Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Tanveer Ahmed Siddiqui

Department of Computer Science

COMSATS University, Islamabad
 Recap and Today Covered

Algorithm Design and Analysis Process

Understand the problem

Decide on : algorithm
design techniques etc.

Design an algorithm

Prove correctness

Analyze efficiency etc

Code the algorithm

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 Reading Material

Read Chapter 4
Decrease and Conquer

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 Objectives

 How to Design Algorithm using decrease and

conquer Approach
 To sesign a variety of solutions using decrease and
conquer:
 Problems: Decrease (by a constant) and conquer
 Problems: Decrease (by constant factor) and conquer
 Problems: Decrease (by variable size) and conquer.

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 Solving Complex problem

 How to design algorithm of a complex

problem? i.e. How to solve a complex
problem?
 Break down the problem into segments
(smaller chunks/parts) and then target to solve
the segments, ultimately the problem will be
solved.
 How we reduce the size of an instance of a
problem?
 Decreasing
 Decrease and conquer
 Dividing
 Divide and conquer
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 Decrease and Conquer

 Decrease or reduce problem instance to

smaller instance of the same problem and
extend solution.
 Conquer the problem by solving smaller
instance of the problem.
 Extend solution of smaller instance to obtain
solution to original problem.
 Other Names:
 This approach is also known as incremental or
inductive approach.

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 Decrease and Conquer

 Exploit the relationship between a solution to a

given instance of a problem and a solution to
its smaller instance
 relationship between solution of P(n) {a given
instance of a problem} and a solution to P(n-1) or
P(n/2) {a smaller instance} of the same problem.
 3 major variants:
 Decrease by a constant
 Decrease by a constant factor
 Variable size decrease

 Bottom-up: iterative
 Top-down: recursive
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 Top Down and Iterative

Top Down Iterative

It is a top down approach It is bottom up approach

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 Decrease by
Constant

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 Decrease by a constant factor

 Decrease by a constant: Reduce the size of

the problem by the same constant on each
iteration/recursion of the algorithm.

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 A Typical Decrease by one Technique

a problem of size n

subproblem
Recursive
of size n-1

a solution to the
subproblem

e.g., n!
a solution to
the original problem 11

Iterative
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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant
 Solution: BF an = a × a × … … × a
 What is input
 Two numbers say a and n.
 What should be the output
 Interchange the value of an
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer
Top down: recursive
 Logic/Idea a×f(n-1) if n > 0
f(n) =
an = a×an-1 1 if n = 0

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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant
BF an = a × a × … … × a

Can you improve

Top down: recursive
an computation ?
a×f(n-1) if n > 0
f(n) =
1 if n = 0

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 Example-2:
Brute Maximum Number
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find maximum in an

array A[0..n-1] using decrease by constant
 Solution: BF
 What is input
 An array A of n numbers.
 What should be the output
 The largest value from given array A
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer
Top down: recursive
 Logic/Idea

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 Example-2:
Brute Maximum Number
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find minimum in an

array A[0..n-1] using decrease by constant
 Solution:
Decrease and Conquer

BF

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 Example-3:
Brute Force Sorting
Example

 Design an algorithm that arrange elements of an

array A[0..n-1] in ascending order using
decrease by constant BF
 Solution:
 What is input
 An array A of n numbers.
 What should be the output
 The array A with increasing order
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer

 Logic/Idea

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Sorting : Decrease By one

 We assume that the smaller instance A[0..n-2]

has already been sorted.
 How can we solve for A[0..n-1] now?

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 Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)

 Obviously, all we need is to find an appropriate

position for A[n-1] among the sorted elements and
insert it there.
 There are three alternatives for doing this:
 1st Method: Scan the sorted subarray from left to
right until the first grater than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right before that
element.
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17 45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17 29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17

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45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17 18
 Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)

 Obviously, all we need is to find an appropriate

position for A[n-1] among the sorted elements and
insert it there.
 There are three alternatives for doing this:
 2nd Method: Scan the sorted subarray from right to
left until the first smaller than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right after that
element.
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17 45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17 29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17

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45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17 19
 Comparison of two strategy
 1st Method: Scan the sorted subarray from left to
right until the first grater than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right before that
element.
 2nd Method: Scan the sorted subarray from right to
left until the first smaller than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right after that
element.
 Which one is better and why?

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 Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)
 Logic/Idea
 Obviously, all we need is to find an
appropriate position for A[n-1] 89 | 45 68 90 29 34 17
among the sorted elements and
insert it there. 45 89 | 68 90 29 34 17

45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17

45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17

29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17

17 29 34 45 68 89 90

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Insertion Sort: Analysis of Iterative Solution

ALGORITHM InsertionSortIter(A[0..n-1])
//An iterative implementation of insertion sort
//Input: An array A[0..n-1] of n orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n-1] sorted in nondecreasing order

for i  1 to n – 1 do // i: the index of the first element of the unsorted part.

key = A[i]
for j  i – 1 to 0 do // j: the index of the sorted part of the array

if (key< A[j]) //compare the key with each element in the sorted part

A[j+1]  A[j]
else
break
A[j +1]  key //insert the key to the sorted part of the array

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Insertion Sort: Analysis
ALGORITHM InsertionSort(A[0..n-1])
for i <- 1 to n-1 do What is the worst case scenario ?
v <- A[i]
j <- i-1
A[j] > v executes highest # of times
while j ≥ 0 and A[j] > v do When does that happen ?
A[j+1] <- A[j] A[j] > A[i] for j = i-1, i-2, …, 0
Can you improve it j?<- j-1
A[j+1] <- v Worst case input:
An array of strictly decreasing values

For almost sorted files,

What is the best case ?
insertion sort’s performance
is excellent! A[i-1] ≤ A[i] for i = 1, 2, …, n-1

In place? Stable ?
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Insertion Sort: Decrease by one(Recursive Solution)
ALGORITHM InsertionSortRecur(A[0..n-1], n-1)
//A recursive implementation of insertion sort
//Input: An array A[0..n-1] of n orderable elements Index of the last element
//Output: Array A[0..n-1] sorted in nondecreasing order
if n > 1
InsertionSortRecur(A[0..n-1], n-2)
Insert(A[0..n-1], n-1) //insert A[n-1] to A[0..n-2]
Index of the element/key to be inserted.
ALGORITHM Insert(A[0..m], m)
//Insert A[m] to the sorted subarray A[0..m-1] of A[0..n-1]
//Input: A subarray A[0..m] of A[0..n-1]
//Output: Array A[0..m] sorted in nondecreasing order
key = A[m]
for j  m – 1 to 0 do
if (key< A[j])
A[j+1]  A[j]
else
break
A[j +1] Department
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 Example -2

Recurrence relation:
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
T(1) = 1
Telescoping:
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
T(n-1) = T(n-2) + n-1
T(n-2) = T(n-3) + n-2
…
T(2) = T(1 ) + 1

Add the equations and cross equal terms on opposite sides:

 T(n) = n+n-1+ n-2…1 =n(n+1)/2=O(n2)

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 Example

T (n) = T (n − 1) + n

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 Example

T(n) = T(n-1) + n
 Guess: T(n) = O(n2)
 Induction goal: T(n) ≤ c n2, for some c and n ≥ n0
 Induction hypothesis: T(n-1) ≤ c(n-1)2 for all k < n

 Proof of induction goal:

T(n) = T(n-1) + n ≤ c (n-1)2 + n
= cn2 – (2cn – c - n) ≤ cn2
if: 2cn – c – n ≥ 0  c ≥ n/(2n-1)  c ≥ 1/(2 – 1/n)
 For n ≥ 1  2 – 1/n ≥ 1  any c ≥ 1 will work

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 Insertion Sort: Food for thought

 Compare the above version of insertion sort with

the following version.

 What is the time efficiency of this algorithm?

 How is it compared to that of the version
discussed in previous slide.

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 Insertion Sort: Food for thought

 Observe that the while loop of the Insertion-

sort procedure uses a linear search to scan
(backward) through the sorted subarray A[0..i-
1]. Can we use a binary search instead to
improve the overall worst-case running time of
insertion sort to Θ (n㏒n)?

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 Exercise

 Design a recursive decrease-by-one algorithm

for finding the position of the largest element in
an array of n real numbers.
 Determine the time efficiency of this algorithm
and compare it with that of the brute-force
algorithm for the same problem.

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 Sorting

 BF

 Decrease and Conquer

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 Graph Representation

 Adjacency matrix
 n x n boolean matrix if |V| is n.
 The element on the ith row and jth column is 1 if there’s an
edge from ith vertex to the jth vertex; otherwise 0.
 The adjacency matrix of an undirected graph is symmetric.
 It takes (comparisons) to figure out all the adjacent
nodes of a certain node i.
 Adjacency linked lists
 A collection of linked lists, one for each vertex, that contain all
the vertices adjacent to the list’s vertex.
 An example

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 Depth First Search

 The idea
 traverse “deeper” whenever possible.
 On each iteration, the algorithm proceeds to an unvisited vertex that is
adjacent to the one it is currently in. If there are more than more
neighbors, break the tie by the alphabetic order of the vertices.
 When reaching a dead end ( a vertex with no adjacent unvisited
vertices), the algorithm backs up one edge to the parent and tries to
continue visiting unvisited vertices from there.
 The algorithm halts after backing up to the starting vertex, with the
latter being a dead end.
 Similar to preorder tree traversals
 It’s convenient to use a stack to trace the operation of depth-first
search.
 Push a vertex onto the stack when the vertex is reached for the first
time.
 Pop a vertex off the stack when it becomes a dead end.
 An example

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 Example: Undirected Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Depth-first traversal: Give the order in which the

vertices were reached.
abfegcdh

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 Depth First Search

 Pseudocode for Depth-first-search of graph G=(V,E)

DFS(G) // Use depth-first to visit a graph, which might
// contain multiple connected components.
count  0 //visiting sequence number
mark each vertex with 0 // (unvisited)
for each vertex v∈ V do
if v is marked with 0 //w has not been visited yet.
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
//Use depth-first to visit a connected component starting
//from vertex v.
count  count + 1
mark v with count //visit vertex v
for each vertex w adjacent to v do
if w is marked with 0 //w has not been visited yet
dfs(w)

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 Example: Directed Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Depth-first traversal: Give the order in which the

vertices were reached.
abfghecd

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 Depth First Search: Notes

 DFS can be implemented with graphs

represented as:
 Adjacency matrices: Θ(|V |2)
 Adjacency linked lists: Θ(|V |+|E| )

 Applications:
 Checking connectivity
 Finding connected components

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 Breadth First Search

 The idea
 Traverse “wider” whenever possible.
 Discover all vertices at distance k from s (on level k)
before discovering any vertices at distance k +1 (at
level k+1)
 Similar to level-by-level tree traversals
 Instead of a stack, breadth-first uses a queue.

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 Example: Undirected Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Breadth-first traversal:
abefgchd

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 Breadth First Search Algorithm

BFS(G)
count  0
bfs(v)
mark each vertex with 0
for each vertex v∈ V do count  count + 1
if v is marked with 0 mark v with count //visit v
bfs(v) initialize queue with v //enqueue
while queue is not empty do
a  front of queue //dequeue
for each vertex w adjacent to a do
if w is marked with 0 //w hasn’t been visited.
count  count + 1
mark w with count //visit w
add w to the end of the queue //enqueue
remove a from the front of the queue

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 Example: Directed Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Breadth-first traversal:
abefghcd

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 Example-4:
Brute Topological Sorting
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that orders a Directed

Acyclic Graph in such a way each node appears
before all the nodes it points to in the returned
order, i.e. if we have a --> b, a must appear
before b in the topological order.
 Solution:
 What is input
 A 2D Array representing the given graph.
 What should be the output
 Linear ordering of vertices of DAG
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer

 Logic/Idea
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 Directed Graph or Digraph

 Directions for all edges a b c d e

a 0 1 1 0 0
a b
b 1 0 1 0 0

c c 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1
d d
0 0 0 0 0
e
a b c
e
b a c Not symmetric
c
d c e
e One node for one edge
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 Directed Graph or Digraph

a b a b c
b a c
c c
d c e
e
d
a d
Tree edge
e
Back edge
b e
Forward edge
Directed cycle: a, b, a
Cross edge
c
DFS forest

If no directed cycles, the digraph

is called “directed acyclic graph” or “DAG”
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 UPSHOT

 A directed graph with no (directed) cycles is

called directed acyclic graph(DAG)

a b a b

not a DAG

c d c d

DAG

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 DFS based Algorithm

DFS-based algorithm for topological sorting

 Perform DFS traversal, noting the order vertices are
popped off the traversal stack
 Reverse order solves topological sorting problem
 Example:
 Set of 5 courses: { C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 }
 C1 and C2 have no prerequisites
 C3 requires C1 and C2 C1 C4

 C4 requires C3 C3
 C5 requires C3 and C4
C2 C5

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 DFS based Algorithm: Example

 Set of 5 courses: { C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 }

 C1 and C2 have no prerequisites
 C3 requires C1 and C2
 C4 requires C3 C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C5 !
 C5 requires C3 and C4

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 DFS based Algorithm: Your Turn

DFS-based algorithm for topological sorting

 Perform DFS traversal, noting the order vertices are
popped off the traversal stack
 Reverse order solves topological sorting problem

Example:

a b c d

e f g h

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 Source Removal Algorithm

Source removal algorithm

Repeatedly identify and remove a source (a vertex with
no incoming edges) and all the edges incident to it until
either no vertex is left (problem is solved) or there is no
source among remaining vertices (not a dag)
Example:

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 Source Removal Algorithm: Your Turn

Source removal algorithm

Repeatedly identify and remove a source (a vertex with
no incoming edges) and all the edges incident to it until
either no vertex is left (problem is solved) or there is no
source among remaining vertices (not a dag)
Example:

a b c d

e f g h

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 Application of Topological Sorting

 A large project – e.g., in construction, research,

or software development – that involves a
multitude of interrelated tasks with known
prerequisites
 Schedule to minimize the total completion time
 Instruction scheduling in program compilation,
resolving symbol dependencies in linkers, etc.

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 Application of Topological Sorting

 Other Examples:
 Finding cycle in a graph.
 Operation System deadlock detection.
 Dependency resolution.
 Sentence Ordering.
 Critical Path Analysis.
 Course Schedule problem.

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 Decrease by a
constant factor

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 Variants of Decrease and Conquer

 Decrease by a constant factor: the size of the problem is

reduced by the same constant factor on each
iteration/recursion of the algorithm.

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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:
 What is input
 Two numbers say a and n.
 What should be the output
 Return the value of an
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease(by a constant factor and conquer

 Logic/Idea Decrease by a constant factor

Divide the power in half
at each step
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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

Effectively, when
power is not
 Suppose we want to compute 95
divisible by 2, we
make power even
by taking out the
extra 9. Then we
already know the
solution when
power is divisible by
2. Divide the power
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by 2 and multiply
 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

 Now our problem is to find (812) * 9

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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

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 Example 2: Searching a Key

a problem of size n

subproblem
of size n/2

a solution to the
subproblem

a solution to
the original problem 61

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 Example-2:
Brute Searching a Key
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find a value in a given

sorted array using decrease by constant
factor
 Solution:
 What is input
 An array A of n numbers and a key.
 What should be the output
 Return location of key if found otherwise return false
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease(by a factor) and conquer

 Logic/Idea
 repeatedly dividing the search interval in half.
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 Example-2:
Brute Searching a Key
Force Example
nBegin with the mid element of the whole array as a search key.
nIf the value of the search key is equal to the item then return an index
of the search key.
nOr if the value of the search key is less than the item in the middle of
the interval, narrow the interval to the lower half.
nOtherwise, narrow it to the upper half.
nRepeatedly check from the second point until the value is found or the
interval is empty.
If ( value == middle element )
value is found
else if ( value < middle element )
search left-half of list with the same method
else
search right-half of list with the same method
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Searching an Array: Decrease by constant factor(half) Technique

 Binary search is like looking up a phone number

or a word in the dictionary
 Start in middle of book
 If name you're looking for comes before names on
page, look in first half
 Otherwise, look in second half

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 Binary search: Iterative Algorithm

Algorithm isPresent(A[0…N], val)

{
low = 0;
high = N;
mid;
while ( low <= high ){
mid = ( low + high )/2;
if (A[mid]== val)
return 1; // found!
else if (A[mid] < val)
low = mid + 1;
else
high = mid - 1;
}
return 0; // not found
}
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 Binary search

Case 1: val == a[mid]

val = 10
low = 0, high = 8
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

low mid high

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 Binary Search

Case 2: val > a[mid]

val = 19
low = 0, high = 8
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
new low = mid+1 = 5
a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

low new high

mid
low

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 Example 2: Binary Search

Case 3: val < a[mid]

val = 7
low = 0, high = 8
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
new high = mid-1 = 3
a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

low new mid high

high
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 Binary search: Example 3(contd.)

val = 7

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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 Binary Search: Recursive Algorithm

 For an ordered array A, finds if x is in the array A[lo…hi]

Algorithm BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, hi, x)

if (lo > hi)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
return FALSE
mid  (lo+hi)/2 2 3 5 7 9 10 11 12
if x = A[mid]
return TRUE mid
lo hi
if ( x < A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, mid-1, x)
if ( x > A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, mid+1, hi, x)

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 Decrease by
variable size

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 Decrease by variable size

 Variable-size decrease: Problem size decreases at each

iteration in variable amount
 Euclid’s algorithm(used in cryptography, e.g. RSA Algorithm)

gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n)

gcd( 31415, 14142 )= gcd( 14142, 3131 ) Decr. By 11011
= gcd( 3131, 1618 ) Decr. By 1513
= gcd( 1618, 1513 ) Decr. By 105
= gcd( 1513, 105 ) Decr. By 1408
= gcd( 105, 43 ) Decr. By 62
= gcd( 43, 19 ) Decr. By 24
= gcd( 19, 5 ) Decr. By 14
= gcd( 5, 4 ) Decr. By 1
= gcd( 4, 1 ) Decr. By 3
= gcd( 1, 0 ) Decr. By 1
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Pseudo code for ()Euclid’s)Algorithm, gcd(m,n)

gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n)

gcd(24, 60) = gcd(60, 24 mod 60)

What happens if m < n ?

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 How we do it?

CONCLUSION

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 Decrease and Conquer

 Exploit the relationship between a solution to a

given instance of a problem and a solution to
its smaller instance
 Top-down: recursive
 Bottom-up: iterative
 3 major types:
 Decrease by a constant
 Decrease by a constant factor
 Variable size decrease

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 Three Types of Decrease and Conquer

 Decrease by a constant (usually by 1):

 insertion sort
 graph traversal algorithms (DFS and BFS)
 Topological Sorting
 Algorithms for generating permutations, subsets

 Decrease by a constant factor (usually by half)

 Binary Search and Bisection Method
 Exponentiation by Squaring
 Multiplication à la russe

 Variable-size decrease
 Euclid’s algorithm
 Selection by partition
 Nim-like games
Department of Computer Science
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Tanveer Ahmed Siddiqui

Department of Computer Science

COMSATS University, Islamabad
 Recap and Today Covered

Algorithm Design and Analysis Process

Understand the problem

Decide on : algorithm
design techniques etc.

Design an algorithm

Prove correctness

Analyze efficiency etc

Code the algorithm

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 Reading Material

Read Chapter 4
Decrease and Conquer

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 Objectives

 How to Design Algorithm using decrease and

conquer Approach
 To sesign a variety of solutions using decrease and
conquer:
 Problems: Decrease (by a constant) and conquer
 Problems: Decrease (by constant factor) and conquer
 Problems: Decrease (by variable size) and conquer.

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 Solving Complex problem

 How to design algorithm of a complex

problem? i.e. How to solve a complex
problem?
 Break down the problem into segments
(smaller chunks/parts) and then target to solve
the segments, ultimately the problem will be
solved.
 How we reduce the size of an instance of a
problem?
 Decreasing
 Decrease and conquer
 Dividing
 Divide and conquer
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 Decrease and Conquer

 Decrease or reduce problem instance to

smaller instance of the same problem and
extend solution.
 Conquer the problem by solving smaller
instance of the problem.
 Extend solution of smaller instance to obtain
solution to original problem.
 Other Names:
 This approach is also known as incremental or
inductive approach.

Department of Computer Science

 Decrease and Conquer

 Exploit the relationship between a solution to a

given instance of a problem and a solution to
its smaller instance
 relationship between solution of P(n) {a given
instance of a problem} and a solution to P(n-1) or
P(n/2) {a smaller instance} of the same problem.
 3 major variants:
 Decrease by a constant
 Decrease by a constant factor
 Variable size decrease

 Bottom-up: iterative
 Top-down: recursive
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 Top Down and Iterative

Top Down Iterative

It is a top down approach It is bottom up approach

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 Decrease by
Constant

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 Decrease by a constant factor

 Decrease by a constant: Reduce the size of

the problem by the same constant on each
iteration/recursion of the algorithm.

Department of Computer Science 86

 A Typical Decrease by one Technique

a problem of size n

subproblem
Recursive
of size n-1

a solution to the
subproblem

e.g., n!
a solution to
the original problem 87

Iterative
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 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant
 Solution: BF an = a × a × … … × a
 What is input
 Two numbers say a and n.
 What should be the output
 Interchange the value of an
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer
Top down: recursive
 Logic/Idea a×f(n-1) if n > 0
f(n) =
an = a×an-1 1 if n = 0

Department of Computer Science 88

 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant
BF an = a × a × … … × a

Can you improve

Top down: recursive
an computation ?
a×f(n-1) if n > 0
f(n) =
1 if n = 0

Department of Computer Science 89

 Example-2:
Brute Maximum Number
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find maximum in an

array A[0..n-1] using decrease by constant
 Solution: BF
 What is input
 An array A of n numbers.
 What should be the output
 The largest value from given array A
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer
Top down: recursive
 Logic/Idea

Department of Computer Science 90

 Example-2:
Brute Maximum Number
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find minimum in an

array A[0..n-1] using decrease by constant
 Solution:
Decrease and Conquer

BF

Department of Computer Science 91

 Example-3:
Brute Force Sorting
Example

 Design an algorithm that arrange elements of an

array A[0..n-1] in ascending order using
decrease by constant BF
 Solution:
 What is input
 An array A of n numbers.
 What should be the output
 The array A with increasing order
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer

 Logic/Idea

Department of Computer Science 92

Sorting : Decrease By one

 We assume that the smaller instance A[0..n-2]

has already been sorted.
 How can we solve for A[0..n-1] now?

Department of Computer Science 93

 Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)

 Obviously, all we need is to find an appropriate

position for A[n-1] among the sorted elements and
insert it there.
 There are four alternatives for doing this:
 1st Method: Take the element adjacent to the sorted
area. Insert this element into the right place in the
sorted area. This is accomplished by bubbling down
the element to the correct spot in the sorted area.
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
29 45 68 89 34 | 90 17
29 34 45 68 89 | 90 17
29 45 68 34 89 | 90 17
29 45 34 68 89 | 90 17
Department of Computer Science 94
 1st Method

 1st Method: Take the element adjacent to the sorted

area. Insert this element into the right place in the
sorted area. This is accomplished by bubbling down
the element to the correct spot in the sorted area.

29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
29 45 68 89 34 | 90 17
29 45 68 34 89 | 90 17
29 45 34 68 89 | 90 17
29 34 45 68 89 | 90 17

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 1st Method: Analysis

29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
29 45 68 89 34 | 90 17
29 45 68 34 89 | 90 17
29 45 34 68 89 | 90 17
29 34 45 68 89 | 90 17

 If N swaps are performed by the inner loop, the

given version of sort algorithm requires N *
3 assignment statements to perform those
swaps.
 Can we improve it? That is can we minimize
assignment statements?
Department of Computer Science 96
 2nd Method

29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
29 45 68 89 34 | 90 17
29 45 68 34 89 | 90 17
29 45 34 68 89 | 90 17
29 34 45 68 89 | 90 17

 Performing a full swap of the array elements in

each inner for loop iteration is not necessary.
 Instead, we save the value that we want to insert into
the sorted subarray in temporary storage.
 In place of performing a full swap, we simply copy
elements to the right. The saved value can then be
inserted into its proper position once that has been
located.
Department of Computer Science 97
 2nd Method

 There are two alternatives for doing this:

 2nd Method: Scan the sorted subarray from left to
right until the first grater than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right before that
element.
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17 45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17 29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17

45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17

45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

Department of Computer Science 98

 3rd Method

 3rd Method: Scan the sorted subarray from right to

left until the first smaller than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right after that
element.
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17 45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17 29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17

45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17

45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17

Department of Computer Science 99

 Comparison of two strategy
 2nd Method: Scan the sorted subarray from left to
right until the first grater than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right before that
element.
 3rd Method: Scan the sorted subarray from right to
left until the first smaller than or equal to A[n-1] is
encountered and then insert A[n-1] right after that
element.
 Which one is better and why?

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 Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)

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 Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)

89 | 45 68 90 29 34 17

45 89 | 68 90 29 34 17

45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17

45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17
 The improved version only requires N
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17
+ 2 assignment statements to
accomplish the same task.
29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17

17 29 34 45 68 89 90

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Insertion Sort: Analysis of Iterative Solution

ALGORITHM InsertionSortIter(A[0..n-1])
//An iterative implementation of insertion sort
//Input: An array A[0..n-1] of n orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n-1] sorted in nondecreasing order

for i  1 to n – 1 do // i: the index of the first element of the unsorted part.

key = A[i]
for j  i – 1 to 0 do // j: the index of the sorted part of the array

if (key< A[j]) //compare the key with each element in the sorted part

A[j+1]  A[j]
else
break
A[j +1]  key //insert the key to the sorted part of the array

Department of Computer Science 103

Insertion Sort: Decrease by one(Iterative)
ALGORITHM InsertionSort(A[0..n-1])
for i <- 1 to n-1 do
v <- A[i] 89 | 45 68 90 29 34 17

j <- i-1 45 89 | 68 90 29 34 17
while j ≥ 0 and A[j] > v do
45 68 89 | 90 29 34 17
A[j+1] <- A[j]
j <- j-1 45 68 89 90 | 29 34 17
A[j+1] <- v
29 45 68 89 90 | 34 17

Input size: n 29 34 45 68 89 90 | 17
Basic op: A[j] > v
Why not j ≥ 0 ? 17 29 34 45 68 89 90
C(n) depends on input type ?

Department of Computer Science

Insertion Sort: Analysis
ALGORITHM InsertionSort(A[0..n-1])
for i <- 1 to n-1 do What is the worst case scenario ?
v <- A[i]
j <- i-1
A[j] > v executes highest # of times
while j ≥ 0 and A[j] > v do When does that happen ?
A[j+1] <- A[j] A[j] > A[i] for j = i-1, i-2, …, 0
Can you improve it j?<- j-1
A[j+1] <- v Worst case input:
An array of strictly decreasing values

For almost sorted files,

What is the best case ?
insertion sort’s performance
is excellent! A[i-1] ≤ A[i] for i = 1, 2, …, n-1

In place? Stable ?
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Insertion Sort: Decrease by one(Recursive Solution)
ALGORITHM InsertionSortRecur(A[0..n-1], n-1)
//A recursive implementation of insertion sort
//Input: An array A[0..n-1] of n orderable elements Index of the last element
//Output: Array A[0..n-1] sorted in nondecreasing order
if n > 1
InsertionSortRecur(A[0..n-1], n-2)
Insert(A[0..n-1], n-1) //insert A[n-1] to A[0..n-2]
Index of the element/key to be inserted.
ALGORITHM Insert(A[0..m], m)
//Insert A[m] to the sorted subarray A[0..m-1] of A[0..n-1]
//Input: A subarray A[0..m] of A[0..n-1]
//Output: Array A[0..m] sorted in nondecreasing order
key = A[m]
for j  m – 1 to 0 do
if (key< A[j])
A[j+1]  A[j]
else
break
A[j +1] Department
 key of Computer Science 106
 Example -2

Recurrence relation:
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
T(1) = 1
Telescoping:
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
T(n-1) = T(n-2) + n-1
T(n-2) = T(n-3) + n-2
…
T(2) = T(1 ) + 1

Add the equations and cross equal terms on opposite sides:

 T(n) = n+n-1+ n-2…1 =n(n+1)/2=O(n2)

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 Example

T (n) = T (n − 1) + n

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 Example

T(n) = T(n-1) + n
 Guess: T(n) = O(n2)
 Induction goal: T(n) ≤ c n2, for some c and n ≥ n0
 Induction hypothesis: T(n-1) ≤ c(n-1)2 for all k < n

 Proof of induction goal:

T(n) = T(n-1) + n ≤ c (n-1)2 + n
= cn2 – (2cn – c - n) ≤ cn2
if: 2cn – c – n ≥ 0  c ≥ n/(2n-1)  c ≥ 1/(2 – 1/n)
 For n ≥ 1  2 – 1/n ≥ 1  any c ≥ 1 will work

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 Insertion Sort: Food for thought

 Compare the above version of insertion sort with

the following version.

 What is the time efficiency of this algorithm?

 How is it compared to that of the version
discussed in previous slide.

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 Insertion Sort: Food for thought

 Observe that the while loop of the Insertion-sort

procedure uses a linear search to scan
(backward) through the sorted subarray A[0..i-
1]. Can we use a binary search instead to
improve the overall worst-case running time of
insertion sort to Θ (n㏒n)?

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 Exercise

 Design a recursive decrease-by-one algorithm

for finding the position of the largest element in
an array of n real numbers.
 Determine the time efficiency of this algorithm
and compare it with that of the brute-force
algorithm for the same problem.

Department of Computer Science 112

 Sorting

 BF

 Decrease and Conquer

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 Graph Representation

 Adjacency matrix
 n x n boolean matrix if |V| is n.
 The element on the ith row and jth column is 1 if there’s an
edge from ith vertex to the jth vertex; otherwise 0.
 The adjacency matrix of an undirected graph is symmetric.
 It takes (comparisons) to figure out all the adjacent
nodes of a certain node i.
 Adjacency linked lists
 A collection of linked lists, one for each vertex, that contain all
the vertices adjacent to the list’s vertex.
 An example

Department of Computer Science 114

 Depth First Search

 The idea
 traverse “deeper” whenever possible.
 On each iteration, the algorithm proceeds to an unvisited vertex that is
adjacent to the one it is currently in. If there are more than more
neighbors, break the tie by the alphabetic order of the vertices.
 When reaching a dead end ( a vertex with no adjacent unvisited
vertices), the algorithm backs up one edge to the parent and tries to
continue visiting unvisited vertices from there.
 The algorithm halts after backing up to the starting vertex, with the
latter being a dead end.
 Similar to preorder tree traversals
 It’s convenient to use a stack to trace the operation of depth-first
search.
 Push a vertex onto the stack when the vertex is reached for the first
time.
 Pop a vertex off the stack when it becomes a dead end.
 An example

Department of Computer Science 115

 Example: Undirected Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Depth-first traversal: Give the order in which the

vertices were reached.
abfegcdh

Department of Computer Science 116

 Depth First Search

 Pseudocode for Depth-first-search of graph G=(V,E)

DFS(G) // Use depth-first to visit a graph, which might
// contain multiple connected components.
count  0 //visiting sequence number
mark each vertex with 0 // (unvisited)
for each vertex v∈ V do
if v is marked with 0 //w has not been visited yet.
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
//Use depth-first to visit a connected component starting
//from vertex v.
count  count + 1
mark v with count //visit vertex v
for each vertex w adjacent to v do
if w is marked with 0 //w has not been visited yet
dfs(w)

Department of Computer Science 117

 Example: Directed Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Depth-first traversal: Give the order in which the

vertices were reached.
abfghecd

Department of Computer Science 119

 Depth First Search: Notes

 DFS can be implemented with graphs

represented as:
 Adjacency matrices: Θ(|V |2)
 Adjacency linked lists: Θ(|V |+|E| )

 Applications:
 Checking connectivity
 Finding connected components

Department of Computer Science 120

 Breadth First Search

 The idea
 Traverse “wider” whenever possible.
 Discover all vertices at distance k from s (on level k)
before discovering any vertices at distance k +1 (at
level k+1)
 Similar to level-by-level tree traversals
 Instead of a stack, breadth-first uses a queue.

Department of Computer Science 121

 Example: Undirected Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Breadth-first traversal:
abefgchd

Department of Computer Science 122

 Breadth First Search Algorithm

BFS(G)
count  0
bfs(v)
mark each vertex with 0
for each vertex v∈ V do count  count + 1
if v is marked with 0 mark v with count //visit v
bfs(v) initialize queue with v //enqueue
while queue is not empty do
a  front of queue //dequeue
for each vertex w adjacent to a do
if w is marked with 0 //w hasn’t been visited.
count  count + 1
mark w with count //visit w
add w to the end of the queue //enqueue
remove a from the front of the queue

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 Example: Directed Graph

a b c d

e f g h

 Breadth-first traversal:
abefghcd

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 Directed Acyclic Graph

 A directed graph with no (directed) cycles is

called directed acyclic graph(DAG)

a b a b

not a DAG

c d c d

DAG

Department of Computer Science 125

 Example-4:
Brute Topological Sorting
Force Example

 Topological sorting for Directed Acyclic Graph

(DAG) is a linear ordering of vertices such that
for every directed edge u-v, vertex u comes
before v in the ordering.
 Note: Topological Sorting for a graph is not
possible if the graph is not a DAG.
 Design an algorithm that find topological order
in a DAG.

Department of Computer Science 126

 Example-4:
Brute Topological Sorting
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find topological order

in a DAG.
 Solution:
 What is input
 A 2D Array representing the given graph.
 What should be the output
 Linear ordering of vertices of DAG
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease and conquer

 Logic/Idea

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 DFS based Algorithm

DFS-based algorithm for topological sorting

 Perform DFS traversal, noting the order vertices are
popped off the traversal stack
 Reverse order solves topological sorting problem
 Example:
 Set of 5 courses: { C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 }
 C1 and C2 have no prerequisites
 C3 requires C1 and C2 C1 C4

 C4 requires C3 C3
 C5 requires C3 and C4
C2 C5

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 DFS based Algorithm: Example

 Set of 5 courses: { C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 }

 C1 and C2 have no prerequisites
 C3 requires C1 and C2
 C4 requires C3 C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C5 !
 C5 requires C3 and C4

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 DFS based Algorithm: Your Turn

DFS-based algorithm for topological sorting

 Perform DFS traversal, noting the order vertices are
popped off the traversal stack
 Reverse order solves topological sorting problem

Example:

a b c d

e f g h

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 Source Removal Algorithm

Source removal algorithm

Repeatedly identify and remove a source (a vertex with
no incoming edges) and all the edges incident to it until
either no vertex is left (problem is solved) or there is no
source among remaining vertices (not a dag)
Example:

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 Source Removal Algorithm: Your Turn

Source removal algorithm

Repeatedly identify and remove a source (a vertex with
no incoming edges) and all the edges incident to it until
either no vertex is left (problem is solved) or there is no
source among remaining vertices (not a dag)
Example:

a b c d

e f g h

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 Application of Topological Sorting

 A large project – e.g., in construction, research,

or software development – that involves a
multitude of interrelated tasks with known
prerequisites
 Schedule to minimize the total completion time
 Instruction scheduling in program compilation,
resolving symbol dependencies in linkers, etc.

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 Application of Topological Sorting

 Other Examples:
 Finding cycle in a graph.
 Operation System deadlock detection.
 Dependency resolution.
 Sentence Ordering.
 Critical Path Analysis.
 Course Schedule problem.

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 Decrease by a
constant factor

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 Variants of Decrease and Conquer

 Decrease by a constant factor: the size of the problem is

reduced by the same constant factor on each
iteration/recursion of the algorithm.

Department of Computer Science 136

 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:
 What is input
 Two numbers say a and n.
 What should be the output
 Return the value of an
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease(by a constant factor and conquer

 Logic/Idea Decrease by a constant factor

Divide the power in half
at each step
Department of Computer Science 137
 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

Effectively, when
power is not
 Suppose we want to compute 95
divisible by 2, we
make power even
by taking out the
extra 9. Then we
already know the
solution when
power is divisible by
2. Divide the power
Department of Computer Science 138
by 2 and multiply
 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

 Now our problem is to find (812) * 9

Department of Computer Science 139

 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

Department of Computer Science 140

 Example-1: Computing
Brute Force Example a n

 Design an algorithm that computes an using

decrease by constant factor
Decrease by a constant factor
 Solution:

Department of Computer Science 141

 Example 2: Searching a Key

a problem of size n

subproblem
of size n/2

a solution to the
subproblem

a solution to
the original problem 142

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 Example-2:
Brute Searching a Key
Force Example

 Design an algorithm that find a value in a given

sorted array using decrease by constant
factor
 Solution:
 What is input
 An array A of n numbers and a key.
 What should be the output
 Return location of key if found otherwise return false
 Which designing technique?
 Decrease(by a factor) and conquer

 Logic/Idea
 repeatedly dividing the search interval in half.
Department of Computer Science 143
 Example-2:
Brute Searching a Key
Force Example
nBegin with the mid element of the whole array as a search key.
nIf the value of the search key is equal to the item then return an index
of the search key.
nOr if the value of the search key is less than the item in the middle of
the interval, narrow the interval to the lower half.
nOtherwise, narrow it to the upper half.
nRepeatedly check from the second point until the value is found or the
interval is empty.
If ( value == middle element )
value is found
else if ( value < middle element )
search left-half of list with the same method
else
search right-half of list with the same method
Department of Computer Science 144
Searching an Array: Decrease by constant factor(half) Technique

 Binary search is like looking up a phone number

or a word in the dictionary
 Start in middle of book
 If name you're looking for comes before names on
page, look in first half
 Otherwise, look in second half

Department of Computer Science

 Binary search: Iterative Algorithm

Algorithm isPresent(A[0…N], val)

{
low = 0;
high = N;
mid;
while ( low <= high ){
mid = ( low + high )/2;
if (A[mid]== val)
return 1; // found!
else if (A[mid] < val)
low = mid + 1;
else
high = mid - 1;
}
return 0; // not found
}
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 Binary search

Case 1: val == a[mid]

val = 10
low = 0, high = 8
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

low mid high

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 Binary Search

Case 2: val > a[mid]

val = 19
low = 0, high = 8
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
new low = mid+1 = 5
a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

low new high

mid
low

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 Example 2: Binary Search

Case 3: val < a[mid]

val = 7
low = 0, high = 8
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
new high = mid-1 = 3
a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

low new mid high

high
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 Binary search: Example 3(contd.)

val = 7

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

a: 1 5 7 9 10 13 17 19 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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 Binary Search: Recursive Algorithm

 For an ordered array A, finds if x is in the array A[lo…hi]

Algorithm BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, hi, x)

if (lo > hi)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
return FALSE
mid  (lo+hi)/2 2 3 5 7 9 10 11 12
if x = A[mid]
return TRUE mid
lo hi
if ( x < A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, mid-1, x)
if ( x > A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, mid+1, hi, x)

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 Decrease by
variable size

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 Decrease by variable size

 Variable-size decrease: Problem size decreases at each

iteration in variable amount
 Euclid’s algorithm(used in cryptography, e.g. RSA Algorithm)

gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n)

gcd( 31415, 14142 )= gcd( 14142, 3131 ) Decr. By 11011
= gcd( 3131, 1618 ) Decr. By 1513
= gcd( 1618, 1513 ) Decr. By 105
= gcd( 1513, 105 ) Decr. By 1408
= gcd( 105, 43 ) Decr. By 62
= gcd( 43, 19 ) Decr. By 24
= gcd( 19, 5 ) Decr. By 14
= gcd( 5, 4 ) Decr. By 1
= gcd( 4, 1 ) Decr. By 3
= gcd( 1, 0 ) Decr. By 1
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Pseudo code for ()Euclid’s)Algorithm, gcd(m,n)

gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n)

gcd(24, 60) = gcd(60, 24 mod 60)

What happens if m < n ?

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 How we do it?

CONCLUSION

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 Decrease and Conquer

 Exploit the relationship between a solution to a

given instance of a problem and a solution to
its smaller instance
 Top-down: recursive
 Bottom-up: iterative
 3 major types:
 Decrease by a constant
 Decrease by a constant factor
 Variable size decrease

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 Variants of Decrease and Conquer
 Decrease by a constant: the size of the problem is reduced by the
same constant on each iteration/recursion of the algorithm.
 Insertion sort
 Graph Traversing Algorithms:
 DFS
 BFS
 Topological Sorting
 Algorithms for generating permutations, subsets
 Decrease by a constant factor: the size of the problem is reduced by
the same constant factor on each iteration/recursion of the algorithm.
 Binary search
 Fake-coin problem
 Bisection Method
 Exponentiation by Squaring
 Multiplication à la russe
 Variable-size decrease: the size reduction pattern varies from one
iteration of an algorithm to another.
 Euclid’s algorithm(used in cryptography, e.g. RSA Algorithm)
 Selection by partition
 Nim-like games
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