIONAL MISSION FOR A GREEN INDIA Mission Objectives

• Increased forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares (ha) of forest/non- forest
lands and improved quality of forest cover on another 5 million ha of non-
forest/forest lands (a total of 10 million ha)
• Improved ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services,
and carbon sequestration from the 10 million ha of forest/non-forest lands
mentioned above

NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (NMSA) Mission

Objectives
• To devise strategic plans at the agro-climatic zone level so that action plans
are contextualised to regional scales in the areas of research and
development (R&D), technology and practices, infrastructure and capacity
building
To facilitate access to information and institutional support by expanding
Automatic Weather Station networks to the panchayat level and linking them
to existing insurance mechanisms including the Weather Based Crop
Insurance Scheme and the National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS),
scaling the returns at that leve

Building alliances and partnerships through global collaboration in research &

technology development on climate change under international and bilateral
science and technology (S&T) cooperation arrangements

Green GDP -

Bio Energy
• “Bioenergy is renewable energy derived from biological sources, to be used
for heat, electricity, or vehicle fuel. Biofuels derived from plant materials is
among the most rapidly growing renewable energy technologies.” Sources of
Bio – Energy
• Existing Sources
• Leftover organic residue
• Leftover farm organic residue
• Leftover forest residue
• Leftover organic urban residue
• Algal residue

• New Sources

• Cultivation of short rotation energy crops

• Social forestry

Advantages of Bio Energy

• Capital efficient • High energy generation potential • Significant carbon
emission reduction potential • Substantial employment and income generation
potential • Investments & benefits remain within the country • Sizable
economic value add to GDP • Wasteland regeneration

India is highly vulnerable to climate change due to a combination of; (i) high
levels of poverty, (ii) population density, (iii) high reliance on natural
resources, and (iv) an environment already under stress (for instance water
resources).

Conference of Parties (COP)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC

Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC)

• The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) was launched

in October 2009 by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) in an
effort to promote domestic research on climate change, and build on the
country’s climate change expertise
INCCA – First Assessment ‘India: Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007 ’
• The first publication to come out from the INCCA has been an updated
greenhouse gas emissions inventory for India for the year 2007.
• The first Assessment of the Green House Gas emissions was released on
May 11, 2010.

. INCCA - Second Assessment ‘Climate Change and India: A 4×4

Assessment’
• A 4×4 Assessment’ addresses the impact of climate change in 2030s to the
natural resources and livelihoods of the people in the four climate sensitive
regions of Himalayan region, North-East region, the Western Ghats and the
Coastal plains for the 4 key sectors of Agriculture, Water, Health and Natural
Ecosystems and Biodiversity.
• The 4 region, 4 sectors Assessment in short has been referred to as a 4×4
Assessment.

4 Regions: Western Ghats, Himalayan Region, Coastal India, North-East • 4

Thrust Areas: Agriculture, Water, Forests, Human Health

Article 21 conferring the Right of Life has been assigned the broadest
interpretations by the judiciary to encompass the right to a clean environment,
right to livelihood, right to live with dignity and a number of other associated
rights.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)

Strengthening of ecological security is one of the goal of the Mahatma Gandhi

Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (MGNREGA). MGNREGA is
designed to strengthen ongoing efforts in the areas of water harvesting,
watershed management and soil health care and enhancement

INDIA’S POLICY STRUCTURE RELEVANT TO GHG MITIGATION

1. Integrated Energy Policy
2. Rural Electrification Policy, 2006
• It promotes renewable energy technologies where grid connectivity is not
possible or cost-effective
Electricity Act 2005, Tariff Policy 2003, Petroleum & Natural Gas Regulatory
Board Act, 2006, etc.

Rajiv Gandhi Environment Award for Clean Technology is given to industrial

units that make a significant contribution towards the development of new or
the innovative modification of existing, technologies or adoption and use of
clean technologies and practices that substantially reduce or prevent
environmental pollution.

An Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was launched in May, 2007,

which addresses the design of new, large commercial buildings to optimize
the buildings’ energy demand based on their location in different climatic
zones. Commercial buildings are one of the fastest growing sectors of the
Indian economy, reflecting the increasing share of the services sector in the
economy

Buildings are one of the major pollutants that affect urban air quality and
contribute to climate change.
Green building is the essence of which would be to address all the pollution
related issues of a building in an integrated and scientific manner.

The aim of a green building design is to:

• Minimize the demand on non-renewable resources and maximize the
utilization efficiency of these resources when in use, and
• Maximize reuse and recycling of available resources
• Utilization of renewable resources.
• It costs a little more to design and construct a green building

• In sum, the following aspects of the building design are looked into in an
integrated way in a green building:
• Building system designed in a way to efficiently use HVAC (heating
ventilation and air conditioning), lighting, electrical, and water heating.
• Integration of renewable energy sources to generate energy onsite.

The 42nd Amendment to the constitution brought about in the year 1974
inserted two new Articles namely. Art.

48-A under Directive principles of State Policy, making it the responsibility of

the State Government to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country

Art. 51-A (g) under Fundamental duties of citizens; making it the fundamental
duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures

Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA);

• GRIHA is a Sanskrit word meaning – ‘Abode’.
• GRIHA has been conceived by TERI and developed jointly with the Ministry
of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India.
• The green building rating system devised by TERI and the MNRE is a
voluntary scheme. Objective
• The primary objective of the rating system is to help design green buildings
and, in turn, help evaluate the ‘greenness’ of the buildings.

GRIHA is a rating tool that helps people assess the performance of their
building against certain nationally acceptable benchmarks and is suitable for
all kinds of buildings in different climatic zones of the country
GRIHA rating system consists of 34 criteria categorized under 4 categories.
• They are
1. Site Selection and Site Planning,
2. Conservation and efficient utilization of resources,
3. Building operation and maintenance, and
4. Innovation points
Different levels of certification (one star to five stars) are awarded based on
the number of points earned. The minimum points required for certification is
50

Medini Puraskar Yojana - This award is given to Indian authors each year to
encourage original works in Hindi on environment and its related subjects
such as wildlife, water resources and conservation

Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award is given for significant

contribution in the field of wildlife protection, which is recognised as having
shown exemplary courage or having done exemplary work for the protection
of wildlife.

In March 2007 the conduct of energy audits was made mandatory in large
energy-consuming units in nine industrial sectors. These units, notified as
“des¬ignated consumers” are also required to employ “certified energy
managers”, and report energy con¬sumption and energy conservation data
annually.

Rajiv Gandhi Wildlife Conservation Award is Awarded annually for significant

contribution in the field of wildlife conservation which has made or has the
potential to make, a major impact on the protection and conservation of
wildlife in the country

Steps taken to reduce such air pollution include

(i) introduction of compressed natural gas (CNG) in Delhi and other cities;
(ii) Retiring old, polluting vehicles; and
(iii) Strengthening of mass transportation

PROMOTION OF ENERGY SAVING DEVICES

• The Bureau of Energy efficiency has introduced “The Bachat Lamp Yojana”,
a programme under which households may exchange incandescent lamps for
CFLs (compact fluorescent lamps) using clean devel¬opment mechanism
(CDM) credits to equate pur¬chase price.
• Some states have made mandatory the installation of solar water heaters in
hospitals, hotels and large government and commercial buildings. Subsidy is
provided for installation of solar water heaters in residential buildings

Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar is Awarded each year to Indian nationals

or any Indian organisation for significant contributions in the field of
environment

In April 2003, the United Nations Environment Programme (“UNEP”) initiated

a, three-year Programme, credit facility in Southern India to help rural
households finance the purchase of Solar Home Systems.

• Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank, along with their eight associate Regional
Rural Banks, partnered with UNEP to establish and run a Loan Programme
NATIONAL INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (NICRA) •
The ICAR has launched National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA) during 2010-11 with an outlay of Rs.350 crores for the XI Plan.
• This initiative will primarily enhance the resilience of Indian Agriculture
covering crops, livestock and fisheries.

• Seven major research institutes of the ICAR will work in unison to evolve
coping technologies with Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
(CRIDA), Hyderabad as the lead centre.

MoEF&CC initiated a national campaign named “Green Good Deeds”

weaving around some 500 simple lifestyle habits that can be easily adopted,
in an effort to sensitise the hazards of climate and global warming.

BSE-GREENEX
• The BSE-GREENEX Index is a veritable first step in creating a credible
market based response mechanism in India, whereby both businesses and
investors can rely upon purely quantitative and objective performance based
signals, to assess “carbon performance”. • gTrade Carbon Ex Ratings
Services Private Limited (gTrade) is a company based in India, which has
codeveloped the BSE-GREENEX Index in close association with the BSE.

FAME-INDIA PROGRAMME Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid)

and Electric Vehicles (FAME India) scheme rolled out in april, 2015 by Union
Minister for Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises

The scheme will help promote use of electric and hybrid vehicles, and initially,
a subsidy of 30% will be provided to the buyers.

LONG TERM ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES (LTEO)

• Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO) for Climate Change Studies are
one of the components under the ‘Climate Change Action Programme’ with an
outlay of Rs. 40 crores in the 12th Plan Period.

• A Science Plan of LTEO was released during the 21st Conference of Parties
to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Paris in
December 2015.

LTEO Programme aims to understand the biophysical and anthropogenic

drivers of ecosystem change in the selected biomes and their effects on
social- ecological responses through a network of scientific institutions.

THE NATIONAL ADAPTATION FUND FOR CLIMATE CHANGE (NAFCC)

• The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) is a Central
Sector Scheme set up in 2015-16. The aim of NAFCC is to support concrete
adaptation activities which mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. The
activities under this scheme are implemented in a project mode.
The projects related to adaptation in sectors such as agriculture, animal
husbandry, water, forestry, tourism etc. are eligible for funding under NAFCC.
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the
National Implementing Entity (NIE).

Creating capacity at different levels of Government - Building capacity in the

Central, State and other at the local level to assimilate and facilitate the
implementation of the activities of national plan

LESSON - 25

The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words ager or agri meaning soil
and cultura meaning cultivation.

• Silviculture is the art of cultivating forest trees.

• Apiculture is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by
humans
• Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of
non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food.
• Viticulture is the science, production and study of grapes
• Floriculture is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of
flowering and ornamental plants for gardens
• Arboriculture is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees,
shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants
• Pomology is a branch of horticulture which focuses on the cultivation,
production, harvest, and storage of fruit, etc.
• Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment
without the use of soil or an aggregate medium
• Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions,
in water, without soil.
• Terrestrial plants may also be grown with their roots in the mineral nutrient
solution only or in an inert medium, such as perlite, gravel, mineral wool,
expanded clay or coconut husk.
• Geoponic in farming practice, refers to growing plants in normal soil

The agriculture sector acts as a bulwark in maintaining food security and, in

the process, national security as well.
• The allied sectors like horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries,
have an important role in improving the overall economic conditions and
health and nutrition of the rural masses

Problems of Indian Agriculture

• Fragmentation of land holding.
• Existence of small and marginal farmers.
• Regional variation.
• Dependence of seasonal rainfall.
• Low productivity of land.
• Increasing of disguised unemployment.
• Disorder in marketing of Agricultural products.
• Weak land reformation
The Rajasthan government has decided not to set up any windmills for wind
power projects in the areas inhabited by the Great Indian Bustard (GIB). A
majority of wind power projects in Rajasthan have come up in and around the
desert town of Jaisalmer which is also one of the main areas for these birds.

Agronomy is a Greek word derived from agros meaning ‘field’ and nomos
meaning management. It is a specialized branch in agriculture dealing with
crop production and soil management. Crops refer to plants that are grown on
a large scale for food, clothing, and other human uses.

Classification based on climate

1. Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g. Rice, sugarcane,
Jowar etc
2. Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram,
Potato etc

Cereals
• Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger
grains used as staple food are cereals. Rice, wheat, maize, barley and oats.
The important cereal of world is rice.
Bread wheat,Macaroni wheat, Emmer wheat ,Dwarf wheat

Millets
• They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But they are grown in
less area
• These are staple food of poor people. In India pearl millet is a staple food in
Rajasthan
• 1) Major millets and 2) Minor millets • It is based on area production and
productivity and grain size.
Major millets 1. Sorghum /Jowar 2. Pearl Millet /Bajra/cumbu 3. Finger millet
or rag
Minor millets 1. Fox tail millet 2. Little millet 3. Common millet 4. Barnyard
millet 5. Kodomillet

Pulses are major source of protein in Indian diet and providing most of the
essential amino acids to a certain degree. Economically, pulses are cheapest
source of protein.
• It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual moisture and to give
revenue in a shorter period.

Oil seeds
Pulses are major source of protein in Indian diet and providing most of the
essential amino acids to a certain degree. Economically, pulses are cheapest
source of protein.
• It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual moisture and to give
revenue in a shorter period.

Sugar stem used for jaggery or sugar

• Number of by products like Molasses, bagasse, pressmud.
Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation
• Bagasse for paper making and fuel
• Pressmud used for soil amendment
• Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) – the waste is used for cattle feed 2. Sugar
beet – Tuber for extraction of sugar
• Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed

Starch Crops or Tuber Crops

1. Potato
2. Tapioca or cassava
3. Sweet potato
Fibre Crops
• Epidermal hairs of seed coats is the economic portion
• Lint (cappas – seed) has industrial value (fibre)
• Stalk is of fuel nature, garment purpose, seed for cattle feed and Oil is edible
Cotton
• Karunganni
• Uppam cotton
• American cotton or Cambodium cotton
• Egyptian cotton or Sea island cotton Stem
Fibres
a) Jute
b) Mesta
c) Sun hemp
d) Sisal hemp

Narcotic substances
Stimulates Nervous System
i) Tobacco
ii) Betelvine
iii) Arecanut
keoladeo National Park (NP)-bharatpur rajasthan

Forage and Fodder Crops Forage Crops

•The entire vegetative part is used as green fodder
• the stalks and leaves are the major economic portion for hay making • Hay is
cut into pieces and mixed with concentrated animal feed and is fed to animals

Grasses
• Napier grass • Para grass • Bermuda grass • Guinea grass • Rhodes grass
Legumes
Lucerne (Alfalfa) Egyptian clover (Bersemm) Indian clover (Fodder senji)
Sirato Stylo Subabul Velvet bean
Plantation Crops
• Plants and its .......... ............ • 1) Tea – leaf; 2) Coffee – seed; 3) Rubber –
milk exudation; 4) Cocoa - seed

The Madhya Pradesh (MP) government’s decision to develop Kuno-Palpur as

a tiger reserve
Medicinal plants includes cinchona, isabgoli, opium poppy, senna,
belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice.

Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese

mint, peppermint, rose, jasmine, henna etc.

Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops:

1. Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season. E.g. rice,
Jowar, wheat etc.
2. Two seasonal crops: crops complete its life cycle in two seasons. E.g.
Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
3. Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life cycle. E.g.
sugarcane.
4. Biennial crops: Crops requires two year to complete its life cycle E.g.
Banana, Papaya.
5. Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango,
guava etc.
Classification based on cultural method/water:
1. Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the availability of rain water.
E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
2. Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili,
sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc
Classification based on root system
1. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil. E.g. Tur, Grape,
Cotton etc.
2. Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into
the soil. E.g. Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc. Classification based on economic
importance
1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g. Sugarcane, cotton.
2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for
cattle. E.g. Jowar, wheat, rice etc.
Classification based on No. of cotyledons
1. Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. E.g. all
cereals & Millets.
2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed. E.g. all
legumes & pulses and almost all the trees
Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation
• Most plants are influenced by relative length of the day & night, especially for
floral initiation, the effect on plant is known as photoperiodism depending on
the length of photoperiod required for floral ignition, plants are classified as:
1. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when days are short less
then ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc.
2. Long day’s plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral
initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc.
3. Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase
change for these plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower, etc.

Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation’ that was held recently in -

Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for
obtaining conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and
growth of crops.
• Tilth: It is the physical l condition of soil obtained out of tillage (or) it is the
result of tillage. The tilth may be a coarse tilth, fine tilth or moderate tilth.
Based on the requirement of crops being grown and the soil where we are
cultivating.

Advantages of tilling
• greater volume of soil may be obtained for cultivation of crops
• excess water may percolate downward to recharge the permanent water
table
• reduce runoff and soil erosion
• roots of crop plants can penetrate deeper to extract moisture from the water
table

Advantages of Zero tillage

1. Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of
earthworms
2. Organic matter content increases due to less mineralization
3. Surface runoff is reduced due to presence of mulch
Disadvantages
1. Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic
matter in zero tillage
2. Perennial weeds may be a problem
3. High number of volunteer plants and buildup of pests

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has constituted a high-powered

committee of government officials to prepare guidelines for the restoration of
the environment and ecology destroyed as a result of coal mining in
Meghalaya

Cropping intensity: Number of crops cultivated in a piece of land per annum is

cropping intensity. In Punjab and Tamil Nadu the cropping intensity is more
than 100 per cent i.e. around 140-150%

Cropping system
• The cropping pattern used on a farm and its interactions with farm
resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology which determine
their makeup.
• Multiple cropping: Growing more than two crops in a piece of land in a year
in orderly succession. It is also called as intensive cropping. It is used to
intensify the production. It is possible only when assured resources are
available (land, labour, capital and water)

Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same sole crop in the same land.
• Mono cropping: Continuous production of one and the same crop year after
year or season after season is called mono cropping.
• Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in a pure stand at normal
density.
Sequential cropping
• Growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a year. The
succeeding crop is planted after the preceeding crop has been harvested
• The crop intensification is done in time dimension • Ex: Rice-rice-cotton
Relay cropping
Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop attend its maturity stage-or-
sowing of the next crop immediately before the harvest of the standing crops.
E.g. 1) Paddy-Lucerne. 2) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion-summer gourds

Ratoon cropping
• Raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots or stocks of the harvested
crop
• Ex: Sugarcane (8 ratoons in Cuba) • Banana – one plant crop followed by
two ratoon crops normally • Sorghum and Lucerne fodder- many ratoons Ist
cutting 70 DAS and thereafter every 35-40 days. • Pineapple crop is
extensively ratooned

Intercropping
• Growing two or more crops simultaneously with distinct row arrangement on
the same field at the same time.
• Base crop: primary crop which is planted/ sown at its optimum sole crop
population in an intercropping situation.
• Intercrop: This is a second crop planted in between rows of base crop with a
view to obtain extra yields with intercrop without compromise in the main crop
yields

Hi-tech patrolling is set to be introduced in the Similipal tiger Reserve (STR)

ahead of Maha Vishuva Sankranti, a religious function when tribals indulge in
a ritual of mass killing of wild animals in the forests here.

Examples of Inter cropping •

Ex: Maize + Cowpea 1:1
• Sorghum + Redgram 2:2
Groundnut + Redgram 6:1
• Potato + Mustard 3:1
• Wheat + Mustard 8:1

Synergestic Cropping
• Yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crops on unit area basis •
Ex: Sugarcane + Potato

Mixed cropping
• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously intermingled without row
arrangement is known as mixed cropping
• It is a common practice in most of dryland tracts in India
Ex: Sorghum, Bajra and cowpea are mixed and broadcasted in rainfed
conditions (with low rainfall situations) to avoid complete crop failures and with
ascertaining the minimum yields
The Union Ministry of Ganga Rejuvenation has entrusted a pilot project to the
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) to work towards the restoration of select aquatic
species that thrive in the Ganga

• Farm – is a piece of land with specific boundaries, where crop and livestock
enterprises are taken up under common management
• Farming – is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic
plant and animal products

Wet land – soils flooded or irrigated through lake, pond or canal and land is
always in submerged condition
• Wetland farming: is the practice of growing crops in soils flooded through
natural flow of water for most part of the year

Garden land – soils irrigated with ground water sources • Garden land
farming: Growing crops with supplemental irrigation by lifting water from
underground sources

Dry land – soils purely depends rainfall for moisture

Rain fed farming

. Here moisture stress will be minimum. Soil conservation is given more
importance

Specialized Farming
• The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop production is derived
from a single crop is called specialized farming
Diversified Farming
• A diversified farming has several production enterprises or sources of
income but no source of income equal as much as 50% of the total income. It
is also called as general farming.

In river stretch at Narora near the Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar

Pradesh, were by an ideal environment of lesser pollution will be created and
a healthy population of species such as the gharial, turtle, otters, and fish
species will be rutured

CROP ROTATION
• Ex- Rice-Red Gram -Banana

Principles of crop rotation

• Leguminous crops should be grown before non-leguminous crops because
legumes fix atmospheric N into the soil and add organic matter to the soil.
• Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should be followed by those
which have fibrous (shallow rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system.
This facilitates proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil
• The selection of crops should suit farmers financial conditions
• The crop selected should also suit to the soil and climatic condition
Sustainable agriculture has to prevent land degradation and soil erosion. It
has to replenish nutrients and control weeds, pests and diseases through
biological and cultural methods.
• Degradation of natural resources is the main issue threatening sustainable
development of agriculture

Eco-farming: Farming in relation to ecosystem.

• Biological farming: Farming in relation to biological diversity.
• Biodynamic farming: Farming which is biologically organic and ecologically
sound and sustainable farming

Permaculture - It is defined as a design system for creating sustainable

human environments. It uses ecology as the basis for designing integrated
systems of food production, housing, appropriate technology, and community
development

Benefits of Integrated Farming System • Steady income other than income

from regular cropping • Employment opportunity • Higher productivity • Easily
adopted by marginal and submarginal farmers • General uplift of farm
activities • Better utilisation of land, labour, time and available manures in the
farm.

ELEMENTS REQUIRED IN PLANT GROWTH

1. Macronutrients:
• Based on the relative abundance in plants, viz., Nitrogen (N); Phosphorous
(P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)
2Micronutrients:
• Their concentration is very small. They are also referred to as minor
elements. • Iron (Fe); Zinc (Zn); Manganese (Mg),Copper (Cu),Boron (B),
Chlorine (Cl) and Molybdenum (Mo) .
In some plants, other than the above, Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co), Vanadium
(Va), Nickel (Ni) and Silicon (Si) are considered as essential micronutrients

A] N is an essential constituent of proteins in plant metabolism

b] N is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary observer of light energy
needed for photosynthesis.
c] N also imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark green colour to plants.
• Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of the enzymes which help the crop to fix
light energy. It forms an integral part of nucleic acids, the carriers of genetic
information, and is important in stimulating root growth
• Potassium (K) is involved in processes which ensure carbon assimilation
and the transportation of photosynthates throughout the plant for growth and
the storage of sugars and proteins. The potassium ion is also important for
water regulation and uptake. Furthermore, the presence of potassium in
sufficient amounts ensures resistance to frost, drought and certain diseases
• Magnesium occurs in chlorophyll and is also an activator of enzymes, •
Sulphur forms part of two essential amino acids which are among the many
building blocks of protein. It is also found in vitamin B1 and in several
important enzymes.
• Calcium is required for plant growth, cell division and enlargement. The
growth of root and shoot tips and storage organs is also affected by calcium
as it is a component of cell membranes. Calcium is also vital for pollen growth
and to prevent leaf fall

Manures can be grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated

organic manures .
Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemical containing plant nutrients

Farm Yard Manure

• This is the traditional manure and is mostly readily available to the farmers.
Farm yard manure is a decomposed mixture of Cattle dung and urine with
straw and litter used as bedding material and residues from the fodder fed to
the cattle..

Concentrated organic manures Oil cakes

• There are many varieties of oil cakes which contains not only nitrogen but
also some P and K along with large percentage of organic matter.
These oil cakes are of two types.
i. Edible oil cakes- suitable for feeding cattle.
ii. Non-edible oil cakes-not suitable for feeding cattle

Bio fetilizers -

Nitrogen fixers
1. Symbiotic: - Rhizobium, inoculants for legumes.
2. Non-symbiotic: - For cereals, millets and vegetables.
a) Bacteria:-
i) Aerobic:-Azatobacter, Azomonas, Azospirillum.
ii) Anaerobic:- Closteridium, chlorobium
iii) Facultative anaerobes- Bacillus, Eisherichia
b) Blue green algae- Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Nostoe
A. Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms.
B. Cellulolytic and lignolytic micro organisms.
C. Sulphur dissolving bacteria.
D. Azolla.

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

• Judicious combination of organic, inorganic and biofertilizers which
replenishes the soil nutrients which are removed by the crops is referred as
Integrated Nutrient Management system

Beneficial effects of weeds

1. Weed as soil binders
2. as manure
3. as human food
4. as fodder
5. Weed as fuel
6. Weed as mats and screens
7. Weed as medicine: Many weeds have great therapeutic properties and
used as medicine. Eg.
Phyllanthus niruri – Jaundice Eclipta
alba – Scorpion sting Centella
asiatica – Improves memory Cynodon
dactylon – Asthma, piles
Cyperus rotundus – Stimulates milk secretion

Weed as indicators: Weeds are useful as indicators of good and bad soils.

Watershed management -

Micro irrigation is defined as the methods in which low volume of water is

applied at low pressure & high frequencies

• Drip irrigation is also called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto
the soil at very low rates from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted
with outlets called emitters.
• Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots
grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting
the whole soil profile

Gravel: Coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments. Loam: About equal

mixtures of clay, sand, slit, and humus. Rich in nutrients. Holds water but
does not become waterlogged.

Slit: Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of
sand and clay. Easily transported by water.

Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of particles or it is the relative

percentage by weight of the three soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay or
simply refers to the size of soil particles.

Acid soils • Acid soils are characteristically low in pH ( < 6.0). Predominance
of H + and Al3+ cause acidity resulting in deficiency of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mo and
B.

Podzolization -

Renuka dam. It would provide drinking water to Delhi and areas of Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh such as Faridabad and Noida. The project will come up
across the Giri river, a tributary of the Yamuna, in Sirmaur district.

Laterization:
• The term laterite is derived from the word later meaning brick or tile and was
originally applied to a group of high clay Indian soils found in Malabar hills of
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
• It refers specifically to a particular cemented horizon in certain soils which
when dried, become very hard, like a brick.
• Laterization is the process that removes silica, instead of sesquioxides from
the upper layers and thereby leaving sesquioxides to concentrate in the solum

Gleization -

Solonization or Alkalization:
• The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions on the exchange
complex of the clay, resulting in the formation of sodic soils (Solonetz).
• All cations in solution are engaged in a reversible reaction with the exchange
sites on the clay and organic matter particles

Water logging
• Definition: Saturation of soil with water resulting in a rise in the water table.
• Symptoms: Saline water envelops deep roots killing plants; lowers
productivity; eventual destruction of plant life

Umred-Karhandla, Mansinghdeo, Tipeshwar, Painganga Wildlife Sanctuaries

and the Bor tiger resrves

Ammonification: Production of ammonia as a result of the biological

decomposition of organic nitrogen compounds.
• Border cropping: is growing of crops on the border areas of the plot or field •
Ex; Safflower as border crop in potato
• Border strip irrigation: It is an efficient method of irrigation close growing
crops. In this method the field is divided by low flat levels into series of strips,
each of which is flooded separately.
• Allelopathy: is defined as direct or indirect harmful effect of one plant over
the other crop species through the exudation of toxic substances from the
roots or the decomposition of crop residues
• C:N ratio: The ratio of the weight of organic C to the weight of total N in the
soil.
• Check basin: It is a method of irrigation with beds and channel for retaining
water to form a pond
Heaving: Injury to plants caused by lifting upward of the plant along with soil
from it’s normal position in temperate regions where snowfall is common
• Contour farming: is the farming practice of ploughing across a slope
following its elevation contour lines.
Growth regulators: Organic substances which in minute amount may
participate in the control of growth processes Ex:Auxins, Cytokinins
Heliophytes: Plants of sun loving species, require intense light for normal
development Ex: Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Sugarcane
Geotropism: A growth movement in response to gravity. Eg Groundnut peg
penetration into the soil
• Herbicide: A chemical used for killing or inhibiting the growth of unwanted
plants Ex: Atrazine
• Insecticide: It is the chemical used for killing the insects: Endosulfan
Humus: A brown or black organic substance consisting of partially or wholly
decayed vegetable or animal matter that provides nutrients for plants and
increases the ability of soil to retain water
• Puddling: It is the ploughing operation carried out in stagnated water
conditions to create an impervious layer below the plough pan
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) emerged in the 1980’s as a synthesis of
locally advantageous rice production practices

LESSON - 26

The first National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) was adopted in 1983, based
upon the decision taken in the XV meeting of the Indian Board for Wildlife held
in 1982.

• The first National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) of 1983 has been revised and
the Wildlife Action Plan (2002- 2016) has been adopted

A National Afforestation Programme (NAfP) was launched in 2002

In April 2004, the central government, under the orders of the Supreme Court,
constituted the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning
Authority (CAMPA) for the management of money towards compensatory
afforestation, and other money recoverable, in compliance of the conditions
stipulated by the central government and in accordance with the Forest
(Conservation) Act,

JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT (JFM) • JFM is an initiative to institutionalize

participatory governance of country’s forest resources by involving the local
communities living close to the forest.
• This is a co-management institution to develop partnerships between forest
fringe communities and the Forest Department (FD) on the basis of mutual
trust and jointly defined roles and responsibilities with regard to forest
protection and regeneration.

The National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India, first used the

term ‘social forestry’ in 1976.

Farm forestry
• Individual farmers are being encouraged to plant trees on their own farmland
to meet the domestic needs of the family

Community forestry
• It is the raising of trees on community land and not on private land as in farm
forestry. All these programmes aim to provide for the entire community and
not for any individual. The government has the responsibility of providing
seedlings, fertilizer but the community has to take responsibility of protecting
the trees.

Extension forestry • Planting of trees on the sides of roads, canals and

railways, along with planting on wastelands is known as ‘extension’ forestry,
• Raising of trees with the major objective of recreation alone
The atapaka Bird Sanctuary, part of the Kolleru Lake, has been identified as
the world’s largest home for the spot-billed pelican.

COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION INDEX (CEPI)

• Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) is a rational number to
characterize the environmental quality at a given location following the
algorithm of source, pathway, receptor and various parameters like pollutant
concentration, impact on human health and level of exposure have been
taken into consideration for the calculation of pollution indices for air, water
and land.

LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL)

• LaBL is a campaign by TERI that promotes the use of solar lanterns
specially designed and manufactured on a decentralized basis.
• LaBL has been able to engage with government interventions under Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan, Madhya Pradesh Rural Livelihood Project, Rasthriya
Gramin Vikas Nidhi, and has facilitated the spread of mobile telephony with
support from Department of Telecommunications, Government of India.

URBAN SERVICES ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEM (USERS)

• Project funded by UNDP executed by Ministry of Environment and Forests
and implemented by TERI.
• Aim - to develop an analytical tool to measure the performance, with respect
to delivery of basic services in local bodies of Delhi and Kanpur. (identified as
pilot cities).
• Performance measurement (PM) tool was developed through a set of
performance measurement indicators that are benchmarked against set
targets using the inputs-outputs efficiency outcomes framework.

NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND

• ‘National Clean Energy Fund’ (NCEF) was constituted in the public account
of India in the Finance Bill 2010-11.
• Objective - to invest in entrepreneurial ventures and research & innovative
projects in the field of clean energy technology.

NATIONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC MOBILITY

• A National Mission for Electric Mobility (NCEM) to promote electric mobility
and manufacturing of electric vehicles in India.

ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, AWARENESS & TRAINING (EEAT)

SCHEME
• EEAT a Central Scheme launched during the 6th Five Year Plan in 1983-84
with the following objectives:

ECO-CLUBS (NATIONAL GREEN CORPS) • The main objectives of this

programme are to educate children about their immediate environment and
impart knowledge about the eco-systems

MANGROVES FOR THE FUTURE

• Mangroves for the Future are a partnership-based initiative promoting
investment in coastal ecosystems for sustainable development. Mission
• to promote healthy coastal ecosystems through a partnership-based,
people-focused, policy-relevant and investment-orientated approach, which
builds and applies knowledge, empowers communities and other
stakeholders, enhances governance, secures livelihoods, and increases
resilience to natural hazards and climate change.

LESSON - 27

THE ANIMAL WELFARE BOARD OF INDIA

• The Animal Welfare Board of India is a statutory advisory body on Animal
Welfare Laws and promotes animal welfare in the country.
• Shrimati Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the setting up of the Board, with
its Headquaters at Chennai. She guided the activities of the Board for nearly
twenty years till her demise in 1986
The Board consists of 28 Members. The term of office of Members is for a
period of 3 years.

CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY • The amendment made to the Wild Life

(Protection) Act in 1991 added a new chapter dealing with zoos to the Act and
allowed for the Central Government to constitute an authority known as the
Central Zoo Authority to oversee the functioning and development of zoos in
the country
THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY (NBA) – CHENNAI.
• The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was established in 2003 to
implement India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002).
• The NBA is a Statutory, Autonomous Body and it performs facilitative,
regulatory and advisory function for the Government of India on issues of
conservation, sustainable use of biological resources and fair and equitable
sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources

Sections 19 and 21 stipulate prior approval of the National Biodiversity

Authority (NBA) before their access. • Ensures protection to the knowledge of
local people relating to biodiversity through measures such as registration of
such knowledg

Main functions:
The National Biodiversity Authority may-
(a) advise the Central Government on matters relating to the conservation of
biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources

Transfer of biological resource or knowledge

• No person who has been granted approval, shall transfer any biological
resource or knowledge associated to others except with the permission of the
National Biodiversity Authority

The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)

• The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) focus on advising the State
Governments on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity,
sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of the benefits
arising out of the utilization of biological resources;

WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU (WCCB)

• The Government of India constituted a statutory body, the Wildlife Crime
Control Bureau on 6th June 2007, by amending the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972. The bureau would complement the efforts of the state governments,
primary enforcers of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and other enforcement
agencies of the country.

NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION PLAN (NLCP)

• Ministry of Environment and Forests has been implementing the National
Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) since 2001 for conservation and
management of polluted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas
Objective
• to restore and conserve the urban and semi-urban lakes of the country
degraded due to waste water discharge into the lake and other unique
freshwater eco systems, through an integrated ecosystem approach.
Prevention of pollution from point sources by intercepting, diverting and
treating the pollution loads entering the lake. The interception and diversion
works may include sewerage & sewage treatment for the entire lake
catchment area.

NATIONAL GANGA RIVER BASIN AUTHORITY (NGRBA)

• NGRBA was constituted on February 2009 under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
• The NGRBA is a planning, financing, monitoring and coordinating body of
the centre and the states.
• The objective of the NGRBA is to ensure effective abatement of pollution
and conservation of the river Ganga by adopting a river basin approach for
comprehensive planning and management

WILDLIFE TRUST OF INDIA

• NGO founded: 1998
• Aim: To conserve nature, especially endangered species and threatened
habitats, in partnership with communities and governments. • The Wildlife
Trust of India (WTI) is committed to the protection of India’s wildlife; it
achieves this by working in partnership with local communities and
governments on a range of projects, from species rehabilitation to the
prevention of the illegal wildlife trade.

LESSON - 29
Eco-toxicology is “a study of the effects of released pollutants on the
environment and on the biota that inhabit it.

Rem - It gives an indication of biological damage. It is an estimate of the

amount of radiation of any type which produces the same biological injury in
man as that resulting from the absorption of a given amount of X-ray radiation
or gamma radiation.

Iodine - 131 Iodine - 131 produced by nuclear tests is passed to vegetation

and then appears in milk of the cattle that consume the contaminated
vegetation and is passed to humans. Iodine-131 causes serious damage to
thyroid gland, especially among children.

Lead is highly toxic to plants and animals including man. Lead generally
affects children more severely than adults. Lead poisoning causes a variety of
symptoms. These include liver and kidney damage, reduction in hemoglobin
formulation, mental retardation and abnormality in fertility and pregnancy.

Symptoms of chronic lead-poisoning are of three general types.

Gastrointestinal troubles,Neuromuscular effects, Central nervous system
effects - CNS syndrome

Mercury
This is the most common and most toxic in water bodies. It occurs in water as
monomethyl mercury. Most industrial effluents have mercury. Methyl mercury
vapours cause fatal poisoning.
Toxicity of mercury is much greater than any other substance, about 1000
times more potent than colchicines.

Fluorine
It occurs in nature as fluoride, in air, soil and water. Fluorisis is a common
problem in several states of the country due to intake of high fluoride content
water. Fluorides cause dental fluorisis, stiffness of joints (particularly spinal
cord) causing humped back. Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of
legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome. In cattle, fluoride intake
causes staining, mottling and abrasion of teeth, lameness and decrease in
milk production.

Toxic pesticides as BHC, PCB, DDT etc., are not easily degraded and are
long-lasting in the environment.

DDT is known to depress the activity of estrogen, the female sex hormone
and testosterone, male sex hormone. DDT deposited in butter fat of milk is a
potential danger to infants

Modern houses are full of harmful chemicals. One of them is lead, present in
paints.

The human body is not designed to process lead. Young children are
particularly vulnerable to lead as it can damage the central nervous system
and the brain.

• If lead is so poisonous why do paint makers continue to use it? Using lead
susbtitutes increases the cost and also reduces paint performance
Transfats are formed during the process of addition of hydrogen atoms to oils,
a process which industry prefers as it keeps the oil from turning rancid and
ensures a longer shelf life. (E.g trans-fatty acid in vanaspati).
• Transfats are associated with a host of serious health problems ranging from
diabetes to heart disease to cancer.
• The health ministry in 2008 came out with a notification for labelling food
including trans fats.
Junk food high in transfats, salt and sugar, junk food gives no nutrition. In fact,
getting addicted to it is making the young vulnerable to hypertension, heart
diseases, diabetes and obesity.

Energy drinks are in controversy because of its high caffeine content. Most of
these brands have upto 320 ppm of caffeine in them

Energy drinks fall under the category of ‘Proprietary foods’ in the Prevention
of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act of 1954.

An amendment in the PFA act 2009 ensured that caffeine in energy drinks
should be capped at 145 ppm, the limit that was set for carbonated beverages

The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is currently making
regulations on energy drinks.

Pesticides once ingested, accumulate in the body fat or pass through.

Organochlorine pesticides, for instance, accumulate in body fat and blood
lipids. These fat-soluble chemicals persist in the body for many years.

Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Kumamoto

prefecture, Japan in 1956.
It was caused by the release of methyl mercury in the industrial wastewater
from the Chisso Corporation’s chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to
1968.

Blue baby syndrome

• It is believed to be caused by high nitrate contamination in ground water
resulting in decreased oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin in babies
leading to death.
• The groundwater is thought to be contaminated by leaching of nitrate
generated from fertilizer used in agricultural lands and waste dumps.

Pneumoconiosis
• The coal miners are frequently caught by the black lung disease, which is
also called as Pneumoconiosis
Asbestosis
• Workers working in the asbestos industry are caught by the serious lung
disease called as asbestosis.
Silicosis
• It is caused due to the deposit of silica in the lungs of workers working in
silica industries or at the sand blasting sites
Emphysema
• The breaking down of sensitive tissue of lungs due to air pollution and
smoke of cigarette is called as Emphysema. Once this disease happens, the
lungs cannot expand and contract properly
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
• Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a combination of ailments (a syndrome)
associated with an individual’s place of work or residence. • Most of the sick
building syndrome is related to poor indoor air quality.
• Sick building causes are frequently pinned down to flaws in the heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

APPIKO MOVEMENT
• Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based on environmental
conservation in India.
• The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas inspired the villagers
of the district of Karnataka province in southern India to launch a similar
movement to save their forests.

• ISO 14000 is similar to ISO 9000 quality management in that both pertain to
the process of how a product is produced, rather than to the product itself.
• As with ISO 9000, certification is performed by thirdparty organizations
rather than being awarded by ISO directly.
• The ISO 19011 audit standard applies when auditing for both 9000 and
14000 compliance at once.

The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB)

• The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) was set up under the
Ministry of Environment & Forests in 1985 with the objective of
• to increase tree and other green cover on wastelands,
• to prevent good land from becoming wasteland,

Bioassay is a test in which organisms are used to detect the presence or the
effects of any other physical factor, chemical factor, or any other type of
ecological disturbance.
• Bioassays are very common in pollution studies. Bioassays can be
conducted by using any type of organisms. However, the fish and insect
bioassays are very common

A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause,

such as an ecosystem in need of conservation. These species are chosen for
their vulnerability, attractiveness or distinctiveness in order to engender
support and acknowledgement from the public at large. Thus, the concept of a
flagship species holds that, by giving publicity to a few key species, the
support given to those species will successfully leverage conservation of
entire ecosystems are all species contained therein.
Example: Indian tiger, African elephant, giant panda of China, mountain gorilla
of Central Africa, orangutan of Southeast Asia and the leatherback sea turtle

Keystone species is a species whose addition to or loss from an ecosystem

leads to major changes in abundance or occurrence of at least one other
species. Certain species in an ecosystem is considered more important in
determining the presence of many other species in that ecosystem.

• All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, Elephant) are considered as

keystone species because it regulates all other animals’ population indirectly.
Hence top predators are given much consideration in conservation

Indicator species is a species whose presence indicates the presence of a set

of other species and whose absence indicates the lack of that entire set of
species

Umbrella species is a wide-ranging species whose requirements include

those of many other species. The protection of umbrella species automatically
extends protection to other species.

Foundation species • Foundation species is a dominant primary producer in

an ecosystem both in terms of abundance and influence. Example: kelp in
kelp forests and corals in coral reefs.

Charismatic megafauna
• These are large animal species with widespread popular appeal that
environmental activists use to achieve conservation goals well beyond just
those species. Examples include the Giant Panda, the Bengal Tiger, and the
Blue Whale