THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS
The decades between 1815 and 1848, are those which witnessed widespread civil war and new wave
of revolutions. This was because it was clear that Europe had entered into a phase of fundamental
change. According to Eric Hobsbawm, this was an age of superlatives.
While the middle classes increased in number and became the prime movers of change, a new wage-
earning class also emerged at the same time. This new working class exercised immense political
power to be able to demand protection of their rights. The government now got involved in the
social and economic lives of the people as the old conception of ruler and subject came to be
replaced by ideas of state and citizen.
Political life, in pre-revolution period was very limited. Political organization was also limited. Such
organizations were illegal in absolutist states and required permission from authorities in
constitutional monarchies. The predominantly active political organizations hence, were secret
societies. The French Revolution had left a legacy of political doctrines that prevailed in the 19th
century. The latter half of the 19th century can also be described as the ‘age of ideologies.
Nationalism, liberalism and radicalism were the dominant ideologies that took shape during this
period. These paced way for Nationalism.
Causes of the 1848 Revolutions
The revolutions of 1848 were fueled by a combination of long-term structural issues and immediate
crises, creating widespread dissatisfaction across Europe.
1. Economic Causes
• Agrarian Crisis:
o Poor harvests in 1845–46 caused food shortages, driving up prices and reducing living
standards for the rural poor and urban workers.
o The Irish Famine exemplified the devastation, causing mass starvation and emigration.
• Industrial Downturn:
o The economic recession of 1847 led to unemployment and poverty in industrial areas.
o Declining craft production further worsened conditions for artisans.
• Rural-Urban Divide:
o Population pressure on agriculture outpaced resource growth, forcing many into cities
where overcrowding and poor working conditions prevailed.
2. Social Causes
• Class Tensions:
o Urban working classes faced unemployment, poverty, and harsh factory conditions,
fueling strikes and riots.
o The middle class, aspiring for political power, sought to end the privileges of aristocrats
and feudal landlords.
• Urbanization and Industrialization:
o Rapid urban growth outpaced infrastructure development, leading to slums and social
unrest.
o Mechanization in industries, especially textiles, displaced skilled artisans, leading to
machine-breaking riots.
3. Political Causes
• Resistance to Reforms:
o Monarchies resisted liberal demands for constitutions, individual freedoms, and
parliamentary systems.
o Arbitrary governance, censorship, and repression (e.g., France under Charles X)
provoked widespread dissent.
• Survival of Feudalism:
o Semi-feudal systems persisted in Eastern Europe (Habsburg Empire, Russia),
maintaining serfdom and limiting mobility.
• Inspiration from Revolutions:
o The ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity from the American (1776) and French
(1789) Revolutions inspired reformist and nationalist movements.
4. Nationalism and Identity
• Rise of National Consciousness:
o Napoleon’s wars (1803–1815) and Enlightenment ideas fueled nationalist sentiments
in fragmented regions.
o Ethnic groups in multi-national empires (e.g., Hungarians, Italians, Germans)
demanded autonomy and self-determination.
• Cultural Unity:
o Shared language, history, and culture united people against dynastic rulers and empires,
strengthening nationalist movements.
5. Short-Term Triggers
• Economic Recession (1847):
o Job losses and falling wages due to the industrial slump worsened living conditions,
sparking protests.
• Food Shortages (1845–46):
o High food prices consumed most of the income of the poor, leaving little for other
necessities.
• Political Oppression:
o Governments responded to demands with repression, escalating unrest and calls for
reform.
These combined causes created a perfect storm of discontent, resulting in revolutionary fervour across
Europe.
Demands:
1. Reduction of monarchical and church powers.
2. Establishment of parliamentary government.
3. Individual freedoms, sovereignty, and rule of law.
4. Opposition to capitalism and advocacy for national identity.
Outcomes:
• Initially successful in promoting liberalism and national ideals.
• Ultimately failed due to internal conflicts and conservative opposition.
• Long-term impacts included fostering political consciousness and influencing future struggles
for democracy and international cooperation.
COURSE– There were many large revolutions throughout Europe, of which almost all of them failed.
The revolutions began in capital cities and urban centres-the hubs of economic growth and political
change and subsequently moved on to other towns and rural areas.
FRANCE
Napoleon and the Fall of France (1813-1815)
Napoleon’s defeats in the battles of Vitoria (1813) and Waterloo (1815) marked the collapse of his
empire. His inability to delegate authority or groom competent successors created a gap between his
grand strategies and their execution. The Quadruple Alliance—comprising Britain, Prussia, Austria,
and Russia—coordinated efforts to overthrow him. Following his abdications in 1814 and 1815, his
plan to transfer power to his son was thwarted. The Bourbon monarchy was restored under Louis
XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, in a bid to reject revolutionary ideals while attempting to reconcile a
deeply divided France.
The Bourbon Restoration (1814-1830)
The restored Bourbon monarchy faced immediate challenges, including economic struggles, political
divisions, and lingering revolutionary sentiments. Napoleon’s brief return in 1815, known as the
Hundred Days, ended with his defeat and Louis XVIII’s second restoration. The monarchy cautiously
balanced amnesty with selective punishment of opponents. Liberal historians often credit Louis
XVIII’s rule with blending pre-revolutionary traditions of the Ancien Régime with constitutional
reforms. However, his successor, Charles X, adopted an absolutist stance and religious conservatism,
alienating liberals and setting the stage for further revolution.
Charles X and the July Revolution (1830)
Charles X (1824-1830) sought to revive the Ancien Régime through symbolic acts, such as his
coronation at Rheims, and pro-Catholic laws like the Sacrilege Law (1825). His policies, including
press censorship and compensation for émigré nobles, alienated the middle class and liberal factions.
Economic stagnation and rising social inequality exacerbated discontent. By 1830, his failure to
embrace constitutional governance and his exclusion of the bourgeoisie and working classes from
political power ignited the July Revolution, forcing his abdication.
The July Monarchy (1830-1848)
Louis-Philippe, known as the "Citizen King," assumed the throne on August 9, 1830, establishing the
July Monarchy. This regime primarily served the interests of the bourgeoisie and introduced several
key changes:
• The Constitutional Charter: Limited royal authority, abolished press censorship, and
expanded suffrage to about 3% of the population.
• Economic Modernization: Encouraged industrial development, urbanization, and
infrastructure projects.
• Social and Political Struggles: Despite economic progress, the regime faced mounting unrest
from republicans, socialists, and the working class, often resorting to repression.
Though the monarchy oversaw economic growth, its repressive measures, coupled with financial
crises and persistent inequality, precipitated the February Revolution of 1848, ending Louis-Philippe’s
reign.
February Revolution, 1848
In July 1830, an uprising of the upper tier of the bourgeoisie or capitalist class, the aristocracy of
finance, overthrew the Bourbon throne, or landed aristocracy, and set up the throne of Orleans, a
younger branch of the house of Bourbon, with Louis-Philippe as king. From the month in which this
revolution occurred, Louis-Philippe’s monarchy is called the "July Monarchy." In February 1848, a
revolt of the lower tier of the capitalist class, the industrial bourgeoisie, against the aristocracy of
finance, in turn dethroned Louis-Philippe. The affair, also named from the month in which it took
place, is the "February Revolution."
The February Revolution erupted as a direct response to worsening economic conditions, widespread
worker unrest, and demands for political reform. Protesters called for the extension of suffrage and
an end to corruption. On February 24, 1848, after escalating demonstrations and clashes, Louis-
Philippe abdicated and fled to England.
The February Revolution marked a revolt of the industrial bourgeoisie against the aristocracy of
finance, which had supported the July Monarchy. Economic crises and a failure to address the
grievances of workers and lower classes fueled the unrest. The regime’s inability to reconcile
demands for political participation and social justice led to its downfall.
The Uprising of February 23-24, 1848
• Broad Participation: Workers, students, and the middle class joined protests demanding
reform and expanded suffrage.
• Abdication of Louis-Philippe: Facing immense pressure, the king abdicated and fled, leaving
a power vacuum.
• Provisional Government: A coalition of republicans, socialists, and moderate liberals formed
a provisional government, heralding the Second Republic.
This government, supported initially by urban workers, intellectuals, and some rural populations,
implemented significant reforms such as universal male suffrage and the establishment of national
workshops to address unemployment.
Class Conflict and the June Insurrection
However, fractures within the coalition soon emerged. Moderate republicans, representing the
middle class and small property owners, clashed with radical socialists advocating for deeper social
and economic changes. The national workshops, popular among workers, strained government
finances and drew criticism from conservatives. When the government dissolved the workshops in
June 1848, it triggered the June Insurrection—a violent uprising of workers in Paris. The rebellion
was brutally suppressed, marking a decisive shift away from socialist influence in the Second
Republic.
Revolutionary Legacy
The February Revolution inspired similar uprisings across Europe, challenging the conservative order
established in 1815. The revolutions sought liberal constitutions, civil rights, and the unification of
fragmented nation-states like Germany and Italy.
Louis Napoleon and the Second Republic (1848-1852)
In December 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected President of the
French Republic. His broad appeal stemmed from his promises of economic stability, law and order,
and a connection to the Napoleonic legacy. Initially supported by rural voters and the bourgeoisie, he
gradually consolidated power. Frustrated by constitutional limits on his authority, Louis Napoleon
staged a coup d’état on December 2, 1851, dissolving the National Assembly and assuming dictatorial
powers. This coup ended the Second Republic and paved the way for his proclamation as Emperor
Napoleon III in 1852, inaugurating the Second Empire.
Connecting the Events: 1815 to 1848
The revolutionary wave of 1848 was deeply rooted in the events of the post-Napoleonic era. The fall
of Napoleon in 1815 led to the conservative restoration of monarchies under the Congress of Vienna,
which sought to suppress revolutionary ideas and maintain the status quo. However, the Bourbon
Restoration (1814-1830) exposed tensions between conservative monarchs and a society influenced
by revolutionary ideals. Louis XVIII’s moderate policies failed to bridge the divide, while Charles X’s
reactionary rule alienated key segments of society, including the burgeoning bourgeoisie.
The July Revolution of 1830, fueled by middle-class discontent, replaced Charles X with Louis-
Philippe, ushering in the July Monarchy. Yet, this regime’s focus on serving the interests of the
aristocracy of finance neglected the industrial bourgeoisie, workers, and peasants. Economic
modernization under Louis-Philippe widened inequalities, sowing the seeds of unrest.
By 1848, decades of unresolved grievances culminated in a revolutionary explosion. The February
Revolution was not an isolated event but the climax of a broader struggle against conservative
governance, economic hardship, and social inequality. Its legacy reshaped France and inspired
movements for national unification and democratic reform across Europe.
GERMANY
The German revolution was characterised by mass popular protests and demands for national
unification and liberal reforms.
The revolution was fueled by an agrarian crisis, harsh working conditions, low wages, and political
disenfranchisement, alongside a fragmented German landscape of independent states. The 1848
German Revolutions were sparked by widespread discontent and the influence of the February
Revolution in France. Demonstrations in Berlin called for liberal reforms and German nationalism. In
response, King Frederick IV introduced a more liberal cabinet and agreed to a constitutional
monarchy, but the situation escalated when troops shot civilians, spreading unrest beyond the
capital into the countryside.
The Revolution in Germany began in March 1848. This was led by a coalition of liberals, nationalists,
and workers. They demanded political reforms, civil rights and economic justice. Their demand
included the abdication of the conservative rulers. The protests led to the resignation of King
Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. This led to convening of various provincial assemblies to discuss
socio-political reforms. One of the decisive assemblies was the Frankfurt Assembly.
The Frankfurt Assembly, convened in May 1848, aimed to draft a constitution for a unified Germany
but struggled with internal disagreements, particularly over whether Austria should be included. The
assembly lacked support from ruling princes and dissolved in 1849. This allowed conservatives to
regain power and led to a more authoritarian regime under Friedrich Wilhelm IV. While the
revolution failed to achieve immediate political goals, it contributed to the modernization of German
society and politics and paved the way for authoritarian leaders in the years to come.
ITALY
The 1848 revolutions in Italy were part of a larger European wave of uprisings, driven by social
unrest and political demands for liberal reforms and independence, particularly from Austrian
domination. The revolts began on March 18, 1848, in Milan, when 10,000 people presented a
petition demanding reforms. This sparked five days of intense street fighting, during which the
poorly armed revolutionaries forced Austrian troops under Commander Joseph Radatzky to retreat.
This victory led to the establishment of constitutional reforms by the revolutionaries.
The revolutions spread across various Italian states, including Lombardy, Venice, Palermo, and the
Papal States. They were inspired by the French Revolution and the abdication of King Louis-Philippe.
Revolutionaries sought Italian unification, liberal reforms, and independence from foreign rule,
demanding constitutional governments and civil rights. In Lombardy, the Five Days of Milan (March
18-22) marked a major revolt against Austrian rule. Giuseppe Mazzini, a key nationalist figure,
advocated for democratic reforms and Italian unity. Daniele Manin led the movement in Venice,
while King Charles Albert of Sardinia supported the revolutionaries.
The uprisings gained international attention, with over 1,200 French revolutionaries participating in
the struggles, inspired by the idea of "Fraternity of the Peoples." Despite initial success, the
revolutions were crushed by Austrian military intervention, restoring conservative rule in Italy.
Internal divisions and military setbacks further weakened the movement.
Although the revolutions failed, they had lasting impacts. They strengthened Italian national
consciousness and fueled future movements for independence and democratic reforms. The desire
for Italian unification remained strong, and people's movements for democracy continued, laying
the groundwork for the eventual unification of Italy in the 1860s.
AUSTRIA
The 1848 revolutions in the Austrian Empire were driven by growing nationalism among groups like
the Czechs, Hungarians, and others, spurred by liberal reforms in France. Citizens demanded
constitutional reform, emancipation of the peasantry, and greater representation for both peasants
and the middle class. On 13th March, a large crowd in Vienna demanded reforms, leading to the
resignation of Metternich and the promise of a liberal constitution. Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna
due to fears of revolutionary violence.
The empire, a multi-ethnic entity, faced tensions between Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, Italians,
and Slavs, all seeking autonomy. The Habsburg monarchy maintained rigid absolutism, and an
economic crisis worsened by crop failures fueled discontent. Students played a crucial role, initially
supporting democracy, civil rights, and national self-determination. The revolution spread in March
1848, influenced by the French revolution, with Lajos Kossuth leading the Hungarian push for
autonomy. Despite initial successes, the Hungarian revolution was suppressed by Austrian and
Russian forces in 1849.
In The Age of Capital, Hobsbawm calls the events of 1848 the "springtime of the peoples,"
highlighting the widespread hope and energy of the time. According to Roger Price, by 1848, Europe
was ripe for revolution, and just a small event could spark the downfall of many governments. The
trigger was the violent suppression of a political protest in Paris in February 1848. This led to
revolutions across Europe, mostly in cities, with significant involvement from workers, small business
owners, and the poor. Hobsbawm rightly describes the events of 1848 as the creation of the workers,
petty bourgeoisie, and the labouring poor. Even though many people supported the revolutions, they
were short-lived and failed to bring lasting change. The revolutionaries were unsuccessful in creating
new regimes, and the old authorities returned to power within a year or two. By September 1848, the
old governments had regained control, and Europe’s governments were even stronger than before. So,
while 1848 brought hope, the revolutions didn’t create lasting change, making the idea of them being
the "springtime of the peoples" less valid.
Historians argue the revolutions failed to achieve their immediate goals of political reform and
national unification, as most revolutionary governments were overthrown. However, the
movements highlighted contradictions within European society and the effects of the Industrial
Revolution. The ideals of freedom, democracy, and national autonomy would continue to influence
later movements, contributing to the unification of Germany and Italy in the 1860s and the rise of
democratic governments in Europe.
