PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Elements are the building blocks of all substances. There are 118 elements known at present, out of which
98 are naturally occurring. In order to study the properties of all these elements separately, scientists felt
the necessity to group elements having similar characteristics together. So, all the elements have been
divided into a few groups in such a way that elements in the same group have similar properties of
elements is reduced to the study of a few groups of elements.
EARLIER ATTEMPTS TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS
Several attempts have been made to classify the elements according to their properties. Some important
among them are discussed below.
1. DOBEREINER’S TRIADS (1817): In the year 1817, Johann wolfgang Dobereiner, a German Chemist; has
made an attempt to arrange the elements with similar properties into groups having three elements each.
He called these groups ‘Triads’. He showed that when the three elements in a triad were arranged in the
order of increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average atomic
masses of the other two elements.
IMPORTANCE: The given classification of elements into triads had a great significance in predicting atomic
mass and properties of middle element. Even in these days, these elements resemble in their properties.
LIMITATION: All the elements discovered at that time could not be classified into triads. He could identify
only three triads from the elements known at that time. Li, Na, K; Ca, Sr, Ba; Cl, Br, I.

2. NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES: In 1866, John Newlands’, an English Scientist, arranged the known
elements in the order of increasing atomic masses and found that every eighth element had properties
similar to that of the first. He compared this to the octaves found in music, i.e. sa, re, ga, ma, pa, da, ni.
LIMITATIONS:
(a) This law was applicable only up to calcium. After calcium, every eighth element do not possess the same
properties similar to that of the first.
(b) Newland assumed that there were only 56 elements existed in nature and no more elements would be
discovered in the future. But, later on, several new elements were discovered, whose properties did not fit
into the Law of Octaves.
(c) One more drawback is that, in order to fit elements into his table, Newlands’ adjusted two elements in
the same slot and also put some unlike elements under the same column. Example: Co and Ni are in the
same slot and these are place in the same column as ‘F’, ‘Cl’, and ‘Br’ which have very different properties
than these elements. Iron, which resembles Co and Ni in properties, has been placed far away from these
elements.
3. MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE (1834-1907)
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian Chemist, was the most important contributor for the early
development of a periodic table of elements where in the elements were arranged on the basis of their
fundamental property the atomic mass and also on the similarity of chemical properties. There were 63
elements known at his time. To classify these elements:
(a) He examined the relationship between the atomic masses of the elements and their physical and
chemical properties.
(b) Among chemical properties, he concentrated on the compounds formed by the elements with oxygen
and hydrogen as they are very reactive and form compounds with most elements.
(c) He took the formulae of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element as one of the basic properties of
an element for its classification.
He then arranged 63 elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses and found that the elements
with similar chemical properties occur at regular intervals. He observed that elements with similar
properties fall in the same vertical column. These vertical column are called ‘Groups’ and horizontal rows
of elements are called ‘Periods’.
On this basis, Mendeleev gave a Periodic Law, which states that “the properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic masses”.
FEATURES OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE:
The important features of this table are:
(a) This table contains 8 vertical columns, called groups and 6 horizontal rows, called periods.
(b) In his table, Mendeleev’s left gaps for the elements not discovered at that time. He named such
elements by prefixing a Sanskrit numeral Eka (one), divi (two), tri (three) etc., to the name of the preceding
similar (analogous) elements in the same group. Example: Eka-boron (Scandium), Eka-aluminium (Gallium),
Eka-silicon (Germanium).
(c) He also predicted the atomic masses and properties of several elements that were not known at that
time. Elements like scandium, gallium and Germanium have properties similar to those predicted by
Mendeleev.
(d) In order to group the elements having similar properties together, at some places. Mendeleev had to
place an element with a slightly greater atomic mass before an element with slightly lower atomic mass.
(e) Noble gases like Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), were discovered very late because they are very
inactive and present in extremely low concentrations in our atmosphere. One of the strengths of
Mendeleev’s Periodic table was that, when these gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new
group without disturbing the existing order.
LIMITATIONS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
Although this table was greatly helpful for the study of elements but a few anomalies could not be
explained on the basis of this table. These anomalies are:
1. POSITION OF HYROGEN: The electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles with alkali metals.
Moreover, it combines with halogen, oxygen and sulphur to give similar type of compounds as given by
‘Alkali metals’. Example: (HCl, NaCl), (H2O, Na2O), and (H2S, Na2S). But just like halogen it exists in diatomic
form and combines with metals and non-metals to form covalent compounds. Thus, its position was not
fixed in the Mendeleev’s periodic table but it was kept with alkali metals.
2. POSITION OF ISOTOPES: Isotopes of the elements, have similar chemical properties but different atomic
masses. In Mendeleev’s periodic table no place was given to these elements, e.g. the element Chlorine has
two isotopes, Cl-35, Cl-37, having atomic masses of 35 and 37 respectively. The placing of these two
isotopes of chlorine (having different atomic masses) in the same group of Periodic table could not be
explained by Mendeleev’s periodic law.
3. UNCERTAINITY IN ATOMIC MASSES: Another problem was that the atomic masses do not increase in a
regular manner in going from one element to the next. So, it was not possible to predict how many
elements could be discovered between two elements especially when we consider the heavier elements.
4. PLACING OF HEAVIER ELEMENT BEFORE THE LIGHTER ONE: Few elements, those possess higher atomic
mass were placed before elements having a lower atomic mass. Example: Argon (39.9) was placed before
potassium (39.1), Cobalt (58.9) before nickel (58.6), tellurium (127.60) before iodine (126.9).
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number of an element is a more fundamental property and
on the basis of this, he modified Mendeleev’s periodic law as “Physical and chemical properties of the
elements are a periodic function of their atomic number”. This is called ‘Modern Periodic Law’.
FEATURES OF MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
This table has 18 vertical columns, known as groups and 7 horizontal rows, known as periods.
FEATURES OF GROUPS
A few important features of the elements present in groups are as follows:
1. The groups are not divided into sub-groups.
2. The elements present in a group have the same number of valence or similar electrons.
3. The elements present in a group have the same valency.
4. The number of shells increases as we go down the group.
5. The elements present in a group have identical chemical properties.
6. The physical properties of the elements such as melting point, boiling point, density in a group vary
gradually.
FEATURES OF PERIODS
The important features of the elements in a period in a period are as follows:
1. Elements of a period do not have the same number of valence electrons but they contain the same
number of shells.
2.The number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit as the atomic number increases by one unit
on moving from left to right in a period. Therefore, the atoms of different elements with same number of
shells are placed in the same period.
3. As the number of valence shell electrons changes, the chemical properties of the elements also change.
4. Different periods have different number of electrons which can be explained on the basis of filling of
electrons into various shells. We can explain the number of elements in the periods based on how electrons
are filled into various shells. Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given by
the formula, 2n2, where, n= number of given shell from the nucleus.
5. K-shell has 2 elements, very short period.
6. L-shell has 8 elements, short period.
7. M-shell – 2 X 32 =18, but the outermost shell can have only 8 electrons, so the third period also has only 8
elements.
8. Fourth and fifth periods have 18 elements each, long periods.
9. Sixth and seventh periods have 32 elements, very long periods.
BLOCKS OF PERIODIC TABLE: The periodic table is divided into 4 blocks.
1. ‘s’ block elements, which includes group 1 and group 2.
2. ‘p’ block elements includes group 13 -18.
3. ‘d’-block elements includes group 3 to 12.
4. ‘f’- block elements. It includes 14 elements after lanthanum (La-57) called ‘Lanthanides’ and 14 elements
after actinium (Ac-89) called actinoids.
POSITION OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
In order to find the position of an element in the periodic table, first write its electronic configuration and
then find period and group number from its electronic configuration in the following way:
1. The period number of an element is equal to the number of electron shells in its atom.
2. If two or more elements have the same number of valence shells, then they belong to the same period of
the periodic table.
3. The group number of an element having up to two valence electrons is equal to the number of valence
electrons. If an element has 1 valence electron, it belongs to group 1. And if an element has 2 valence
electrons, it belongs to group 2 of the periodic table. The group number of an element having more than 2
valence electrons is equal to the number of valence electrons plus 10.
4. If two or more elements have the same number of valence electrons then they belong to the same group
of the periodic table.
EXPLANATION OF THE ANOMALIES OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
1. The fundamental basis for Modern Periodic table is atomic number, not atomic mass, hence it is more
accurate.
2. Since, the table is based on atomic number and isotopes have same atomic number and chemical
properties, so they can be put at one place in the same group of the periodic table.
3. In this periodic table, a unique position has been given to hydrogen. It is kept at the left corner because
of its unique characteristics.
4. The position of cobalt and nickel is justified itself because atomic number of cobalt is less than atomic
number of nickel.
TRENDS IN THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
1. VALENCY: It is the combining capacity of an atom of an element to acquire noble gas configuration and
depends upon the number of valence electrons, i.e. the electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom.
For the elements of group 1,2,13 and 14, valency= number of valence electron(s), whereas for the elements
of group 15 onwards, valency= 8 – valence electrons.
VARIATION ALONG A GROUP
In a group, outer electronic configuration is same for all the elements, so all have the same number of
valence electrons and the valency. Example, all the elements of group 1 have valency=1.
VARIATION ALONG A PERIOD
The valency increases from 1 to 4 (till group 14) and the decreases to zero from group 15 to group 18.
2. ATOMIC SIZE: It refers to the radius of an atom it may be visualized as the distance between the center of
the nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom. It is measured in Pico meters. 1 pm= 10-12 m.
VARIATION ALONG A GROUP
The atomic size increases down the group. This is because new shells are being added as we go down the
group. This increases the distance between the outermost electrons and the nucleus so that the atomic size
increases in spite of the increase in nuclear charge.
Li 152 F 64
Na 186 Cl 99
K 231 Br 114
Rb 244 I 133
Cs 262
Fr 270
VARIATION ALONG A PERIOD
The atomic radius decreases on moving from left to right along a period. This is due to an increase in
nuclear charge which trends to pull the valence electrons closer to the nucleus and reduces the size of the
atom.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
186 160 143 118 110 104 99
3.METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC PROPERTIES
Elements having a tendency to lose one or more electrons and form positive ions are called metals. These
are present on the left side as well as in the centre of the periodic table. The tendency of these elements to
lose electrons is called their metallic character. Because of the formation of positive ions, these are also
called ‘Electropositive elements’. Non-metals are the elements which have a tendency to gain one or more
electrons to form negative ions. Thus, these are called ‘electronegative elements’. These are present on the
right side in the periodic table. The non-metallic character of the elements is due to their electron accepting
tendency.
These are some elements which exhibit the properties of both metals and non-metals. These are called
‘metalloids’. In the modern periodic table, a zigzag line separates metals from non-metals. The borderline
elements-boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium are intermediate in
properties so they are called metalloids and semi-metals.
VARIATION ALONG A PERIOD AND A GROUP
As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a period, the tendency
to lose electrons will decrease. Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence
electrons decreases because the outermost electrons are farther away from the nucleus.
Therefore, these can be lost easily. Hence, metallic character decreases across a period and increases down
a group. Non-metallic character, however increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal
4.NATURE OF OXIDES
Oxides of the metals are of basic nature while those of non-metals are acidic. This means that along a
period, the basic character of the oxides of the elements decreases while their acidic character increases.
Sodium oxide Strongly basic
Magnesium oxide Basic
Aluminium oxide Amphoteric
Silicon dioxide Weakly acidic
Phosphorus oxide Acidic
Sulphur dioxide Strongly acidic
Chlorine heptoxide Very strongly acidic
Ongoing down in a group of the periodic table, the order is reversed, i.e. basic character of oxides increases
and acidic character of oxides decreases.
5.ELECTRONEGATIVITY
It may be defined as the relative electron attracting tendency of an atom for a shared electron pair in a
covalent bond with other atom.
VARIATION ALONG A PERIOD AND A GROUP
The electronegativity of the elements increases along a period since the non-metallic character increases.
Similarly, it decreases down the group since the non-metallic character decreases.