Shaivism

The period c. 300–600 CE is often seen as a phase of ‘Brahmanical revival’ or a consolidation

of Brahmanical ideology. This is reflected in the firm establishment of Sanskrit as the
language of royal inscriptions and the increasing popularity of temple-based sectarian cults.
Actually, ‘Brahmanism’ was being transformed into a new sort of synthesis that can be
described as Hinduism or smarta religious practice (practice based on the Smritis). The
origins of this process lay in the preceding centuries. Shaivism is one of the major branches of
Hinduism that centers on the worship of Lord Shiva as the Supreme Being. It is a rich and
ancient religious tradition with a deep philosophical and theological framework. Shaivism is
said to venerate shiva as its central figure.The origins of lord Shiva can be traced back to the
discovery of the so-called Pashupati seal which implies that the roots of Shiva worship may
go back to the Harappan civilization. In the Rig Veda, the word shiva (auspicious) occurs, but
not as the name of a god. On the other hand, there is a god named Rudra, who is mentioned
infrequently and whose description as a fierce and feared god bears striking resemblance to
that of Shiva of later Hindu mythology. Later Vedic literature contains many references to a
god known variously as Shiva, Rudra, Ishana, Mahadeva, Maheshvara, Bhava, Pashupati, and
Sharva. The Shatarudriya hymn in the Vajasaneyi Samhita addressed to Rudra-Shiva,
describes him as a powerful but fierce god. Elsewhere in later Vedic texts, he is associated
with snakes, poison, and cremation grounds. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad hails him as lord
of all gods, the god of destruc- tion, and as one who grants ultimate release. Several names of
Shiva are mentioned in the Ashtadhyayi.

Some historians have suggested that the Sibae, who are described in Graeco-Roman
accounts as living in the Punjab during the time of Alexander’s invasion, may have been
worshippers of Shiva. The Mahabhashya mentions Rudra-Shiva as a deity connected with
medicinal herbs and one who is offered animal sacrifices. It also refers to the Shiva-bhaga-
vatas who carried iron lances and wore animal hides.

The multiplicity of Shiva’s forms and his various aspects and exploits are encapsu- lated in
some of his Puranic epithets. To mention just a few, Shiva is Chandrashekhara (the god who
has the crescent moon in his hair), Gangadhara (supporter of the Ganga), Vaidyanatha (lord of
physicians), Kalasamhara (the destroyer of time), Pashupati (lord of animals), and Shankara
(the beneficient). One of the most interesting manifestations of Shiva is as Ardhanarishvara—
the god who is half woman. These various forms of the deity are described in the Puranas and
are depicted in sculpture.

The Akananuru refers to Shiva as the three-eyed god who wears the konrai flow- ers, bears
the cresecent moon on his matted locks, and has Uma as his consort. The poet Nakkirar
compares a Pandya king with Shiva, Vishnu, Balarama, and Subrahmanya (Karttikeya). He
refers to Shiva as Kurram, god of death and destruction.
Shiva is today most popularly worshipped in temples in his linga (phallic) form which
represents male procreative energy and power. The origins of phallic worship in the Indian
subcontinent seem to go back to Harappan times. The Rig Veda refers disap- provingly to
people who worship the phallus (shishnadevas). During c. 200 BCE–200 CE, the cult came to
be connected with the worship of Shiva. The worship of the female creative aspect,
represented by the yoni, was amalagamated into this phallic cult. The Puranas give the story
of the origin of the linga (lingodbhava). The Ramayana refers to Ravana worshipping Rudra in
the linga form. The Mahabharata states that the sages and gods have always worshipped the
linga.

The fierce and strange nature of Shiva is described in the story of Daksha’s sac- rifice,
narrated in the epics and the Bhagavata Purana: Shiva’s father-in-law Daksha invited the gods
to attend a great sacrifice but did not include Shiva in the guest list on account of his
unconventional appearance and behaviour. Sati, Shiva’s wife, attended the sacrifice but killed
herself in grief when her father reviled her husband. Shiva was enraged, and destroyed
therapeutics.TheBhagavataPuranagivesDaksha’sdescription of Shiva to Sati—as roaming in
the cremation grounds with ghouls as his attendants, wearing bones and garlands of skulls,
and bathing in the ashes of funeral pyres

Shiva is a god who combined in himself the aspects of asceticism and fertility . The god’s
tapas is described as generating great heat that threatens the world, as does his sexual
activity. On the one hand, there are Puranic stories which describe how the gods sent down
Parvati and Kama in order to move Shiva from chastity to fertility. On the other hand, there
are myths which narrate how Agni had to intervene to interrupt Shiva and Parvati’s love
making in order to move the god from fertility to chastity. Mythology allows for the
combination of extremes and contradictions.

For the ppt guys u can use this as a flow chart sort of thing explaining the evolution of
Shaivism in different time period:

1. **Origins and Historical Development**

Shaivism can be traced back to the Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE - 500 BCE), though its distinct
form began to emerge more clearly in the post-Vedic period. Lord Shiva, originally one of the
Vedic gods (associated with Rudra), evolved into a central deity of the religion.

- **Pre-Vedic Roots**: There are indications of early Shaiva practices in the Indus Valley
Civilization (c. 3300 BCE - 1300 BCE), where symbols resembling Shiva's iconography, such as
the figure of a "proto-Shiva" sitting in a yogic posture, have been discovered.

- **Vedic Period**: In the Rigveda, Shiva's predecessor, Rudra, is a storm god associated with
healing and the wilderness. Over time, Rudra became assimilated into the larger pantheon of
Hindu gods, and gradually, his attributes morphed into those of the more well-known figure of
Lord Shiva.
- **Post-Vedic Period**: Shaivism becomes more distinct in the later stages of Vedic and early
classical texts, such as the Upanishads and the epics. During this period, the concept of a
monistic or non-dualistic reality, represented by Shiva, began to be articulated more clearly.

Sects nd sculptures
The increasing popularity of the worship of Shiva was accompanied by the development of
various Shaiva philosophical schools, whose ideas show considerable overlapping

1.The Pashupatas sect

This sect seem to be one of the oldest and most important Shaiva sects. Their philosophical
underpinnings consisted of a distinction between the individual soul (pa- shu), god (pati), and
worldly fetters (pasha). Liberation, conceived of as a state in which the soul and Shiva come
to be closely associated, could be obtained through the grace of the god. The Pashupatas
were associated with yogic practices and are often described as ascetics with ashes (bhasma)
smeared on their bodies. Sculptures and inscriptions indicate the popularity of the
Pashupata sect in Mathura and several other areas. The frequency of the depiction of
Lakulisha in the Lakshmaneshvara, Bharateshvara, and Shatrughneshvara temples—the
earliest extant temples in Orissa—suggests that they were associated with the Pashupata
sect.

~~~The Kapalikas and Kalamukhas were two important Shaiva sects of the time. No texts of
these sects have survived, and their history has to be reconstructed on the basis of
inscriptions and highly negative references to them in the texts of their adversaries . These
sects had monasteries (mathas) and well-organized priesthoods. Lorenzen’s ([1972], 1991)
study of these orders shows that although they had their distinct monastic groups, they did
not have separate laities.

2. The Kapalikas sect

The Kapalikas were Tantric Shaivite ascetics who lived in the forest. They carried a skull bowl
for begging and were associated with a mahavrata or great vow. They are described as
performing penances, animal and human sacrifice, and sometimes practising self-mutilation.

3. The Kalamukhas sect

The Kalamukhas seem to have been an offshoot of the Pashupatas, and were especially active
in the Karnataka area between the 11th and 14th centuries. There are many inscriptions
recording gifts to temples and mathas of this sect. The inscriptional references to various
Shaiva sects in early medieval India have been discussed by V. S. Pathak (1960).
Different school of thought
1.Shaiva Siddhanta

Shaiva Siddhanta was a major Shaiva philosophical school in South India. It recognized three
eternalprinciples—God (Shiva), the universe, and souls. Shiva was considered to have created
the world through his will and energy (shakti). Shaiva Siddhanta accepts the authority of the
Vedas, Agamas, and the hymns of the saints, but interprets the Vedic tradition through the
perpective of Shaiva bhakti.

2.The Kashmir School

The influential Kashmir Shaiva school was associated with a monistic or non-dualistic
philosophy, according to which the atman (individual soul) and the world were identical with
Shiva. The universe was considered a manifestation created by Shiva through his creative
power, and is compared to a reflection of a city or village in a mirror. Shakti is considered the
feminine aspect of the god. The ideas of the Kashmir Shaiva school are contained in the
Shivasutras, which, according to tradition, were revealed by the god himself to a sage named
Vasugupta, who can be placed in the 8th–9th centuries. His pupils Kallata and Somananda
further elaborated on the philosphical doctrines. Other leading figures of the school include
Abhinavagupta, Utpala, and Ramakantha.

Texts And Literature

The Agamas are considered authoritative texts by followers of Shaiva Siddhanta, Kashmir
Shivaism, and the Virashaiva tradition. They are considered as containing the words of Shiva
himself and are supposed to be taught only to select initiates. These Agamas seem to have
been composed in the Tamil-speaking area be- tween c. 400 and 800 CE. Although they
recognize the importance of knowledge (jnana), ritual (kriya), and yogic practice and conduct
(charya), they attach prime importance to bhakti. Recognizing the authority of the Vedic
tradition, they nevertheless consider Shaiva bhakti as superior to the performance of Vedic
sacrifices. The rituals prescribed for performance at home and in tem- ples are supposed to
be performed with Shaiva man- tras, although they also include some Vedic mantras. The
texts also discuss the making of religious images and the construction of temples.

Shaiva bhakti became extremely popular in South India due to the ideas and activities of the
Alvarsband Nayanmar saints.According to tradition, there were 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanmars.
The hymns of these saints are still sung in temples. The saints themselves are worshipped, a
practice that goes back to the Chola period. Images or paintings of the Nayanmars are usually
found in the hall around the sanctum and are worshipped. Vishnu temples generally have a
separate shrine for images of the Alvars. There is uncertainty about the historic- ity of some
of the saints and it is often difficult to disentangle fact from myth in their hagiographies. The
male saints were not recluses or ascetics. They lived their lives as a part of society and most
of them were married.Nayanmar poetry reflects a devotion that is at once intimate, intense,
and ecstatic. The poets visualized their god in various ways—as friend, mother, father, mas-
ter, teacher, and bridegroom. Many male saints took on the feminine voice of a lover or bride
when expressing their longing for union with god. For instance, Manikkavachakar spoke of his
lord as the eternal bridegroom. Nammalvar spoke of the lord having such an overwhelming
maleness that the bhakta loses his own maleness. Apart from the fact that the objects of
devotion were male, given prevailing gender roles, the female voice was probably considered
especially appropriate for the expression of complete love and surrender. (There are a few
instances of women saints assuming a male voice.Nayanmars is an honorific. The Shaiva
saints did not refer to themselves by this name; they described themselves as atiyar (servant)
or tontar (slave), indicating that they considered themselves servants or slaves of Shiva. Out
of the 63 Nayanmars, 3 (known as the muvar, ‘three revered ones’)—Sambandar, Appar, and
Sundarar—are considered especially important, and their images are sometimes housed in a
special separate shrine in temples. They are occasionally accompanied by an image of
Manikkavachakar.

The idea of a community of Shaiva poet-saints goes back to the early 8th century, when
Sundarar wrote a poem titled Tiruttondar Tokai (Assembly of Sacred Slaves), which listed 62
Nayanmars. In the early 10th century, Nambi Andar Nambi wrote a work called the
Tiruttondar Tiruvantai (Sacred Poem of the Holy Slaves), wherein he gave a short ha-
giography of these 62, adding Sundarar’s name to the list. He also collected the songs of the
saints. In the mid-12th century, stories of the saints’ lives were put together in a work called
the Periyapuranam. This forms the 12th and final book of the canon known as the Tirumurai.
The collection of hymns known as the Tevaram is part of this larger work.

In Shaiva bhakti, the relationship between the god and his devotee was often expressed as
analogous to that between master and slave. The poems of Manikkavachakar frequently refer
to the experience of ‘melting’ before the lord. There is a deprecation of the body and the
corporeal state. There are descriptions of ecstatic worship, where the devotee stammers,
tears pour out, when he dances and feels as though he is melting. The tone is frenzied and the
poet often reviles himself for his shortcomings. He also talks to the god in familiar tones. An
example is Manikkavachakar’s song in which he threatens to revile the god Shiva as a madman
(pitta) if he abandons him.

Temples nd patronage
Remains of Shiva temples have been found at Bhumara and Khoh in central India. Sculptures
and inscriptions bear indirect testimony to the existence of many more that have not
survived. The god is mentioned and invoked in numerous inscriptions, and certain kings (e.g.,
the Maitrakas of Valabhi) described themselves as parama-mahesh- vara (the supreme
worshipper of Maheshvara, i.e., Shiva). The Karamadanda inscription of the time of
Kumaragupta I refers to the installation of a linga named Prithvishvara by a person named
Prithivishena, a mantrin and kumaramatya. The back wall of one of the Udayagiri caves (MP)
refers to the gift of the cave as a temple of Shambhu (Shiva) by Virasena, a resident of
Pataliputra and a minister of Chandragupta II, who had come to this place along with the king
in the course of a military expedition. The Mathura pillar inscription, dated in the Gupta year
61, records the building of a temple-cum-residence by a teacher named Uditacharya for his
teacher and his teacher’s teacher, and for the installation of two Shaiva images. The practice
of naming a Shiva linga or temple after preceptors or patrons is evident

The construction and embellishment of religious establishments was the result of patronage
from diverse sources. Hermann Kulke ([1993], 2001) has pointed out that early medieval kings
tried to buttress their authority by extending patronage to major pilgrimage places (tirthas),
large-scale grants to temples, and the construction of imperial temples. Royal patronage was
important in the case of specific shrines and reflected the close relationship that kings
sought to establish with certain deities and temples. An example is the Brihadishvara temple
at Tanjavur (Tanjore), already discussed in various contexts. Such temples were built at the
direction of the king, and donations by the king and members of his family and court played
an important role in their maintenance.

Some scholars, for instance D. N. Jha (1974), argue that the emergence of temples as landed
magnates in South India, and the increase in the number of pariharas, signify the increasing
oppression of the peasantry and the growth of feudal agrarian relations. Jha further asserts
that temples became centres of political power, leading to the decentral- ization of political
power. However, it is abundantly clear that the relationship between kings and temples was
not one of rivalry but alliance. Patronage to temples was a major means of acquiring,
proclaiming, and maintaining political legitimacy

Orissa gives some instances of royally endowed temples. The largest temple at Bhu-
baneshwar is the Lingaraja temple. According to tradition, it took three generations of
Somavamshi kings to complete the temple of Krittivasa (as the Lingaraja was then known). Till
the 12th century, Orissa was a predominantly Shaiva area.

VAISHNAVISM
ORIGIN OF VAISHNAVISM

History of Vaishnavism involved the gradual coming together of the initially Independent
cults of various deities such as Narayana, Vasudeva Krishna, Shri ( The importance given to
Vishnu seems to have been a later development that took place at the stage when the
Brahmanization of these cults was established. The details of the historical processes
underlying these associations, amalgamations, and hierarchies are not entirely clear. The
term ‘Vaishnava’ as an epithet of a worshipper of Vishnu occurs in the later portions of the
Mahabharata.
The cult of Narayana was one of the important elements eventually absorbed into Vishnuism.
Some scholars have suggested that Narayana was originally a non-Vedic god. He is mentioned
in the Rig Veda and Shatapatha Brahmana. He is associated with a five-Day sacrifice called
the pancharatra sattra, through the performance of which he is supposed to have attained
superiority over all beings and identity with them. This god also seems to have been
associated with asceticism. The Mahabharata calls him a great yogi and identifies him with
Vishnu. This text in fact refers to the god more often as Narayana than Vishnu. One of the
impressive early images of Narayana is a colossal image found at Mathura.

The worship of Vasudeva Krishna seems to have originated in the Mathura region.

The Ashtadhyayi explains the word Vasudevaka as one whose object of bhakti is Vasudeva.
This is the earliest reference to devotion to Vasudeva, although the precise meaning of bhakti
in this context is uncertain. Megasthenes states that the Sourasenoi, who lived in the Mathura
region, worshipped Herakles, by which he must have meant VaSudeva Krishna, who was the
Indian god bearing the closest resemblance to the Greek God Herakles.

The first detailed account of Krishna’s life story occurs in the Harivamsha, an appendix to the
Mahabharata. This narrates Krishna’s birth, his life with his foster parents Nanda and Yashoda
in Vrindavana, and his conflict with his wicked uncle Kamsa. Parana’s such as the Vishnu,
Padma, Brahmavaivarta, and Bhagavata provide further details of Krishna’s Life in Vrindavana

EVOLUTION

The worship of the gods and goddesses that ultimately came to be absorbed into the
Vaishnava pantheon was visible in the period c. 200 BCE–300 CE. During the subsequent
centuries, this pantheon became more clearly identifi able. The cults of Narayana, Vasudeva
Krishna, and Samkarshana Balarama were absorbed into the Vaishnava fold, and Lakshmi was
recognized as the consort of Vishnu.

The fact that the worship of Vasudeva Krishna swiftly spread beyond the Mathura region is
indicated by epigraphic evidence. The Besnagar pillar inscription describes Heliodorus, Greek
ambassador to the Shunga court, as a bhagavata, i.e., a worshipper of lord Vasudeva Krishna.
A 2nd century BCE inscription found at Nagari in Rajasthan mentions a temple of
Samkarshana and Vasudeva. A 1st century BCE inscription from Gosundi in Chittorgarh
district of Rajasthan records the construction of a stone enclosure for the place of worship
(puja-shila-prakara) in honour of Samkarshana and Balarama by a person who is described as
a bhagavata and a performer of the ashvamedha sacrifice.

In the early centuries CE, there was a dramatic increase in the number and variety of
Vaishnava images produced in the Mathura area. Representations of Vasudeva Krishna are
the most numerous, but there are also a large number of small stone statuettes of Vishnu
(usually four-armed), Vishnu on garuda, and Vishnu in the form of a partly anthropomorphic
Varaha (boar) form. We may also note the fact that 2nd century BCEcoins of the Indo-Greek
king Agathocles found at Aï-Khanoum in Afghanistan depict Krishna and Balarama.

However, in spite of the increasing importance of the Vishnu element, the cults of these
various deities still retained their individual identity. This is evident from the fact that
although the term ‘Vaishnava’ occurs frequently in the Puranas, it is rare in the Mahabharata.
It is also not all that frequent in inscriptions of this period, while the term parama-bhagavata
occurs often.

The worship of the avataras of Vishnu became increasingly popular.

The Avataras eventually came to be conventionally reckoned as 10, but some of the names
vary in different texts. The Matsya Purana lists 10 avataras. Three—Narayana, Narasimha, and
Vamana—were divine, and seven—Dattatreya, Mandhatri, Rama (son of Jamadagni), Rama
(son of Dasharatha), Vedavyasa, Buddha, and Kalki were human. The Vayu Purana replaces
the Buddha with Krishna.

SOURCES OF VAISHNAVA RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Like Saivism, Vaisnavism also is a philosophy of religion which has been included as one
among the sects of Hinduism having Mahavishnu as the Supreme God. As religion it has its
source of inspiration from the Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas in Sanskrit and the
devotional utterances of the Alvars in Tamil. The Upanisads and Bhagavat Gita and the
Brahmasutras and the three major vedantic texts have been commented upon by Ramanuja
in the realm of Visistadvaita philosophy. In the Hindu pantheon Vishnu has been recognized
and adored as the God meant for protecting the human beings. However, the Vaishnaites
comprehend Vishnu as the Ultimate God who is above these triple functions of creation,
preservation and destruction, but at the same time as an immanent Being He is responsible
for these functions. God is also named as Srimath Narayanan and in Tamil Tirumal.

In the Tamil vaisnavite tradition, we have the compilation of 4000 verses in the name of
Nalayira Divya Prabandham, composed by the twelve ardent admirers of Vishnu by name
Alvars. They have poured out their vibrant experiences in mellifluous terms wherein they
depict the nature and characteristic feature of Mahavisnu in a manifold ways. Also they point
out the disastrous nature of the worldly phenomena and the significant role of bhakti in
uniting with God. The saints also elucidate a variety of devotion, but ultimately a devotee has
to totally surrender to God to become the recipient of His Grace. The Vedas declare it is not
possible to comprehend the personality as well as qualities of God while the experience of
Brahman is possible, yato vacate vartate. But the Alvars who have been incarnated to give the
quintessence of the Vedic message in Tamil assert the essential qualities of Visnu as the
person having immeasurable high qualities. He also removes the impurities in the human
minds and grants salvation through wisdom. By the grace of Lord Visnu the Alvar saints were
born to praise His glory with divine fervour under the following categories: They have the joy
of melodies. They have the hailing verses. They have the songs with internal meaning. They
have the songs exposing the implied meaning of the Vedas. The have the songs depicting God
as a child. They have the songs highlighting hero-heroine type of songs. They have songs with
description of nature. They have the songs which awakes the Lord from His yogic slumber.
They have the songs which glorify the incarnations of God.

The epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata speak about the birth and human activities of Lord
Visnu as Rama and Krishna respectively. Thought they represent the royal class by birth,
these avatars illustrate the truth regarding dharma at all spheres of life and of eliminating the
evil forces. In the Bhagavat Gita , a classical philosophical text appearing in the Mahabharata,
it is stated through the mouth of Lord Krishna that he would incarnate through out the yugas,
eras, to protect the righteous people and to wipe out the wicked ones. The main ambit of
these texts is that man ought to live according to the purusharathas (human values). We have
also the Tamil Version of the Ramayana, Kamba Ramayanam, and Mahabharata, Sri
Villiputhurar Bharatam, written according to the Tamil tradition, but without altering the
tempo of the thematic contents.

Through drama, dance, paintings, carving etc., the focal themes of these epics have been
passed on to the people so as to enable them to lead a virtuous and pious life. In fact the
Bhagavat Gita speaks about karma yoga, bhakti yoga, raja yoga and jnana yoga with special
reference to niskama karma and svadharma, (desireless action and one’s own duty). Besides
the major scholars of vedantic schools such as Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva, the
contemporary scholars like Tagore, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Arurobindo, Gandhi and others
too have made extensive commentaries to this grand text which gives room for several
interpretations from philosophical perspectives.

PHILOSOPHERS OF VAISHNAVISM

The philosophical aspect of Alvar Vaishnava bhakti was enunciated by the Vaishnava
acharyas. The first of these was Nathamuni, founder of the Shrivaishnava sect, who lived in
the late 10th/early 11th century. He was born in Viranarayanapura and lived in Shrirangam. In
his Nyayatattva, Nathamuni emphasized the idea of prapatti—complete surrender to the god.
Other infl uential Srivaishnava acharyas were Yamunacharya (10th century), Ramanuja (11th–
12th centuries), and Madhva (12th/13th century)

The greatest among the Vaishna philosophers was Ramanuja, a theistic philosopher. He
proclaimed that the way of devotion, bhakti-mārga, leads to a state of bliss. The individual
soul is made out of God’s own essence. Yet it is never completely identical with him. Hence
the liberated soul is one with Him, yet separate. Hence the philosophical system of Ramanuja
is known as qualified monism.
Madhva proclaimed the doctrine of dualism According to him, God, souls and matter are
eternally distinct. Liberation is not the union with God but being drawn closer to God and
dwelling for ever with God in the contemplation of His glory. Liberation is granted entirely by
God’s grace.

The most celebrated and popular vaishnava reformer of Bengal is Chaitanya who was a
contemporary of Vallabha. He preached Krishna bhakti through kirtans or devotional songs.
He popularized devotional songs extolling the love of Radha and Krishna.

ALVARS

In the early medieval period, the Alvar saints of South India gave a new emphasis and
expression to Vaishnava devotionalism. Alvar means ‘those who dive deep’ or ‘those who are
absorbed in the divine’.

The Tamil word that is used by Alvars to express their devotion to their god was anbu, which
means love. The use of the term bhakti, or its Tamil version patti, is fairly late. The relationship
between devotee and god was perceived as a reciprocal one, and the term used to refer to
the love of the god for his devotee was arul.

According to tradition, there were 12 Alvars . The hymns of these saints are still sung in
temples. The saints themselves are worshipped, a practice that goes back to the Chola
period. Vishnu temples generally have a separate shrine for images of the Alvars. There is
uncertainty about the historicity of some of the saints and it is often diffi cult to disentangle
fact from myth in their hagiographies. The male saints were not recluses or ascetics. They
lived their lives as a part of society and most of them were married.

The hymns of the 12 Alvars were collected in the 10th century by Nathamuni in the Nalayira
Divya Prabandham (Four Thousand Holy Hymns), which constituted the Vaishnava canon. The
first major hagiography of the Alvar saints was a 12th century work called the
Divyasuricharitam by Garudavahana. In Alvar bhakti, the relationship between the devotee
and Mayon or Mal (Krishna) was often expressed in terms of the lover–beloved relationship.
In some instances, the mother–child relationship was also invoked. For a devotee of the lord,
the performance of sacrifi ces or actions conventionally considered as marks of religious
piety were meaningless. The focus was entirely and exclusively onlove for the god.

The implication of bhakti for women is a complex issue. Andal was the only woman Alvar. The
fact that a few women fi gure among the bhakti saints is signifi cant, but on the whole, the
leadership was predominantly and overwhelmingly male. it was only during the time of
Ramanuja (11th century) and with the increasing impact of the Virashaiva movement from the
12th century onwards, that women devotees were given a greater participatory role.
VAISHNAVA EPISTEMOLOGY AND METAPHYSICS

As far as its epistemology is concerned this system recognizes only three pramanas,
viz.,Perception, inference and verbal testimony. It rejects altogether the indeterminate
perception as a psychological myth. Ramanuja agrees with the Nyaya system regarding
inference as a pramana. Regarding verbal testimony he makes a compromise between
Sankara’s advaita and Mimamsa that both karma and jnana are to be equally treated as valid
since the former is concerned with the methods of worship while the latter, the knowledge of
personal God. Knowledge always has attributes and is self-luminous, but not self-conscious.
His theory of error is known as sat-khyati, or yatarthakhyati, i.e. error is real. Since all
knowledge is intrinsically valid.

In Metaphysics, this system rejects the attributeless Brahman, but considers Brahman as
having all auspicious qualities and no evil or bad quality. Taking clues form the three vedantic
texts, viz., Gita, Brahmasutra and Upanisads, Ramanuja endeavours to establish a theistic
trend in the philosophy. Since he could not ignore the subject matter of the Agamas, it was
possible for him to maintain religious views in his philosophical wisdom. Since Nirguna
Brahman has been replayed by a qualified Absolute, Viz., God, it was easy for him to introduce
two dependent realities, vis., cit and acit – the conscious beings and non-conscious things.
Even as the body forms the substratum for the soul to exist, these two realities form the body
to God who is their soul. He is present in them and at the same time controls them,
antaryamin. God is endowed with three qualities viz., sat, cit, ananda – Existence, knowledge
and bliss and He is truth, goodness and beauty as well.

Bibliography
1.A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century :
Upinder Singh

2.Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 : Romila Thapar

3.The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism (Vaisnavism from 200 BC to AD 500) : Suvira
Jaiswal

4.The Dance of Shiva : Ananda Coomaraswamy