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CHEMISTRY NOTES
Class-X

Syed Ashir Azeem

B.E Chemical (N.E.D)
CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER # 1 ....................................... 3

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM ............................. 3

CHAPTER # 2 ....................................... 8

ACID, BASE & SALT .................................. 8

CHAPTER # 3 ..................................... 15

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY .............................. 15

CHAPTER # 4 ..................................... 29

BIOCHEMISTRY ................................... 29

CHAPTER # 5 ..................................... 41

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY I (ATMOSPHERE) .......... 41

CHAPTER # 6 ..................................... 47

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY II (WATER) ............. 47

CHAPTER # 7 ..................................... 53

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY .......................... 53

CHAPTER # 8 ..................................... 62

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY ........................... 62

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

CHAPTER # 1

Chemical equilibrium
Q 1) Define reversible reaction with examples.
Reversible reaction:
Chemical reactions which can go in the forward and backward directions simultaneously are
called as reversible reactions or both way reactions.
The reactants and the products of these types of reactions are separated by two half headed
arrows:
Some examples of reversible reactions are given below:
1. H2 + I2 2HI
2. N2 + 3H2 2NH3
3. PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
Q 2) Define chemical equilibrium. How a chemical equilibrium established?
Chemical equilibrium:
The state in a reversible reaction at which the rate in the forward direction is exactly equal to
the rate in the backward direction is called the chemical equilibrium.
How chemical equilibrium is established?
In a reversible reaction forward and reverse reactions occur simultaneously and when the rate
of these opposite processes become equal the reaction apparently stops and is said to be at
equilibrium.
Let us consider a reversible reaction:
A+B C+D
As the time passes concentration of A and B decreases and concentration of C & D increases
until a situation is reached when the concentration of both reactants and product become
constant. This is called as equilibrium.

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

Q 3) Define dynamic equilibrium with example.

Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium:
At equilibrium, it apparently appears that the process is dead but it is not so the chemical
equilibrium is dynamic and the two opposing reactions occur continuously but concentration
remains unchanged.
The dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium can be explained by collision theory which tells
that: “Effective collision among the molecules of reactants and products takes place with the
equal rate.”
Example:
A reaction of hydrogen and iodine in a closed container to produce hydrogen iodide is an
example of dynamic equilibrium reversible reaction and at the start of the reaction there is high
concentration of hydrogen and iodine and after that the concentration decreases as hydrogen
iodide is formed. The concentration of hydrogen iodide increases as the forward reaction
proceeds, the reverse reaction is then able to occur so there is no observable changes although
both forward and reverse reactions are occurring the reaction has not stopped but reached
dynamic equilibrium.
H2 + I2 2HI
Q 4) Write the characteristics of the dynamic equilibrium.
 A dynamic equilibrium can only exist in a closed system neither reactant nor product can
enter or leave the system.
 At equilibrium the concentration of reactant and product remain constant.
 At equilibrium the forward and reverse reactions are taking place at equal and opposite
rates.
 Equilibrium can be approached from either side of the reaction equation.
 An equilibrium state can be disturbed and again achieved under the given condition of
concentration pressure and temperature.
Q 5) Define active mass and KC.
Definition of KC:
It is the ratio of active masses of products to that of reactants in a given equilibrium expression.
[𝐂]𝐜 [𝐃]𝐝
KC = [𝐀]𝐚 [𝐁]𝐛

Active mass:
The concentration of reacting substances is called active mass. Its unit is mol/dm 3 and it is
expressed by square bracket [ ].

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

Q 6) State and explain law of equilibrium or law of mass action.

Law of Equilibrium OR Law of Mass Action:
“The rate of a reversible reaction is directly proportional to the multiplication of active masses
of the reacting substances at constant temperature.”
Explanation:
The law of mass of action can be explained on the basis of collision theory which tells that the
chemical change occurs due to the effective collision of reacting molecules, the greater the
concentration of reacting molecules the higher the rate of effective collision.
Mathematical formulation of the law:
Consider a general reversible reaction occurring in a homogeneous system at a given
temperature.
A+B C+D
According to the law of mass of action the rate of forward reaction will be the proportional to
the molar concentration of A and B.
Rate of forward reaction α [A] [B]
RF = KF [A] [B]
Similarly,
Rate of backward reaction α [C] [D]
RB = KB [C] [D]
But at the equilibrium state:
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction
RF = RB
KF [A] [B] = KB [C] [D]
𝐊𝐅 [𝐂][𝐃]
= [𝐀][𝐁]
𝐊𝐁

[𝐂][𝐃]
KC = [𝐀][𝐁]

If a, b are the stoichiometric coefficients of reactants A and B whereas c, d are stoichiometric

coefficients of products C and D then equilibrium expression can be written as:
[𝐂]𝐜 [𝐃]𝐝
KC = [𝐀]𝐚 [𝐁]𝐛

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

Q 7) What are the applications of law of equilibrium?

Application of the law of equilibrium
Prediction of the extent of reaction:
The value of KC is helpful to predict the extent to which a reaction will occur.
Here we have three possibilities:
 Very large value of KC:
If the value of KC is very large one can predict that the forward reaction nearly goes to the
completion and the reactant is unstable.
 Very small value of KC:
If Kc is very small then one can predict that forward reaction proceeds with negligible speed
and the reactant is fairly stable.
 Moderate value of Kc:
If the value of KC is neither high nor low it predict that the reaction proceeds to appreciable
extent but not nearly goes to completion. Both reactant and product are unstable.
Prediction of the direction of reaction:
The value of Kc is an essential tool in predicting the direction in which the reaction will shift in
order to achieve the equilibrium providing the initial concentration of the reactants and
products are known. Consider a general reversible reaction:
Reactants Products
To determine the direction of reaction we have three possibilities:
[𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐬]
1. If [𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬] < Kc
This implies that more product is required to attain the equilibrium therefore the reaction will
proceed in the forward direction.
[𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐬]
2. If [𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬] > Kc
It shows that more reactant is required to attain the equilibrium hence the reaction will
proceed in the backward direction.
[𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐬]
3. If [𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬] = Kc
It shows that the system is already in equilibrium.

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

Q 8) Write down the characteristics of Kc.

Characteristics of equilibrium constant expression are as follows:
 Kc only works in equilibrium
 It represents the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and product in mol/dm 3.
 Kc is independent of reactant and product concentrations.
 Kc varies with temperature.
 Kc is a balanced chemical equation coefficient.
 Kc represents equilibrium position. If Kc is larger than 1, the reaction is forward. If Kc is less
than 1 the reaction is reverse.
 Equilibrium constant is a ratio of reactant to product that is utilized to define chemical
behavior

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

CHAPTER # 2
ACID, BASE & SALT
Q # 1) Describe salts. Write down their preparation and types of salts.
Salts:
Salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation from base and anion from acid and is obtained
along with water in the neutralization reaction between acids and bases.
Acids + Bases Salt + Water
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Preparation of Salts:
1. Salts are produced by the action of acids on metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal
carbonates and metal bicarbonates.
CaO + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O
KOH + HNO3 KNO3 + H2O
BaCO3 + 2HCl BaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
2. Salts are produced by the action of a base with an acid or a metal with a base.
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Types of Salts
Acidic Salt:
Acidic salts are those salts which are distinctly acidic in nature. They produce acidic solution
when dissolved in water. For example NH4Cl, Ca(NO3)2, NaHSO4. Such salts have pH less than 7.
Basic Salts:
Basic salts are those salts which are distinctly basic in nature. They produce alkaline solution
when dissolved in water. For example CH3COONa, K2CO3, Na2CO3, KCN. Such salts have pH more
than 7.
Neutral Salts:
Neutral soils are those salts which are formed by the complete neutralization of a strong base
and a strong acid. The aqueous solution of these salts is neutral to litmus paper. For example
sodium chloride, potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, sodium nitrate. Such salts are neutral
with pH 7.

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

Q # 2) Write down the uses of salts in daily life.

 Most of the chemical fertilizers used in agriculture by farmers are salts. For example,
ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, potassium chloride,
nitrogen phosphorus and potassium fertilizers.
 Certain salts are used as pesticides to kill or destroy insects, pests, weeds and fungi. For
example copper II sulfate, iron II sulfate and mercury chloride.
 In medical field, hydrated calcium sulphate is found in plaster of Paris. It is used to make
plaster casts for supporting broken bones.
 Patients suffering from anemia use iron II sulfate hepta hydrate as an ingredient in iron
pills as food supplement.
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate is an ingredient in anti-acids. This salt can neutralize the
excess acid secreted by the stomach.
 Barium sulfate is used to make barium meals for patients who need to take an X-ray of
their stomach. The salt helps to make internal soft organs like intestines appear on X-ray
films.
 Potassium permanganate VII can kill bacteria and hence it is suitable for use as a
disinfectant.
Q # 3) Discuss the properties of acids and bases.
Properties of Acids:
1. Acids have sour taste.
2. Acids turn blue litmus red.
3. Acids have pH less than 7.
4. Strong acid can cause burn on skin.
5. Strong acids also destroy fabric.
6. Acids are electrolytes.
Properties of Bases:
1. Bases change the color of litmus from red to blue.
2. They are bitter in taste.
3. Bases lose their basicity when mixed with acids.
4. Bases react with acids to form salt and water. This process is called Neutralization.
5. They can conduct electricity.
6. Bases feel slippery or soapy.
7. Some bases are great conductors of electricity.

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

Q # 4) What do you mean by balancing of neutralization reaction? Explain with the help of
examples:

Neutralization reaction:

Neutralization reaction takes place by the reaction of an acid and a base, produce salt and water
in aqueous solution. A neutralization reaction is shown by a balanced chemical equation which
have equal number of atoms as well as positive and negative charges on reactants and products
sides. The balancing of a neutralization reaction involves the equal consumption of H+ and OH-.
For example in chemical equation of neutralization of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
given as:

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

NaOH and HCL are neutralizing each other in the ratio 1:1 because one mole of NaOH releases
one mole of OH- ions and one mole of HCl releases one mole of H+.

Q # 5) Define buffers. What is the composition of buffer? Discuss its importance in our daily
life.

Buffer Solution:

Buffer solution is a solution which resists the change in pH of a solution against the addition of a
small amount of acid or a base. A buffer is an aqueous solution that has a highly stable pH.

Composition of Buffer:

A buffering agent is a weak acid and its conjugate base or weak base and its conjugate acid. That
helps to maintain the pH of an aqueous solution after adding another acid or base. If you add an
acid or a base to a buffer solution its pH will not change significantly. Similarly adding water to a
buffer or allowing water to evaporate will not change the pH of a buffer. The pH of a buffer is
independent of the ionic strength. The pH of a buffer is dependent on the temperature.

Types of Buffer:

There are two types of buffer.

Acidic buffer:

An acidic buffers id made from a weak acid and its salt or conjugate base (like CH3COOH and
CH3COONa).

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Basic buffer:

Basic buffers are made from a weak base and it salts or conjugated acid (like NH3 and NH4Cl).

Importance of buffer in daily life:

 Human blood contains a buffer of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate anion (HCO3-) in
order to maintain blood pH between 7.35 and 7.45, as a value higher than 7.8 or lower than
6.8 can lead to death. In this buffer, hydronium and bicarbonate anion are in equilibrium
with carbonic acid.
 Soaps and shampoos are, by nature, alkaline. The addition of citric acid buffers this
alkalinity and prevents possible burns to the skin and scalp.
 Baby lotions often contain citric acid and sodium lactate to buffer the lotion to a slightly
acidic pH of six, which inhibits the growth of bacteria and other pathogens.
Q # 6) Explain in detail that how water ionization is related with pH of a solution.

The water is a neutral liquid which passes equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions due to
this pure water is considered as a weak electrolyte, it ionizes according to the following
reaction:

H2O H+ + OH-

The equilibrium constant of water is given by:

[𝐇][𝐎𝐇]
Kc = {𝐇𝟐𝐎]

As we know that the ionization of water is very small so the concentration is approximately
unchanged and considers as constant (Kw) and its value is 1X10-14 (mol/dm-3)2.

Kc[H2O] = [H+][OH-]

Kw = Kc[H2O]

Kw = [H+][OH-]

Since the concentration of H+ and OH- in water is almost equal that is 1X10-7 and pH is the
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration so by taking minus log on both sides of
the above equation we can get:

-log [1X10-14] = -log[H+][OH-]

14 = -log[H+] + [-log[OH-]]

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CHEMISTRY PREPARED BY: SYED ASHIR AZEEM CLASS X

14 = pH + pOH

The above equation shows that the ionization of water is directly related to the pH of the
solution and it is also the base of the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 (the most acidic to most
basic).

Q # 7) Define the following.

Conjugate acid:

Conjugate acid is specie which is formed as a result of acceptance of proton by a base.

Conjugate base:

Conjugate base is specie which is formed as a result of donation of proton from the acid.

CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H3O+

Here, CH3COO- is a conjugated base and H3O+ is a conjugated acid.

Titration:

Titration is a technique where a solution of known concentration is used to determine the

concentration of the unknown solution.

Indicator:

Indicators are weak organic acids or bases which change their color over small range of pH.
Indicators are used in titration to detect the end point of titration by changing the color of the
analyte upon complete neutralization.

Titrant:

Titrant is the known solution in the titration added from a burette to a known quantity of the
analyte, the unknown solution.

pH:

pH is an abbreviation for the potential hydrogen and it is a scale used for measuring the relative
acidity or alkalinity of a liquid solution. It is the measurement of the concentration of the
hydrogen ion in a solution.

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pOH:

It is the measurement of the concentration of hydroxyl ions in a solution.

Q # 8) Discuss in detail how different solutions in ecosystem exhibit increase in acidity and
increase in basicity on the basis of H+ and OH- ions.

According to Bronsted - Lowry theory, acid is a proton donor and bases are proton acceptor. All
the solutions in their aqueous state ionize and give H+ and OH- ions. The solutions having higher
concentration of H+ ions have the ability to donate the proton and those who have high
concentration of OH - have the ability to accept the proton. Therefore, the higher the
concentration of hydrogen ions, the higher will be the pH of the solution and the solution will
be more acidic in nature. Similarly, the higher the hydroxyl ion concentration the lower will be
the pH and that solution will be more basic. Since pH is the negative logarithm of the
concentration, hence it works vice versa, that is higher the concentration lower the value of pH
and the pH scale values ranging from zero (the most acidic) to 14 (the most basic).

Q # 9) Describe the Arrhenius concept of acids and bases.

According to Arrhenius theory, the acids are those substances that produce hydrogen ion when
dissolved in water and bases are those substances that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved
in water and salt is an ionic compound that is formed by the reaction of an acid and a base.

HCl H+ + Cl –

NaOH Na+ + OH –

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

Limitations of Arrhenius theory:

 Hydrogen ions do not exist in water solution and they react with water to form hydronium
ion.
 The Arrhenius theory does not explain the basicity of ammonia (NH3), acidity of carbon
dioxide and other similar compounds.
 It is only applicable in aqueous solutions.

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Q # 10) Describe the Bronsted - Lowry theory of acids and bases.

According to Bronsted and Lowry, any substance behaves as an acid when it donates a proton
to a base and any substance which accepts a proton behaves like a base. So acids are proton
donors and bases are proton acceptors.

Let us consider the dissolution of hydrogen chloride in water. In this reaction HCl donates its
one proton to water and water accepts one proton to become hydronium ion.

HCl + H2O Cl - + H3O+

Thus HCl is a bronsted acid and water is a bronsted base. Hydronium ion is the conjugate acid
and chloride is a conjugate base.

Limitations of Bronsted Lowry concept:

 It could not explain the acidic nature of compounds having no tendency to lose H+ ions.
Examples CO2, AlCl3, SO2
 It could not explain the basic nature of compounds having OH – ions. Example NaOH,
Ca(OH)2, KOH.
Q # 11) Describe the Lewis theory of acids and bases.

According to Lewis theory, an acid is a substance that is capable of accepting an electron pair
and base is a substance that is capable of donating an electron pair. Thus a Lewis acid is an
electron pair acceptor and the Lewis base is an electron pair donor.

Consider the reaction:

NH3 + BF3 H3N BF3

Since NH3 is the donor of electron pair and BF3 is acceptor of a pair of electron. So according to
the Lewis concept NH3 is the Lewis base and BF3 is Lewis acid.

Limitations of Lewis acid and base concept:

 It could not explicate the release of energy during the formation of covalent bond.
 It could not clarify the shapes of molecules and amount of energy released during covalent
bond formation.
 It could not explain the nature of attractive forces between the constituent atoms of a
molecule.

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CHAPTER # 3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Section-A
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Tick Mark ( ) the correct answer

1. The branch of chemistry which deal with hydrocarbons and their derivatives is known as
(a) Organic Chemistry (b) Inorganic Chemistry
(c) Biochemistry (d) Physical Chemistry

2. The general formula for alkane is?

(a) CnH2n (b) CnH2n+1

(c) CnH2n+2 (d) CnH2n-1

3. Which of the following is an alcohol?

(a) CH3 - CHO (b) CH3 – CH2 – O – CH3

(c) CH3 - OH (d) HCOOH

4. Which of the following is a saturated hydrocarbon

(a) CH3 – CH = CH2 (b) CH3 – CH2 – CH3
(c) CH3 – C = CH (d) CH2 = CH – C = CH

5. The prefix ‘hept’ tands for the __________ carbn atoms?

(a) 2 (b) 5
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(c) 7 (d) 9

6. The functional group –COOH is used for:

(a) alkyne (b) alcohol

(c) Phenols (d) Carboxylic acids

7. Polyethene is:
(a) Oil (b) Paper

(c) Plastic (d) Wood

8. Acetic acid is obtained from:

(a) Banana (b) Dates

(c) Garlic (d) Vinegar

9. Alkene:
(a) show thw same general formula as alkyne
(b) have carbon-carbon trile bond

(c) have carbon-carbon double bond

(d) are saturated hydrocarbon

10. CH 3 – CH3 - is radical:

(a) Methyl (b) Ethyl

(c) n-propyl (d) isopropyl

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Section-B
SHORT QUESTIONS
Question-(i)
Define Vital Force theory
Answer:
Vital force theory:
“Around the year 1780, chemists began to distinguish between organic compounds obtained
from plants and animals and inorganic compounds prepared from mineral sources”.
Berzilius, a Swedish chemist proposed that a ‘vital force’ was responsible for the formation of
organic compounds.
The principles of vital force theory are:
1. The synthesis of organic compounds requires a vital force.
2. Organic compounds cannot be made in the laboratory from inorganic compounds.
3. Only living organisms contain this vital force.

Question-(ii)
How Petroleum is source of Organic Compounds?
Answer:
Petroleum is a thick dark brownish or greenish black liquid. Petroleum is a fossil fuel that
is formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. It is a
complicated combination of solid , liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons together with water ,
salts and earth particles. Organic compounds are mostly derived from petroleum. It is made
up of a variety of substances, the majority of which are hydrocarbons. Fractional distillation is
used to separate these chemicals.

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Question-(iii)
Define the functional group. Write the functional groups which contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?
Answer:
The atom or the group of atoms by which the characteristic reactions of organic compounds
are determined, that atom or group of atoms is called the functional group
The Functional Group Containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Alcohlic Group Ether Linkage Aldehyde Group

Ketonic Group Carboxylic Group Ester Linkage

Question-(iv)
Define the Alkyl radical with suitable examples?
Answer:
Alkyl Radical:
Alkyle radicals are alkane derivates. They are created by removing one of an alkane’s hydrogen atoms. An
acylic alkyl has the general formula CnH2n+1

For Example:

o The Methyl radical (CH3-) is formed from Methane (CH4)

o The Ethyl radical (C2H5-) is formed from ethane (C2H6)

Question-(v)
What is Homologous Series? Name the some common Homologous series?
Answer:
Homologous series:
 A homologous series is a collection of compounds with the same general formula that differ only
in the carbon chain length.
 Compounds in a homologous series often have a fixed set of functional groups, resulting in
chemical and physical properties that are comparable.
 For example, homologous series of alkane: CH4, C2H6, C3H8, etc. are homologous.
 They differ from each other by -CH2 unit.

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
Question-(vi)
Identify the functional group in the following compound.
(a) CH3 – CHO
(b)CH3 – CH2– CH3 – CHO
(c) CH3 – CO – CH3
(d) CH3 – COOH
(e) CH2 = CH – CH3

Answer:
(a) CH3 – CHO Aldehyde
(b) CH3 – CH2– CH3 – CHO Alcohols
(c) CH3 – CO – CH3 Ketones
(d) CH3 – COOH Carboxylic Acid
(e) CH2 = CH – CH3 alkane

Question-(vii)
Write the condensed and structural formula of the pentane and octane.
Answer:
Pentane: (Pen = Five , ane = single bond)
The molecular formula of pentane or n-pentane is C5H12
The structural formula will be CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
The condensed structural formula will be CH3-(CH2)3-CH3

Octtane: (Oct = eight , ane = single bond)

The molecular formula of pentane or n-pentane is C8H18
The structural formula will be CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3-
The condensed structural formula will be CH3-(CH2)6-CH3

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Question-(viii)
What is catenation? Give any two examples of catenation of carbon atoms.
Answer:
Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking of atoms of an element to create chains and rings.
The capacity to create double bonds, the ability to form different types of double bonds, and
the configuration of the element's molecular orbitals surrounding the atom are all electronic
and steric factors that affect catenation.
Examples of catenation

 Catenation happens most easily in carbon, establishing covalent bonds to build larger
chains and structures with other carbon atoms.
 Carbon is not the only element capable of generating such catenae; silicon, sulfur, and
boron are just a few examples.

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Section-C
DETAILED QUESTIONS
Question-(i)
Give the important characteristics of organic compounds.
Answer:
Important characteristics of organic compounds:
Some general characteristics of organic compounds are below.

(1) Source: Organic compounds are obtained from living things such as from plants and
animals and also from minerals.
(2) Composition: Carbon is the main element in all organic compounds and one more
main element is Hydrogen. Organic compound may also contain halogens, oxygen,
sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous elements. Organic compounds contain Covalent,
polar and non polar bonds.
(3) Melting and Boiling Point: Organic compounds melting and boiling points noted
to be low due to covalent bond presence. Covalent always become weaker than ionic
bonds.
(4) Solubility: Organic compounds are soluble in water but solute in organic solvent. Non
polar organic compounds are soluble in benzene, ether. Polar compounds are soluble
in Alcohol.
(5) Reactivity Rate: Organic compounds have very low reactivity rate and its due to
covalent bond because covalent bonds are harder to break.
(6) Stability: Organic compounds are less stable at higher temperature as compare to
inorganic compounds.
(7) Electrical Conductivity: Due to covalent bonds organic compounds are non-
conductors of electricity.
(8) Combustion: As we know organic compounds contain high amount of carbon and
due to presence of carbon they become more combustible and burn in the air and
emits carbon dioxide.

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Question-(ii)
Differentiate between Saturated and Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Answer:

S No. Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons are Unsaturated hydrocarbons are

1 hydrocarbons with only hydrocarbons with only multiple
single covalent bonds. covalent bonds.

Include Alkenes, Alkynes and

2 Include Alkanes
aromatic hydrocarbons

Have a less amount of carbon

Have a less amount of hydrogen
3 and high amount of
and high amount of carbon
hydrogen

4 Less reactive More reactive

Burning in air result blue, Burning in air result yellow, sooty

5
non sooty flame flame

Usually obtained from

6 fossilized plant and animal Usually obtained from plants.
material.

Examples Examples
7 Ethane (CH3 – CH3) Ethene (CH2 = CH2)
Propane (CH3 – CH2 – CH3) Propene (CH3 – CH = CH2)

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Question-(iii)
What are the main sources of Organic Compound? Mention with special
reference of coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Answer:
Sources of organic compounds:
There are two main sources of organic compounds namely living things and minerals.
These sources are described as under.

Coal:
Coal is made up of a variety of hydrocarbons. It is an important source of solid fossil fuels for
us. It can be found at various depths beneath the earth’s surface. Coal is formed in the variety
of ways. Coal is said to have developed in nature 500 million years ago from the remnants of
trees buried deep inside the soil.
It was turned to peat as a result of bacterial and chemical processes on the wood. Peat was
then converted into coal as a result of high temperature and pressure within the earth crust.
Natural carbonization is the process of converting wood into coal. Wood has carbon content
40%.

Petroleum:
The word Petroleum is derived from two Latin words Petra means rock and oleum mean oil.
So the word petroleum means rock oil. It is also sometimes called mineral oil or liquid gas.
Petroleum is a thick sticky viscous liquid of black colour that seeps out of the ground.
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons (mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic
hydrocarbons) whose composition varies according to its place of occurrence.

Natural Gas:
It’s a mixture of hydrocarbons with low molecular weight. Methane together with other gases
such as ethane, propane and butane make up around 85% of the mixture. It has a similar origin
to coal and petroleum. As a result it is discovered with their deposits. Natural gas is utilized as
a fuel in both households and industries. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is utilized in cars as a
fuel.

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Question-(iv)
Describe the uses of organic compound.
Answer:
Uses of organic compounds:
Thousand of organic compounds are undoubtedly synthesized spontaneously by animals and
plants, but scientists prepare millions of organic compounds in labs. These compounds are
found in wide range of products from the food we consume to the many goods we use in our
everyday lives to meet our requirements.

 Uses as Food
The food we eat daily, such as milk, eggs, meat, vegetables and so on are all organic and
contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and so on.

 Uses as Clothing
Natural (Cotton, silk, wool, etc) and synthetic (polyester, nylon, etc) fibers are used in all
forms of clothing (we wear, we use as bed sheets, etc). All of these substances are made of
organic compounds.

 Uses as Fuel
Coal, natural gas, petroleum are fuels we use in our cars and in our homes. These are referred
to as fossil fuels. These are all organic compounds.

 Uses as House
Wood is made mostly of cellulose (naturally synthesized organic compound). It’s used to build
anything from buildings to furnishing.

 Uses as Medicines
We use many organic compounds which obtains from plants as medications. Antibiotic (which
kills bacteria that causes infection illness) and other life-saving medications and treatments
are manufactured in laboratories.

 Uses as Raw Material

Organic compounds are used to make a wide range of products, including rubbers, papers,
ink, pharmaceutical, dyes, paints, varnishes, and many more.

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Question-(v)
Name the alkenes and alkynes having following formula.
(i) CH4 (ii) C3H4
(iii) C3H6 (iv) C6H12
(v) C5H8 (vi) C8H16
(vii) C7H12 (viii) C6H10
Answer:

S No Formula Name
I CH4 Ethene
Ii C3H4 1,2- Propadiene OR Prop-1,2-diene OR allene
Iii C3H6 Propene
Iv C6H12 Cyclohexane OR 1-hexane
V C5H8 1-Pentyne
Vi C8H16 1-Octene
Vii C7H12 Heptyne OR Cycloheptene
viii C6H10 1-Ethylcyclobutene

Question-(vi)
Define nomenclature and describe the I.U.P.A.C nomenclature rules for
alkynes.
Answer:
Nomenclature:
Initially organic compounds classified according to their sources (Methane as marsh gas,
Methyl alcohol as wood spirit, acetic acid from vinegar).But as time passed many other
organic compounds found and it became difficult to name these.
In 1960 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (I.U.P.A.C) created a system for the
naming of organic compounds.

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Rules for Naming alkanes:

1) Consider the parent alkane and select the longest possible continuous chain of carbon
atoms, whether straight or branched

2) Assign numbering on c-atom of chain from that end which branch or radical is nearer

3) Name the alkyl radical with its position

4) If the same radical appears more than once then once in the chain, the number of
alkyl radicals is expressed by prefixing the name of the alkyl radicals with di,tri, terta,
pents, and so on.

5) When there are two or more separate alkyl radicals in a chain they are designated in
alphabetical order, ethyl before methyl, methyl before propyl, and so on

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6) When separate alkyl radicals occur at the same location on a carbon atom from either
end of the chain, the carbon chain is numbered from that end to which larger radical
is nearer.

7) In the end name of parent chain is named as alkane w.r.t number of C-atoms.

Question-(vii)
What does do you mean by diversity and magnitude of organic
compounds?
Answer:
Diversity and magnitude of organic compounds:
There are a total of 118 elements known today. The number of organic compounds (carbon
compounds) is more than ten million. This number is far more than the number of compounds
of all the remaining elements taken together. The existence of such a large number of organic
compounds is due to the following reasons:

(i) Catenation:
The main reason for the existence of a large number of organic compounds is that carbon
atoms can link with one another by means of covalent bonds to form long chains or rings of
carbon atoms. The chains can be straight or branched. The ability of carbon atoms to link with
other carbon atoms to form long chains and large rings is called catenation.

(ii) Isomerism:
Another reason for the abundance of organic compounds is the phenomenon of isomerism.
The compounds are said to be isomers if they have the same molecular formula but different
arrangement of atoms in their molecules or different structural formulae. Isomerism also adds
to the possible number of structures, e.g., molecular formula C5H12 can be represented by
three different structures.

(iii) Carbon’s covalent bond strength:

Because its very small size carbon can make very strong covalent bond with other carbon
atom, hydrogen, nitrogen and halogens. This allow it to make many bonds with different
compounds.

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(iv) Carbon’s covalent bond strength:

To form tetravalency carbon can form multiple bonds (double and triple bonds). This
increased the number of structures that can be built. A single covalent bond connect two
carbon in ethane, a double covalent bond connects two carbon ethylene and a triple covalent
bond connects two carbon in acetylene.

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CHAPTER # 4

BIOCHEMISTRY
Section-A
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Tick Mark ( ) the correct answer

1. Glucose is
(a) Vitamin (b) Protein

(c) Carbohydrate (d) Lipid

2. The deficiency of vitamin D causes

(a) Beriberi (b) Rickets
(c) Scurvy (d) Hemorrhage

3. __________ encodes genetic information

(a) R.N.A (b) D.N.A
(c) Progesterone (d) Cholesterol

4. The carbohydrates which contain the aldehyde group are called:

(a) Saccharides (b) Ketoses

(c) Pentose’s (d) Aldoses

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5. Amino acids are building blocks of:

(a) Nucleic acids (b) Protein
(c) Vitamins (d) Lipid

6. Which one of the following is a polysaccharide?

(a) Fructose (b) Maltose

(c) Starch (d) N.O.T

7. Lactose is:
(a) Grape sugar (b) Honey sugar

(c) Milk sugar (d) Cane sugar

8. What is true about a peptide:

(a) It is a protein (b) It is an anhydride of carboxylic acid

(c) It is an anhydride of amine (d) It is a polyamide

9. Fats are solid at::

(a) Ordinary room temperature
(b) High temperature
(c) Higher than 50oC temperature
(d) N.O.T

10. Cotton contains cellulose.

(a) 30% (b) 65%

(c) 85% (d) 95%

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Section-B
SHORT QUESTIONS
Question-(i)
What are the Proteins?
Answer:
Protein:
Proteins are defined as the polymers (macr0-molecules formed of simple unit called
monomers) of amino acids are called proteins. Protein word is taken from the Greek
“Proteios” which mean first. These are nitrogenous micro-molecules found in all the cells of
living organism. Proteins have central position in the architecture and functioning of living
matter. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and very rarely sulphur
and phosphorous.

Question-(ii)
Define the importance of Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)
Answer:
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the permanent storage site of genetic information; it
transports and stores all of the cell’s genetic information. It conveys these instructions on
how to build certain proteins from amino acids from generation to generation. These
instructions are referred to as the “genetic code, of life”. They decide whether a cell is a nerve
cell or a muscle cell, and it an organism is a ma, a tree, or an animal.

Question-(iii)
Differentiate between Fats and Oils
Answer:
Diffrentiate between fats and oils:
Fats Oils
1 Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
Saturated and trans are its Unsaturated fats like monounsaturated and
2
types polyunsaturated are its types

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3 Mostly derived from animal Mostly derived from plants

4 Increases cholesterol levels Improves cholesterol levels
5 Example: Butter, beef fat Example:Vegetable oil, fish oil

Question-(iv)
What are the polysaccharides? How monosaccharide are produced from
polysaccharides??
Answer:
Polysaccharides:
A polysaccharide is a polymer of simple sugars that can serve as functional and structural
components of cells and can also be used as an energy source.
A polysaccharide can also be called a glycan.
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide molecules linked by glycosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides + Water ----------------More than 10 monosaccharides

C6H10O5 + H2O --------------- n C6H12O6

Question-(v)
What is peptide bond? How it is formed? Also explain dipeptides and
tripeptides
Answer:
Peptide Bond:
A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group
of one molecule reacts with the amino acid group of the other molecule, resulting into the
formation of an amide group along with a molecule of water. The reaction is known as

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dehydration synthesis/ condensation reaction and the resulting CO−NH bond is known as a
peptide bond.

Dipeptides and Tripeptides:

The reaction between two molecules of similar or different amino acids proceeds through the
combination of the amino group of one molecule with the carboxyl group of another is called
dipeptide because it made up of two amino acids. If a peptide is combined with a third amino
acid the product is a tripeptide.

Question-(vi)
Enumerate the important uses of lipids.
Answer:
Important uses of lipids:
1. They act as a transporter of fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E & K) in the body.
2. Some lipids reduce the cholesterol level in the body.

3. Fats and oils are used for cooking and frying food.

4. Fats and oils are used in detergents. Soaps, cosmetics, polishes and paints.

5. They activate the enzymes.

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Question-(vii)
What are the amino acids and give their general structure.
Answer:
Amino Acids:
Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. The general formula of
an amino acid is R-CH(NH2)-COOH. Amino acids are known to contain amine and carboxyl
functional groups.

Amino Acids General Structure:

Question-(viii)
What is Vitamin D? Give its source and importance.
Answer:
Vitamin D:
Vitamin D is both a nutrient we eat and a hormone our bodies make. It is a fat-soluble vitamin
that has long been known to help the body absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus; both
are critical for building bone.

Importance of Vitamin D:
Vitamin D is essential for maintain healty bones and teeth. It also plays many other important
roles in the body, including regulationg inflammation and immune function. Vitamin D promotes
intestinal calcium absorption and helps maintain adequate blood level of calcium and
phosphorous, which is necessary for health bone mineralization.

Souces of Vitamin D:
It sources are Fish, Milk, Butter, Mushrooms, Sunshine etc.

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Question-(ix)
Distinguish between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins.
Answer:
Diffrence between Fat Soluble and Water Soluble Vitamins:

Sr# Fat Soluble Vitamins Water Soluble Vitamins

1 They are soluble in fats They are soluble in water.
2 These required bite salts and These are easily absorbed
fats for their absorption.
3 Normally these are not These have a threshold hold for urinary
excreted in the urine. excretion.
4 These are generally stored in These rae not stored in the body except for
the liver. vitamin B12.
5 They do not act as coenzymes. These act as coenzymes.
6 Example: Example:
Vitamins A, D, E, and K Vitamin ?B complex and Vitamin C.

Section-C
DETAILED QUESTIONS
Question-(i)
What are the carbohydrates? Explain sources and uses of carbohydrates.
Answer:
Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are biomolecules that consist of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The ratio
of hydrogen and oxygen in carbohydrate is 2:1, which is similar to water.
Carbohydrates are macronutrients. They are one of the three main ways that a body can obtain
energy. Carbohydrates are converted into sugar and this sugar will be used by the cells for its
energy.

Sources of Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are an important food afctor and are obtained from various sources like fruits,
vegetables and dairy products.

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Carbohydrates Sources

Monosaccharide Grapes, honey, guava, molasses etc

Glucose
Fructose
Oligosaccharides Sugarcane, sugar, beet, beet rrot, carrots.
Sucrose Maple, pine apple etc
Lactose Milk
Maltose Wheat, barley etc
Raffinose Legumes

Polysaccharides Cell wall of all land plants, cotton etc

Cellulose Cereal foods (Wheat, barley), potato,
Starch Legumes, small amount in root vegetables
Glycogen (also called animal starch) Liver, muscles etc

Uses of Carbohydrates:
 These are the main source of energy.
 It is a part of some connecting tissues.
 These also help in maintaining a healthy digestive system.
 The fibre in carbohydrates helps in lowering blood cholesterol.
 It retains protein from being burned so it can be used to build and repair.
 Starch is used to improve the writing characteristics of paper by coating and sizing it.
 Starch is utilized in the production of ethanol and laundries.
 Cellulose is used as raw material in variety of industries.

Question-(ii)
What are lipids? Write down the sources and uses of lipids.
Answer:
Lipids:
“Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms, which
form the framework for the structure and function of living cells.”
These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar
solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule.

Sources of Lipids:

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Animals: Marrine animals like salmon and whales are rich sources of lipids. Butter, ghee and
cheese are obtained from animals.
Plants: sunflower, coconut, ground nuts, corn, cottonseed, olive etc. Are important plant
sources of lipids.

Uses of Lipids:
 They act as a transporter of fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E & K) in the body.
 Some lipids reduce the cholesterol level in the body.
 Fats and oils are used for cooking and frying food.
 Fats and oils are used in detergents. Soaps, cosmetics, polishes and paints.
 They activate the enzymes.

Question-(iii)
Describe vitamins and type of vitamins.
Answer:
Vitamins:
The vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a major
role in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy bones and
tissues, for the proper functioning of an immune system, and other biological functions. These
essential organic compounds have diverse biochemical functions.
There are thirteen different types of vitamins and all are required for the metabolic processes.
The discovery of the vitamins was begun in the year 1912 by a Polish American biochemist
Casimir Funk.

Types of Vitamins:
Based on the solubility, Vitamins have been classified into two different groups:
1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins.
2. Water-Soluble Vitamins.
Fat-soluble vitamin:
Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fat cells and as the name suggests, these vitamins
require fat in order to be absorbed. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins.

Water-soluble vitamin
Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in our body as its excess gets excrete through the urine.
Therefore, these vitamins need to be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are water-
soluble vitamins.
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Question-(iv)
Describe in detail nucleic acids, RNA and DNA.
Answer:
Nucleic Acids:
Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit) is known
as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides.

Types of Nucleic Acids:

There are two types of nucleic acis. Both types of nucleic acids are present in all animals and
plants.

 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Deoxyribose sugar is found in DNA j. Watson and F.Crick identified its structure in 1952. It’s a
two chained double stranded molecule with a considerable length. Sugar, phosphate, and a
base makeup each chain. The backbone of the chain is made up of sugar and phosphate
groups, and two chains are joined by bases. The given figure shows how the chain are
wrapped around each other in a double helix shape.
In a nucleolus of a cell DNA is a permanent storage site for genetic information. It transports
and stores all of the cell’s genetic information. It conveys these instructions on how to build
certain proteins from amino acids from generation to generation. These instructions are
referred to as the “genetic code, of life”. They decide whether a cell is a nerve cell or a muscle
cell, and it an organism is a man, a tree, or a buffalo.
Protein information in new cells is determined by the sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA.
The purpose of DNA’s double helix construction is to ensure that there is no disorder. DNa
contains genes that regulate RNA production. Errors in the genes cause incorrect RNa to be
produced. It make defective proteins that don’t work the way they’re meant to. Genetic
Disorder are caused by this aliment.

2.Ribonucleic Acid (DNA)

It is made up of ribose sugar. It’s a molecule with only one strande. It is in charge of putting
genetic information to work in the cell to produce proteins, it function is similar to that of a
messenger. DNA produces RNA to convey genetic information. The information sent to RNa
is is received, read, decode and used to build new proteins. As a result RNa is in charge of
guiding the production of new proteins.

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Question-(v)
How you can justify that deficiency of different types of vitamins causes
diseases in human beings.
Answer:
Vitamins, their sources, importance and deficiency caused diseases:

S
Vitamins Sources Importance Deficiency disease
No
Butter, fish,
eggs, milk,
Night blindness (an
cheese,
inability to see in dim
carrots etc Eyes (from
It may be light), Xerophthalmia
i A visual
obtained from (tear glands ease to
pignents), skin
the coloring function), dryness of skin
matter of green etc
and yellow
vegetables

Beriberi (causes
inflammation of nerves
and heart failure),
Wheat, rice, Dermatitis (red and
B eggs, milk, swollen skin), loss of
ii Nerves, skin
(complex) meat, liver, hairs, tongue
nuts, yeast etc inflammation,
inflammation of lips,
burning of eyes,
thickening of skin etc
Oranges, Scurvy (swelling and
Heal wounds,
lemon, opening of healed
C prevent gum,
iii tomatoes, wounds)
(Ascorbic acid) bleeding and
green peepers
cold.
etc

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Bones, teeth
Fish, milk, (controls the
D Rickets (softening and
butter, metabolism of
iv (Anthracitic weakening of bones in
mushrooms, calcium and
Vitamin) children)
sunshine etc phosphorous
in body)
Plant oils like
wheat germ
oil, cotton Maintain cell
E seed oil, corm membrane
(Sometimes it is germ oil, and proper Sterility, haemolysis
V
called fertility soyabean oil, functioning of (fragility of R.B.C) etc
factor) reproductive
peanut oil etc.
It also occurs in system.
green leafy
vegetables

Green
vegetables like
spinach, Form blood Hemorrhage (increase
Vi K
alfalfa, clotting factor. blood clotting time)
cabbage,
cereals etc

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CHAPTER # 5
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY I

THE ATMOSPHERE
Q # 1) Define atmosphere and explain its composition.
The Atmosphere:
The layer of gases surrounded the earth is called atmosphere that protects us like a big blanket
of insulation. It absorbs the heat from the sun and keeps the heat inside the atmosphere
helping the earth to stay warm. There is no clear border between the atmosphere and outer
space. The higher the distance above the earth the thinner the atmosphere around it.
Composition of Atmosphere:
Atmosphere is made up of 78.09% Nitrogen, 20.95% Oxygen with the small amounts of argon
0.93%, 0.03% carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases. There are lots of other gases like
neon, helium, hydrogen that are part of the atmosphere but in much smaller amounts. Solid
particulates including ash, dust, volcanic ash etc are also the small part of atmosphere and
important in making clouds and fogs.
Q # 2) Differentiate between troposphere and stratosphere.

TROPOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE

1. It is the lowest point on the earth’s surface. 1. It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere
2. It stands at a height of around 11 kilometers after the troposphere.
above sea level. 2. It rises up to 50 kilometers above sea level.
3. The troposphere makes up around 75% of the 3. The stratosphere has a far less amount of
mass of the atmosphere. atmosphere than the troposphere.
4. Its temperature is ranges from 15 oC to – 56 oC. 4. The temperature fluctuates with height and
5. Ozone which is found here is a polluting gas. usually the higher the altitude the hotter it
6. Troposphere is a part of an active weather system gets.
and there is a lot of movement of the air. 5. The presence of ozone here Shields the planet
7. Almost all planes pass through this layer. from ultraviolet radiations.
8. Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide and water 6. There is a lack of air movement in this area.
vapors are the most essential gases in this sphere. 7. Airplanes are not permitted in this layer.
8. In stratosphere water vapors and gases are
quite low in quantity.

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Q # 3) Describe how different air pollutants affect environment and human health.

Pollutants Sources Effects on Effects on human

environment health
Carbon Emissions from automobiles, Causes the production of In healthy persons it
monoxide fires and industrial smog. can increase symptoms
operations. of cardiac diseases
(CO)
such as chest
discomfort. It can also
cause visual difficulties
and diminish physical
and mental skills.

Nitrogen Emissions from automobiles, It causes harm to the Inflammation and

oxides electrical generation and plants and helps to the irritation of the
industrial operations. creation of pollution. respiratory tract.
(NO and
NO2)

Sulfur Electricity generation, fossil Key contributor to the Having trouble in

dioxide fuel burning. Industrial creation of acid rain breathing especially if
activities and automotive which destroys flora you have asthma or
(SO2)
emissions are all causes of buildings and heart problems.
pollution sources. monuments and
interacts to generate
particulate matter.

Ozone (O3) NOx and VOCs from industrial Interferes with certain Lung function is
and car emissions, gasoline plants capacity to impaired and breathing
vapors, chemicals solvents breathe making them passageways are
and electrical utilities are all more vulnerable to other irritated and inflamed.
sources of ozone. environmental stresses.

Particulate Fires, smokestacks, building Contributes to the Breathing passage

Matter sites and unpaved roads are creation of haze and acid discomfort, asthma,
example of primary particle rain which alters the pH exacerbation, irregular
sources; interactions balance of streams and heartbeat.
between gaseous compounds harms vegetation,
released by power plants and buildings and
cars are examples of monuments.
secondary particle sources.

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Lead (Pb) Metal processing garbage, Biodiversity loss, reduced When young children's
incineration and fossil fuel reproduction and are exposed it can
burning are all causes of neurological difficulties have negative effects
industrial processes which in vertebrates are all on the numerous body
produce lead. issues that need to be systems and can lead
addressed due to lead. to learning problems.
Adult’s cardiovascular
consequences.

Q # 4) Describe global warming and its major effect on environment.

Global Warming:
The phenomenon of rise of average temperature of earth’s atmosphere and the oceans is
termed as global warming and it is the cause of the increase of the effect of the greenhouse
gases.
Greenhouse gases forms a blanket around the earth, they allow the sun radiations to pass
through it and reaches the earth and absorb its heat which makes the average temperature of
earth rises up to 15 oC that would be around - 20 oC that's why these gases are useful somehow
but their increased concentrations can be harmful because earth also release infrared
radiations and they do not allow these radiations to pass through the outer space as a result
greenhouse gases concentration absorbs infrared radiation generated by the Earth’s surface
and it preventing the earth from cooling down at night.
Effect of Global Warming:
The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes an annual increase in
atmospheric temperature of roughly 0.05 degrees Celsius. It’s producing significant shifts in
weather patterns, extreme weather events are occurring more frequently and with more
intensity than in the past. It melts glaciers and snow caps increasing the danger of flooding and
intensifying tropical cyclones. As the sea level rises, low lying regions are more likely to be
submerged rending previously populous places uninhabitable.
Q # 5) Describe the greenhouse effect.
The Greenhouse Effect
CO2 produces an envelope like layer surrounding the earth. It permits the sun’s heat rays to
flow through it and reach the earth’s surface. These rays are reflected off the earth’s surface
and return to the upper atmosphere. The normal CO2 concentration maintains enough heat to
keep the earth surface warm and maintain the average temperature of earth around 15 oC that
would be around - 20 oC and CO2 is rather important gas than a contaminant however as a
result of various human activities is spewing more and more CO2 into the air. This equilibrium is
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being disrupted CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, works as a greenhouse glass wall; it
permeates UV and infrared radiations to pass through but not the other way around. As a result
of higher concentrations of CO2 it absorbs infrared radiation generated by the Earth’s surface
preventing heat energy from exiting the troposphere and it prevents the Earth’s surface from
cooling down at night as a result the average temperature of the earth’s surface is increasing
progressively and this affect is known as the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases
in the earth’s atmosphere are CO2, CH4, N2O, water vapors and ozone.
Q # 6) What are the causes of acid rain? Give its effects on the environment.
Acid Rain:
Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. During rain SO2 is
converted into H2SO4 while NOx converted into HNO3 by rain water. Rain water is somewhat
acidic because it contains dissolved carbon dioxide from the atmosphere it has a pH of 5.6 to 6
rain water on the other hand becomes increasingly acidic as a result of dissolving air pollutants
and its pH drops to 4.
Effects of Acid Rain:
 Acid rain leeches heavy metals aluminum, mercury, lead, chromium etc from soil and rocks
and discharges them into rivers and lakes. Humans consume this water as a source of
drinking water these matters build up to hazardous level in the human body. The aquatic
life on the other hand suffers as a result of the high concentration of these metals.
 Acid rain eats away the calcium carbonate in marble and limestone which is found in many
structures and monuments as a result these structures are becoming increasingly drab and
degraded.
 Acid rain makes the soil more acidic, many crops and plants are unable to thrive in such
conditions. It also raises the level of hazardous matters in the soil which damage the plants
because of the acidity of the soil, even elderly trees are impacted, their development slows
they wilt and perish as a result of the dryness.
 Acid rain causes direct harm to tree and plant leaves, restricting their development, plant
development may be impeded depending on the severity of the injury, plant’s capacity to
withstand cold or illness deteriorates, and they eventually perish.
Q # 7) What are the primary and secondary air pollutants?
There are two types of major air pollutants.
Primary Air Pollutants:
The waste or exhaust products produced by the burning of fossil fuels and organic materials are
referred as primary pollutants like sulfur dioxide, carbon oxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons,
ammonia and fluorine.

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Secondary Air Pollutants:

Primary pollutants create secondary pollutants through a variety of processes like acid rain.
Sulfuric acid carbonic acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, ozone and per-oxy acetyl nitrate
(PANR) are the secondary pollutants.
Q # 8) In how many layers the earth atmosphere is divided?
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five major layers. These layers are classified on the basis
of the temperature and density with respect to the Earth’s surface.
Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere.
Q # 9) Justify that the change in altitude changes the temperature of the atmosphere.
The higher you go in the atmosphere the colder it is. At higher altitude the atmospheric
pressure is lower than at the sea level and the lower pressure at higher altitude causes the
temperature to be colder on top of the mountains than at the sea level.
Q # 10) Define pollutant along with types.
A waste material that pollutes the air, water or land is referred to as the pollutant or pollutants
severity is determined by the three factors, its chemical type, concentration and the
persistence.
Types of Pollutants:
There are seven types of pollutants.
Air pollutants, water pollutants, soil pollutants, thermal pollutants, radioactive pollutants, noise
pollutants and light pollutants.
Q # 11) How zone formed? Describe the process of its depletion and the effect of ozone
depletion.
Ozone formation:
Three oxygen atoms make up ozone. It is a natural and manmade substance that occurs in the
higher atmosphere of the earth. Ozone has a positive or negative impact on life on the earth
depending on its location in the atmosphere.
The interaction of the solar ultraviolet light with the molecular oxygen produces stratospheric
ozone which is called as ozone layer located about 6 to 30 miles above the earth’s surface. It
decreases the quantity of dangerous UV light that reaches the earth from the sun.
Photochemical interactions between the two primary groups of air pollutants volatile organic
compounds and nitrogen oxides produce tropospheric or ground level ozone in which human
breath, which is harmful.

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Ozone depletion:
Ozone concentration in the stratosphere is essentially constant under the normal conditions
due to a series of complicated atmospheric interactions. However different chemical
interactions are depleting ozone layer such as chlorofluorocarbons which are utilized as
refrigerants in air conditioners and refrigerators are a major contributor to ozone depletion.
These substances leak in some way and disperse into the stratosphere, the carbon chlorine
bond in chlorofluorocarbons is broken by the ultraviolet light resulting in chlorine free radical,
these free radicals have a high level of reactivity they react with ozone to produce oxygen in the
following way a single chlorine free radical produced by the breakdown of chlorofluorocarbons
has the potential to damage millions of ozone molecules. The ozone hole is a location where
the ozone layer is depleted.
Effect of Ozone depletion:
 Ozone depletion allows UV light from the sun to reach the earth which can cause skin
cancer in humans and other animals.
 As ozone layer gets thinner, infectious illness such as malaria becomes more prevalent.
 It has the potential to disrupt the food chain by altering plant life cycles.
 It has the ability to alter wind patterns resulting in global climate shifts. Asia and the Pacific
in particular would be the most impacted regions as a result of the human migration issue
caused by the climate change.

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CHAPTER # 6
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY II
WATER
Q # 1) Write down the methods for the removal of permanent hardness of water.
Removal of permanent hardness:
Chemicals are the only way to get rid of permanent hardness. Adding washing soda or sodium
zeolite removes calcium and magnesium as insoluble salts.
Using washing soda:
Adding washing soda to the calcium and magnesium ions results in the formation of insoluble
calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Na2CO3 + MgSO4 MgCO3 + Na2SO4
Q # 2) How can we remove the temporary hardness of water?
Removal of temporary hardness:
Boiling water:
Temporary hardness can be really eliminated by boiling it. When calcium bicarbonate is heated
it decomposes into insoluble calcium carbonate which precipitates out of the solution.
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
The Clark’s Method:
The addition of slaked lime is a chemical approach for removing temporary hardness.
Temporary hard water is treated using a determined amount of lime water as a result of the
precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions water becomes soft.
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH) 2 MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH) 2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

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Q # 3) Describe the water pollutants in industries.

Organic compounds, inorganic salts, heavy metals, minerals, acids, oils and greases and other
very poisonous substances may be found in the industrial waste water used as a cleaning agent
in industries. This water is contaminated with the variety of harmful chemicals and detergents.
These effluents and used water either dissolve or float suspended impurities in water when
they reach lakes, streams, rivers or oceans as a result water contamination occurs.
 They degrade the quality of water.
 They lower the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water which has an impact on aquatic life
and ecosystems.
 They can also dig into the groundwater and influence the deposits. They pollute the water
reserves when this water is used by the humans it causes significant illness such as cancer
and gastroenteritis.
 Soil, crops, Plants, animals are all harmed by this filthy water.
 Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury are harmful to humans and pose a health
risk. Acute cadmium poisoning results in elevated blood pressure, renal damage and red
blood cell disintegration.
 Kidney, liver, brain, central nervous system and reproductive system malfunction are all
symptoms of acute lead poisoning.
 Mercury toxicity damages the nervous system.
Q # 4) Describe the disadvantages of hard water.
 Lather formation:
When you wash your clothing in hard water the soap generates a white precipitate instead of
lather.
 Stains:
Hard water leaves a stain on your clothes. They fade the color of your garments. Calcium scum
also causes your garments to become rough. Bath tiles, glass and fixtures are also stained by
hard water.
Effects on hair:
If you continue to wash your hair with hard water you will continue to have awful hair days.
Your hair becomes dry and scratchy when you wash it with hard water this is due to the extra
minerals found in hard water which turned into a curd like material that adheres to your hair.
Effects on skin:
Bathing with hard water causes your skin to become dry and irritated. It is because the soap
residue left behind adheres to your skin, eczema like symptoms are caused by the remaining
residue. Children are more likely to have such a problem.

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Reduces the life of appliances:

The appliances steadily deteriorate due to the hard water and they finally fail. In addition the
presence of minerals in hard water affects the machine’s performance.
Corrosion of Pipes:
Hard water deposits may corrode pipes as well as obstruct them as a result the amount of
water that can flow through the pipe is limited and it also downs the flow of water pipe.
Corrosion can also cause metals to leak into the water making it unsafe to drink.
Q # 5) Explain in detail the water borne diseases.
Waterborne diseases:
Water borne infectious illnesses are diseases that are spread by drinking dirty water or eating
food prepared with polluted water.
Following are the most frequent illnesses.
 Diarrhea:
Intestinal illnesses that can lead to serious dehydration, such as cholera. Viruses, bacteria and
parasites all can cause diarrhea.
 Dysentery:
Dysenteries are kind of gastrointestinal infection caused by bacteria or parasites. It is
characterized by severe diarrhea which may include blood or motions.
 Cholera:
The bacteria vibrios cholera, which may be found in water tainted by human feces, causes
cholera. Cholera is a disease that produces severe diarrhea and is potentially lethal.
 Cryptosporidium:
Cryptosporidiosis is a gastrointestinal ailment caused by the waterborne microbe (protozoa)
that causes diarrhea and vomiting. Surface water such as reservoirs, lakes and rivers contains
these microscopic germs.
 Fluorosis:
Fluorosis is a condition caused by too much fluoride in the body. Fluorosis can harm your bones
and teeth.
 Hepatitis:
Hepatitis A, B, C, D & E are the five viruses that often cause liver inflammation. Viruses like
hepatitis A & E can be spread through polluted water.
 Hookworm:

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Hookworm is a parasitic worm that lives in the small intestine and causes diseases. Anemia and
slow development in children can occur in severe situations.
 Jaundice:
An excess of bile pigments in the blood causes jaundice. The liver stops working and the eyes
turning yellow, the patient becomes weak and tired.
 Typhoid:
A severe bacterial illness spreads often through polluted water or food cooked with
contaminated water.
Q # 6) Justify that water is a universal solvent.
Water can dissolve practically all minerals that is why water is known as the universal solvent.
Water's capacity to dissolve compounds is due to the two distinct qualities of the water
molecule.
The polar nature of water:
The water molecule has a polar structure because of the electronegativity difference between
the oxygen and the hydrogen atoms. Water dissolves all the polar compounds because the
positive end of the substance is drawn to the water’s negative end “O-2” and the negative end is
attracted to the waters positive end “H+1” that’s why most of the ionic compounds are soluble
in water like NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4. Water molecules on the other hand are not attracted to
numerous covalent compounds that lack polar ends such as benzene, ether, oil and petrol
that’s why most of the non-polar chemicals do not dissolve in water.
Extensive hydrogen bonding:
Hydrogen bond is formed when the hydrogen bonds with a highly electronegative element like
oxygen, fluorine, nitrogen etc. In the case of water 1 H2O molecule create hydrogen bond with
the maximum of four additional water molecules stacked tetrahedral around the H 2O molecule
due to two OH-1 bonds and two lone pairs of oxygen. By establishing hydrogen bonds with
various polar non ionic molecules containing hydroxyl groups such as alcohols, organic acids,
glucose, and sugar and so on, water is able to dissolve them.

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Q # 7) Define soft water and hard water. What are the types of hardness of water?
Soft Water:
Soft water is water that generates an excellent lather when used with soap. It contained
dissolved impurities but in a small quantity.
Hard Water:
Water containing dissolved calcium and magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulfates is called hard water. Due to the presence of these salts hard water does not produce
lather with soap.
Types of hardness of water
There are two types of hard water.
Temporary hardness:
The hardness caused by the excessive amount of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium
carbonates and bicarbonates is called the temporary hardness and it can be removed by boiling
the water.
Permanent hardness:
Permanent hardness is caused by the excessive amount of the dissolved salts of chloride and
sulfates of calcium and magnesium and other hard metals like aluminum, iron, lead, arsenic etc.
A proper chemical treatment is required to remove the permanent hardness of water.
Q # 8) Describe water pollutants. What are the effects of water pollutants on life?
Water pollutants:
The polluting of water bodies is known as water pollution. The pollutants are dumped directly
or indirectly into the water bodies without proper treatment to eliminate dangerous
substances resulting in water pollution.
Industrial waste, household waste and agricultural waste are the most common causes of water
pollutants.
Effects of water pollutants on life:
 It is harmful to people's health. Cholera, typhoid, diarrhea can all be caused by the drinking
of contaminated water.
 The use of dirty water is harmful not only to humans but also to animals and birds.
 It promotes algae to develop quickly. The death and breakdown of algae results in a lack of
oxygen in the water which impacts aquatic organisms.
 It harms aquatic life causing a food chain link to be broken.

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 It degrades the appearance of lakes and rivers.

 It is not suitable for cleaning and washing.
Q # 9) Give the importance of water.
 Our organs need water to work properly and toxins are removed from our body through
urine.
 Fatigue is also caused by dehydration therefore water prevents fatigue.
 It is necessary for washing and sanitation.
 It is used for growing food.
 It is used in many industries.
 In many medical procedures water act as an important component example in dialysis
water containing fluid is used to remove waste from blood.
Q # 10) Give the properties of water.
 It is litmus neutral
 At sea level, it has a freezing point of 0oC and a boiling point of 100 oC.
 At 4 oC, its maximum density is 1 gm/cm3.
 It is a great solvent for both ionic and molecular substances.
 It has a very high heat capacity of 4200 J/g.K which is almost six times that of rock. This
feature of water is responsible for maintaining the earth’s temperature within reasonable
bounds otherwise the temperature during the day would have been too hot to handle and
the temperature during the night would have been too cold to freeze everything.
Q # 11) Explain the structure of water.
Water molecule is made-up of 1 atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen connected by a
covalent bond. Because of the higher electronegativity of the oxygen atom the bonds are polar
covalent. The oxygen atom attracts the shared electrons of the covalent bonds to a significantly
greater extent than the hydrogen atom; as a result the oxygen atoms acquire a partial negative
charge while the hydrogen atoms acquire a partial positive charge.

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CHAPTER # 7

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Section-A
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Tick Mark ( ) the correct answer

1. Analytical chemistry deals with instruments and methods to ___________ identify and
quantify the matter.

(a) Mix (b) Separate

(c) Differentiate (d) Manipulate

2. The sample may be solid, liquid, gas or a ____________ in qualitative analysis

(a) Mixture (b) Compound
(c) Substance (d) None of these

3. Analysis deals with the identification of the presence of functional groups in compounds
is:
(a) Physical qualitative analysis (b) Analytical qualitative analysis

(c) Organic qualitative analysis (d) inorganic qualitative analysis

4. Flame test of copper halide with bluish-green colour identity the presence of:
(a) Halogen (b) Hydrogen

(c) Copper (d) Hydrogen and Copper

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5. The physical methods used to measure physical properties are called:

(a) Combustion analysis method (b) Atomic emission spectroscopy method
(c) Volumetric analysis method (d) Volumetric analysis method

6. The error caused by improper functioning of an instrument is:

(a) Determinant error (b) In-determinant error

(c) Systematic error (d) both (a) & (C)

7. An agreement between a measured value and the accepted true value.

(a) Error (b) Accuracy
(c) Precision (d) all of these

8. Spectroscopy is the interaction of light with:

(a) Liquid (b) Solid

(c) Gas (d) Matter

9. The gas is mobile phase in:

(a) Light chromatography (b) Solid chromatography

(c) Gas chromatography (d) none of these

10. It is used to assess the concentration or amount of a given atomic, molecular or ionic
chemical.

(a) Chromatography (b) Spectroscopy

(c) Conductometry (d) Potentiometry

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Section-B
SHORT QUESTIONS
Question-(i)
What do you think which method is faster classical or instrumental?
Answer:
I think instrument methods are faster than classical methods because the majority of the
classical analytical methods rely on chemical reactions to perform an analysis. In contrast
instrumental methods typically depend on the measurement of physical property of the
analyte

Question-(ii)
How will you compare the analytical techniques to one another?
Answer:
Analytical chemistry is a science in which materials are separated identified and quantified.
The identification of the matter under study is performed using qualitative analysis while
quantitative analysis is used to determine how much relative concentration or total amount
of the substance is present in the analyte. The techniques used in analytic chemistry include.

Question-(iii)
Can you give some examples of Error related to your life?
Answer:
 If we are trying to measure the mass of an apple on a scale and our classroom is windy
the wind may cause the scale to read incorrectly.
 If two people are rounding and one round down and the other rounds up a procedural
error occurs.
 Error occurs when a phone number is copied incorrectly or when a number is skipped
when typing data into a computer programme from a data sheet.
 An error occur when reading a ruler we may read the length of a pencil as being 11.4
cm while our friend may read it 11.3.

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Question-(iv)
What do you mean by quantitative analysis?
Answer:
The determination of hoe much amount or quantity of one or more substances are present in
a compound or sample is called quantitative analysis. It deals with a large number of
quantifying methods which are classified as physical or chemical.

Question-(v)
Discriminate which of the following collected volumes of gas in gas
preparation is accurate, precise or accurate and precise both or none of these.
Answer:
32 cm3 32 cm3
45 cm3 Not Precise 33 cm3 Not Precise
17 cm3 Not accurate 34 cm3 accurate
23 cm3 35 cm3
32 cm3 32 cm3
45 cm3 Precise 32 cm3 Precise
45 cm3 Not accurate 33 cm3 Not accurate
32 cm3 32 cm3

Question-(vi)
Why we use potentiometric analysis in advance instrumental method?
Answer:
Potentiometric is a method used in analytical chemistry to find the concentration of solute in
solution in potentiometric measurement. The potential between two electrodes is measured
by a voltmeter. There is no flow or current.
A potentiometric analysis is used in the analysis of pollutant in water, pharmaceutical and
drugs, quality control in the food industry and clinical industry

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Question-(vii)
How scientists are using infrared spectroscopy in quality control of different
industries?
Answer:
Infrared Spectroscopy in Industries:
Infrared spectroscopy is an analytical technique as effective tool for quality control in
different industries. Electromagnetic radiations lower in energy than visible radiations are
called infra-red radiation. The ordinary IR region extends from 2.5 um (wavelength) to 15 um
(wavelength) or 4000 to 625 cm (wavelength). When IR radiations passed through an organic
molecule, the energy absorbed by the molecule is sufficient to produce vibrations in the
molecules and the energy which is not absorbed is transmitted through the sample.

Question-(viii)
List down the application of conductometry?
Answer:
Application of Conductometry:
 Degree of dissociation constant can be determined.
 Solubility of the sparingly salt can be determined.
 Rate constant of a reaction can be studied.
 End point of titration can be determined.

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Section-C
DETAILED QUESTIONS
Question-(i)
Distinguish between following:
(a) Quantitative Analysis and Qualitative Analysis
(b) Titrimetic Analysis and Gravimetric Analysis
Answer:
Difference between Quantitative Analysis and Qualitative Analysis:

S# Quantitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis in chemistry is a
Qualitative analysis in chemistry is a
branch of chemistry that deal with the
1 branch of chemistry that analyses the
quantities of different components in a
chemical composition of a sample.
sample.

Qualitative analysis in chemistry gives Quantitative analysis in chemistry gives

2 the presence or absence of different the amount of different chemical
chemical components in a sample. components present in a given sample.

Qualitative analysis in chemistry uses

Quantitative analysis in chemistry uses
techniques such as distillation,
3 extraction, change in color,
techniques such as titration, gravimetric
analysis, combustion analysis, AES, etc.
chromatography, etc.

Difference between Titrimetric Analysis and Gravimetric Analysis:

S# Titrimetric Analysis Gravimetric Analysis

It is a technique that comes under
It is a type quantitative analysis in which
quantitative analysis where we can
1 determine the weight of an unknown
we can measure the amount of an
unknown compound using its volume.
compound in a sample.

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It is a technique of measuring the It is a technique of measuring the volume

2 weight of the unknown. of the unknown.

Its unit of measurements is usually Its unit of measurements is usually Liters

3 kilogram (Kg). (L).

The basic chemical reaction is a The basic chemical reaction is a redox

4 precipitation reaction. reaction.

Question-(ii)
Prove that instrumental analytical methods are more effective then classical
analytical methods?
Answer:
Instrument methods or chemical analysis have become the principle means of obtaining
information in diverse area of science and technology. The speed high sensitivity low limits of
detection, simultaneous detection capabilities, and automated operation of modern
instruments, when compared to classical methods of analysis, have created this
predominance. Professionals in all sciences base important decisions, solve problems and
advance their fields using instrumental measurements. As a consequence all scientist are
obligated to have a fundamental understanding of instruments and their applications to
confidently and accurately address their needs. A modern, well-educated scientist is capable
of solving problems with an analytical approach and who can apply modern instrumentation
to problems. With this knowledge the scientist can develop analytical methods to solve
problems and obtain appropriately precise, accurate and valid information.

Question-(iii)
Describe Gas chromatography in detail?
Answer:
Gas Chromatography:
Gas chromatography is a technique used in analytical chemistry for the separation volatile
compounds. The word gas chromatography is clear from is word that it is used for the
separation of gases and volatile liquids in a gaseous state. The separation takes place by the
exchange between a mobile gas phase and a liquid or solid stationary phase. The first gas
chromatograph was introduced by noble prize winner John Porter Martin in 1950 and is
considered the father of modern gas chromatography.

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The instrument of gas chromatography is consisting of a gas cylinder, simple injector, gas
chromatograph, detector and data collection device where gas a mobile phase and the gas
cylinder control the gas passage up to the sample injector, which proceeds towards two
columned gas chromatograph it is stationary phase with uniform temperature. When the
compound reaches the detector, it detects the elution and send signals to the data collection
device (computer).Gas chromatography is used in the analysis of inorganic compounds,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, pollutants like benzene, plastic materials and dairy
product.

Question-(iv)
Justify that electrochemical methods depend upon Electrochemical Cells?
Answer:
Electrochemical Methods:
The electrochemical analytical methods is carried out with the help of an electrochemical cell
with is shown in the following figure, generally it consist of electrodes named anode and
cathode. Anode possess a negative sign due to liberation of electrons in an oxidation reaction
and cathode possess a positive sign due to consumption of electrons in a reduction reaction.
The electrochemical cells consists of two half cells both are connected with an electrode
(anode and cathode) and each electrode is dipped in electrolytic solution which is Zn So4 at
the anode and CuSO4 at the cathode.

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The half cells are connected through the salt bridge (NaCl) which provides a platform for ionic
connectivity without mixing as we discuss that one half cell losses electrons due to oxidation
and the other half gains electrons in the reduction process. When the equilibrium phase
comes in both half cells the net voltage becomes zero and the production of electricity by cell
will stop.

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CHAPTER # 8
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
Q # 1) Define saponification. Explain the materials needed for the soap preparation and the
process of saponification with the help of a flow diagram.
Saponification:
Saponification is the reaction of triglycerides with sodium or potassium hydroxide to create
cholesterol and a fatty acid salt called as soap.
Raw material
The raw material needed for the preparation of soap is as follows:
Animal fat:
Animal fat tallows from cows such as lard are often used for soap making.
Plant oil:
Soybean oil like canola, safflower and sunflower is often used in soap making with other core
oils like coconut oil, olive and palm oil.
Caustic soda/Potash soda:
Caustic soda causes saponification and is an essential ingredient in soap making. When flakes or
beads of sodium hydroxide get added to a liquid, it forms a layer solution. This solution when
mixed with oils or fats will lead to the chemical reaction called saponification.
The soaps formed by sodium hydroxide are called as hard soap. Soap may also be
manufactured by the potassium hydroxide and they are more soluble in water that’s why are
called as soft soaps.
Additives:
Additives are used such as optical brighteners, color enhancers, textures, scent producers and
water softeners to enhance the properties of soaps.
Abrasives:
Water insoluble minerals such as talc, diatomaceous earth, silica, marble, volcanic ash, chalk,
feldspar, quartz and sand are often added to the soap to help in removing the grease and dirt
from the skin.

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Process:
Oils and fats are first bleached, deodorized or refined in a container which then moves into
another reactor where oil reacts with sodium hydroxide to form the mixture of soap, glycerine,
sodium hydroxide, water and oil. Then there is a separation unit where the glycerine separated
from the mixture. The remaining mixture then purified in the presence of citric acid and at last
additives and abrasives added in the soap which then goes for the packaging.

Q # 2) Describe the process of the production of sugar from sugar cane.

Raw material:
 Sugar cane
 Lime
 Water
These steps should be followed for the preparation of sugar from the sugar cane.
Harvesting and delivery of sugar cane:
Sugar cane is generally harvested in the cooler seasons of the year. It is usually harvested by
hands but in some countries this process is also done by machines. These harvested grains are
transported to the factory by means of trucks, railway cars, barges or ox-cars.
Juice extraction of sugar cane:
After weighing, sugar cane is loaded onto a moving table. The table carries the cane into one or
two sets of revolving knives which chop the cane into chips in order to expose the tissue and
open the cell structure. Thus the juice extracted from the sugar cane.

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Clarification of the extracted juice:

Mixed juice from the extraction mills or diffuser is purified by the addition of heated lime and
the flocculation aids. Lime is added to form a calcium saccharate, the heat and lime kill enzymes
in the juice and increase pH from a natural acid level of 5 to 6.5 to a neutral pH.
This settling and separation process is known as defecation. Muds are pumped to Rotary
vacuum filter where residual sucrose is washed out with a water spray on a rotating filter.
Clarified juice meanwhile is pumped to a series of three to five multi effect evaporators.
Concentration of clarified juice:
Steam is used to heat the first of a series of evaporators. The juice is boiled and drawn to the
next evaporator which is heated by the vapor from the first evaporator. The process continues
through the series until the clarified juice which consists of 10 to 15% sucrose is concentrated
to the evaporator syrup consisting of 55 to 60% sucrose and 60 to 65% total solid weight.
The crystallization:
Syrup from the evaporators is sent to the vacuum pans where it is further evaporated under the
vacuum to super saturation. Fine seed crystals are added and the sugar mother liquor yields a
solid precipitate of about 50% by weight crystalline sugar. Crystallization is a serial process and
named as A molasses, B molasses and C molasses and final molasses which is 25% sucrose
under 20% glucose and fructose.
Crystal Separation and drying:
Crystals are separated in basket type centrifuge machines. These machines continuously break
the crystals through the continuous centrifuge process and a fine jet of water is sprayed on the
sugar pressed against the wall of the centrifugal basket reducing the syrup coating on each
crystal. In modern factories the washing process is quite extensive in an effort to produce high
priority raw sugar.

CRUSHING PRESSING/ CLARIFIERS EVAPORATORS

MILLING

PACKAGING DRYER SEPARATOR CRYSTALLIZER

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Q # 3) Describe the process of the production of soft drinks.

Preparation of soft drinks:
Soft drinks are made-up of water, sugar, acid, coloring and flavoring agents. This syrup is
prepared by dissolving these ingredients into water at 65 0 Brix.
Material required for the preparation of soft drink:
 Water
 Calcium and other minerals
 Coloring and flavoring agents
 Sugar
 Citric acid
Process:
First the raw water pass through the filters and then it is softened by using water softeners.
Minerals are then added like calcium and then the water is pumped into the electric heaters. It
is then pass through the cooling pipes then the mixing of carbon dioxide takes place and the
carbonated water is then transported to a mixing tank where color, flavoring agents and sugar
added into the carbonated water. The carbonated water is then filtered for any physical
impurity. It is then goes for the bottling and packaging.

Q # 4) Define petroleum. Explain the composition of petroleum and natural gas.

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Petroleum is a crude oil which named as a black gold. Petroleum is a natural substance trapped
in rocks beneath the earth crust. The term petroleum refers to the rock oil, water salts and
earth particles are all present in this complex combination of gases, liquid and solid
hydrocarbons. It is a liquid that is lighter than water yet insoluble in it.
Formation of petroleum and natural gas:
Oil and gas are made-up of organic material that is deposited on the sea floor as sediments
then broken down and altered over millions of years. The presence of an appropriate mix of
source rock rather wide rock, cap rock and a trap in a given location may lead to the discovery
of the viable oil and gas resources.
Composition of petroleum:
Petroleum is mostly made-up of hydrogen and carbon but it also includes trace amounts of
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and metals including vanadium, cobalt and nickel. Alkenes,
naphthenes, aromatics and hetro-compounds are some of the most prevalent organic
substances. The exact molecular composition of the crude oil varies widely from formation to
formation but the proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits.
Q # 5) Describe the fractional distillation of petroleum.
The process of separating the constituents of liquid mixture by heating it and separating the
components according to their different boiling points is called fractional distillation of
petroleum.
This is done in oil refineries with the use of massive fractionating columns also known as
fractionating towers. These are frequently found near to the crude oil sources. The industrial
fractionating column is intended to be cold at the top and hot at the bottom allowing it to cool
and condense crude oil vapours at distinctly different temperature ranges defined by the
column temperature gradient. At different levels there is a different temperature and at
different temperatures the different compounds condenses and separated accordingly.

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Q # 6) Discuss the importance of Pharmaceutical industry.

 Treatments increase life expectancy:
The pharmaceutical business has made a significant contribution to the global increase in life
expectancy which is increased from 30% to the 73% between 2000 to 2009, among developing
and developed nations.
 Strives to eradicate and eliminate diseases:
The main goal is to create remedies and ultimately eliminate the diseases as this helps in the
ecosystem on a worldwide scale. Smallpox is the first and so far only disease that is declared to
be eliminated globally according to the WHO.
 Reduce pain and suffering:
People who live with chronic pain are four times more likely to have anxiety and difficulties
working than those who do not and pharmaceutical industries are working to reduce the pain
and ultimately the suffering from pain.
 Vaccines:
Vaccines not only served to save millions of lives but they also help to save money. They are the
cost effective public health intervention that reduces healthcare cost and prevent the lost
productivity.
 Hospital stays are shorter:
Many lessons that used to necessitate invasive procedures and surgery can now be addressed
with medications.
 Employ millions of people:
Pharmaceutical firms employ millions of people across the world who labor in fields as diverse
as scientific research, technological, support and manufacturing.
 Boost the global economy:
Pharmaceutical business is a vital asset to the global economy as well as driving medical
development by researching developing and providing innovative medications to the people
throughout the world that enhance their health and quality of life.

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