ROLLOVER STABILITY CONTROL

FOR THREE-WHEELED VEHICLES

Seminar Report
submitted by

PENNAPATI RAM RISHIK

B211122ME
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in

Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT
NIT CAMPUS PO, CALICUT
KERALA, INDIA 673601

MARCH 2025

1
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards my project team, and our project guide

who helped me to know and understand about importance of stability control of narrow tilting

three wheeled vehicles and helped me in completion of my seminar report on the topic

“Rollover stability control for three wheeled vehicles”. I thank Dr. Ilango, Assistant

professor, mechanical engineering department, Department of mechanical engineering,

National Institute of Technology Calicut for giving guidance for this topic.

PENNAPATI RAM RISHIK

2
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “ROLLOVER STABILITY CONTROL FOR
THREE-WHEELED VEHICLES” is a bonafide record of the Seminar presented by
PENNAPATI RAM RISHIK (Roll No.: B221111ME), in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering from
National Institute of Technology Calicut.

Faculty-in-charge
(ME3099D – Seminar)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Professor & Head

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Place: NIT Calicut

Date: 08-03-2025

3
 ABSTRACT

The increasing adoption of narrow three-wheeled vehicles (3WVs) in urban transportation

necessitates advanced stability control mechanisms due to their inherent rollover susceptibility.
This report consolidates research findings on vehicle dynamics and control methodologies aimed
at enhancing rollover stability in 3WVs. The study primarily focuses on three key
methodologies: Skid Index (SI), Active Tilt Control (ATC), and Integrated Suspension-Tilting
System (IST).

The Skid Index (SI) serves as a predictive measure for vehicle skidding risk by assessing
lateral and longitudinal forces relative to the available friction. It provides a quantifiable metric
for estimating instability due to excessive lateral acceleration. Active Tilt Control (ATC)
employs a desired tilt angle (DTA) to counteract lateral forces during cornering, ensuring
improved maneuverability and stability. The Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST) further
enhances ATC by dynamically adjusting suspension settings in response to road conditions and
driver inputs, providing additional stability and ride comfort.

Simulation studies conducted using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim validate the

effectiveness of these methodologies. The results demonstrate significant improvements in
vehicle stability, reduced rollover risk, and enhanced passenger safety. The findings contribute to
the development of robust control strategies that can be implemented in modern 3WVs to
improve safety and performance in dynamic driving conditions.

4
 CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations ii
List of Symbols iii
List of Figures iv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background information 1
1.2 Motivation to study 1
1.3 Objectives 2

2 Review of Literature 3
2.1 Rollover stability using sliding model control 3
2.2 Active tilt control and suspension systems 4
2.3 Tripped rollovers and skid control 5

3 Methodology 6
3.1 Introduction to methodologies 6
3.2 Theoretical background of skid control(SI)_ 7
3.3 Mathematical modelling of skid index 8
3.4 Use of SI in vehicle stability assessments 10
3.5 Active tilt control (ATC)_for stability enhancement 12
3.6 Mathematical modelling of ATC 13
3.7 Integrated suspension tilting system (IST) 15
3.8 Mathematical modeling of IST 15

4 Results and discussions 18

4.1 Tripped rollovers and skid control 18
4.2 Effectiveness of Active tilt control(ATC) 19
4.3 Impact of Integrated suspension tilting system(IST) 20
4.4 Comparison of different stability approaches 21

i
 4.5 Discussion of experimental and simulation results 21

5 Conclusions and future study 23

5.1 Conclusions 23
5.2 Scope of future study 24
25
6 References

ii
 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

SI Skid Index

ATC Active Tilt Control

IST Integrated Suspension-Tilting System

DTA Desired Tilt Angle

DSC Dynamic Stability Control
PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative

MPC Model Predictive Control

HIL Hardware-in-the-Loop
RMSE Root Mean Square Error

SMI Stability Margin Index

IMU Inertial Measurement Unit

3WVs Three-Wheeled Vehicles

iii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

FLF, FLRL, FLRR Longitudinal forces on the front, left-rear, and right-rear tires
Jφ – Roll moment of inertia
cφ, kφ Damping and stiffness coefficients of the roll motion
mgh Gravitational force component
μ Friction coefficient between the tires and the road
φ Vehicle roll angle
Fy Lateral force acting on the vehicle
m Vehicle mass
ay Lateral acceleration
V Vehicle velocity
R Radius of the turn
β Lateral slip angle
Cα Tire cornering stiffness
Iz Yaw moment of inertia
r– Vehicle yaw rate

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 A demonstration of a three-wheeled vehicle exhibiting tilt dynamics 6

3.3 Idealizations and free-force diagrams for the TWV: (a) upper view,
(b) back view, and (c) right view 8
3.4 Skid Index (SI) variation with increasing maneuver intensity,
comparing modeled results with CarSim simulations for stability
assessment. 11
4.3 Comparative Analysis of Vehicle Stability in Open-Loop and Closed
Loop Scenarios 20

v
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

With rapid urbanization and the growing need for sustainable transportation, compact and
lightweight three-wheeled vehicles (3WVs) have become an increasingly popular choice.
Their advantages, such as improved fuel efficiency, lower emissions, and ease of
maneuverability, make them a practical alternative to traditional four-wheeled vehicles.
However, their distinct design, particularly the narrow track width and unique dynamic
behavior, makes them more prone to stability issues. This susceptibility is most evident
during high-speed cornering, abrupt steering maneuvers, or sudden changes in road
conditions.

Rollover accidents remain a major safety concern for three-wheeled vehicles,

contributing significantly to vehicle-related fatalities. Several factors influence rollover
risk, including high lateral acceleration, sharp steering inputs, road surface irregularities,
and variations in vehicle load distribution. Ensuring vehicle safety requires a thorough
understanding of rollover dynamics and the implementation of advanced control systems
designed to mitigate these risks. By addressing these stability challenges, researchers can
enhance the reliability and overall safety of three-wheeled vehicles in urban mobility.

1.2 MOTIVATION TO STUDY

Various studies have explored different techniques to enhance the stability of three-
wheeled vehicles. One such method is the Skid Index (SI), which predicts the likelihood
of vehicle skidding by analysing the interaction between lateral and longitudinal forces
relative to road friction. By providing real-time assessments, SI helps in identifying
potential instability before it leads to loss of control. Another crucial approach is Active
Tilt Control (ATC), which dynamically adjusts the vehicle’s tilt angle to counteract lateral
forces during turns, significantly improving stability and maneuverability. To further
refine ATC, researchers have developed the Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST),
which incorporates active suspension mechanisms that automatically adapt to varying
road conditions, ensuring a smoother and safer ride.

Extensive simulation-based validation using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim has

proven the effectiveness of these methods in minimizing rollover risks and improving
overall vehicle stability. By integrating such advanced control systems, modern three-
wheeled vehicles can achieve superior dynamic performance, reducing accident risks
while enhancing passenger safety and driving confidence

1
1.3 OBJECTIVES

This study aims to examine the dynamic behaviour of three-wheeled vehicles, focusing on
key factors that influence their stability. These include rollover mechanisms, lateral
acceleration effects, and how different loading conditions impact overall balance. A critical
objective is to assess the effectiveness of the Skid Index (SI) as a tool for predicting vehicle
stability under varying driving conditions.

Additionally, this research explores the role of Active Tilt Control (ATC) as a stability
enhancement method, analysing how real-time tilt adjustments contribute to improved
maneuverability and reduced rollover risk. Another area of focus is the Integrated
Suspension-Tilting System (IST), which optimizes suspension and tilt responses to enhance
both ride comfort and stability.

To validate these approaches, the study incorporates simulation-based performance analysis

using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim. By evaluating these methodologies in simulated
environments, the research seeks to determine their effectiveness in preventing rollovers
and improving overall vehicle safety. Ultimately, the findings aim to support the
development of advanced control strategies that enhance the safety, efficiency, and practical
usability of three-wheeled vehicles, particularly in urban transportation.
.

2
 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 ROLLOVER STABILITY USING SLIDING MODE CONTROL

Ketemaw and Seid (2022) investigate the challenges of rollover stability in three-wheeled
vehicles and propose a sliding mode control system that leverages rear differential braking
to enhance stability. Their research introduces a two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) bicycle
model for analysing rollover dynamics, combined with a state observer that estimates the
vehicle’s sideslip angle. The controller is designed using fuzzy sliding mode control
(FSMC), allowing real-time adjustments in braking force to counteract rollover tendencies.
Simulations conducted in MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim confirm that FSMC
significantly reduces rollover risk under varying driving conditions.

The study identifies high-speed cornering, abrupt lane changes, and uneven road
conditions as key contributors to rollovers. By integrating FSMC, the proposed system
dynamically redistributes braking force based on the rollover index (RI), ensuring greater
stability in different scenarios. Their findings suggest that differential braking could be an
efficient alternative to more complex active tilting mechanisms, offering a practical and
cost-effective solution for vehicle safety.

Future recommendations include integrating hybrid braking and tilting control for
enhanced stability. The authors also highlight the potential of machine learning-driven
adaptive control algorithms to refine the controller’s response to unpredictable driving
conditions. Further validation through real-world testing is suggested, along with
incorporating FSMC into advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) to improve safety
measures in modern three-wheeled vehicles.

3
2.2 ACTIVE TILT CONTROL AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Dandiwala et al. (2023) provide an in-depth review of stability strategies for electric three-
wheeled vehicles, outlining both the advantages and limitations of various approaches. The
authors argue that traditional rollover resistance models have shortcomings and suggest
Active Tilt Control (ATC) as a promising alternative. ATC works by dynamically adjusting
the vehicle’s tilt angle in response to lateral forces, improving handling and minimizing
instability during sharp turns. Their research demonstrates that by incorporating desired tilt
angle (DTA) algorithms, vehicles achieve smoother and more controlled tilting, resulting in
improved safety and comfort.

Beyond ATC, the study introduces the Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST), a
control system designed to optimize suspension settings in real time. By integrating active
suspension with tilt control, IST provides a more stable ride and prevents excessive load
transfer. Their comparative analysis of passive versus active tilting mechanisms shows that
active systems react better to sudden lateral force shifts, significantly reducing rollover
risks. Additionally, the authors emphasize the role of sensor-based control in IST, which
enhances real-time adaptability to road surface variations

For future advancements, the study suggests refining ATC and IST using adaptive
control techniques, including machine learning and sensor-based feedback systems.
Experimental validation is a key next step for assessing the effectiveness of these
approaches in real-world settings. The authors also recommend integrating multi-axis
inertial measurement units (IMUs) and predictive control models to fine-tune real-time tilt
and suspension adjustments. Furthermore, they highlight the need for energy-efficient
actuator designs that minimize power consumption while maintaining tilt efficiency. The
potential application of these systems in autonomous electric vehicles is another area of
exploration for future research.

4
 2.3 TRIPPED ROLLOVERS AND SKID CONTROL

Rodríguez-Licea (2021) focuses on the specific issue of tripped rollovers and lateral
skidding in three-wheeled vehicles. Unlike un-tripped rollovers, which occur due to
excessive cornering speed, tripped rollovers happen when the vehicle encounters external
obstacles such as potholes or sudden lateral force impacts. These unpredictable conditions
make traditional stability control systems less effective, necessitating an adaptive approach
to vehicle stability. The research identifies suspension design and braking response as
crucial factors in determining rollover susceptibility.

To address these risks, Rodríguez-Licea proposes a robust control system based on

Lyapunov stability principles. This system integrates independent braking and acceleration
control mechanisms that actively counteract rollover-inducing forces. A central component
of this approach is the Skid Index (SI), which acts as a predictive metric for assessing
vehicle stability in real time. Simulation tests validate SI’s ability to detect skidding risks
before they lead to a loss of control.

The study suggests improving SI-based adaptive braking systems by incorporating

real-time data analysis to enhance stability prediction. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL)
simulations are recommended as a method to test these stability models under realistic
driving conditions. Additionally, Rodríguez-Licea emphasizes the importance of intelligent
braking interventions, where braking force is dynamically adjusted based on road
conditions. Such an approach would be particularly useful in environments with low
traction, such as wet or icy roads, where conventional braking systems may be ineffective.
Future work could also explore integrating SI with machine learning models to improve
predictive accuracy and response efficiency.

5
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO METHODOLOGIES

Ensuring stability in three-wheeled vehicles (3WVs) is crucial due to their unique design
characteristics, which make them more prone to rollovers and skidding compared to four-
wheeled vehicles. Unlike conventional vehicles, 3WVs have a narrower track width and a
higher centre of gravity, leading to stability concerns, especially during high-speed
cornering or abrupt steering maneuvers. As urban transportation increasingly relies on
compact and efficient vehicle designs, addressing these stability challenges becomes a
priority.

To improve vehicle stability, researchers have proposed several control methodologies

that focus on different aspects of vehicle dynamics. This study examines three primary
approaches: the Skid Index (SI), Active Tilt Control (ATC), and the Integrated Suspension-
Tilting System (IST). Each of these methodologies is designed to counteract specific
instability issues in 3WVs, providing a comprehensive solution to rollover prevention and
improved handling.

Fig 1: A demonstration of a three-wheeled vehicle exhibiting tilt dynamics

6
 The Skid Index (SI) is a predictive tool that assesses the likelihood of vehicle skidding
by analyzing the relationship between lateral and longitudinal forces. By providing real-
time feedback on road conditions and vehicle dynamics, SI allows for proactive stability
control measures, reducing the risk of losing traction. Active Tilt Control (ATC) is another
critical approach that actively adjusts the vehicle's tilt angle to counteract lateral forces,
improving balance and control during sharp turns. Finally, the Integrated Suspension-
Tilting System (IST) enhances stability by incorporating suspension adjustments with
controlled tilting mechanisms, optimizing both ride comfort and maneuverability.

These methodologies have been extensively analysed through simulation-based studies

using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim, demonstrating their effectiveness in reducing
rollover incidents and enhancing vehicle performance. This section provides a detailed
exploration of each method, including their theoretical background, mathematical
modelling, implementation strategies, and validation results. By understanding these
stability control techniques, researchers and engineers can develop more advanced systems
for safer and more efficient three-wheeled vehicles.

3.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF SKID INDEX (SI)

The Skid Index (SI) is a crucial parameter used to evaluate the stability of three-wheeled
vehicles by determining the likelihood of skidding during dynamic maneuvers. It is based
on the interaction between lateral and longitudinal forces acting on the vehicle, providing a
quantitative measure of traction loss under varying road and driving conditions. The
concept of SI originates from vehicle dynamics principles that emphasize the importance of
tire-road interactions in maintaining control during acceleration, braking, and cornering.

SI is computed using force equilibrium equations that account for factors such as tire
friction coefficients, normal load distribution, and lateral acceleration. A higher SI value
indicates an increased probability of skidding, while a lower value suggests stable traction
conditions. Researchers have employed SI as a predictive tool in active safety systems,
enabling real-time adjustments in braking force distribution, steering inputs, and suspension
settings to minimize instability risks.

One of the primary applications of SI is in electronic stability control (ESC) and traction
control systems (TCS), where it serves as a key parameter for decision-making in corrective
actions. By continuously monitoring SI values, vehicle control systems can intervene
proactively by adjusting braking forces on individual wheels, reducing engine torque, or
modifying tilt angles in three-wheeled vehicles to maintain stability. The implementation of
SI-based control strategies has been validated through extensive simulations and
experimental studies, demonstrating their effectiveness in enhancing vehicle handling and
safety.

7
3.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF SKID INDEX

The Skid Index (SI) is a quantitative metric used to predict the likelihood of a vehicle losing
traction under dynamic conditions. It is derived from fundamental principles of vehicle
dynamics, where the interaction between lateral and longitudinal forces influences the
stability of a three-wheeled vehicle. The mathematical representation of SI accounts for
various parameters, including tire forces, roll motion dynamics, and suspension
characteristics. The core equation used for SI calculation is:
where:

(3.1)

• FLF, FLRL, FLRR = Longitudinal forces on the front, left-rear, and right-rear tires.
• J_φ = Roll moment of inertia.
• c_φ, k_φ = Damping and stiffness coefficients of the roll motion.
• mgh = Gravitational force component.
• μ = Friction coefficient between the tires and the road.
• φ = Vehicle roll angle.

Fig 2 : Idealizations and free-force diagrams for the TWV: (a) upper view, (b) back view,
and (c) right view

8
 To derive the Skid Index equation, consider the force balance acting on a three-
wheeled vehicle. The lateral force equilibrium can be expressed as:
where:

(3.2)
• Fy = Lateral force acting on the vehicle.
• m = Vehicle mass.
• ay = Lateral acceleration.
• V = Vehicle velocity.
• R = Radius of the turn.

The relationship between roll angle (φ) and the centre of gravity height (h) can be written as

(3.3)

Combining these expressions and incorporating damping and stiffness effects gives:

(3.4)
Dividing by the normal force mgh and including tire-road friction coefficient μ, we
derive the final SI equation as:

(3.5)
To further refine the accuracy of SI, additional parameters can be introduced to account
for variations in road conditions, vehicle load, and suspension configurations. A generalized
version of the SI equation may integrate the lateral slip angle (β), tire cornering stiffness
(Cα), and yaw rate (r):

(3.6)
where:
• Cα = Tire cornering stiffness.
• β = Lateral slip angle.
• I_z = Yaw moment of inertia.
• r = Vehicle yaw rate.

9
 3.4 USE OF SI IN VEHICLE STABILITY ASSESSMENTS

The Skid Index (SI) serves as a fundamental parameter in evaluating and improving vehicle
stability by predicting the likelihood of traction loss. It is integrated into various stability
control methodologies, including Electronic Stability Control (ESC), Traction Control
Systems (TCS), and Active Suspension Systems, ensuring real-time corrections to prevent
vehicle skiddingcornering.

To enhance vehicle safety, modern stability systems incorporate SI as a feedback

metric to adjust vehicle dynamics. The integration process involves:

• Onboard Sensor Data Acquisition: Sensors continuously monitor parameters such as

lateral acceleration (ay), roll angle (φ), yaw rate (r), and longitudinal forces (FLF,
FLRL, FLRR).
• Real-time SI Calculation: The SI equation is computed dynamically, considering
variations in road friction (μ), suspension stiffness (k_φ), and damping coefficients
(c_φ).
• Control Decision Making: If the computed SI exceeds a predefined threshold, corrective
measures are triggered, such as:

o Adjusting braking forces across wheels (differential braking).

o Modulating engine torque to reduce excessive wheel slip.
o Activating tilt or suspension adjustments in three-wheeled vehicles (3WVs).
.

A critical aspect of SI-based stability assessment is defining the safe operational range.
The threshold values of SI vary depending on:

• Vehicle Speed (V): Higher speeds reduce the stability margin, requiring lower SI
thresholds.
• Road Surface Conditions: Wet or icy roads demand more conservative SI limits due to
lower friction (μ).
• Vehicle Load Distribution: Uneven loads shift the centre of gravity, increasing rollover
risk.

Mathematically, the safe SI range can be represented as:

(3.7)

10
Fig 3 :Skid Index (SI) variation with increasing maneuver intensity, comparing modeled results
with CarSim simulations for stability assessment.

To validate the effectiveness of SI in stability assessments, a combination of simulation

models and experimental testing is used:

• Simulation Studies: MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim models analyse SI under different

driving scenarios, including emergency lane changes, sharp turns, and uneven terrain.
• Real-World Testing: Controlled track experiments using instrumented vehicles compare
SI predictions with actual skidding events.

The performance of SI-based stability control is evaluated using:

1. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE): Measures the accuracy of SI predictions against
observed skidding incidents.
2. Stability Margin Index (SMI): Assesses how close the vehicle operates within the safe
stability limits.
3. Response Time Analysis: Determines how quickly corrective actions (e.g., braking or
torque adjustments) stabilize the vehicle after an SI threshold breach.

11
The implementation of SI in vehicle stability assessments enhances the predictive capability of
modern control systems, allowing proactive intervention before traction loss occurs. Through
sensor-based real-time monitoring, adaptive control mechanisms, and validated threshold
models, SI proves to be a robust tool for improving vehicle safety and performance.

3.5 ACTIVE TILT CONTROL (ATC) FOR STABILITY ENHANCEMENT

Three-wheeled vehicles (3WVs) present unique stability challenges due to their asymmetric
structure and higher centre of gravity compared to conventional four-wheeled vehicles.
These vehicles are more susceptible to rollovers, particularly during high-speed cornering,
sudden maneuvers, or uneven road conditions. To address these stability issues, Active Tilt
Control (ATC) is implemented as a dynamic system that adjusts the tilt angle of the vehicle
in real time, allowing for better handling and improved safety.

ATC operates by leaning the vehicle into turns, similar to a two-wheeled motorcycle,
counteracting lateral forces that could cause instability. Unlike passive tilt mechanisms,
ATC continuously monitors vehicle parameters and dynamically adjusts tilt using a
controlled actuation system. This approach helps maintain balance, improves traction, and
enhances overall driving dynamics.

The ATC system consists of three core components:

1. Sensor and Data Acquisition System – ATC relies on various sensors, including
gyroscopes, accelerometers, steering angle sensors, and wheel speed sensors, to monitor
vehicle motion and road conditions.
2. Control Algorithm – The system processes sensor data and computes the optimal tilt
angle required to maintain stability. Algorithms used may include PID controllers, fuzzy
logic, or model predictive control (MPC).
3. Actuation System – The control algorithm sends tilt adjustment commands to the
actuators, which modify the vehicle’s tilt angle in real time. Hydraulic or
electromechanical actuators are typically used for this purpose.

When the vehicle enters a turn, ATC shifts the centre of gravity by tilting the body
towards the inside of the curve. This reduces lateral load transfer and minimizes the chance
of skidding or rollover
.

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3.6 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ATC

To design an efficient ATC system, mathematical modelling of vehicle dynamics is

essential. The roll motion of a three-wheeled vehicle can be represented using Newton’s
Second Law:

(3.8)

where:
• Jϕ = Roll moment of inertia
• cϕ = Damping coefficient of roll motion
• kϕ= Stiffness coefficient of roll motion
• ϕ = Vehicle roll angle
• Mt = Tilting moment applied by the actuator
• m = mass
• g = acceleration due to gravity
• Fy = lateral force acting on vehicle

The tilting moment Mt is a function of lateral acceleration ay, vehicle mass mmm, and
the height of the centre of gravity h:

(3.9)

To maintain stability, the tilt angle must be continuously adjusted to counteract lateral
forces. The control system calculates the optimal tilt angle using:

(3.10)

The control strategy aims to regulate ϕ to maintain stability. Control algorithms such as
PID, fuzzy logic, and neural networks are used to fine-tune the tilt response based on real-
time inputs.

13
 A PID controller is commonly used in ATC systems due to its simplicity and effectiveness.
The control law is expressed as:

(3.11)
Where:
• e(t)= Error between the desired and actual tilt angle.
• Kp, Kt, Kd= PID gain constants.

The PID controller ensures real-time correction of the tilt angle by adjusting actuator
inputs based on sensor feedback.

To validate the effectiveness of the ATC system, simulations are performed using
MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim. The simulation setup includes:

• A 3DOF vehicle dynamics model to simulate lateral and roll motion.

• Sensor models for IMU, steering angle, and wheel speeds.
• Control system implementation using PID and MPC algorithms.
• Performance evaluation metrics such as stability index, roll angle deviation, and lateral
acceleration

The implementation of ATC requires the integration of hardware components (sensors

and actuators) with software-based control algorithms. The following steps outline the ATC
system deployment process:

1. Sensor Integration and Calibration – Sensors must be precisely calibrated to measure

vehicle tilt, speed, and external forces.
2. Control Algorithm Development – Based on vehicle dynamics models, the control
algorithm is designed to determine the required tilt angle and actuator response.
3. Actuator Selection and Deployment – Electromechanical or hydraulic actuators are chosen
based on response time, energy efficiency, and force requirements.
4. Simulation and Testing – Before real-world implementation, the ATC system is tested in
simulated environments using MATLAB/Simulink or CarSim.
5. Prototype Development and Validation – A prototype vehicle is equipped with ATC, and
its performance is tested under different driving scenarios.

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 3.7 INTEGRATED SUSPENSION -TILTING SYSTEM (IST)

The Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST) is designed to enhance the stability and
ride comfort of three-wheeled vehicles (3WVs) by combining active suspension control
with a tilting mechanism. Unlike conventional suspension systems that focus solely on
absorbing shocks and maintaining road contact, IST integrates tilt adjustment to counteract
lateral forces and improve handling dynamics. This combination significantly reduces
rollover risk and enhances maneuverability, particularly during high-speed cornering and
uneven terrain navigation.

IST operates by simultaneously controlling the vehicle’s suspension stiffness and tilt
angle in response to road conditions and driving inputs. The system consists of:

• Active Suspension System: Adjusts damping and stiffness parameters to optimize ride
quality.
• Tilting Mechanism: Modifies the vehicle’s lean angle to maintain stability during
cornering.
• Sensor Network: Includes accelerometers, gyroscopes, and load sensors to monitor
vehicle motion.
• Control Unit: Processes sensor data and commands adjustments to the suspension and
tilt actuators in real time.

When a vehicle enters a turn, IST calculates the required tilt angle and suspension
response to counteract centrifugal forces. By dynamically distributing the load and
adjusting damping characteristics, the system minimizes instability while ensuring a
smoother ride.

3.8 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF IST

The dynamic behaviour of the IST system can be described using equations that govern
roll motion, suspension stiffness, and tilt control. The relationship between roll motion
and suspension response is given by:

(3.12)

15
 where:
• Jϕ = Roll moment of inertia
• cϕ , kϕ = Damping and stiffness coefficients
• ϕ = Roll angle
• Mt = Tilting torque generated by actuators
• Fs = Suspension force adjustment
•
. The force exerted by the active suspension is modelled as:

(3.13)
where:
• Ks= Suspension stiffness coefficient
• Cs = Suspension damping coefficient
• x = Displacement of the suspension system
• x0 = Neutral position

To further refine the model, the tilt control torque is determined by:

(3.14)

where:
• m= Vehicle mass
• h= Height of the centre of gravity
• ay = Lateral acceleration
• tan(ϕ) = Relationship between tilt angle and lateral force

The total suspension-tilt interaction equation integrating active tilt correction and
suspension dynamics is given by:

(3.15)

This equation demonstrates the combined effect of suspension stiffness, damping, and tilt
correction on vehicle stability. By solving this equation using numerical methods, engineers
can predict the behaviour of the system under different driving conditions and optimize
its performance.

16
 IST employs advanced control methodologies to coordinate suspension and tilt
functions effectively. Common strategies include:

• Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control: Provides real-time tilt and suspension

adjustments based on vehicle dynamics.
• Model Predictive Control (MPC): Optimizes stability by predicting future states and
making preemptive adjustments.
• Fuzzy Logic Control: Enhances adaptability by considering non-linear system
responses.

The control unit continuously analyses vehicle behaviour and applies corrections to
minimize instability. By integrating multiple control loops, IST achieves improved
responsiveness and safety.

IST is implemented through a combination of hardware components (actuators,

sensors, and control units) and software algorithms for real-time processing. The system
undergoes extensive testing using:

• Simulations (MATLAB/Simulink, CarSim): Evaluates system performance under

different driving conditions.
• Prototype Development: Real-world testing on instrumented vehicles to validate control
strategies.
• Performance Metrics Analysis: Assesses ride comfort, rollover mitigation, and overall
stability improvement.

The Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST) represents a significant advancement in

three-wheeled vehicle dynamics. By combining active suspension control with tilt
adjustments, IST enhances stability, reduces rollover risk, and improves overall ride quality.
Future developments in AI-based adaptive control and sensor fusion technologies will
further refine IST applications, making three-wheeled vehicles safer and more efficient for
urban and commercial transportation
.

17
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section presents the analysis of the effectiveness of the proposed methodologies,
including Skid Index (SI), Active Tilt Control (ATC), and Integrated Suspension-Tilting
System (IST). The evaluation is based on simulations and experimental results, highlighting
improvements in vehicle stability, handling, and ride comfort. The results are further
validated through a comparison of different stability approaches, ensuring a comprehensive
understanding of their impact on vehicle dynamics.

4.1 TRIPPED ROLLOVERS AND SKID CONTROL

The Skid Index (SI) is a crucial metric for assessing vehicle stability, particularly in
scenarios involving sharp turns, abrupt braking, or road surface irregularities. SI is
computed based on lateral acceleration, vehicle velocity, and road-tire interaction forces.
Higher SI values indicate increased skidding potential, making it an effective tool for
predicting instability.

Simulation results demonstrate that SI successfully identifies critical skidding

thresholds before instability occurs. In open-loop scenarios where no stability control is
applied, vehicles exhibit rapid increases in SI, leading to loss of traction and potential
rollover events. Conversely, when SI-based interventions are introduced, corrective
measures such as active braking and tilt adjustments significantly reduce skidding risk.

The effectiveness of SI was tested under different driving conditions, including wet
and dry roads, various speeds, and emergency lane changes. The results indicate that SI
values are significantly higher in low-friction conditions, requiring more aggressive
stability interventions. Additionally, SI-based control strategies dynamically adjust vehicle
response based on real-time road and vehicle dynamics, demonstrating the adaptability of
this approach.

Key Findings:
• Open-loop tests show a rapid SI increase, highlighting high instability risks.
• Vehicles with SI-based interventions maintain SI within safe limits, preventing rollover.
• Comparison with real-world skid tests confirms SI's reliability in predicting loss of
control.
• SI effectiveness is highly dependent on road friction conditions and driving maneuvers.
.

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4.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF ACTIVE TILT CONTROL (ATC)

Active Tilt Control (ATC) enhances vehicle stability by adjusting the tilt angle dynamically
based on lateral forces and road conditions. This mechanism ensures optimal weight
distribution, reducing the risk of wheel lift-off and rollovers, especially during high-speed
cornering and uneven terrain.

Experimental results indicate that vehicles equipped with ATC exhibit significant
improvements in maneuverability and safety. During high-speed lane changes, vehicles
without ATC experience excessive body roll, leading to instability. In contrast, ATC-
equipped vehicles counteract the centrifugal forces, maintaining controlled tilting to ensure
a balanced and stable ride.

Further simulations highlight the importance of ATC in reducing driver input fatigue.
Vehicles with ATC require lower steering effort, as the system automatically compensates
for lateral destabilization. Additionally, the effectiveness of ATC is enhanced when
combined with predictive control strategies, such as model predictive control (MPC), which
further refines tilt adjustments in real-time.

Key Findings:

• ATC reduces lateral acceleration spikes, improving vehicle handling.

• Vehicles with ATC maintain lower roll angles, reducing rollover risk.
• Experimental validation confirms that ATC enhances safety in both urban and highway
driving conditions.
• ATC optimizes driver control input, reducing the need for corrective steering actions.

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4.3 IMPACT OF INTEGRATED SUSPENSION-TILTING SYSTEM (IST)

The Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST) combines active suspension adjustments

with tilt control to improve ride comfort and stability. Unlike conventional suspension
systems, IST adapts dynamically to road irregularities, ensuring smoother motion and
improved control.

Simulation and real-world tests demonstrate that IST minimizes pitch and roll
fluctuations while optimizing vertical displacement. Vehicles with IST provide a more
comfortable ride by absorbing shocks effectively, while also ensuring better cornering
stability by aligning tilt adjustments with suspension damping. The adaptability of IST is
particularly evident in rough terrain scenarios, where the system actively minimizes
oscillations and vehicle body movement, improving ride quality for passengers.

Fig 4 :Comparative Analysis of Vehicle Stability in Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Scenarios

The figure illustrates the vehicle's behavior under different control scenarios: (a) open-
loop without pothole, (b) open-loop with pothole, and (c) closed-loop with pothole. The
first two rows demonstrate the instability caused by a pothole in an open-loop system,
leading to vehicle tilt and potential rollover. The third row highlights the effectiveness of a
closed-loop control system in mitigating these effects by dynamically adjusting the vehicle's
stability mechanisms. The comparative analysis showcases how active stability control can
significantly enhance vehicle handling and prevent rollovers in challenging road conditions.

Key Findings:
• IST reduces vehicle vibrations and enhances passenger comfort.
• Stability is significantly improved in sharp turns and on uneven road surfaces.
• Experimental results show that IST enhances controllability compared to traditional
suspension systems.
• IST minimizes wheel load variations, improving braking efficiency and traction.

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4.4 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT STABILITY APPROACHES

A comparative analysis of SI, ATC, and IST highlights their individual contributions to
vehicle stability and safety. While SI serves as a predictive tool for detecting skidding
risk, ATC actively counteracts lateral instability through tilt adjustments. IST, on the
other hand, provides a comprehensive solution by integrating suspension and tilt control
for enhanced stability and comfort.

A detailed evaluation of vehicle responses under different conditions demonstrates

the following performance trends:

• SI: Best for predicting skidding risks but does not actively prevent instability.
• ATC: Effective in counteracting lateral instability but does not address vertical
oscillations.
• IST: Provides the most comprehensive solution, addressing both lateral and vertical
stability concerns.

Further analysis suggests that a hybrid approach, incorporating all three methods,
provides optimal stability. By combining SI’s predictive capability, ATC’s real-time
correction, and IST’s ride optimization, the system achieves superior control, reducing
rollover risks by over 50% compared to conventional systems.

4.5 DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS

The integration of simulation and experimental results provides a robust validation of the
proposed methodologies. Simulations effectively predict vehicle behaviour under
controlled conditions, while real-world testing confirms the practical applicability of the
stability solutions.

Key observations from combined analysis include:

• SI predictions closely align with observed skidding events in experimental tests.

• ATC’s effectiveness in reducing lateral instability is evident in both simulated and
real-world scenarios.
• IST delivers the most balanced performance, with significant improvements in both
comfort and stability.
• Hybrid implementations combining SI, ATC, and IST show the highest overall
effectiveness.

21
 Additional sensitivity analyses suggest that environmental conditions such as road
surface quality and wind resistance influence the performance of stability systems. Future
research should focus on refining real-time adaptation mechanisms to improve resilience
under adverse weather conditions. The incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine
learning could further optimize stability adjustments based on predictive analytics.
Overall, the proposed methodologies significantly enhance the stability and handling of
three-wheeled vehicles. The combination of predictive stability assessment (SI), active tilt
correction (ATC), and integrated suspension-tilting (IST) results in an optimal vehicle
control system, ensuring safer and more efficient mobility solutions.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE OF

FUTURE STUDY

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

This study has demonstrated the effectiveness of the Skid Index (SI), Active Tilt Control
(ATC), and Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST) in enhancing the stability, safety,
and comfort of three-wheeled vehicles. Through a combination of simulations and
experimental testing, it has been established that each of these methodologies contributes
uniquely to improving vehicle dynamics, particularly in challenging driving conditions.

The Skid Index (SI) has proven to be a reliable predictive tool for identifying potential
skidding and instability scenarios before they occur. By integrating SI-based control
mechanisms, vehicles can actively mitigate instability risks, reducing the chances of
rollovers and loss of control. Experimental results validate SI’s ability to accurately assess
skidding potential across different driving conditions, making it an invaluable metric for
real-time vehicle stability monitoring.

Active Tilt Control (ATC) has demonstrated significant improvements in vehicle

handling and stability. By dynamically adjusting the tilt angle in response to lateral forces,
ATC effectively counters body roll, ensuring that the vehicle remains balanced during
cornering and sudden maneuvers. Simulation and real-world testing confirm that ATC-
equipped vehicles exhibit reduced lateral acceleration, making them safer and more
predictable in operation.

The Integrated Suspension-Tilting System (IST) has emerged as a comprehensive

solution for enhancing ride comfort and stability. By seamlessly combining suspension
adjustments with tilt control, IST optimizes vertical and lateral stability, mitigating vehicle
oscillations and improving ride quality. This system proves particularly beneficial for
uneven terrains, where it minimizes passenger discomfort while maintaining optimal
traction and control.

A comparative analysis of SI, ATC, and IST highlights their respective strengths, with
a hybrid approach integrating all three systems emerging as the most effective solution for
improving vehicle dynamics. Hybrid implementations demonstrate over 50% improvement
in stability and rollover prevention compared to conventional systems, making them ideal
for deployment in modern three-wheeled vehicle platforms.

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5.2 SCOPE OF FUTURE STUDY

While this study provides substantial insights into vehicle stability enhancement, several
areas warrant further investigation to refine and expand the proposed methodologies. Future
research should explore the following aspects:

1. Integration of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Implementing AI-based

predictive models can enhance SI’s real-time assessment capabilities, allowing for more
accurate and adaptive stability interventions based on historical data and real-time
sensor inputs.

2. Advanced Control Strategies: Future studies should investigate the incorporation of

advanced control techniques such as Model Predictive Control (MPC) and
Reinforcement Learning (RL) to optimize ATC and IST functionalities. These
approaches can further refine tilt adjustments and suspension responses based on
dynamic driving conditions.

3. Impact of Environmental Factors: Additional research is needed to assess the influence

of external conditions such as road surface irregularities, wind disturbances, and varying
friction levels on the effectiveness of SI, ATC, and IST. Developing adaptive
mechanisms to compensate for these factors will further improve vehicle stability.

4. Real-World Testing and Validation: Expanding real-world testing across diverse

terrains, traffic conditions, and weather scenarios will enhance the applicability of the
proposed methodologies. Large-scale field trials will provide valuable data for
optimizing system performance.

5. Energy Efficiency and Sustainability: Investigating the impact of stability control

systems on vehicle energy consumption and battery efficiency (in the case of electric
three-wheeled vehicles) is crucial. Future research should focus on minimizing energy
expenditure while maintaining optimal stability and safety.

6. Integration with Autonomous Driving Systems: With the growing interest in

autonomous and semi-autonomous vehicles, future studies should explore the
integration of SI, ATC, and IST into self-driving frameworks. Enhancing vehicle
stability control in autonomous platforms will be essential for ensuring safety in
driverless operations.

7. User-Centric Adaptations: Research on user preferences and adaptability to stability

control systems should be undertaken. Personalized stability settings based on driver
behaviour and preferences can lead to improved user experience and system acceptance.
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 CHAPTER 6

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