ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Alternating EMF
• The output of a generator with slip rings will be changing its direction
periodically, ie after every half cycle.
• Such an emf, which changes its magnitude continuously and changes
its direction periodically is called an alternating emf.
• This has many special features compared to steady current supplied
by cells.
• In this class we are going to study about AC and its special features.
Alternating current
Alternating current –
Graphical representation
V = Vm sin t OR V = Vm cos t
Average value of atime varying
quantity
• The average value of a function F (t) over a period T is given by
< F (t) > =

1
Eg < sint > = 1 𝑇
‫𝑛𝑖𝑆 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [ -cos t ]
2
𝑇 0  𝑇
1
Putting  = and applying the limits 0 to T for t, [ -cos t ] = 0
𝑇 𝑇
Ie < sint > for a full cycle 0 to T = 0
Similiarly <cos t > for a full cycle 0 to T is also equals to 0
Further

But it can be shown that < sin2 t > = < cos 2 t > = ½ over a full cycle
Average value of AC
• The standard equation for AC voltage is given by

• Where Vm is the peak voltage.

• This, being a sine function , the average value <V> over a complete cycle
is zero.
• The fact that the average current is zero, however, does not mean that the
average power consumed is zero and that there is no dissipation of
electrical energy.
• How to overcome this crisis produced by the mathematical operation?
Root Mean Square
• These values can be expressed in a different way by the following
process:
• Square all terms – this will make all positive.
• Take average of squares
• Find the square root
• This value is now called as RMS value which means “root mean
square”. This gives the effective values of voltage or current, which
correctly account for the work they are doing.
Finding RMS
value
• RMS value of alternating current/voltage is that value of dc which will
produce the same power loss as produced by the ac when passed through
a resistor for the same time.
• The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is

• The average value of p over a cycle is

• <P> = i2R < sin2 t > = im2R x ½

im2R
=
2
From definition, <p> = i2 rms R
Comparing, i2
rms
= or I rms =
RMS values
• Similiarly taking the expression p = v2/R we can find
𝑉𝑚
• V rms =
√2
• RMS value is the virtual value or effective value. All the specifications
in electrical devices indicates their rms values.
• One ampere of rms value of alternating current is flowing in a circuit
if the current produces the same average heating effect as one
ampere of dc current would produce under the same conditions.
1
• Also note that = 0.707 = 70.7 % of peak value.
√2
Mean value of AC
•over
AverageT/2
value or mean value of AC is that steady current which will
send the same amount of charge in the same circuit in T/2 time as
sent by the AC.
•Q=
−𝑉𝑚
•= [Cos t] to the limits 0 to T/2
𝑅
2𝑉 𝑚
•= = 𝑉𝑚𝑇
𝑅 𝑅
• If Vavg is the mean value, Q =
2𝑉𝑚
• Comparing, Vavg = = 0.637 Vm = 63.7% Vm

RMS value , Average value and
Peak value
AC
parameters
• Peak values – Vm , im etc .
• rms values
• Instantaneous time, t
• Time period, T
1
• Frequency,  =
𝑇
• Angular frequency  = 2 = 
2
𝑇
AC applied to a resistor

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
and Irms =
𝑹
The equation and the graph indicates that current is following
voltage without any lagging or leading. Both are reaching peak
value simultaneously, and also the zero value.
So in a resitor, current is in phase with voltage.
 AC applied to an inductor
• Consider an AC voltage applied to a pure inductor
with inductance L.
• From Kirchoff’s law,

Put
Current in an inductor
AC applied to an inductor-

Compare this with the Ohm’s law equation

𝑉
I=
𝑅
the quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called
inductive reactance, denoted by XL:
Xl = ω L
This shows that the reactance of an inductor depends not only on the inductance, but also
on the frequency of ac applied .
Xl is proportional to ω
This also indicates , for DC, where ω = 0 Xl = 0 .ie , inductor plays no role in DC. It is just
like a closed switch.
AC applied to an
•inductor-
Voltage in an inductor
• Current in an inductor

𝜋
• It is clear that current is lagging behind voltage by
2
• This is because of the back emf produced due to self induction which
opposes the growth of current.
• A phase lag indicates a time delay for current in following the
voltage, for reaching the peak or zero values .
 AC applied to a capacitor-
• Consider an ac voltage applied to a capacitor of
capacitance C.

Put
AC applied to a capacitor-
𝑉
Compare this with the Ohm’s law equation I =
𝑅

capacitive reactance, denoted by Xc:

1
Xc =
𝐶
This shows that the reactance of an inductor depends not only on the
capacitance, but also on the frequency of ac applied .
Xl is inversely proportional to ω.It acts as an easy path for AC if ω is high.
This also indicates , for DC, where ω = 0 Xc = infinity
.ie , capacitor acts as an open switch in DC.
AC applied to a capacitor-
• Voltage in a capacitor
• Current in a capacitor

𝜋
• It is clear that current is leading the voltage by
2
• This is because the fact that voltage is developed only after current
depositing sufficient charges on the capacitor plates.
• A phase lag indicates a time delay for current in following the
voltage, for reaching the peak or zero values .
Phasor diagrams
• Phasors are rotating vectors.
• Harmonically varying physical quantities like AC voltage, AC current
etc are represented by phasors. Even though they are scalars , they
are added like vectors.
• AC in resistors
• Wave form Phasor diagram
AC in an Inductor
AC applied to a capacitor-
 Consider an ac circuit consisting of
an inductor L , capacitor C and
Series LCR Circuit resistor R connected in series with
an AC voltage.
Since the components are in series,
current I is same in all ,but voltage
across different components are
different.
The voltages are
Vl = I Xl
VC = I Xc
VR = I R
Voltage across Resistance is in
phase with current. Voltage across
capacitor lags behind current
whereas voltage across inductor
leads the current.
 Source voltage=V
Phasor diagram of Vl = I Xl
VC = I Xc
LCR VR = I R
Vl - Vc = I (Xl-Xc)

The magnitude of the vector sum is equal to Vc-Vl

Series LCR circuit-expression for
current Phasor diagram method
• From the given diagram, the magnitude of peak resultant voltage V m
( which should be equal to source voltage) Vl = I Xl
VC = I Xc
• If Z is the impedance of the LCR circuit, VR = I R
Vl - Vc = I (Xl-Xc)
• i2Z2 =i2 R2 + i2(Xc-Xl)2
• Or Z =
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
• Then the amplitude of current Im = =
𝑍
Series LCR circuit-expression for
current
• it is clear that the voltage V and hence the current I leads the voltage
R
by a phase angle . Hence the current

• Where the phase difference  is given by

or equivalently

Impedance triangle
Types of circuits
• Every circuit can be assumed as containing L,C and R, even though not
deliberately included.
• In a circuit, if Xl > Xc , it is an inductive circuit. I lags behind V.
• In a circuit, if Xc > Xl , it is a capacitive circuit. I leads V.
Resonan All are
ce driven by
same
source. But
the natural
frequency
of 1 is
equal to
driver
frequency
Resonan
•ce
𝑉𝑚
We have im = = where Z =
𝑍
• When the values of inductance and capacitances are arranged in such
a way that Xl = Xc, the impedance Z = R and current amplitude
becomes maximum.
• This condition is called resonance .
• At resonance,
Or the resonance frequency
• Resonance is a condition of frequency matching.
• When the signal frequency is equal to natural frequency
the amplitude of current is maximum.
Sharpness of resonance
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
• Then the amplitude of current Im = =
𝑍
• As frequency of ac increases, Xl increases and Xc decreases.
• It is found that the current in this case, first increases ,reaches a
maximum and then decreases .

Resonance curve→
A plot of imax v/s 
Sharpness of resonance - The quality factor Q
• We select two values of frequencies 1 and 2 for which the current I is
𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥
.These points are corresponding to –half power –giving currents.
√2
• The difference 1 - 2 gives the band width of the circuit.
• If band width is less, the curve is sharp and circuit is highly selective. This
means the current is maximum at 0 and negligible above or below 0.
• The selectivity of a circuit is measured by a parameter called Q factor
which is given by
•Q =
• For high selectivity, reduce R and increase L
Power in an LCR circuit
• The instantaneous power p supplied by the source is given by

Sin A Sin B = ½ [cos (A-B)-cos (A+B)]

• When we take the average, < > =0

• So average power <P> = 𝑉𝑚
√2
= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑚
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
√2
= VrmsIrms cos
• The constant cos is called power factor which is obtained from
𝑅 𝑅
impedance triangle as cos = = 2 2
𝑍 √ 𝑅 +(𝑋𝑐−𝑋𝑙 )
Power consumed by an inductor
• Voltage applied
• Current flowing

𝜋
• Here the phase difference between voltage and current =
2
• Power consumed = VrmsI rms cos 
𝜋
• When  = , cos = 0 → P = 0
2
• Hence the average power consumed by an inductor in a full cycle of
AC is zero.So this current is called wattless current.
Wattless current
Power consumed by a capacitor
• Voltage applied
• Current flowing

𝜋
• Here the phase difference between voltage and current =
2
• Power consumed = VrmsI rms cos 
𝜋
• When  = , cos = 0 → P = 0
2
• Hence the average power consumed by a capacitor in a full cycle of
AC is also zero.So this current is called wattless current.
Transformer
• Transformer is a device used to alter AC voltage / current without
changing frequency. This is essential for transportation of electrical
energy to long distances.
• A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other.
• They are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other or
on separate limbs of the core.
• One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns. The other coil is
called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns. Often the primary coil is the
input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer.
Transformer
Working of a
transformer
• A transformer works based on mutual induction.
• The primary coil and secondary coil are wound over same core. So
same flux passes through the coils.
• But the flux linkage through the coils will be proportional to the
number of turns.
• A fluctuating emf applied in the primary will induce an emf in the
secondary.
• The emf induced is proportional to the flux linkage of secondary.
• The fluctuating emf induced in secondary , in turn will induce an emf
in primary which is proportional to its flux linkage.
Working of a
• Flux linkage of secondary = Ns 
transformer Faraday’s law:
• Emf induced in secondary s = Ns Emf induced is directly proportional
to rate of change of flux
• Emf induced in primary p = Np 𝑑

 𝑑𝑡
• We assume that the current in secondary is zero. So s=Vs.
• Similiarly from Kirchoff’s law, p = Vp
s = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠
• So
p Vp 𝑁𝑝
• 𝑁𝑠
is called the turns ratio of a transformer.
𝑁𝑝
• If Ns >Np, Vs >Vp .It is called a step up transformer.
• If Ns < Np, Vs < Vp .It is called a step down transformer
Working of a
transformer
• For conservation of power,
• VsIs= VpIp
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝
• So =
𝑉𝑝 Is
• A step up transformer increases voltage but reduces the current.
• A step down transformer decreases voltage but increases the current.
Step up v/s Step down
Step Up Step down
• Ns>Np • Ns<Np
• Vs >Vp • Vs <Vp
• Is<Ip • Is>Ip
• Thickness of primary coil is more • Thickness of secondary coil is
to handle large current. more to handle large current.
Losses in transformer
• (i.)Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux
due to primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or
the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and
secondary coils one over the other.
• (ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some
resistance and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I 2R). In high
current, low voltage windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.
• (iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the
iron core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
• (iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core
appears as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which
has a low hysteresis loss.
Advantages of AC v/s DC

 AC  DC
• AC voltage can be easily stepped up • Transformers do not work with DC.
 /down with transformers.
• AC at high voltages can be sent to • There are limits for DC voltage
long distances with minimum power
loss
• The cost of large scale production of • Batteries are expensive.
AC is less.
• AC can be easily converted to DC with
 simple rectifier circuits. • Complex Oscillator circuits are required to
• AC can be controlled without power convert DC to AC
• DC is controlled by resistors which results
 loss by choke coils. in power loss.
Disadvantages of AC
• AC is more dangerous than DC. Shocks from AC is fatal due to its
capacitive nature with earth.
• Comparing DC voltage with AC of same rms voltage, peak value of
AC is higher than the steady value of DC.
• AC cannot be used electroplating ,electro refining etc.
• AC frequency is not pure. It contains higher harmonics too.