Module: Sociolinguistics

Specialty: LLA

Level: Master 02

Instructor: Dr. Amina RABEHI

Chapter One: Multilingualism and Language Choice

Textbook Reference: Meyerhoff, Miriam. Introducing Sociolinguistics, 2nd Edition

Date: 08,15/10/2024

Lecture Overview

This lecture dives into the dynamic world of multilingualism and the sociolinguistic factors
behind language choice. We will unpack the complexities of ethnolinguistic vitality, code-
switching, and speech levels, using case studies from around the world to illustrate these
concepts. Language choices are not arbitrary; they reveal deeper social, political, and cultural
landscapes, as Miriam Meyerhoff explains in her book.
Key Topics
1. Introduction to Multilingualism and Language Choice
2. Ethnolinguistic Vitality
3. Model of Ethnolinguistic Vitality
4. Institutional Factors Influencing Language Vitality
5. Demographic Factors Influencing Vitality
6. Diglossia in a Community
7. Is Vitality the Same as Prestige?
8. Code-Switching and Code-Mixing
9. Deciding When to Use Which Code
10. Attitudes Toward Switching Between Varieties
11. Speech Levels as Different Codes
12. Variations in the Use of Speech Levels
13. Conclusion and Implications

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 1. Introduction to Multilingualism and Language Choice

1.1 Defining Multilingualism

Multilingualism refers to the ability to speak, understand and use more than one

language in everyday communication by an individual or a community. It is a natural

phenomenon in most parts of the world, especially in post-colonial societies, border regions,

and urban centers where cultural and linguistic diversity intersect.

Example from Meyerhoff:

In Papua New Guinea, many people speak multiple local languages in addition to English or

Tok Pisin, often switching based on the social context.

1.2 Language Choice and Social Identity

Language choice signals one’s social identity, power relations, and group affiliation. It

is more than just about communication -it is about saying, “I belong here,” or sometimes, “I

want to distance myself from this group.”

Case Study: Belgium

Meyerhoff examines language choice in Belgium, where French and Dutch are spoken.

Choosing to speak French in Flanders can be seen as an assertion of power, whereas speaking

Dutch signals solidarity with the local population.

2. Ethnolinguistic Vitality

2.1 Definition

Ethnolinguistic vitality refers to the strength and survivability of a language within its

social context. Languages with high vitality tend to thrive, while those with low vitality are at

risk of decline or extinction.

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Key Factors Influencing Vitality

1. Demography (number of speakers).

2. Status and Prestige in society.

3. Institutional Support, including education and government policies.

Examples:

For instance, in Quebec French speaking community, French has a strong ethnolinguistic

vitality due to political, demographic and cultural support. Another example is the Māori

language revival in New Zealand. Once endangered, efforts by the Māori community,

including establishing Māori language schools (Kura Kaupapa Māori) have revitalized its use.

Case Study: Welsh Language Revival

Meyerhoff discusses the Welsh language in Wales, a prime example of a successful language

revival. Welsh was once endangered, but governmental policies, bilingual education, and

Welsh-language media have revitalized its use. S4C, the Welsh-language TV channel, plays a

key role in maintaining cultural and linguistic pride.

Reflection

Think of a language you are familiar with. What factors contribute to its vitality? Does it have

strong institutional support, or is it at risk of decline?

3. Model of Ethnolinguistic Vitality

3.1 Components of the Model

Meyerhoff’s model breaks down ethnolinguistic vitality into measurable factors (The

model, developed by Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor):

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1. Status Factors: How prestigious is the language in various domains (education, work,

religion)?

2. Demographic Factors: What is the number and concentration of speakers?

3. Institutional Support: To what extent is the language supported by laws, schools, media,

and government?

Figure 1: Factors contributing to ethnolinguistic vitality (Giles et al. 1977)

3.2 Application: Spanish vs. English in the U.S.

Spanish:

Spoken by millions, with growing demographics.

Gaining institutional support, especially in states like California and Texas.

But struggles with prestige in certain professional domains.

English:

The lingua franca of business, education, and politics.

High institutional support and international influence.

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3.3 Example: Catalan vs. Spanish

In Catalonia, Catalan has a high level of institutional support, with mandatory Catalan-

medium education. However, Spanish holds wider demographic and national influence.

Meyerhoff highlights the tension between these languages in terms of power, identity, and

political movements.

Activity

Analyze a multilingual region of your choice. How does Meyerhoff’s model help us

understand the relationships between languages in that context?

4. Institutional Factors Influencing Language Vitality

4.1 The Role of Institutions

Institutions play a huge role in maintaining or weakening a language’s vitality.

Education systems, media outlets, and government policies are powerful tools that can either

reinforce or erode a language’s use.

4.2 Example from Meyerhoff: French in Canada

In Quebec, French is protected and promoted by policies like the Charter of the French

Language (Bill 101). This ensures that French remains the dominant language in education,

workplaces, and public life, even as English dominates globally.

4.3 Language Policy Failures

Meyerhoff also points out cases where institutional support is lacking, leading to language

shift or decline, like the loss of indigenous languages in many countries due to monolingual

education systems.

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Indigenous Languages in the United States

U.S. government assimilated Native Americans through boarding schools, prohibiting the use

of native languages. This led to significant language loss and cultural erosion among

communities, like the Lakota, who saw a drastic decline in fluent speakers.

Mandarin Promotion in China

Mandarin promoted as the national standard, often at the expense of regional dialects. This

resulted in declining use of dialects like Cantonese, with concerns over cultural

homogenization.

Discussion

How can institutional policies both help and hinder language preservation efforts? Can you

think of an example where a language policy had unintended consequences?

5. Demographic Factors Influencing Vitality

5.1 Population Size

Languages spoken by large, young, and geographically concentrated populations tend

to have higher vitality. Conversely, languages with shrinking or aging populations, or that are

dispersed, tend to decline.

5.2 Migration and Urbanization

Urbanization often leads to language shift because migrants adopt the dominant urban

language for economic reasons.

Example: In China, many rural dialects are being lost as people move to cities and adopt

Mandarin for work and education.

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5.3 Intergeneration Transmission

If parents do not pass the language to their children, the language dies. In US, immigrant

languages like Spanish maintain their vitality through strong intergenerational transmission

within family members.

Example from Meyerhoff: Irish Gaelic

Irish Gaelic has institutional support and high cultural value, but demographic trends show a

decline in active speakers. Gaelic is now mostly spoken in rural Gaeltacht areas, while

English dominates in cities and schools.

6. Diglossia in a Community

6.1 Defining Diglossia

Diglossia is a situation where two varieties of the same language (or two distinct

languages) serve different functions in a society. Charles Ferguson calls one a High (H)

variety, used in formal settings and for writing, while the other (Vernacular Variety) is the

Low (L) variety, used in everyday conversation. The High variety has to be formally taught

and has a standardized grammar that is the subject of conscious study.

Example: Arabic Diglossia

Meyerhoff explores Arabic-speaking countries where Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the

H variety, used in media, religion, and formal education, while regional dialects (e.g.,

Algerian Arabic) function as the L variety for informal communication. This creates a

linguistic split, with MSA rarely used in daily life.

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Example: Switzerland

In Switzerland, Swiss German is the L variety spoken in everyday contexts, while Standard

German serves as the H variety for education, news, and formal settings. Swiss Germans are

often fluent in both varieties, switching based on context.

7. Is Vitality the Same as Prestige?

7.1 Understanding Prestige

Prestige refers to the social value a language holds, but this does not always align with

vitality. Some prestigious languages may have a limited number of speakers, while less

prestigious languages may thrive demographically.

Example: English vs. Hindi in India

English has immense prestige in India, often seen as the language of business, higher

education, and government. However, in terms of sheer numbers, Hindi has far greater

vitality, spoken by hundreds of millions across the country.

7.2 Language Prestige without Vitality

Example from Meyerhoff: Latin

Latin has high historical prestige but almost no vitality, as it is no longer spoken natively.

However, it still holds cultural and academic significance in law, religion, and science.

8. Code-Switching and Code-Mixing

8.1 What is Code-Switching?

Code-switching involves alternating between two or more languages or dialects during

conversation. It often occurs in bilingual or multilingual communities where speakers have

access to multiple linguistic repertoires.

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Case Study from Meyerhoff: Spanish-English in the U.S.

In bilingual communities, especially among younger generations, speakers frequently switch

between English and Spanish mid-conversation. This is not random but serves functions like

emphasizing points or signaling identity.

8.2 What is Code-Mixing?

Code-mixing refers to the blending of elements from two or more languages within a single

utterance or sentence, often at the word or phrase level. It is commonly seen in communities

where speakers are highly proficient in multiple languages.

Example from Meyerhoff: Hindi-English Code-Mixing

In India, speakers often mix Hindi with English, especially in urban areas where English is

associated with education and modernity. You might hear sentences like, "Mujhe coffee

chahiye, but without sugar." The shift to English terms reflects social mobility and linguistic

creativity.

8.3 Functional Reasons for Code-Switching/Code-Mixing

Meyerhoff highlights that code-switching is not random. It serves specific functions, such as:

Topic Shifts: Moving from one subject to another might prompt a language change,

particularly if the new topic is culturally tied to a particular language.

Identity Signaling: Speakers might switch languages to align with their cultural background or

social group, asserting an ethnic identity.

Discourse Markers: Sometimes switching languages can add emotional emphasis or create

rapport, such as using one language to convey politeness and another to display intimacy or

familiarity.

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 9. Deciding When to Use Which Code

The decision of which language to use depends on several factors:

1. Setting: Formal vs. informal contexts often dictate the choice between a high-prestige or

local variety.

2. Participants: Who you are speaking to matters; friends, family, authority figures, or

strangers.

3. Topic: Some subjects might be better discussed in a specific language that is linked to

education, culture, or religion.

4. Purpose: Is the conversation to assert identity, to get information, or to show respect?

Example from Meyerhoff: Singapore

In Singapore, speakers may choose between Mandarin, English, Malay, and various Chinese

dialects depending on their audience. While Mandarin is preferred in formal, official settings,

Singlish (a local variety of English) is used informally to signal shared identity and

community membership.

Power Dynamics

Language choice often reflects power relations. In multilingual countries like South Africa,

switching to English in a professional context might reflect the dominance of English in

business, even though speakers might prefer Afrikaans or a local language at home.

Activity

Consider your own language use. How do you decide when to switch between languages or

varieties in different situations? What social cues guide your choices?

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 10. Attitudes Toward Switching Between Varieties

10.1 Social Stigma and Prestige

Attitudes towards code-switching and code-mixing vary greatly between cultures.

Some see it as a mark of linguistic dexterity and sophistication, while others perceive it as

“lazy” or “improper” speech.

Example from Meyerhoff: Attitudes in Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, switching between Cantonese and English is common, particularly in business

and education. However, there can be negative attitudes toward those who mix languages

inappropriately, such as using English in highly Cantonese-dominant informal settings, which

may be perceived as showing off or distancing oneself from local identity.

10.2 Prestige and Code-Switching

Certain languages or varieties carry prestige, and switching to them can raise one’s social

standing. For example, in Rwanda (situated in Central Africa), speakers of Kinyarwanda may

switch to French in formal settings to convey professionalism or education.

11. Speech Levels as Different Codes

11.1 Defining Speech Levels

In some languages, different speech levels are used to show respect, formality, or

social hierarchy. These levels (High, Mid, and Low) can function much like different

languages or dialects, with specific rules about when and with whom to use them.

Example from Meyerhoff: Javanese Speech Levels

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Meyerhoff discusses Javanese in Indonesia, where speakers must navigate multiple speech

levels, such as Ngoko (Low: informal, used among peers or subordinates) Madya (Mid: more

polite and formal than Ngoko, used when speaking to someone with slightly higher status)

and Krama (formal, used for superiors). The choice of level reflects respect, age, and social

status.

11.2 Hierarchy and Respect

Languages with speech levels, like Korean or Japanese, require speakers to select appropriate

speech forms based on the social relationship between the speaker and listener. Using the

wrong level can result in offense or misunderstanding.

Discussion

Do you know languages that incorporate different levels of politeness or respect? How does

this affect communication between generations, social classes, or in the workplace?

12. Variations in the Use of Speech Levels

12.1 Contextual Variations

Speakers might adjust their use of speech levels based on factors such as:

1. Context: Is the situation formal or informal?

2. Audience: Who is the speaker addressing (friend, superior, elder)?

3. Topic: Is the conversation about something serious or casual?

12.2 Language Evolution

Meyerhoff notes that, in some communities, speech levels are becoming less rigid. Younger

generations may adopt more informal registers even in situations traditionally requiring

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formality. This can signal a shift in societal values, such as a move towards greater equality or

informality.

Example from Meyerhoff: Korean Youth

In Korea, younger speakers are increasingly using less formal speech levels in contexts that

previously demanded deference. This reflects evolving cultural norms and more casual

relationships between individuals across different age groups.

13. Conclusion and Implications

Multilingualism and language choice are complex and fascinating topics that intersect

with identity, power, and society. Meyerhoff’s work provides us with a rich framework to

understand how languages function in a multilingual world, whether through code-switching,

ethnolinguistic vitality, or speech levels.

Key Takeaways

Ethnolinguistic vitality is a crucial concept in understanding why some languages thrive while

others decline.

Institutional support, demographics, and prestige all influence a language's status in society.

Code-switching and code-mixing are important social tools used to navigate identity,

formality, and group membership.

The way people use speech levels reflects underlying social hierarchies and cultural norms,

but these can evolve over time.

Final Thought

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Language is never static. The choices speakers make, whether consciously or unconsciously,

tell us not just about how they communicate, but who they are and how they view their place

in the world.

Discussion Questions:

1. How does Meyerhoff’s model of ethnolinguistic vitality apply to the languages spoken in

your community?

2. In your opinion, is code-switching a sign of language decay or creativity? Why?

3. Do you see any parallels between the use of speech levels in Javanese or Korean and your

own language? How do power and respect play out linguistically in your society?

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