Integrated circuit

An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip or simply chip, is a set of electronic
circuits, consisting of various electronic components (such as transistors, resistors, and
capacitors) and their interconnections.[1] These components are etched onto a small, flat piece
("chip") of semiconductor material, usually silicon.[1] Integrated circuits are used in a wide range
of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, and televisions, to perform various
functions such as processing and storing information. They have greatly impacted the field of
electronics by enabling device miniaturization and enhanced functionality.

A microscope image of an integrated

circuit die used to control LCDs. The
pinouts are the dark circles
surrounding the integrated circuit.

Integrated circuits are orders of magnitude smaller, faster, and less expensive than those
constructed of discrete components, allowing a large transistor count.
The IC's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to integrated circuit
design have ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete
transistors. ICs are now used in virtually all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the
world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now essential
parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size and low cost of ICs
such as modern computer processors and microcontrollers.

Very-large-scale integration was made practical by technological advancements in

semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity
of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more
transistors on chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of transistors in
an area the size of a human fingernail. These advances, roughly following Moore's law, make the
computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the
speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s.

ICs have three main advantages over circuits constructed out of discrete components: size, cost
and performance. The size and cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are
printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time.
Furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high
because the IC's components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of
their small size and proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high initial cost of designing
them and the enormous capital cost of factory construction. This high initial cost means ICs are
only commercially viable when high production volumes are anticipated.

Terminology
An integrated circuit is defined as:[2]

A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably

associated and electrically interconnected so that it is considered to
be indivisible for the purposes of construction and commerce.
In strict usage, integrated circuit refers to the single-piece circuit construction originally known
as a monolithic integrated circuit, which comprises a single piece of silicon.[3][4] In general usage,
circuits not meeting this strict definition are sometimes referred to as ICs, which are constructed
using many different technologies, e.g. 3D IC, 2.5D IC, MCM, thin-film transistors, thick-film
technologies, or hybrid integrated circuits. The choice of terminology frequently appears in
discussions related to whether Moore's Law is obsolete.

Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit;

the world's first. Made from
germanium with gold-wire
interconnects.

History
An early attempt at combining several components in one device (like modern ICs) was the
Loewe 3NF vacuum tube first made in 1926.[5][6] Unlike ICs, it was designed with the purpose of
tax avoidance, as in Germany, radio receivers had a tax that was levied depending on how many
tube holders a radio receiver had. It allowed radio receivers to have a single tube holder. One
million were manufactured, and were "a first step in integration of radioelectronic devices".[7] The
device contained an amplifier, composed of three triodes, two capacitors and four resistors in a
six-pin device.[8] Radios with the Loewe 3NF were less expensive than other radios,[9] showing
one of the advantages of integration over using discrete components, that would be seen
decades later with ICs.[10]

Early concepts of an integrated circuit go back to 1949, when German engineer Werner Jacobi[11]
(Siemens AG)[12] filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device[13]
showing five transistors on a common substrate in a three-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi
disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. An
immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported.
Another early proponent of the concept was Geoffrey Dummer (1909–2002), a radar scientist
working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence. Dummer presented
the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in
Washington, D.C., on 7 May 1952.[14] He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas
and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. Between 1953 and 1957, Sidney
Darlington and Yasuo Tarui (Electrotechnical Laboratory) proposed similar chip designs where
several transistors could share a common active area, but there was no electrical isolation to
separate them from each other.[11]

The monolithic integrated circuit chip was enabled by the inventions of the planar process by
Jean Hoerni and p–n junction isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's invention was built on Carl
Frosch and Lincoln Derick's work on surface protection and passivation by silicon dioxide
masking and predeposition,[15][16][17] as well as Fuller, Ditzenberger's and others work on the
diffusion of impurities into silicon. [18][19][20][21][22]

The first integrated circuits

Robert Noyce invented the first

monolithic integrated circuit in 1959.
The chip was made from silicon.

A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic substrates (so-called micromodules),[23]
each containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and
wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very
promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby[23] and led to the short-lived
Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy).[23][24][25] However, as the project was
gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC.
Newly employed by Texas Instruments, Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated
circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working example of an integrated circuit
on 12 September 1958.[26] In his patent application of 6 February 1959,[27] Kilby described his
new device as "a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the electronic
circuit are completely integrated".[28] The first customer for the new invention was the US Air
Force.[29] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in physics for his part in the invention of the integrated
circuit.[30]

However, Kilby's invention was not a true monolithic integrated circuit chip since it had external
gold-wire connections, which would have made it difficult to mass-produce.[31] Half a year after
Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first true monolithic IC chip.[32][31]
More practical than Kilby's implementation, Noyce's chip was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's
was made of germanium, and Noyce's was fabricated using the planar process, developed in
early 1959 by his colleague Jean Hoerni and included the critical on-chip aluminum
interconnecting lines. Modern IC chips are based on Noyce's monolithic IC,[32][31] rather than
Kilby's.

NASA's Apollo Program was the largest single consumer of integrated circuits between 1961
and 1965.[33]

TTL integrated circuits

Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was developed by James L. Buie in the early 1960s at TRW Inc.
TTL became the dominant integrated circuit technology during the 1970s to early 1980s.[34]
 Dov Frohman, an Israeli electrical
engineer who developed the EPROM
in 1969-1971

Dozens of TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the processors of
minicomputers and mainframe computers. Computers such as IBM 360 mainframes, PDP-11
minicomputers and the desktop Datapoint 2200 were built from bipolar integrated circuits,[35]
either TTL or the even faster emitter-coupled logic (ECL).

MOS integrated circuits

Nearly all modern IC chips are metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuits, built from
MOSFETs (metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistors).[36] The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs
between 1955 and 1960,[37][38][39][40][41][42][43] made it possible to build high-density integrated
circuits.[44] In contrast to bipolar transistors which required a number of steps for the p–n
junction isolation of transistors on a chip, MOSFETs required no such steps but could be easily
isolated from each other.[45] Its advantage for integrated circuits was pointed out by Dawon
Kahng in 1961.[46] The list of IEEE milestones includes the first integrated circuit by Kilby in
1958,[47] Hoerni's planar process and Noyce's planar IC in 1959.[48]

The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman
and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[49] General Microelectronics later introduced the first
commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964,[50] a 120-transistor shift register developed by
Robert Norman.[49] By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower
manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate
predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on
a single MOS chip by the late 1960s.[51]

Following the development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET by Robert Kerwin,
Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967,[52] the first silicon-gate MOS IC technology
with self-aligned gates, the basis of all modern CMOS integrated circuits, was developed at
Fairchild Semiconductor by Federico Faggin in 1968.[53] The application of MOS LSI chips to
computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a
complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. This led to the
inventions of the microprocessor and the microcontroller by the early 1970s.[51] During the early
1970s, MOS integrated circuit technology enabled the very large-scale integration (VLSI) of more
than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.[54]

At first, MOS-based computers only made sense when high density was required, such as
aerospace and pocket calculators. Computers built entirely from TTL, such as the 1970
Datapoint 2200, were much faster and more powerful than single-chip MOS microprocessors
such as the 1972 Intel 8008 until the early 1980s.[35]

Advances in IC technology, primarily smaller features and larger chips, have allowed the number
of MOS transistors in an integrated circuit to double every two years, a trend known as Moore's
law. Moore originally stated it would double every year, but he went on to change the claim to
every two years in 1975.[55] This increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and
increase functionality. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost every aspect of an IC's
operation improves. The cost per transistor and the switching power consumption per transistor
goes down, while the memory capacity and speed go up, through the relationships defined by
Dennard scaling (MOSFET scaling).[56] Because speed, capacity, and power consumption gains
are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer
geometries. Over the years, transistor sizes have decreased from tens of microns in the early
1970s to 10 nanometers in 2017[57] with a corresponding million-fold increase in transistors per
unit area. As of 2016, typical chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around
600 mm2, with up to 25 million transistors per mm2.[58]

The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast
for many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The final
ITRS was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and
Systems.[59]

Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of
other technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost.
These technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.

Charge-coupled devices, and the closely

related active-pixel sensors, are chips
that are sensitive to light. They have
largely replaced photographic film in
scientific, medical, and consumer
applications. Billions of these devices
are now produced each year for
applications such as cellphones, tablets,
and digital cameras. This sub-field of
ICs won the Nobel Prize in 2009.[60]
Very small mechanical devices driven by
electricity can be integrated onto chips,
a technology known as
microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS). These devices were developed
in the late 1980s[61] and are used in a
variety of commercial and military
applications. Examples include DLP
projectors, inkjet printers, and
accelerometers and MEMS gyroscopes
used to deploy automobile airbags.
Since the early 2000s, the integration of
optical functionality (optical computing)
into silicon chips has been actively
pursued in both academic research and
in industry resulting in the successful
commercialization of silicon based
integrated optical transceivers
combining optical devices (modulators,
detectors, routing) with CMOS based
electronics.[62] Photonic integrated
circuits that use light such as
Lightelligence's PACE (Photonic
Arithmetic Computing Engine) also
being developed, using the emerging
field of physics known as photonics.[63]
Integrated circuits are also being
developed for sensor applications in
medical implants or other bioelectronic
devices.[64] Special sealing techniques
have to be applied in such biogenic
environments to avoid corrosion or
 biodegradation of the exposed
semiconductor materials.[65]
As of 2018, the vast majority of all transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a single layer on one
side of a chip of silicon in a flat two-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced
prototypes of several promising alternatives, such as:

various approaches to stacking several

layers of transistors to make a three-
dimensional integrated circuit (3DIC),
such as through-silicon via, "monolithic
3D",[66] stacked wire bonding,[67] and
other methodologies.
transistors built from other materials:
graphene transistors, molybdenite
transistors, carbon nanotube field-effect
transistor, gallium nitride transistor,
transistor-like nanowire electronic
 devices, organic field-effect transistor,
etc.
fabricating transistors over the entire
surface of a small sphere of
silicon.[68][69]
modifications to the substrate, typically
to make "flexible transistors" for a
flexible display or other flexible
electronics, possibly leading to a roll-
away computer.
As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using multi-
chip modules/chiplets, three-dimensional integrated circuits, package on package, High
Bandwidth Memory and through-silicon vias with die stacking to increase performance and
reduce size, without having to reduce the size of the transistors. Such techniques are collectively
known as advanced packaging.[70] Advanced packaging is mainly divided into 2.5D and 3D
packaging. 2.5D describes approaches such as multi-chip modules while 3D describes
approaches where dies are stacked in one way or another, such as package on package and
high bandwidth memory. All approaches involve 2 or more dies in a single
package.[71][72][73][74][75] Alternatively, approaches such as 3D NAND stack multiple layers on a
single die. A technique has been demonstrated to include microfluidic cooling on integrated
circuits, to improve cooling performance[76] as well as peltier thermoelectric coolers on solder
bumps, or thermal solder bumps used exclusively for heat dissipation, used in flip-chip.[77][78]
Design

Virtual detail of an integrated circuit

through four layers of planarized
copper interconnect, down to the
polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and
substrate (green)

The cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the
multiple tens of millions of dollars.[79][80] Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce
integrated circuit products with high production volume, so the non-recurring engineering (NRE)
costs are spread across typically millions of production units.

Modern semiconductor chips have billions of components, and are far too complex to be
designed by hand. Software tools to help the designer are essential. Electronic design
automation (EDA), also referred to as electronic computer-aided design (ECAD),[81] is a category
of software tools for designing electronic systems, including integrated circuits. The tools work
together in a design flow that engineers use to design, verify, and analyze entire semiconductor
chips. Some of the latest EDA tools use artificial intelligence (AI) to help engineers save time
and improve chip performance.
Types

A-to-D converter IC in a DIP

Integrated circuits can be broadly classified into analog,[82] digital[83] and mixed signal,[84]
consisting of analog and digital signaling on the same IC.

Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[58] of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other
circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low
power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration.
These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to
process "one" and "zero" signals.

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit

NMOS microcontroller that includes a
CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of
RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O
in the same chip

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", used in
personal computers, cell-phones, etc. Several cores may be integrated together in a single IC or
chip. Digital memory chips and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are examples of
other families of integrated circuits.

In the 1980s, programmable logic devices were developed. These devices contain circuits
whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed
by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a chip to be programmed to do various LSI-
type functions such as logic gates, adders and registers. Programmability comes in various
forms – devices that can be programmed only once, devices that can be erased and then re-
programmed using UV light, devices that can be (re)programmed using flash memory, and field-
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which can be programmed at any time, including during
operation. Current FPGAs can (as of 2016) implement the equivalent of millions of gates and
operate at frequencies up to 1 GHz.[85]

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers (op-amps),
process continuous signals, and perform analog functions such as amplification, active filtering,
demodulation, and mixing.

ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to create functions such as analog-to-
digital converters and digital-to-analog converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size
and lower cost, but must account for signal interference. Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not
be fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, radio
chips have been developed using RF CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless
phone, or 802.11 (Wi-Fi) chips created by Atheros and other companies.[86]

Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits:

Digital ICs are categorized as logic ICs

(such as microprocessors and
microcontrollers), memory chips (such
as MOS memory and floating-gate
memory), interface ICs (level shifters,
serializer/deserializer, etc.), power
management ICs, and programmable
devices.
Analog ICs are categorized as linear
integrated circuits and RF circuits (radio
frequency circuits).
Mixed-signal integrated circuits are
categorized as data acquisition ICs
(including A/D converters, D/A
converters, digital potentiometers),
clock/timing ICs, switched capacitor
(SC) circuits, and RF CMOS circuits.
Three-dimensional integrated circuits
(3D ICs) are categorized into through-
 silicon via (TSV) ICs and Cu-Cu
connection ICs.

Manufacturing

Fabrication

Rendering of a small standard cell

with three metal layers (dielectric has
been removed). The sand-colored
structures are metal interconnect,
with the vertical pillars being
contacts, typically plugs of tungsten.
The reddish structures are polysilicon
gates, and the solid at the bottom is
the crystalline silicon bulk.
 Schematic structure of a CMOS chip,
as built in the early 2000s. The
graphic shows LDD-MISFET's on an
SOI substrate with five metallization
layers and solder bump for flip-chip
bonding. It also shows the section for
FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL (back-
end of line) and first parts of back-end
process.

The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most
likely materials for a solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to
germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s.
Today, monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ICs although some III-V
compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications
like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect
methods of creating crystals with minimal defects in semiconducting materials' crystal
structure.

Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a planar process which includes three key process steps –
photolithography, deposition (such as chemical vapor deposition), and etching. The main
process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. More recent or high-performance ICs
may instead use multi-gate FinFET or GAAFET transistors instead of planar ones, starting at the
22 nm node (Intel) or 16/14 nm nodes.[87]

Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for special applications, other
semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely silicon.
Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have
polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them.
Dopants are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its electronic
properties. Doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material.

Integrated circuits are composed of

many overlapping layers, each defined
by photolithography, and normally
shown in different colors. Some layers
mark where various dopants are
diffused into the substrate (called
diffusion layers), some define where
additional ions are implanted (implant
layers), some define the conductors
(doped polysilicon or metal layers), and
some define the connections between
the conducting layers (via or contact
layers). All components are constructed
from a specific combination of these
layers.
In a self-aligned CMOS process, a
transistor is formed wherever the gate
layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a
diffusion layer (this is called "the self-
aligned gate").[88]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1)
Capacitive structures, in form very much
like the parallel conducting plates of a
traditional electrical capacitor, are
formed according to the area of the
"plates", with insulating material
between the plates. Capacitors of a
wide range of sizes are common on ICs.
 Meandering stripes of varying lengths
are sometimes used to form on-chip
resistors, though most logic circuits do
not need any resistors. The ratio of the
length of the resistive structure to its
width, combined with its sheet
resistivity, determines the resistance.
More rarely, inductive structures can be
built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated
by gyrators.
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices
consume much less current than bipolar junction transistor devices.

A random-access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density
devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the
regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate –
with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the
device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although
light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would
be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used
to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are
essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process.
Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process
known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of
which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package
using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are thermosonically bonded[89] to pads, usually
found around the edge of the die. Thermosonic bonding was first introduced by A. Coucoulas
which provided a reliable means of forming these vital electrical connections to the outside
world. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used
during wafer probing. Industrial CT scanning can also be used. Test cost can account for over
25% of the cost of fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on low-yielding,
larger, or higher-cost devices.

As of 2022, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab) can cost over US$12
billion to construct.[90] The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time because of increased
complexity of new products; this is known as Rock's law. Such a facility features:

The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter

(wider than a common dinner plate).
As of 2022, 5 nm transistors.
Copper interconnects where copper
wiring replaces aluminum for
interconnects.
Low-κ dielectric insulators.
Silicon on insulator (SOI).
 Strained silicon in a process used by
IBM known as Strained silicon directly
on insulator (SSDOI).
Multigate devices such as tri-gate
transistors.
ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using the
foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that design,
manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing (foundry)
services to other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry model,
fabless companies (like Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing to pure
play foundries such as TSMC. These foundries may offer IC design services.

Packaging

A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in

1977, part of a four-chip calculator
set designed in 1970[91]
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used
by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging
quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic, which is
commonly cresol-formaldehyde-novolac. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the
practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC)
packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late
1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by
the small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC) package – a carrier which occupies an area about 30–
50% less than an equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner. This package has "gull wing" leads
protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.

In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-outline package (TSOP) packages
became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still used for
high-end microprocessors.

Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages,
which allow for a much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s.
In an FCBGA package, the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package
balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires.
FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over
the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. BGA devices have the advantage of
not needing a dedicated socket but are much harder to replace in case of device failure.

Intel transitioned away from PGA to land grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in 2004, with the
last PGA socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018, AMD uses PGA packages on
mainstream desktop processors,[92] BGA packages on mobile processors,[93] and high-end
desktop and server microprocessors use LGA packages.[94]

Electrical signals leaving the die must pass through the material electrically connecting the die
to the package, through the conductive traces (paths) in the package, through the leads
connecting the package to the conductive traces on the printed circuit board. The materials and
structures used in the path these electrical signals must travel have very different electrical
properties, compared to those that travel to different parts of the same die. As a result, they
require special design techniques to ensure the signals are not corrupted, and much more
electric power than signals confined to the die itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a system in package, abbreviated SiP. A
multi-chip module (MCM), is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often
made of ceramic. The distinction between a large MCM and a small printed circuit board is
sometimes fuzzy.

Packaged integrated circuits are usually large enough to include identifying information. Four
common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch
number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was
manufactured. Extremely small surface-mount technology parts often bear only a number used
in a manufacturer's lookup table to find the integrated circuit's characteristics.

The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit

week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or
approximately in October 1983.

Intellectual property
The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing
photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the
introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip
Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to
produce integrated circuits.[95]

A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C., in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual

Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits,[96] also called the Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty.
The treaty is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPS agreement.[97]

There are several United States patents connected to the integrated circuit, which include
patents by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3138743) ,
US3,261,081 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3261081) , US3,434,015 (https://patents.g
oogle.com/patent/US3434015) and by R.F. Stewart US3,138,747 (https://patents.google.com/
patent/US3138747) .

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries,
including Japan,[98] the EC,[99] the UK, Australia, and Korea. The UK enacted the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act, 1988, c. 48, § 213, after it initially took the position that its copyright
law fully protected chip topographies. See British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co.
Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are
summarized in further chip rights developments.[100]

Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection.[101]
Korea passed the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in
1992.[102]

Generations
In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to
only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively
simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. As metal–oxide–
semiconductor (MOS) technology progressed, millions and then billions of MOS transistors
could be placed on one chip,[103] and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to the
field of electronic design automation, or EDA. Some SSI and MSI chips, like discrete transistors,
are still mass-produced, both to maintain old equipment and build new devices that require only
a few gates. The 7400 series of TTL chips, for example, has become a de facto standard and
remains in production.

Transistor Logic gates

Acronym Name Year
count[104] number[105]

SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12

MSI medium-scale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99

LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999

very large-scale
VLSI 1980 20 000 to 1 000 000 10 000 to 99 999
integration

ultra-large-scale
ULSI 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more
integration
Small-scale integration (SSI)
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing tens
of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the
Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated circuit
has increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first used by
IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[106] that term gave rise to
the terms "small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large-scale
integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were
SSI.

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire
development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed
lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance
Computer led and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[107] it was the Minuteman missile that
forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United States
Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968,
U.S. Government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312 million
total production.

The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs
fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the industrial market and eventually the consumer
market. The average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968.[108]
Integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the 1970s decade. A
typical application was FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.

The first application MOS chips were small-scale integration (SSI) chips.[109] Following
Mohamed M. Atalla's proposal of the MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960,[110] the earliest
experimental MOS chip to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and
Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[49] The first practical application of MOS SSI chips was for
NASA satellites.[109]
Medium-scale integration (MSI)
The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained
hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).

MOSFET scaling technology made it possible to build high-density chips.[44] By 1964, MOS chips
had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips.[51]

In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with a then-
incredible 120 MOS transistors on a single chip.[109][111] The same year, General Microelectronics
introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120 p-channel MOS
transistors.[50] It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman[49] and Frank
Wanlass.[112][113] MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law,
leading to chips with hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip by the late 1960s.[51]

Large-scale integration (LSI)

Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors, led
to "large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per
chip.[114]

The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as
the microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape
or similar.[115] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done
by specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a
team of engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the
correctness and completeness of each mask.

Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that
began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000
transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around
1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)

Upper interconnect layers on an Intel

80486DX2 microprocessor die

"Very-large-scale integration" (VLSI) is a development that started with hundreds of thousands of

transistors in the early 1980s. As of 2023, maximum transistor counts continue to grow beyond
5.3 trillion transistors per chip.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to
smaller MOSFET design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities. The path of process
improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
(ITRS), which has since been succeeded by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems
(IRDS). Electronic design tools improved, making it practical to finish designs in a reasonable
time. The more energy-efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive
increase in power consumption. The complexity and density of modern VLSI devices made it no
longer feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand. Instead, engineers use EDA
tools to perform most functional verification work.[116]

In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips were introduced, containing more
than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989,
and the billion-transistor mark in 2005.[117] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips
introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[118]

ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale
integration" was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[119]

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an
entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and
reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably
massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale
Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.[120][121]

A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for
a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be
complex and costly, and whilst performance benefits can be had from integrating all needed
components on one die, the cost of licensing and developing a one-die machine still outweigh
having separate devices. With appropriate licensing, these drawbacks are offset by lower
manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals
among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging).[122]
Further, signal sources and destinations are physically closer on die, reducing the length of
wiring and therefore latency, transmission power costs and waste heat from communication
between modules on the same chip. This has led to an exploration of so-called Network-on-Chip
(NoC) devices, which apply system-on-chip design methodologies to digital communication
networks as opposed to traditional bus architectures.

A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic
components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit.
Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower
than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially
reduce overall wire length for faster operation.[123]
Silicon labeling and graffiti
To allow identification during production, most silicon Silicon chips will have a serial number in
one corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some
chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or
words. These artistic additions, often created with great attention to detail, showcase the
designers' creativity and add a touch of personality to otherwise utilitarian components. These
are sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.

ICs and IC families

The 555 timer IC

The Operational amplifier
7400-series integrated circuits
4000-series integrated circuits, the
CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series
(see also: 74HC00 series)
Intel 4004, generally regarded as the
first commercially available
microprocessor, which led to the 8008,
the famous 8080 CPU, the 8086, 8088
(used in the original IBM PC), and the
fully-backward compatible (with the
8088/8086) 80286, 80386/i386, i486,
etc.
The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog
Z80 microprocessors, used in many
home computers of the early 1980s
The Motorola 6800 series of computer-
related chips, leading to the 68000 and
88000 series (the 68000 series was very
successful and was used in the Apple
 Lisa and pre-PowerPC-based Macintosh,
Commodore Amiga, Atari
ST/TT/Falcon030, and NeXT families of
computers, along with many models of
workstations and servers from many
manufacturers in the 80s, along with
many other systems and devices)
The LM-series of analog integrated
circuits

See also

Electronics portal

Physics portal

Technology portal
Telecommunication
portal
Engineering portal
History of science
portal
Companies portal
Computer
programming
portal
Telephones portal

Central processing unit

Chip carrier
CHIPS and Science Act
Chipset
Czochralski method
Dark silicon
Ion implantation
Integrated injection logic
Integrated passive devices
Interconnect bottleneck
Heat generation in integrated circuits
High-temperature operating life
Microelectronics
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
Multi-threshold CMOS
Silicon–germanium
Sound chip
SPICE
Thermal simulations for integrated
circuits
Hybrot
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size-chips/) . Ars Technica.

122. US patent 6816750 (https://worldwide.

espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC
&IDX=US6816750) , Klaas, Jeff,
"System-on-a-chip", published 2000
123. Topol, A.W.; Tulipe, D.C.La; Shi, L; et., al
(2006). "Three-dimensional integrated
circuits". IBM Journal of Research and
Development. 50 (4.5): 491–506.
doi:10.1147/rd.504.0491 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1147%2Frd.504.0491) .
S2CID 18432328 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:18432328) .

Further reading

Veendrick, H.J.M. (2025). Nanometer

CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs.
Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-64248-7.
OCLC 1463505655 (https://search.world
cat.org/oclc/1463505655) .
Baker, R.J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design,
Layout, and Simulation (3rd ed.). Wiley-
IEEE. ISBN 978-0-470-88132-3.
OCLC 699889340 (https://search.worldc
at.org/oclc/699889340) .
Marsh, Stephen P. (2006). Practical
MMIC design. Artech House. ISBN 978-
1-59693-036-0. OCLC 1261968369 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12619683
69) .
Camenzind, Hans (2005). Designing
Analog Chips (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20170612055924/http://www.design
inganalogchips.com/_count/designinga
nalogchips.pdf) (PDF). Virtual
Bookworm. ISBN 978-1-58939-718-7.
OCLC 926613209 (https://search.worldc
at.org/oclc/926613209) . Archived from
the original (http://www.designinganalo
gchips.com/_count/designinganalogchi
ps.pdf) (PDF) on 12 June 2017. "Hans
Camenzind invented the 555 timer"
Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh,
Resve (2003). Analysis and Design of
Digital Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-228365-5.
OCLC 840380650 (https://search.worldc
at.org/oclc/840380650) .
Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic,
B. (2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (http
 s://archive.org/details/agilesoftwaredev
00robe) (2nd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-
13-090996-1. OCLC 893541089 (https://
search.worldcat.org/oclc/893541089) .
Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1991).
Introduction to VLSI systems (https://arc
hive.org/details/introductiontovl00mea
d) . Addison Wesley Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7.
OCLC 634332043 (https://search.worldc
at.org/oclc/634332043) .

External links

Media related to Integrated circuits at

Wikimedia Commons
 The first monolithic integrated circuits
(https://web.archive.org/web/20120319
150151/http://homepages.nildram.co.u
k/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm)
A large chart listing ICs by generic
number (http://rtellason.com/ic-generic.
html) including access to most of the
datasheets for the parts.
The History of the Integrated Circuit (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20170702192
457/http://www.nobelprize.org/educatio
nal/physics/integrated_circuit/history/)

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