Chapter 1
Introduction to Structural
Design
1.1 Structural members and support system
1.2 Structures of Steel, Timber, & Concrete
1.3 Structural Design Methods
1.4 Advantages of limit state method over other methods
Sosina M.
November 2022
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1.1 Structural members and support
system
Structural members form systems and transfer the loads
that are acting upon the structural systems, through a
series of elements to the ground.
Building Structure Elements include:
a) Line elements (beams, columns, cables, frames)
b) surface elements (slabs, walls)
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Support Systems
Supports are a crucial part of structural analysis model as it
specifies how the forces within the structure are transferred to the
ground.
a) Fixed Support
It is the most rigid type of support or
connection.
Example: a pole or column in
concrete.
b) Pinned Support
It allows rotation to occur but no
horizontal & vertical translations.
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C) Roller Support
It can resist a vertical
force but not a
horizontal force &
rotation.
Its most common use
is in a bridge.
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1.2 Structures of Steel, Timber,
& Concrete
The three most commonly used materials in
structural engineering are steel, concrete and
wood/timber.
Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of every
material is important in ensuring a safe and cost-
effective approach to designing structures.
Each material has its own unique set of benefits
and drawbacks.
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A) STEEL
Advantages Disadvantages
Strong and cost effective • Naturally more expensive
Quick to erect, which can to produce.
lead to labour savings • Exposure to the
Suitable for prefabrication environment can cause
and mass production corrosion
Reusable after a structure • Susceptible to buckling
is disassembled
• Not fireproof
Easy to repair
Good for expanding • High manufacture and
existing structures maintenance costs
Easily recyclable
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Stress-strain variation of reinforcing steel
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B) TIMBER
Advantages Disadvantages
Light, and easy to work Cannot be easily used to
with build at height
Inexpensive Requires treatment and
A natural resource protection from chemical
Beautiful to look at; every More susceptible to
tree is different water damage, fire,
Good at absorbing sound decay, and termites.
inside a building Cannot be easily
recycled;
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C) CONCRETE
Advantages Disadvantages
Very durable The cost of the formwork
used for casting RC is
Low maintenance relatively higher
Does not rust, rot, or burn Greater cross-section
Wind and water resistant Shrinkage causes crack
Effective soundproofing development and strength
material loss.
Concrete has a thirty day
100% Recyclable curing period.
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Stress-strain variation for concrete
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Steel Structures Reinforced concrete Structures
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Timber Structures
1.3 Structural Design Methods
The Purpose of Structural Design is to design Structures
which is economical, safer & serviceable for a specified
lifetime.
There are three types of structural design philosophies.
a) Working Stress Method
b) Ultimate Load Method
c) Limit State Method
These methods are used for RCC structure and Steel
structure design.
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a) Working Stress Method
It is the oldest design method
It is assumed that the concrete and steel behave
elastically.
The allowable stresses (permissible stresses) are obtained
by dividing the limiting stress of material by a factor of
safety.
Drawbacks in using working stress method
The stress-strain curve for concrete is a continuous curve
and not a straight line.
Creep and shrinkage are not accounted by elastic theory.
It uses factor of safety for stresses only.
It gives uneconomical section.
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b) Ultimate Load Method
This is also known as load factor method or ultimate
strength method.
Load factor is the ratio of ultimate strength to the service
loads.
Considers the nonlinear behavior of concrete (more
realistic than WSM)
More economical
Drawbacks in using Ultimate Load method
No factor of safety used for materials stress
It doesn’t consider serviceability of structure
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c) Limit State Method (LSD)
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) or Limit
State Method is the most advanced method while
designing any civil engineering structures.
It considered both factored loads and material
strength reduction factors partially.
Two important types of LSD:
a) Ultimate Limit State: It considers strength,
overturning, fatigue, sliding
Flexure, shear, Torsion, Compression are considered.
b) Serviceability Limit State: It Considers Cracks width,
deflection, vibration etc.
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This method uses to multiply partial safety factors for
required safety at ultimate load and serviceability at
working load.
The partial safety factor for (Ultimate limit state)
of concrete is 1.5 and that for steel is 1.15.
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1.4 Advantages of Limit State Method over
other Methods
• The main reason behind using Limit state
method is Partial safety Factor on materials as
well as on different types of loads.
• This method satisfies the Serviceability Limit
State (SLS).
• LRFD/LSM is a more reliable and statistical based
method for predicting both loads and material
strengths.
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Whereas the allowable stress safety factors
were based on engineering judgment and past
experiences.
This method gives you an economical, safer &
serviceable structural elements/members.
The shortcomings in the previous methods
were addressed and rectified here on a more
rational basis.
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In general, the process of structural design
involves the following stages:
1. Structural planning and configuration
2. Action of loads, their classification & combinations
3. Analysis for the stress resultants
4. Design of components
5. Drawing, detailing and preparation of schedules
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