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 Name:_______________________ CSCI 1302 OO Programming
Armstrong Atlantic State University
(50 minutes) Instructor: Y. Daniel Liang

Part I:

(A)
B’s constructor is invoked
A’s constructor is invoked

(B)
(a) The program has a syntax error because x does not have the compareTo
method.

(b) The program has a syntax error because the member access operator (.) is
executed before the casting operator.

(C)
(1) false
(2) true
(3) false (because they are created at different times)
(4) true

(D) Will statement3 be executed?

Answer: No.

If the exception is not caught, will statement4 be executed?

Answer: No.

If the exception is caught in the catch clause, will statement4 be

executed?
Answer: Yes.

(E) The method throws a checked exception. You have to declare to throw
the exception in the method header.

Part II:

public static Comparable max(Comparable[] a) {

Comparable result = a[0];

for (int i = 1; i < a.length; i++)

if (result.compareTo(a[i]) < 0)
result = a[i];

1
 return result;
}

public class Hexagon extends GeometricObject implements Comparable {

private double side;

/** Construct a Hexagon with the specified side */

public Hexagon(double side) {
// Implement it
this.side = side;
}

/** Implement the abstract method getArea in

GeometricObject */
public double getArea() {
// Implement it ( area = 3 * 3 * side * side )
return 3 * Math.squr(3) * side * side;
}

/** Implement the abstract method getPerimeter in

GeometricObject */
public double getPerimeter() {
// Implement it
Return 6 * side;
}

/** Implement the compareTo method in

the Comparable interface to */
public int compareTo(Object obj) {
// Implement it (compare two Hexagons based on their areas)
if (this.side > ((Hexagon)obj).side)
return 1;
else if (this.side == ((Hexagon)obj).side)
return 0;
else
return -1;
}
}

Part III: Multiple Choice Questions:

1. A subclass inherits _____________ from its superclass.

a. private method
b. protected method
c. public method
d. a and c
e. b and c
Key:e

2
#
2. Show the output of running the class Test in the following code:

interface A {
void print();
}

class C {}

class B extends C implements A {

public void print() { }
}

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
B b = new B();
if (b instanceof A)
System.out.println("b is an instance of A");
if (b instanceof C)
System.out.println("b is an instance of C");
}
}

a. Nothing.
b. b is an instance of A.
c. b is an instance of C.
d. b is an instance of A followed by b is an instance of C.
Key:d

#
3. When you implement a method that is defined in a superclass, you
__________ the original method.

a. overload
b. override
c. copy
d. call
Key:b

#
4. What is the output of running the class C.

public class C {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Object[] o = {new A(), new B()};
System.out.print(o[0]);
System.out.print(o[1]);
}
}

class A extends B {
public String toString() {
return "A";
}
}

3
class B {
public String toString() {
return "B";
}
}

a. AB
b. BA
c. AA
d. BB
e. None of above
Key:a

#
5. What is the output of running class C?

class A {
public A() {
System.out.println(
"The default constructor of A is invoked");
}
}

class B extends A {
public B(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}

public class C {
public static void main(String[] args) {
B b = new B("The constructor of B is invoked");
}
}
a. none
b. "The constructor of B is invoked"
c. "The default constructor of A is invoked" "The constructor of B
is invoked"
d. "The default constructor of A is invoked"
Key:c

#
6. Analyze the following code:

public class Test1 {

public Object max(Object o1, Object o2) {
if ((Comparable)o1.compareTo(o2) >= 0) {
return o1;
}
else {
return o2;
}
}
}

a. The program has a syntax error because Test1 does not have a main
method.

4
b. The program has a syntax error because o1 is an Object instance
and it does not have the compareTo method.
c. The program has a syntax error because you cannot cast an Object
instance o1 into Comparable.
d. The program would compile if ((Comparable)o1.compareTo(o2) >= 0)
is replaced by (((Comparable)o1).compareTo(o2) >= 0).
e. b and d are both correct.
Key:e

#
7. The method _____ overrides the following method:

protected double xMethod(int x) {…};

a. private double xMethod(int x) {…}

b. protected int xMethod(double x) {…}
c. public double xMethod(double x) {…}
d. public double xMethod(int x) {…}
Key:d

#
8. Which of the following possible modifications will fix the errors in
this code?

public class Test {

private double code;

public double getCode() {

return code;
}

protected abstract void setCode(double code);

}

a. Remove abstract in the setCode method declaration.

b. Change protected to public.
c. Add abstract in the class declaration.
d. b and c.
Key:c

#
9. Analyze the following code.

class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Object x = new Integer(2);
System.out.println(x.toString());
}
}

a. The program has syntax errors because an Integer object is

assigned to x.
b. When x.toString() is invoked, the toString() method in the Object
class is used.
c. When x.toString() is invoked, the toString() method in the
Integer class is used.
d. None of the above.

5
Key:c

#
10. What exception type does the following program throw?
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Object o = new Object();
String d = (String)o;
}
}

a. ArithmeticException
b. No exception
c. StringIndexOutOfBoundsException
d. ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
e. ClassCastException
Key:e

#
11. What exception type does the following program throw?
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Object o = null;
System.out.println(o.toString());
}
}

a. ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
b. ClassCastException
c. NullPointerException
d. ArithmeticException
e. StringIndexOutOfBoundsException
Key:c

6
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Hand-book
to the Primates, Volume 1 (of 2)
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: A Hand-book to the Primates, Volume 1 (of 2)

Author: Henry O. Forbes

Release date: October 23, 2013 [eBook #43991]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HAND-BOOK

TO THE PRIMATES, VOLUME 1 (OF 2) ***
Transcriber's A few typographical errors have been corrected.
note: They appear in the text like this, and the
explanation will appear when the mouse pointer
is moved over the marked passage.

Project Gutenberg has the other volume of this

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ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Edited by R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D., F.L.S., etc.

A HAND-BOOK

TO THE

P R I M AT E S .

BY

HENRY O. FORBES, LL.D., F.Z.S., etc.,

DIRECTOR OF MUSEUMS, LIVERPOOL,

Author of "A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago,"

etc., etc., etc.
 VOL. I.

LONDON:

W. H. ALLEN & CO., LIMITED,

13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.
1894.

PREFACE.
The great increase in our knowledge of animals which has taken
place since the volume on Monkeys was published in "Jardine's
Naturalist's Library" some sixty years ago, cannot be better
illustrated than by the fact that our excellent contributor, Dr. H. O.
Forbes, has found it impossible to compress that knowledge into a
single volume of the present issue. There is, moreover, no Museum
which contains such a complete series of skins of the Primates, as to
render a perfect "monograph" of the Order possible. Dr. Forbes has
endeavoured in these volumes to bring the subject up to date, and
has devoted some years of study to the two which now appear
under his name, and he has had the great advantage of having seen
many of the species of which these volumes treat, in a state of
nature. If diligent research and patient work, combined with a sound
anatomical knowledge and an acquaintance with many species of
Monkeys in their natural habitat, avail anything, then these volumes
should present to the student a more concise epitome of the
characteristics of the Primates than any other essay yet offered to
the public. It has been found impossible to reproduce any of the
plates in the old "Naturalist's Library" of Jardine. They would have
formed, with appropriate inscriptions, a very good instalment of a
series of "Comic Natural History" volumes, as they were, in fact,
nothing but a set of extraordinary caricatures of Monkeys. I have,
therefore, again to acknowledge the liberality of the publishers, in
adopting my suggestion that a perfectly new set of illustrations
should be prepared. These have been executed by Mr. J. G.
Keulemans, with a result, I hope, that will satisfy the reader.

R. BOWDLER SHARPE.

INTRODUCTION.
In the first volume will be found an account of the Lemuroidea, and
the Anthropoidea as far as the group of the Macaques of the family
Cercopithecidæ. The second volume continues with the latter genus,
and contains the rest of the Monkeys, and the Apes, as well as a
summary of the geographical distribution of the species of the Order
Primates.

I have not attempted to write a complete synonymy of the species of

Monkeys. The literature is scattered over many, often obscure,
periodicals, and without seeing the actual specimens described by
some of the older writers, it would be easy to introduce a great deal
of confusion into the synonymy. I have, therefore, only attempted to
give the principal references.

I must express my obligation to Dr. Günther, F.R.S., the Keeper of the

Zoological Department in the British Museum, for the facilities of
study afforded to me in that institution. To Mr. Oldfield Thomas I am
likewise greatly indebted for much assistance, and for many a kindly
hint.

Dr. Forsyth Major, who is well-known as one of the foremost

authorities on the Lemurs, not only gave me valuable information as
to the species and literature of the Lemuroidea, but was even so
good as to furnish me with the descriptions of several new species.

Lastly, to my friend the Editor, I have to return my sincere thanks for

the patience with which he has revised my MSS., and for the
verification of numbers of references, only to be found in the great
libraries of London, and inaccessible to an author dwelling in the
provinces.

HENRY O. FORBES.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.
PAGE
ORDER PRIMATES 1
SUB-ORDER I. LEMUROIDEA 8
FAMILY I. CHIROMYIDÆ 14
I. Chiromys, Cuvier 14
1. madagascariensis (Gm.) 14
FAMILY II. TARSIIDÆ 18
I. Tarsius, Storr. 18
1. tarsius (Erxl.) 20, 286
2. fuscus, Fischer 21
FAMILY III. LEMURIDÆ 22
SUB-FAMILY I. LORISINÆ 24
I. Perodicticus, Bennett 26
1. calabarensis, Smith 27
2. potto (Geoffr.) 28
II. Loris, Geoffr. 31
1. gracilis, Geoffr. 31
III. Nycticebus, Geoffr. 33
1. tardigradus (Linn.) 33, 286
SUB-FAMILY II. GALAGINÆ 37
I. Galago, Geoffr. 38
1. garnetti (Ogilby) 40
2. senegalensis, Geoffr. 41
3. alleni, Waterh. 43
4. demidoffi, Fischer 44
5. monteiri, Bartlett 46
6. crassicaudata, Geoffr. 47
II. Chirogale, Geoffr. 49
1. milii, Geoffr. 50
2. melanotis, Forsyth Major 51
3. trichotis, Günth. 52
4. crossleyi, Grandid. 53
III. Microcebus, Geoffr. 54
1. minor (Gray) 55
2. myoxinus, Peters 56
3. smithii (Gray) 57
4. furcifer (Blainv.) 59
5. coquereli (Grandid.) 60
IV. Opolemur, Gray 61
1. samati (Grandid.) 62
2. thomasi, Forsyth Major 63
SUB-FAMILY III. LEMURINÆ 64
I. Lemur, Linn. 65
1. varius, Is. Geoffr. 68
2. macaco, Linn. 69
3. mongoz, Linn. 71
 α. rufipes 72
β. rufifrons 72
γ. cinereiceps 72
δ. collaris 72
ε. rufus 73
ζ. nigrifrons 73
η. albifrons 73
4. nigerrimus, Scl. 73
5. albimanus, Is. Geoffr. 74
6. coronatus, Gray 75
7. rubriventer, Is. Geoffr. 76
8. catta, Linn. 76
II. Mixocebus, Peters 78
1. caniceps, Peters 78
III. Hapalemur, Is. Geoffr. 79
1. griseus (Geoffr.) 81
2. simus, Gray 82
IV. Lepidolemur, Is. Geoffr. 83
Section A.—Species Majores.
1. mustelinus, Is. Geoffr. 86
2. ruficaudatus, Grandid. 86
3. edwardsi, Forsyth Major 87
4. microdon, Forsyth Major 88
Section B.—Species Minores.
5. globiceps, Forsyth Major 89
6. grandidieri, Forsyth Major 89
7. leucopus, Forsyth Major 89
SUB-FAMILY IV. INDRISINÆ 90
I. Avahis, Jourdan 94
1. laniger (Gm.) 94
II. Propithecus, Bennett 96
1. diadema, Bennett 98
 α. sericeus 99
β. edwardsi 99
2. verreauxi, Grandid. 100
α. deckeni 101
β. coquereli 102
2a. majori, Rothschild 286
3. coronatus, Milne-Edwards 102
III. Indris, Cuv. et Geoffr. 105
1. brevicaudatus, Geoffr. 105
EXTINCT LEMUROIDEA 110
FAMILY I. MEGALADAPIDÆ 112
1. Megaladapis, Forsyth Major 112
FAMILY LEMURIDÆ 22, 114
FAMILY ANAPTOMORPHIDÆ 114
1. Microchærus, Wood 115
2. Mixodectes, Cope 116
3. Cynodontomys, Cope 116
4. Omomys, Leidy 117
5. Anaptomorphus, Cope 117
FAMILY ADAPIDÆ 119
1. Adapis, Cuvier 120
2. Tomitherium, Cope 120
3. Laopithecus, Marsh 121
4. Pelycodus, Cope 121
5. Microsyops, Leidy 122
6. Hyopsodus, Leidy 123
SUB-ORDER II.—ANTHROPOIDEA 123
FAMILY I. HAPALIDÆ 129
I. Hapale, Illig. 131
 1. jacchus (Linn.) 132
2. humeralifer, Geoffr. 133
3. aurita (Geoffr.) 133
4. leucopus, Günther 134
5. chrysoleuca, Wagn. 135
6. pygmæa (Spix) 135
7. melanura (Geoffr.) 136
II. Midas, Geoffr. 138
1. rosalia (Linn.) 138
2. geoffroyi (Pucher.) 139
3. œdipus (Linn.) 140
4. labiatus, Geoffr. 141
5. rufiventer, Gray 142
α. mystax, Spix 142
β. pileatus, Is. Geoffr. 143
6. weddelli, Deville 143
7. nigrifrons, Geoffr. 143
8. fuscicollis, Spix 144
9. chrysopygus (Wagner) 144
10. nigricollis, Spix 145
11. illigeri (Pucher.) 145
12. bicolor, Spix 147
13. midas (Linn.) 148
14. ursulus, Geoffr. 148
FAMILY II. CEBIDÆ 150
SUB-FAMILY I. NYCTIPITHECINÆ 152
I. Chrysothrix, Kaup 152
1. usta (Is. Geoffr.) 154
2. entomophaga (d'Orb.) 155
3. sciurea (Linn.) 156
4. œrstedi, Reinh. 158
II. Callithrix, Geoffr. 158
 1. torquata (Hoffm.) 159
2. cuprea, Spix 160
3. amicta (Humb.) 161
4. cinerascens, Spix 161
5. moloch (Hoffm.) 162
6. ornata, Gray 162
7. personata, Geoffr. 163
8. nigrifrons, Spix 164
9. castaneiventris, Gray 164
10. melanochir, Neuwied 165
11. gigot, Spix 165
III. Nyctipithecus, Spix 166
1. trivirgatus (Humb.) 168
2. lemurinus, Is. Geoffr. 168
3. rufipes, Sclater 169
4. azaræ (Humb.) 170
5. felinus, Spix 170
SUB-FAMILY II. PITHECIINÆ 173
I. Brachyurus, Spix 174
1. melanocephalus (Humb.) 175
2. rubicundus, Is. Geoffr. 176
3. calvus, Is. Geoffr. 177
II. Pithecia, Geoffr. 182
1. monachus, Humb. and Bonpl. 182
2. pithecia (Linn.) 185
3. satanas (Hoffm.) 186
4. chiropotes (Humb.) 187
5. albinasa, Is. Geoffr. 188
SUB-FAMILY MYCETINÆ 189
I. Alouatta, Lacép. 192
1. seniculus, Linn. 192
 2. nigra (Geoffr.) 195
3. beelzebul (L.) 197
4. ursina (Humb.) 198
5. villosa (Gray) 199
6. palliata (Gray) 202
SUB-FAMILY CEBINÆ 204
I. Cebus, Erxl. 204
1. hypoleucus (Humb.) 207
2. lunatus, F. Cuv. 208
3. flavus, Geoffr. 208
4. monachus, F. Cuv. 209
5. fatuellus (Linn.) 211
6. variegatus, Geoffr. 211
7. cirrifer, Geoffr. 212
8. robustus, Kuhl. 212
9. annellatus, Gray 213
10. albifrons (Humb.) 213
11. capucinus (Linn.) 215
12. vellerosus, Is. Geoffr. 217
13. flavescens, Gray 217
14. chrysopus, F. Cuv. 218
15. subcristatus, Gray 218
16. capillatus, Gray 219
17. azaræ, Rennger 219
18. fallax, Schl. 220
II. Lagothrix, Geoffr. 220
1. lagothrix (Humb.) 222
2. infumatus (Spix) 223
III. Brachyteles, Spix 224
1. arachnoides (Geoffr.) 226
IV. Ateles, Geoffr. 227
1. variegatus, Wagner 231
 2. geoffroyi, Kuhl 233
3. rufiventris, Scl. 236
4. paniscus (Linn.) 237
5. marginatus, Kuhl 239
6. ater, F. Cuv. 241
7. grisescens, Gray 242
8. fusciceps, Gray 242
9. cucullatus, Gray 243
10. vellerosus, Gray 244
FAMILY CERCOPITHECIDÆ 249
SUB-FAMILY CERCOPITHECINÆ 252
I. Papio, Erxl. 253
1. maimon (Linn.) 258
2. leucophæus (F. Cuv.) 260
3. doguera (Pucher. and Schimp.) 262
4. porcarius (Bodd.) 263
5. babouin (Desm.) 265
6. anubis (F. Cuv. and Geoffr.) 266
7. thoth (Ogilby) 268
8. ibeanus, Thomas 269
9. sphynx (Geoffr.) 269
10. hamadryas (Linn.) 272
11. langheldi, Matschie 275
II. Theropithecus, Is. Geoffr. 276
1. gelada (Rüpp.) 276
2. obscurus, Hengl. 278
III. Cynopithecus, Is. Geoffr. 280
1. niger (Desm.) 281
 LIST OF PLATES.
I.—Aye-Aye Chiromys
madagascariensis.
II.—Spectral Tarsier Tarsius tarsius.
III.—Javan Slow-Loris Nycticebus tardigradus.
IV.—Allen's Galago Galago alleni.
V.—Black-eared Mouse-Lemur Chirogale melanotis.
VI.—Smith's Dwarf-Lemur Microcebus smithii.
VII.—Red-ruffed Lemur Lemur ruber.
VIII.—Grey Gentle-Lemur Hapalemur griseus.
IX.—White-footed Sportive-Lemur Lepidolemur leucopus.
X.—Woolly Avahi Avahis laniger.
XI.—Coquerel's Sifaka Propithecus coquereli.
XII.—Endrina Indris brevicaudatus.
XIII.—Geoffroy's Tamarin Midas geoffroyi.
XIV.—Red Titi Callithrix cuprea.
XV.—Red-footed Douroucouli or Nyctipithecus rufipes.
Night-Monkey
XVI.—Bald Uakari Brachyurus calvus.
XVII.—White-nosed Saki Pithecia albinasa.
XVIII.—Red Howler Alouatta senicula.
XIX.—Smooth-headed Capuchin Cebus monachus.
XX.—Humboldt's Woolly-Monkey Lagothrix lagothrix.
XXI.—Variegated Spider-Monkey Ateles variegatus.
XXII.—Drill Papio leucophæus.

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

MAMMALS.

ORDER PRIMATES.
 LEMURS, MONKEYS AND APES.
INTRODUCTION.
Of the varied forms of animal life that people the globe, those that
possess a back-bone and two pairs of limbs (the Vertebrata) are
considered the highest in the scale. Of the Vertebrata, those are held
to be of superior organisation which possess warm red blood and
suckle their young with milk from the breast (i.e., Mammalia). Our
present volume deals with the highest and most specialised group of
the Mammalia, and, therefore, of the whole Animal Kingdom.

Man, in respect of his mental endowments, stands alone and

unapproachable among living creatures. Considered as to his "place
in nature," however, he must be described as an erect-walking
Mammal, possessing anterior extremities developed into hands of
great perfection, for exclusive use as tactile and grasping organs,
and posterior limbs, on which his body is perfectly balanced and
entirely supported, exclusively devoted to locomotion, as well as
highly specialised cerebral characters. These attributes in part
constitute the standard by which we estimate superiority in animal
structure, and fitness of adaptation.

Notwithstanding the numerous varieties and races of mankind

distributed over every region of the globe, each exhibiting
differences in habits, customs and superficial complexion, Man forms
but one species, Homo sapiens, the sole representative of the
unique genus of his family. Though the genus Homo is thus far
apparently zoologically isolated, there is a remarkable group of
animals, which we designate "Apes," and which, possessing many of
the same structural characters more or less modified, stand apart
from all the other Mammalia, and make a distinct approach to Man.
Between Man, however, and the Apes, even the untrained eye at
once perceives, amid obvious marks of inferiority, unmistakable
resemblances, while anatomical investigations reveal that "the points
in which Man differs from the Apes most nearly resembling him, are
not of greater importance than those in which the Ape differs from
other and universally acknowledged members of the group." (Flower
and Lydekker.) The Apes, on the other hand, are so nearly related to
the Monkeys, the Baboons and the Marmosets, by characters which
insensibly merge into each other that they, along with Man, must
logically be embraced in the same zoological division. The animals
known to us as Lemurs, called by the Germans "Half-Apes" and by
the French "False-Monkeys," are the nearest to the Apes and Man of
all the remaining Mammals, though there are many points of
divergence from the above-named groups. The Lemurs, in fact,
exhibit considerable affinity to lower forms of Mammalia, especially
to the Insectivora, but in internal structure and habit they approach
the Anthropiform[1] group just referred to—in the flattened form of
the digits, the opposable great toe, with its ankle-bone (the ento-
cuneiform) rounded for its articulation, as in the higher Apes and
Man.

The Lemurs have, by many distinguished naturalists, been relegated

to a distinct Order quite separate from the latter; but by such pre-
eminent authorities as Linnæus, Lesson, Huxley, Broca and Flower,
they have been assigned a subordinate position within that great
Order, on which has been conferred the rank of the Primates of the
Animal Kingdom.

The Order Primates, therefore, comprises two very homogeneous

sub-orders—(1) The Lemur-like animals (Lemuroidea) including the
Aye-Aye, the Tarsier, and the True Lemurs; and (2) the Man-like
animals (the Anthropoidea), which embrace the Marmosets, the
Baboons, the great Apes, and Man.

In common with all other Mammals, the Primates are furnished with
an epidermal covering, which, except in Man, consists of a woolly or
hairy fur. They possess four limbs and a tail, which may be long,
short, or concealed, and which is often used as a prehensile organ.
The young are born in a condition of greater or less helplessness,
with their eyes, as a rule, unopened, and the framework of their
bodies incompletely ossified, and consequently requiring protective
care and entire nourishment from the mother, for a considerable
period. At maturity this skeleton consists of a skull, a breast- and a
back-bone of many pieces, ribs, jointed limbs, and a pair of collar-
bones. As a knowledge of many of these bones and some of the
more prominent organs of the body are necessary for an accurate
comprehension of the description and classification of the animals
discussed in this volume, a few of the more important must be
briefly referred to.

The cranium, formed of many bones firmly united together, consists

of a cerebral region, or box, containing and guarding the brain, and
a facial region, in which are situated, besides the mouth, the organs
of sight and smell. The bones connected with the mouth are the two
maxillæ, along the margins of which are placed the grinding- or
cheek-teeth; the two pre-maxillæ, in which are set the cutting- and
the eye-teeth; and lastly, the palatine bones which form the roof of
the mouth. Hinged on to the sides of the cranium is the toothed
mandible, or lower jaw, composed of two halves, which may be
solidly or loosely joined together in the mid-line, or symphysis. Along
the under surface of the skull, there are, besides the great (often
posterior) orifice for the entrance of the spinal cord, numerous
foramina, or openings, for the passage of blood-vessels for the
nourishment of the brain, and of nerves which bring all parts of the
body into relation with the supreme directing centre. Conspicuous
near its posterior part, on each side, is an ivory-like capsule, the
periotic bone, containing the essential organ of hearing. Lying
beneath the lower jaw is the hyoid arch, a slender framework of
bones, supporting the tongue and the upper end of the windpipe
with the organ of voice. In a few of the Monkeys and Apes certain of
the bones of this arch are much enlarged and hollowed for
increasing the volume of sound emitted by them. On either side of
the great opening which is so conspicuous at the hinder part of the
skull, for the reception of the spinal cord, is a smooth kidney-shaped
surface, called a "condyle." These two condyles serve for the
articulation of the first segment of the back-bone to the cranium,
and by the possession of this pair of condyles the Mammalian skull
can always be distinguished from that of Birds and Reptiles. The
pieces of which the back-bone are composed are named the
vertebræ. Those of the neck, the "cervical" vertebræ, are recognised
by having no true ribs attached to them, and are, in all Primates,
seven in number. Those of the back, or "dorsal" vertebræ, may be
distinguished by having articulated to them, on each side, a movable
rib, the other end of which is attached to the breast-bone; they
follow next to the cervical vertebræ, while to them succeed the
"lumbar" vertebræ which carry no complete ribs. The dorsal and
lumbar segments vary in number, but together they rarely exceed
seventeen. Behind these extend the "sacral" vertebræ—completely
ossified together, and lastly, the bones of the tail or "caudal"
vertebræ, which may be many or few, according to the length of
that appendage.

The fore-limb is composed of three segments, the arm, fore-arm,

and hand, together with a block by which it is attached to the side of
the body. To this block—the blade-bone or scapula—is articulated the
arm-bone, or humerus, which at its elbow-joint hinges with the two
bones, the ulna and the radius, of the fore-arm, on which in turn the
hand is rotated. The hand is made up of three parts, the wrist-
bones, or carpus, closely united together in two transverse rows with
a central bone intervening between them; next the elongated bones
of the palm of the hand, or metacarpus, one to each finger, and
lastly the phalanges, or finger-bones, three to each digit, except in
the thumb, where there are but two. The hind-limb is formed on
exactly the same plan. It has a connecting block—the pelvis; giving
suspension to the thigh, with its single bone, the femur, to which
articulates the leg, with two bones (tibia and fibula), and the
tripartite foot, composed of tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges.
Of the digestive organs of the Primates the teeth present very
important characters, from the point of view of the classification of
the Order. They differ in form and number, and have distinct
functions to perform. The teeth situated in front are the incisors and
canines, sharp and pointed, for seizing, cutting, and holding the
food. Behind them come the pre-molars, and still further back the
molars, both with broad crowns of complicated tubercles and ridges
for milling the hard portions contained in the food. Animals provided
—as all the Primates are—with these different sorts of teeth, are said
to be Heterodont,[2] in contradistinction to forms like the Dolphins
and Whales, which are termed Homodont,[3] because the whole of
these teeth are of the same pattern. The Primates are Diphyodont[4]
as well, because many of their permanent teeth are preceded by
another set, commonly known as the milk-teeth. In order to present
to the eye at a glance the number of each sort that any species
possesses, a dental formula has been adopted by naturalists. Such a
formula as I 22 , C 11 , P 33 , M 33 = 36, indicates that in one half of the
mouth, above and below, there are 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 pre-
molars, and 3 molars = 18; and therefore in the two halves of the
mouth together there are 36 teeth in all.

The masticated food, partially digested by the saliva of the mouth,

descends the gullet by the muscular contractions of its walls to the
simple, sac-like, stomach, and thence to the intestines. These latter
consist of two portions, one smaller and narrower, nearer to the
stomach, and a second portion further down, larger and wider; the
junction of the two portions being marked by a process of varying
length, the cæcum. The stomach and intestines, with other
important structures, such as the liver, kidneys and generative
organs, are contained in a lower cavity, separated by a muscular
midriff, the diaphragm, from the upper part or thorax, containing the
blood-purifying and pumping organs, the lungs and the heart.
The upper part of the windpipe is, in all Primates, modified to form
the larynx, or organ of voice, constituted by fibrous strings stretched
across its orifice, where they may be set in vibration by the air, in its
passage to and from the lungs.

The brain is relatively large in proportion to the body, and attains in

the higher of the two sub-orders its most perfect development. The
main brain (or cerebral hemispheres), when viewed from above, in
size preponderates over, and conceals (except in the Lemurs) all the
other parts of that organ. The surface of its lateral halves, which are
connected by transverse bands so as to insure harmony of action
between them, is marked by fissures and foldings, or convolutions,
which vary in number and complexity, evidently in relation to the
intelligence of the animal. The brain within the skull gives origin to
the nerves for the chief organs of sense; while from its posterior part
it is continued along the back—within a canal formed by the neural
arches of the vertebræ—as the spinal column, from which arise the
rest of the nerves for the body.

The young of all the Primates are nourished in the mother's womb
by the passage of material from the blood-vessels of the parent
through an organ known as the placenta. They are all born in a
helpless condition, and remain unable to look after themselves for a
considerable period, during which they are dependent on the milk
secreted on the ventral surface of the mother by two or four glands,
the teats or mammæ—those characteristic organs from which the
"Mammalia" have derived their name. These glands are present in
both sexes, but are functional only in the female.

We shall now proceed to describe more minutely the first of the two
sub-orders of the Primates—the Lemur-like animals.

I. THE LEMURS—SUB-ORDER LEMUROIDEA.

The Aye-Aye, the Tarsier, and the True Lemurs constitute this first
sub-order. They are characterised by having the muzzle long and
narrow, more or less Dog-like in shape, and the upper lip often
divided into two by the nose-pad. The external ears (Fig. 1) are
enlarged, with flattened margins, but have no "hem" as in the higher
Anthropoids. (Fig. 2.)

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Lemuroid Anthropoid
Ear. Ear.

The trunk is relatively long and compressed, and the tail when long
is never truly prehensile. Of the limbs, the posterior are longer than
the anterior, and all have five digits, each bearing a flat nail except
the second toe, which has invariably a long pointed claw, their tips
ending in prominent discoidal tactile pads. (Fig. 3.)

Of the digits, the index is sometimes quite rudimentary, while the

thumb is large, and the great toe especially so, both being
opposable. Teats occur on the breast, on the abdomen, or on both.

Of the skeleton, the eye-sockets, or orbits, are directed forward, and

have complete bony margins, which, however, are not closed in by
bone behind (as in Monkeys), but freely communicating beneath the
post-orbital process (except in Tarsius) with the temporal hollow
behind. In the young of some species the orbit is more enclosed
than it is in the adult: the orifice for the lachrymal duct of the eye is
placed external to the margin of the orbit: the hollow for the
olfactory lobes of the brain is always large.
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