Origins Of Cells

What you should know:

After studying this subtopic you should be able to:

●​ Describe the conditions of early Earth and outline that these conditions may have led to the spontaneous
generation of carbon compounds.
●​ Explain why cells are the smallest units of self-sustaining life.
●​ Outline some of the challenges of explaining the spontaneous origins of cells.
●​ Outline and evaluate the Miller–Urey experiment.
●​ Outline how vesicles may have spontaneously formed by the coalescence of fatty acids into spherical
bilayers.
●​ Explain the hypothesis that RNA was the first genetic material and catalyst in the earliest cells.
●​ Describe how it is likely that other life forms evolved, but were outcompeted by a last universal common
ancestor.
●​ Outline approaches to estimate the time over which life has been evolving on Earth.
●​ Outline the evidence that supports the existence of a LUCA

A2.10

●​ 4.5 billion years ago gravity pulled rock from around our solar system into planet Earth.
●​ the Earth cooled and the water vapour in the atmosphere condensed, falling as rain to become
oceans.
●​ ‘primordial soup’ to describe early oceans, which were rich in simple carbon-based compounds.
●​ Thought that this primordial soup was the source of the first primitive life forms between 3.5 and
3.9 billion years ago which then gave rise to the billions of species existing since.

(A primitive cell, consisting of a lipid membrane and genetic material, probably RNA, which can be
passed onto offspring as the cell replicates.)

●​ When life first originated on Earth, the planet had a hostile environment (asteroids and had
widespread volcanic activity), with much higher temperatures than today. no ozone layer
 ●​ the dusty atmosphere contained mostly methane, ammonia, water vapour, more carbon dioxide
than exists today and no oxygen.

A2.11

●​ life originated between 3.5 and 3.9 billion years ago

●​ Surface temperatures probably ranged from 18o to 24o C, and the surface of the Earth was
covered in a single global ocean + no solid land masses.
●​ Earth hit by comets and asteroids, which brought water and other compounds to the planet.
●​ Methane and ammonia gases were released in these collisions and in the volcanic eruptions that
were occurring, these two gases formed the majority of the Earth’s early atmosphere, which also
contained water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
●​ no ozone layer present in the atmosphere because of lack of oxygen
●​ inner core of the Earth would have been much hotter, and a liquid rather than the solid inner core
of today.
●​ increased motion within the liquid core would have resulted in a smaller protective magnetic
field than exists today, exposing the planet to much higher levels of cosmic and solar radiation.
●​ These conditions on early Earth would have created extreme weather events, including electrical
storms.

The pre-biotic formation of carbon compounds

●​ Important to the origins of life is the formation of simple, carbon-based compounds that led onto
more complex carbon compounds, organic molecules (provide the structural and functional
components for cells to survive and replicate).
●​ Due to the lack of oxygen, and the high proportion of reducing gases, including methane and
ammonia, the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere.
●​ Reducing gases in the atmosphere were able to donate electrons to other molecules, allowing
chemical reactions to take place, resulting in the formation of more complex carbon compounds
(simple amino acids and hydrocarbons). would have eventually joined together to form the
building blocks of cells, including proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
●​ more complex carbon compounds would have developed the ability to self-replicate, and become
packaged into membranes. Enabling the molecules to exist within different conditions to the
external environment, leading to the formation of cells.
●​ It is important to note that the conditions on Earth today are very different from the conditions on
early Earth. Because of this, it is not possible for the spontaneous formation of biological
molecules to occur today.
A.2.1.2

Life process Definition Example of how a cell carries out this life process

Metabolism Chemical reactions that take place within the Cells contain catalytic molecules, such as enzymes to speed up
cell(s) of an organism chemical reactions within the cell

Response to stimuli Responding to changes in the external Detecting changes in chemicals in the extracellular
environment environment and moving towards or away from the chemicals

Homeostasis The maintenance of constant internal Moving ions or other molecules into or out of the cell across
conditions, despite changes in their external the cell membrane to control the concentration of certain
environments substances in the cell

Movement Having some control over their place and Some cells have specialised structures, such as cilia, flagella
position and pseudopodia to help them move or change position

Growth Increasing in size over a period of time. In Cells can divide to produce more cells, and they can also
multicellular organisms, growth can also refer increase in size over time
to an increase in the number of cells that make
up an organism

Reproduction The production of offspring Cells contain genetic material which contains the instructions
for the cell to function and reproduce. During reproduction of a
cell, this genetic material will be copied so it can be passed on
to the offspring

Excretion The removal of metabolic waste Metabolic waste products are transported across the cell
membrane, out of the cell into the external environment
 Nutrition The intake or production of nutrients. Some cells can produce their own nutrients through processes
Heterotrophic organisms obtain their nutrients such as photosynthesis; other cells obtain their nutrients by
from the external environment, whereas consuming other organisms or organic molecules. Cells can
autotrophic organisms can produce nutrients also obtain nutrients by diffusion of the molecules across the
from inorganic material membrane into the cell and by endocytosis

The spontaneous origin of cells

Scientists believe that there were necessary steps for the evolution of the first cells:

1.​ Simple organic molecules such as amino acids and hydrocarbon chains were formed.
2.​ Chemical reactions were accelerated in the process of catalysis.
3.​ Larger organic molecules including RNA and phospholipids were assembled from smaller
molecules.
4.​ Some of these molecules, including RNA were able to self-replicate.
5.​ Formation of a membrane-bound compartment (the cell surface membrane) allowed the internal
chemistry of the cell to become different from that outside the compartment.

Evidence for the origins of carbon compounds

1952, two scientists, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey, simulated Earth’s ​pre-biotic atmospheric conditions
to show that spontaneous formation of organic molecules could occur.

Miller and Urey set up a closed system. The system contained:

●​ water, which simulated the ocean

●​ a gas inlet with which to add the reducing gases methane, ammonia and hydrogen
●​ electrical sparks to simulate the electrical storms present on pre-biotic Earth.

The water was vaporised and run through the gases and electrical sparks, after which a cooling jacket was
used to condense the water.
The condensed water droplets formed on the side of the apparatus and collected at the bottom,
representing the primordial soup of the early oceans. After a week of running the experiment, they
showed that the primordial soup contained basic organic monomers, including amino acids.

This experiment proved that non-living synthesis of organic molecules was possible in the conditions
existing on early Earth. this experiment did not prove that carbon compounds originated in this way, only
that it could have happened this way.
Spontaneous formation of vesicles by coalescence of fatty acids into
spherical bilayers
●​ formation of a membrane-bound compartment was important to formation of cell, would have
occurred when fatty acids spontaneously merged to form a spherical bilayer,( a double layer of
lipid molecules that encloses a space)
●​ this physical separation, the interior of the vesicle would then have been able to provide a
chemical environment with a different chemistry to the external environment.

A
necessary step in the evolution of the first cells was the spontaneous formation of vesicles by coalescence
of fatty acids into spherical bilayers.
●​ This is an important step in the origins of cells, because this separation allows cells to control and
maintain a precise set of conditions for proper cell functioning, including pH and solute
concentration.

RNA as the first genetic material

The ‘RNA first’ hypothesis posits that RNA was the basis for the formation of the first cell-like structure,
acting as both genetic material and as a catalyst. This hypothesis suggests that:

●​ RNA was formed from inorganic sources.

 ●​ RNA was able to replicate using ribozymes.
●​ RNA was able to catalyse protein synthesis.
●​ Membrane compartmentalisation occurred.
●​ Inside the cell, RNA was able to produce both protein and DNA.
●​ DNA took over as the main genetic material because it is more stable.
●​ Proteins took over as the catalytic form (enzymes) because they are more capable of variability.

Evidence to support the RNA first hypothesis includes:

●​ Short RNA sequences have been shown to be able to duplicate other molecules of RNA,
demonstrating that RNA can self-replicate.
●​ RNA has some catalytic activity so it may have acted initially as both the genetic material and the
enzymes of the earliest cells.
●​ Ribozymes in the ribosome are still used to catalyse peptide bond formation during protein
synthesis.

However, this is not the only hypothesis on how cells originated. Other theories, none of which has been
definitively proved or disproved, include:

●​ The Miller–Urey hypothesis: spontaneous generation of simple organic molecules such as amino
acids, carbohydrates and lipids occurred in the conditions on pre-biotic Earth.
●​ The ‘metabolism first’ hypothesis: life began with simple metabolic reactions that led to the
formation of simple metabolic pathways, which then formed more complex molecules which
formed the basis of cells.
●​ The ‘sulfur world’ hypothesis: the first forms of life were based on iron–sulfur chemistry.
●​ The ‘lipid world’ hypothesis: lipid bilayers evolved before RNA, providing a protective layer to
encapsulate the RNA.

A.2.1.7

●​ likely that more than one life form spontaneously originated under the conditions present on early
Earth, but only one of these life forms survived, known as the last universal common ancestor
(LUCA).
 ●​ thought that LUCA was a simple, single-celled autotrophic microbe with an RNA genome that
existed between 2.5 and 3.5 billion years ago.
●​ Scientists think that LUCA, or descendants of LUCA, outcompeted the other life forms existing
on early Earth, leading to the extinction of the other life forms.

Evidence for the last universal common ancestor

●​ The genetic code is universal because it is shared by all living organisms and viruses on Earth. It
uses the same nucleotide triplets, or codons, to code for the same amino acids in all organisms.
For example, the codon AUG codes for methionine in bacteria, animals, plants and fungi.
●​ The reason why the genetic code is universal is because of the common ancestry of all living
organisms from one LUCA.
●​ Over time, this genetic code has been conserved as it is essential for the transmission of genetic
information, with any change to this genetic code being likely to be highly detrimental to the
organism.
●​ This universality and conservation means that scientists can use the genetic code as a tool to study
when differences in the genome of groups of organisms evolved.
●​
●​ Scientists used to think that there were three domains of life that split from LUCA: bacteria,
archaea and eukaryotes.
●​ Scientists looked for genes that were present in all three domains, inferring that these genes
would also have been present in LUCA. However, in 1984 evidence from molecular
phylogenetics, the comparison of genetic sequences, changed our understanding of the domains
of life.
●​ Scientists now think that two domains, bacteria and archaea, arose from LUCA, wh tithe third
domain, eukaryotes, evolving much more recently by the process of endosymbiosis
●​ scientists began searching for genes that were common to both bacteria and archaea, inferring that
they would have also been present in LUCA.
●​ Scientists found 11 000 common genes, which would have given LUCA much more advanced
functionalities than any modern cell.
●​ Scientists realized this approach was confounded by a process called horizontal​​gene transfer,
whereby genes can be transferred across species or domains, So scientists narrowed their focus to
include only ‘ancient’ conserved genes present in both that do not seem to have undergone
horizontal gene transfer.
●​ they found 355 genes that can be presumed to have been present in LUCA.
●​ Scientists have also studied stromatolites ( fossils found within rocks that are thought to have
been formed by layered communities of microorganisms)to help understand the types of
organisms that existed in the past, and the environments in which they lived.

From this fossil evidence and genetic analysis, scientists have inferred features and characteristics of
LUCA, including that it:

●​ existed between 2.5 and 3.5 billion years ago

 ●​ existed deep in the ocean in alkaline hydrothermal vents (fissures in the ocean floor through
which mineral rich water escapes ). These would have been rich in hydrogen and dissolved
minerals(sulfur, methane and iron), which could have been used by LUCA as an energy source.
Hydrothermal vents have high temperatures, which could have provided the energy necessary for
the formation of complex organic molecules required for cellular formation
●​ was anaerobic, which fits with the lack of oxygen in the early atmosphere of the Earth
●​ was autotrophic, combining inorganic carbon with hydrogen, to produce carbon dioxide and
formic acid, which could then be used for other processes.

Phylogenetic analysis and fossilised evidence suggest that LUCA evolved in hydrothermal vents.
Hydrothermal vents are thought to have provided LUCA physical protection from the external ocean.

Summary

Before life evolved on Earth, our planet is thought to have had an atmosphere consisting mostly of reducing gases
such as ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide. There were high levels of ultraviolet and solar radiation.
Temperatures were much higher than today, probably exceeding 100 ℃. These conditions would have resulted in
extreme weather events, including frequent electrical storms.

Cells are the smallest self-sustaining units of life. They are capable of carrying out all eight processes of life:
metabolism, response to stimuli, homeostasis, movement, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition. Viruses
are not considered to be living organisms because they cannot carry out these processes of life independently.

Cells can only be produced by the division of pre-existing cells. Catalysis, self-replication of molecules,
self-assembly and the emergence of compartmentalisation were necessary requirements in the evolution of the
first cells.

Under the conditions present on early Earth, it is thought that biological molecules formed from simple, inorganic
molecules.

Miller and Urey carried out an investigation to model the formation of biological models in the conditions they
thought existed on early Earth, although we now think the conditions are different to the ones simulated in this
investigation.
The formation of a lipid bilayer was a necessary stage in the origin of the first cells, separating the cell’s interior
from the external environment.

RNA is thought to have been the first molecule of life, exhibiting both a catalytic function and acting as the
genetic material of cells. Proteins have taken over as the main catalytic molecule in cells because they are capable
of more variability, and DNA has taken over as the primary genetic material because it is more stable.

The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is a hypothetical organism from which all organisms living on Earth
today have evolved. Using phylogenetic analysis and fossil records, scientists think that LUCA was a simple
single-celled microorganism that existed between 2.5 and 3.5 billion years ago in hydrothermal vents.
 Cell Structure

A2.2.0 The Big Picture

Guiding Question(s):
➔​What are the features common to all cells and the features that differ?
➔​How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?
Notes:
●​ Robert Hooke - an english scientist and investor
●​ Robert Hooke discovered small compartments that made up the cork,
which he called “cells”. He called these cells because they reminded
him of small rooms or ‘cellula’ in a monastery.
●​ The discovery of the cells was an important milestone in the field
because it provides the first evidence that living organisms are made
up of small, discrete units.
 ●​ An original illustration showing
robert Hooke’s microscope
●​ Cells come in various different shapes, sizes and functions (the tiny
crescent shaped bacteria called Pelagibacter ubique is 0.5μm in
length. Some of the animal nerve cells can be over 1 m in length)
A2.2.1-2 Using Microscopes
Learning Outcomes:
➔​Outline cell theory and describe the structure and components of a
typical cell
➔​Summarize how to make and stain temporary mounts of cells and
tissues.
➔​Describe how to use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to
measure sizes of a specimen.
➔​Perform calculations involving actual size, image size and
magnification.
Notes:
●​ Microscopes are scientific instruments which are used to magnify
objects or images that are too small to be seen.
●​ The first microscope is thought to be developed in the 17th century
and used to view small objects and animals like insects.
●​ Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwnehoek were credited with
discovering microorganisms using light microscopes (similar to the
ones which are used in schools).
●​ Light microscopes use lenses and light to magnify the objects by
10-400 times their actual size.

●​ the first published illustration of

microorganism, a ‘hairy mold’ published by Orbert Hooke in 1665 in
his book Micrographia. The scale on the bottom shows the actual size
of the part of the specimen 1/32 inch (0.8mm).
●​ Microscopes are used in different fields like biology, medicine and
material science.
●​ There are 2 types of microscopes:
➢​Light microscopes
➢​Electron microscopes
●​ From the beginning of the 19th century scientists developed light
microscopes with sufficient power to allow observation that plant and
animal tissues are made up of many individual cells.
●​ Microscopes have helped scientists to see the structures that make the
cells in detail.
●​ How to use the microscope:
➢​Start with the lowest magnification possible and stage at the
highest position.
➢​To get a clear image of the specimen, adjust the focus of the
microscope using the coarse focus and the fine focus.
➢​Look through the eyepiece and use the coarse focus wheel to
adjust the distance between the spaceman and the objective
lens until it comes to focus.
➢​Turn the knob counterclockwise to move the spiceman further
from the lens and move clockwise to move in back up.
➢​Use fine focus to make the smaller adjustments in the distance
between the objective lens and the specimen to bring focus.
➢​After having a clear image, you can adjust the magnification by
rotating the nosepiece to use a different objective lens.
●​ Cell theory:
➢​People used to believe that living organisms could
spontaneously appear from non-living matter, the theory of
‘spontaneous generation’.
➢​Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of cells
using the light microscope in 1655, made the theory
questionable.
➢​Robert Hooke’s observation led to the development of the cell
theory.
➢​Cell theory states that all living things are made up of
individual units, cells, which are the basic units of life, and all
cells arise from other cells.
➢​In 1859, the spontaneous generation was debunked. (false)
●​ Using eyepiece graticules and stage micrometers
 ➢​Eyepiece lens of the light microscopes will be fitted with an
eyepiece graticule. Eyepiece graticules contain a scale or grid.
So, when we look through the eyepiece lens, the scale will be
superimposed on theis image of the specimen.
➢​To work out the size of the specimen that is viewed, stage
micrometers can be used to calibrate an eyepiece graticule.
➢​Stage micrometers are small, calibrated rulers that are mounted
onto the stage of the microscope.
➢​Stage micrometer shows the actual size of the image using
divisions that are each 100μm (0.1mm) apart.
➢​Each 100μm division of the stage micrometer is equivalent to 20
eyepiece graticule divisions which means that one graticule
division is equal to 5μm.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
➢​1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

➢​ using a stage micrometer

and an eyepiece graticule
●​ Converting between units:
➢​Since cells and cell structures are too small to be measured
using millimeters, it is measured using micrometers (μm) as a
unit measurement. One millimeter is equal to 1000
micrometers.
 ★​1000 microliter in 1 millimeter
★​0.001 millimeter in 1 micrometer
➢​Some cells or cell structures are measured in nanometres even
though most cells range from 0.1 to 100 micrometers.
➢​Nanometres are usually measurements for proteins, viruses,
wavelengths of light.
➢​1 nanometre is equal to 1000 micrometers
★​1000 nanometre in 1 micrometer
★​0.001 micrometer is 1 nanometre

➢​
●​ Magnification Calculations:
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
➢​𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
➢​𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
➢​𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

A2.2.3 Developments in Microscopy

●​ The ones that are used in school are light microscopes
●​ Light microscopes that pass light through a specimen and then use a
lens to magnify the image produced.
●​ Electron microscopy:
➢​Unlike light microscopes, electron microscopes pass a beam of
electrons through a specimen. Electrons will be absorbed by the
denser parts of the sample, and scattered or able to pass
 through less dense areas, after which they are picked up by an
electron detector and used to form an image.

➢​ the
difference between both microscopes
➢​Since electrons have shorter wavelengths compared to light,
electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light
microscopes.
➢​The resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm compared with
0.1nm for an electron microscope. So, if two points are 100 nm
apart, they will not be well-defined and their position will be
unclear when viewed using a light microscope, but will appear
much clearer under an electron microscope.
➢​Due to high resolution in an electron microscope, it can magnify
small objects by about 500,000 times. So, it is good to study
small cellular structures as well as disease- causing particles,
such viruses and prions.
 ➢​Light microscopes with a magnification of about 2000 times, are
useful for studying tissues and living cells in color because
they don’t damage the specimen as electrons do.
➢​Electron microscopes can only be used to observe dead
specimens in black and white. It offers higher resolution and is
used to study the internal structure of a wide variety of
specimens.
●​ Techniques that are commonly used in microscopy:
➢​Freeze fracture microscopy:
➔​Involves freezing a sample and then using a specialized
tool to break the sample into small pieces. The small
pieces are then observed using an electron microscope to
see the internal structure. This technique is useful for
being able to visualize structures that are not normally
visible.
➢​Cryogenic electron microscopy:
➔​Involves sample to freeze to cryogenic temperature
(-180 °C or colder) to fix the molecules and making them
more firm or stable. The specimen is then viewed using
electron microscopy. By freezing the sample, it improves
the resolution of the image formed and reduces damage
that may occur from the electron beam.
➢​Immunofluorescence:
➔​A technique used in light microscopy to better visualize
certain structures. A fluorescent tag called fluorophore is
attached to antibodies specific for antigens on a structure
or cell being viewed. When the antibody binds to the
antigen, the structure is then ‘tagged’ with
immunofluorescence. When a certain wavelength of light
 is shone onto the fluorescence tag, the tag will emit light
of a different wavelength that can then appear as brightly
coloured spots, allowing the visualization of the location
of these target molecules.
➢​Fluorescent dyes:
➔​A technique used in light microscopy. When the dye is
added to the sample it will preferentially attack certain
structures. As in immunofluorescence, the labeled areas
will appear as brightly coloured spots, allowing
visualization of the target molecule throughout the
specimen.
A2.2.4-6 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
●​ Structures and components of a typical cells
➢​Typical cells contain DNA as genetic material, a cytoplasm
composed mainly of water and a plasma membrane made of
lipids encapsulating the cell contents.
●​ Structures and components of a typical prokaryotic cell:
➢​Prokaryotes are considered to be the earliest and most primitive
type of cell, originating around 3.5 billion years ago.
➢​Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not contain a
membrane or membrane-bound organelles.
➢​Like eukaryotes, prokaryotes contain ribosomes, the site of
protein synthesis. However, prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) are
smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (80S), where the unit ‘S’
refers to the Svedberg unit.
➢​Some eukaryotic ribosomes may be bound to membranes and
some are free in the cytoplasm , all prokaryotic ribosomes are
free in the cytoplasm.
➢​Prokaryotic cells usually range in diameter between 0.1 and
5.0μm, while eukaryotic cells are typically between 10 and
100μm.
➢​Prokaryotes contain ribosomes (70S) and eukaryotes contain
ribosomes (80S)
➢​‘S’ stands for Svedberg unit
➢​Some eukaryotic ribosomes may be bound to membranes and
some are free in the cytoplasm
➢​All prokaryotic ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm
➢​Prokaryotic cells usually range in diameter between 0.1 and 5.0
μm
➢​Eukaryotic cells are typically between 10 and 100μm

➢​
➢​Bacteria and archaea are types of prokaryotes
➢​There are enormous variations and number of species and are
found everywhere (including the most inhospitable)
➢​Typical components of prokaryotic cells:
➔​Cell wall - cell wall is found outside the cell membrane.
Has an important role in protecting the prokaryotic cells
against toxins that may be in the external environment,
 resisting high osmotic pressures and maintains the shape
of the cell
➔​Plasma Membrane - separates the cell’s interior from its
external environment and controls what can enter and exit
the cell.
➔​Cytoplasm- water based jelly like fluid that fills the cell,
suspends ions, organic molecules, DNA and ribosomes, and
is the site of metabolic reaction.
➔​Naked DNA in a loop - DNA stores the information which
is necessary for synthesizing proteins.
❖​In prokaryotes: the DNA is naked, meaning that it is
not associated with histone protein and found in the
nucleoid (no nucleus)
❖​In eukaryotes: the DNA is in the nucleus meaning it
is associated with histone protein
➔​70S ribosomes - where the translation (protein synthesis)
occurs. Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller and lower mass
than eukaryotic ribosomes.
➔​Plasmid - small, circular pieces of DNA that can be
transferred from one prokaryotic cell to another. This is
known as horizontal gene transfer (in contrast to the
vertical gene transfer that occurs from reproduction)
➢​Many prokaryotic cells also contain caps.
➢​Polysaccharides protect the organism and allow it to adhere to
surfaces.
➢​Prokaryotic cells have flagella (flagella) which is responsible for
the locomotion of the organism, spinning to propel the cell
through its medium.
 ➢​Some prokaryotic cells contain pili (pilus) on their surface
which are protein filaments on the cell wall that help in cell
adhesion and in transferring of DNA between two cells.
➢​Bacteria and archaea are both types of prokaryotes.
●​ Structures and components of a typical eukaryotic cell
➢​Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane -bound
cytoplasmic organelles.
➢​Are more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells
➢​Some eukaryotes are multicellular meaning that the body of the
organism consists of more than one cell
●​ Compartmentalisation
➢​Eukaryotic cells contains membrane bound cytoplasmic
organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts
➢​Compartmentalisation allows the interior of the organelles to
have separate conditions to the cytoplasm of the cells
➢​Advantages:
➔​Ability to create higher concentration of certain substance
within the organelles
➔​Ability to separate toxins and potentially damaging
substances from the rest of the cell. An example is,
hydrolytic enzymes can be stored in structure called
lysosomes, away from the cell cytoplasm
➔​Control over conditions inside organelles to maintain the
optimal conditions for the enzymes that function in those
parts of the cell
●​ Eukaryotic cell structure
➢​Most of the eukaryotic cells contain:
➔​Plasma membrane - separates the cell’s interior from its
external environment and controls what can enter and exit
the cell.
➔​Cytoplasm - water based jelly like fluid that fills the cell,
suspends ions, organic molecules, organelles and
ribosomes, and is the site of metabolic reactions.
➔​Mitochondria - double membrane bound organelles that
converts glucose into ATP (cell’s energy currency) in the
process of respiration
➔​80S ribosomes - where translation (protein synthesis)
occurs, Both attached and free floating eukaryotic
ribosomes are larger and have a higher mass than
prokaryotic ribosomes.
➔​Nucleus - contains the DNA which is associated with
histone proteins and is organized into chromosomes. The
nucleus contains nucleolus, which are involved in the
production of ribosomes. The nucleus has a double
membrane which contains pores through which certain
molecules can pass, including glucose, RNA and ions.
➔​Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - produces and store lipids
(including steroids)
➔​Rough endoplasmic reticulum - has ribosomes attached to
its surface which produces proteins that usually destined
for use outside the cell
➔​Golgi apparatus - processes and packages proteins which
are then released in golgi vesicles
➔​Vesicles - small sac that transports and releases substance
produced within the cell by fusing with the cell
membrane
 ➔​Vacuole - helps to maintain that osmotic balance of the
cell. Also me be used to store substance and sometimes
has hydrolytic functions similar to lysosomes
➔​Cytoskeleton - a system of protein fibers called
microtubules and microfilaments. It helps to hold
organelles in place and maintain the structure and shape
of the cell.
A2.2.7 Processes of Life in Unicellular Organisms
➢​All prokaryotic cells and some eukaryotic cells are unicellular
➢​Unicellular organisms have a body composed of only one cell
➢​Unicellular organisms will be capable of carrying out all of the eight
life processes:
➔​Metabolism - chemical reactions that take place within the
cell(s) of an organism
➔​Response to stimuli - reacting to changes in the external
environment
➔​Homeostasis - the maintenance of the constant internal
conditions despite changes in the external environment
➔​Movement - living things have some control over their place
and position
➔​Growth - cells can increase in size over a time period. In
multicellular organisms, growth can also refer to an increase in
the number of cells that make up an organism.
➔​Reproduction - the production of offspring and can be sexual or
asexual
➔​Excretion - the removal of metabolic waste products
➔​Nutrition - the intake or production of nutrients. Heterotrophic
organisms obtain their nutrients from the external environments,
 While autotrophic organisms are able to produce nutrients from
inorganic material.
➢​Example of unicellular organism
➔​Paramecium is a genus of unicellular protozoa. Are less than
0.25 mm in size and are heterotrophs.

➔​Chlamydomonas is a genus of unicellular green algae and is 10

to 30μm in diameter.
 ➔​The difference of how Paramecium and Chlamydomonas carry out
the functions of life:
➔​

Life functions Paramecium Chlamydomonas

Growth As it consumes food, the Paramecium enlarges. Production of organic molecules during
Once it reaches a certain size it will divide into photosynthesis and absorption of minerals causes
two daughter cells the organism to increase in size. Once it reaches a
certain size it will divide into two daughter cells

Movement The wave action of the beating cilia helps to The flagella of the Chlamydomonas rotates, moving
propel Paramecium in response to changes in the organism towards more favorable conditions,
the environment, for example, towards warmer such as higher light intensity
water and away from cool temperatures

Response to Paramecium are able to detect changes in the Chlamydomonas senses light changes in its
stimuli water temperature around them and move in environment using its eyespot and then moves
response to seek warmer temperatures toward a brighter region to increase the rate of
photosynthesis

Homeostasis A constant internal environment is maintained by collecting excess water in the contractile vacuoles
and then expelling it through the plasma membrane. This process is called osmoregulation and
helps Paramecium and Chlamydomonas to maintain their water balance
 Nutrition Paramecium is a heterotroph. It engulfs food Chlamydomonas is an autotroph; it uses its large
particles in vacuoles where digestion takes chloroplast to carry out photosynthesis to produce
place. The soluble products are then absorbed its own food
into the cytoplasm of the cell. It feeds on
microorganisms, such as bacteria, algae and
yeasts

Reproduction It can carry out both sexual and asexual It can carry out both sexual and asexual
reproduction, though the latter is more common. reproduction. When Chlamydomonas reaches a
The cell divides into two daughter cells in a certain size, each cell reproduces, either by binary
process called binary fission (asexual fission or sexual reproduction
reproduction)

Excretion Digested nutrients from the food vacuoles pass It uses the whole surface of its plasma membrane
into the cytoplasm, and the vacuole shrinks. to excrete its waste products
When the vacuole, with its fully digested
contents, reaches the Paramecium's anal pore, it
ruptures, expelling its waste contents to the
environment

A2.2.8-11 Animal, Plant and Fungal Cells

➢​Animal, plant and fungal are all eukaryotic
➢​Animal cell:
➔​Contain centrioles ( are two cylindrical organelles to help
established and organize the microtubules, playing an important
role in cell division)
➔​Lysosomes are also found ( are membrane bound bags of
hydrolytic enzymes that break down and destroy biological
molecules and old cellular organelles. Are found in high
 concentrations in phagocytic white blood cells where they will
fuse with and destroy ingested pathogens)
➔​Some have vacuoles (Smaller than plant cells and animal
vacuoles stores water, nutrients and waste products)
➔​Some contain cilia which is important for the movement of
substances past the cell.
➢​Plant cell:
➔​Contains a cell wall which is made of a polysaccharide called
cellulose. which protects the cell and resists osmotic pressure,
maintaining the shape of the cell.
➔​Some also contain chloroplasts - double membrane bound
organelles that convert light energy into chemical energy in the
process of photosynthesis. It is one of many types of plastid - a
small organelle responsible for manufacturing and storing
chemical energy.
➔​The green color of chloroplasts comes from chlorophyll, the
pigment found within chloroplasts.
➔​Vacuole in plant cells is larger than the ones in animal cells
and have an important role in regulating the osmotic potential
of the cell.
➢​Fungal cell:
➔​Fungal cells have a cell wall but are made out of polysaccharide
called chitin.
➔​Contains large vacuoles which degrade molecules in the cell as
well as acting as a storage site for small molecules like ions.
➔​Contains centrioles for producing and organizing the
cytoskeleton and playing a key role in cell division.
➔​Some are unicellular (like saccharomyces cerevisiae)
➔​Some are multicellular (like mushrooms and toadstools)
 ➔​Fungi is reproduce by process called budding
❖​Budding scar is a crater like ring tissue that forms when a
daughter cell buds from a parent cell. The number of
budding scars on a fungal cell is indicative of how many
times the cell has divided)
➢​Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes
➔​A typical eukaryotic cell do have a single nucleus
➔​Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus
➔​Atypical eukaryotic cells do not have or have abnormal numbers
of cell structures and organelles which are found in other
eukaryotic cells.
➔​Example of anucleate and multinucleate eukaryotic cells:
❖​Skeletal muscle - multinucleated (one single cell
containing many nuclei because the muscle cell has
formed from many smaller myocytes that have fused
together)
❖​Mature red blood cells are anucleate - do not contain a
nucleus. Which means that the cell has greater
hemoglobin capacity and can transport more oxygen.
❖​Normally, the hyphae of fungi contain separates which
separates cellular structures and organelles whilst still
allowing the movement of substances between cells.
Aseptate hyphae in fungi do not have the cellular
partitions that are normally present which causes them to
have many nuclei in a single cellular unit and can be
thought of as multinucleated.
❖​Sieve tube elements in the phloem of plants are
anucleate. They also contain very little cytoplasm and few
 organelles. Meaning that there is a very low resistance for
substance moving through a sieve tube element.
A2.2.12-14 Endosymbiosis, Cell Differentiation and the Evolution of
Multicellular Organisms (HL)
➢​Evidence suggests that all eukaryotes evolved from a common
unicellular ancestor around 2.7 billion years ago.
➔​Common ancestor of all eukaryotic organisms had a nucleus and
reproduced sexually
➢​Theory of endosymbiosis argues that eukaryotic organisms evolved
when this common ancestor endocytosed a prokaryotic cell capable of
generating energy from oxygen. Rather than being digested, the cells
remained inside the host cell, carrying out aerobic respiration and
prodded energy to the host cell, evolving into mitochondria.
➢​For some eukaryotes, subsequent endocytosis of prokaryotic cells that
could convert light energy into chemical energy (probably
cyanobacterium) resulted in the evolution of chloroplasts.
➢​Evidence of endosymbiosis:
➔​Both mitochondria and chloroplasts:
❖​Measure 8μm in length, which is the same size as many
prokaryotic organisms
❖​Have double membranes - it is thought that the inner
membrane is formed from the plasma membrane of the
endocytosed prokaryotic cell. And the outer membrane is
thought to have formed from the vesicle in which the cell
was taken up into the ancestor of the eukaryotic organism.
❖​Have naked DNA like found in prokaryotes
❖​Have 70S ribosomes, same as in the prokaryotes rather
than the one in eukaryotes (70S)
 ❖​Divided by binary fission like prokaryotic cells (eukaryotic
cells are deceived by mitosis)
❖​Are susceptible to some antibiotics, compounds that target
prokaryotic structure and metabolic processes
➢​Cell differentiation
➔​All prokaryotic organisms are unicellular
➔​Many fungi, eukaryotic algae, all plant and animals are
multicellular
➔​Different cells have different roles in multicellular organisms
and work together to form tissues and organisms to make
multicellular organisms. These are referred to as specialized
cells meaning that they have a distinct set of structures and
functions.
➔​ To be a specialized cell, differentiation must occur

➔​Cell differentiation involves turning in genes necessary for the

function of the specialized cell and turning which are not
necessary. This regulation of gene expression within the cell
can be controlled by the changes in the environment of the cell.
 ➔​During human development, early embryonic cells are
undifferentiated, which makes them unable to perform any
specific function. As the embryo develops, the genes within the
cell will be turned on or off by changes in the environment of
the cell (like the presence of proteins called growth factors,
causing the cells to differentiate into specialized cell types
such as muscle cells and nerve cells)
➔​Due to the cell differentiation multicellular organisms have a
larger body size and are more complex and adaptable to
changes in their environment.
➢​The evolution of multicellular organism
➔​Scientists believe multicellularity has evolved repeatedly
through a process called cell aggregation.
➔​Cell aggregation is where cells cluster together, more efficiently
obtaining and sharing nutrients and benefiting from group
protection from predators.
➔​Some of the cells within the cluster were thought to have
differentiated to play a more specialized role over time.
A2.2.15 Summary and Key terms
➢​Microscopes are tools for magnifying tiny objects like cells and
organisms. In schools, light microscopes are commonly used,
employing light and lenses for magnification. Techniques like
immunofluorescence and fluorescence tagging are applied in light
microscopy. In contrast, electron microscopes use electrons instead of
light, offering higher-resolution and magnification capabilities.
Techniques such as freeze fracture and cryogenic electron microscopy
are utilized in electron microscopy.
➢​To calculate magnification, divide the size of the image by the size of
the object. Make sure both sizes are in the same units for accurate
calculations.
➢​All cells contain DNA as the genetic material, cytoplasm and a
plasma membrane composed of phospholipids.
➢​8 process that carried out by all living things:
1.​ Homeostasis
2.​ Metabolism
3.​ Nutrition
4.​ Movement
5.​ Excretion
6.​ Growth
7.​ Response to stimuli
8.​ Reproduction
➢​Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus, the DNA is naked and free
in the cytoplasm. Also, they do not contain membrane bound
organelles and the ribosomes are 70S. In addition, a typical
prokaryotic cell also contains a cell wall and plasmid. Some
prokaryotic cells contain a capsule, flagellum and/or pili.
➢​Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, membrane bound organelles and
80S ribosomes. DNA in eukaryotic cells is bound to histone proteins.
Like prokaryotic cells, it contains cytoplasm, plasma membrane and
DNA as the genetic material. A typical eukaryotic cell contains
mitochondria, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuole, and cytoskeleton.
➢​There 3 types of eukaryotic cells, animal, plant and fungi. Animal
cells have centrioles and lysosomes, some animal cells also contain
vacuoles and have cilia. Plant cells have a cell wall and larger
vacuoles compared to animal cells. Some plant cells have
chloroplasts. Fungal cells contain cell walls and large vacuoles (like
plant cells) and have centrioles (like animal cells).
➢​Some eukaryotic cells are atypical. Some may not contain a nucleus,
like red blood cells and phloem sieve tube elements or may be
multinucleate like skeletal muscle cells and aseptate hyphae in fungi.
➢​Theory of endosymbiosis states all eukaryotes evolved from a common
ancestor which had a nucleus and reproduced sexually. Also, it is
thought that the common ancestor endocytosed a prokaryotic cell
capable of generating energy from oxygen, which enabled it into the
mitochondria. Some also endocytosed a prokaryotic cell which could
convert light energy into chemical energy which results in the
evolution of chloroplasts. The evidence of the theory supporting
includes mitochondria and chloroplast both having double membrane,
being roughly the same size a bacterium, contain 70S ribosomes,
dividing by binary fission, having naked, circular DNA and being
susceptible to antibiotics.
➢​Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes specialized
to carry out a particular function. It involves the turning on of genes
necessary for the function and off the genes which are not necessary.
The regulation of genes can be controlled by changes in the
environment of the cell. Cell differentiation has allowed for the
development of multicellularity, which is thought to have evolved
repeatedly.
A2.3 Viruses
no k
 Cell Compartmentalization and Specialization
(B2.2-2.3)

Compartmentalization

Compartmentalisation in cells refers to the organization of different functions and processes

within specific areas or structures within the cell that are separated by plasma membranes
(organelle). Compartmentalisation allows for the development of specialized cell structures such
as the chloroplasts and mitochondria.

Why compartmentalize?

Compartmentalisation allows cells to work more effectively than they would be able to without
compartments. Compartmentalisation allows specific reactions to occur in specific places, i.e the
cell can separate chemical reactions and other cellular processes. This allows the cell to increase
the rate of chemical reactions.

Ex.
The metabolic reactions of catabolism (or breaking substances down) must be separated from the
metabolic reactions of anabolism (or building new substances). This is done through the use of
phagocytic vacuoles to isolate the enzymes used in breaking down waste, which can be harmful
to other areas of the cell. Additionally, using lysosomes and phagocytic vacuoles, the cell can use
the required enzymes in a smaller space. This allows a more efficient reaction as the enzymes are
in a higher concentration. Specialized structures such as lysosomes are only possible with
compartmentalisation.

Organelles

Organelles can be found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, but membrane-bound
organelles are only found in eukaryotic cells. Membrane-bound organelles are examples of
compartmentalisation in cells.

Compartmentalized Organelle in Animal cells

Nucleus - surrounded in a double membrane, the nucleus contains the DNA, which is associated
with histone proteins and is organized into chromosomes. The nucleus contains the nucleolus,
which is involved in the production of ribosomes.
 Double Membrane - also called the nuclear envelope, the main function of the double
membrane is as a barrier between the genetic material inside the nucleus and the rest of
the cell. DNA is highly sensitive to changes in the environment, so the double membrane
provides a protective barrier to prevent damage to DNA.

Inner Membrane - controls the entry and exit of signaling molecules and transcription
factors, which are critical components in the regulation of gene expression

-​ Gene Expression - is the process by which the information in DNA is translated

into proteins

-​ Molecules enter and exit through the nuclear pores of the inner membrane.

Outer Membrane - the outer membrane has ribosomes attached to it and is continuous,
joined with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosomes - the ribosome is the site of polypeptide synthesis (protein assembly) within
the cell and are composed of protein (provides stability) and ribosomal RNA (responsible
for catalytic activity). Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger in size (80S) compared to
prokaryotic ribosomes (70S). In eukaryotes, ribosomes can either be located freely within
the cytosol or embedded within the rough endoplasmic reticulum

-​ Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use within the cytosol (i.e. intracellular
proteins)

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - contains ribosomes, which produce proteins that are usually
destined for use outside the cell

Ribosomes embedded within the rough ER synthesizes proteins that will be packaged
into vesicles and transported to other organelles. If the vesicles are transported to the
Golgi apparatus, then the proteins will be secreted from the cell for extracellular use

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - produces and stores lipids, including steroids. It is also
involved in detoxification

Golgi Apparatus - processes and packages proteins, which are then released in Golgi vesicles
Vesicles - a small sac that modifies and assists in the transport of proteins and other substances
produced by the cell by fusing with various membranes in the cell

Lysosomes - membrane-bound compartments inside a cell containing enzymes which can break
down cellular components

80s Ribosomes - where translation (protein synthesis) occurs

Etc. Organelles

Non Compartmentalized Organelle

Cytoskeleton - is a network of proteins that provides shape and allows for movement of
molecules around the cell. This is not considered to be an organelle because the proteins are not
enclosed by a membrane and are not involved in metabolic processes like other organelles.

Cell Wall - protects against mechanical stresses and provides structural support. It is not
considered to be an organelle because it is not surrounded by a membrane and, like the
cytoskeleton, is not involved in metabolic processes.

Cytoplasm - is a matrix that surrounds the organelles and other structures in the cell. It is not a
discrete structure with a specific function. Still, it is essential for the cell’s survival as it contains
all the organelles and structures of the cell.

Mitochondria

-​ The mitochondria’s main function is to produce ATP through the breakdown of

molecules, namely, glucose

-​ Mitochondria contain two membranes, an inner and an outer membrane. The outer
membrane is permeable to many small molecules and ions
 -​ It contains transport proteins that assist in moving larger molecules into the mitochondria.
The inner membrane is highly folded, and forms structures called cristae.

-​ The cristae increase the surface area which allows more of the enzymes needed for ATP
production to be present on the membranes. The chemical reactions that occur on this
membrane are vital for producing ATP in cell respiration. This adaptation also increases
the efficiency and speed of cell respiration by increasing the number of enzymes
available for the various reactions

Chloroplast

-​ The chloroplast contains three distinct membranes: the outer membrane, the inner
membrane and thylakoid membranes. This creates three distinct compartmentalized
areas: the intermembrane space, the stroma and the thylakoid space.

-​ The thylakoid membranes form thylakoids, which look like stacked pancakes, and are
where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place.

-​ Photosystems on the thylakoid membranes absorb light energy and use that
energy to generate ATP to power photosynthesis.
 -​ The thylakoid space is another example of compartmentalisation being used to
separate potentially damaging chemicals as some of the molecules involved are
dangerous to other parts of the cell

-​ The disk-like structure of the thylakoid maximizes surface area and increases the
amount of chlorophyll and other enzymes on the thylakoid membranes. The more
chlorophyll and enzymes, the faster the rate of photosynthesis.

Mitosis/Meiosis

During cell division, the nuclear envelope breaks down to allow for the separation of
chromosomes. However, after mitosis and meiosis is complete, the nuclear membranes must
reassemble to enclose the newly formed nuclei. This process is initiated by the formation of
small membrane-bound vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum. These vesicles contain
proteins and lipids that are specific to the nuclear membrane and initially bind to the
chromosome. The vesicles then join together surrounding the chromosomes. Finally, they fuse
together to form the double membrane of the nucleus with the chromosomes inside. This process
is critical for maintaining the integrity of
the genetic material within the nucleus
and for ensuring that essential cellular
processes can occur.
Proteins and Protein Transportation

Ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and vesicles play a key role in moving
proteins around the cell. These are all different ways a protein moves around the cell based on
where it needs to go. In some specialized cells, the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus
can make up a large amount of the total plasma membrane found in the cell. Vesicles can form
from many different types of plasma membranes but can only develop when a specific need
applies.

Bound and Free Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate the mRNA from the nucleus into proteins. Ribosomes can be bound or free.
If the ribosome is joined to the ER, it is referred to as a bound ribosome, and the endoplasmic
reticulum is referred to as the rough ER (RER). If there are no ribosomes on the surface of the
ER, it is referred to as smooth ER (SER). If the ribosome is located in the cytoplasm, it is
referred to as a free ribosome. Structurally and functionally, they are the same. Only their
location is different.

Bound - the ribosome is bound to the cytosolic side of the RER and the proteins that it produces
end up inside the RER. These proteins will then be exported for use outside of the cell. As most
cells in organisms produce proteins for use in the body, bound ribosomes tend to be more
numerous in the cell than free ribosomes
-​ The mRNA that codes for proteins that need to be exported outside of the cell is
transcribed in the nucleus with an ER signal sequence. When joined with a ribosome, this
signal directs the ribosome towards the ER membrane.

Free - make proteins that remain inside the cell’s cytoplasm and the proteins are used inside the
cell
-​ Proteins for use inside the cell do not have this ER signal sequence in their mRNA. This
allows the cell to direct proteins to the correct locations, which will depend on the
protein’s function.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticullum

The RER is a system of interconnected membranes that forms a series of flattened sacs and
tubes. The inside of these flattened sacs is referred to as the ER lumen. It is named ‘rough’ due to
its rough appearance caused by the presence of ribosomes attached to the cytosolic side of the
ER membrane. The RER is involved in several vital functions within the cell, including protein
synthesis and modification.
 -​ When ribosomes attached to the RER produce proteins, these proteins are immediately
transported into the lumen for further processing and modification

-​ The RER has a variety of enzymes that modify the newly synthesized proteins.

Modifications can include:

-​ adding carbohydrates (to form a glycoprotein)

-​ adding phosphate groups and assisting in folding

After modification, the proteins are transported by vesicles to the Golgi apparatus for further
processing. This transport is done through a process similar to endocytosis. A piece of the RER
membrane, with the protein inside, breaks off the RER membrane to form a vesicle. Instead of
leaving the cell, as would happen in endocytosis, the vesicle travels to the Golgi apparatus.

​
Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that are organised into cis,
medial, and trans compartments. The cis compartment receives newly modified proteins from the
RER. In this case, the vesicle fuses with the cis compartment membrane and releases the protein
inside the Golgi apparatus.

The Golgi apparatus sorts proteins based on their final destination, usually into lysosomes,
plasma membrane or vesicles for export outside of the cell.

Proteins destined for use within the cell, such as lysosomes, are transported to the medial
compartment, where they undergo further modification before being sent to their final
destination.

Proteins destined for export outside of the cell are transported to the trans compartment, where
they are packaged into vesicles for secretion. Vesicle formation on the Golgi apparatus is similar
to how vesicles were formed on the RER.

Vesicles

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound cell structures that play a key role in cellular processes such
as the transport and storage of materials. They act as delivery trucks, transporting and releasing
proteins, lipids and RNA from one part of the cell to another. Vesicles can also act as storage
compartments, holding and isolating substances until they are needed. Four common examples of
vesicles are:

-​ Transport vesicles: these vesicles transport materials from one part of the cell to another.
An example is the transport of proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the
Golgi apparatus
-​
-​ Secretory vesicles: these vesicles store and transport molecules to be secreted outside the
cell, such as hormones, neurotransmitters and digestive enzymes
-​
-​ Lysosomes: these vesicles contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down
macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. They play a key role in the
degradation of cellular waste products and in removing damaged or aged organelles
-​
-​ Peroxisomes: these vesicles are similar to lysosomes but have a different set of enzymes
that are involved in the detoxification of harmful compounds and lipid metabolism
Clathrin

Clathrin is a protein that plays an important, but not fully understood, role in the formation of
vesicles in cells. Clathrin brings together the cytoskeleton and other proteins needed for the
budding and scission of vesicles from the plasma membrane and from the membranes of
intracellular organelles. Clathrin-coated vesicles are involved in a wide range of cellular
processes, including:

-​ Endocytosis
-​ Phagocytosis
-​ Transport vesicles from golgi apparatus to plasma membrane
-​ Formation of lysosomes

Clathrin forms a cage-like structure through the connection of multiple clathrin molecules around
the area of a membrane about to become a vesicle. As the membrane starts to invaginate, clathrin
surrounds the invagination and forms a clathrin-coated pit. This coated pit acts as a scaffold for
the formation of the vesicle. It brings together the necessary molecules needed to shape and
pinch off a piece of the membrane to form a vesicle. Once the vesicle has formed, the clathrin
coat breaks down, through hydrolysis, back into individual pieces.
Compartmentalization Summary

-​ Organelles are specialized structures in cells with specific functions.

-​ Compartmentalisation allows for the development of specialized cell structures.

-​ Ribosomes are organelles, but the cytoskeleton, cell wall and cytoplasm are not
considered organelles.

-​ The mitochondria and chloroplasts are organelles with highly folded membranes that
increase their surface area, allowing for more efficient production of ATP and glucose
through cellular respiration and photosynthesis, respectively.
-​ The compartmentalisation of molecules in these organelles allows for the concentration
of reactants and the separation of potentially damaging chemicals, leading to maximised
efficiency.

-​ The nucleus has a double membrane that serves as a protective barrier for the genetic
material and regulates the entry and exit of molecules critical for gene expression.
-​ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of interconnected membranes involved in
protein synthesis and modification.

-​ The rough ER has attached ribosomes and produces proteins for export outside the cell,
while free ribosomes produces proteins for use inside the cell.

-​ Vesicles are small membrane-bound structures that transport and store materials in the
cell, including proteins, lipids and RNA, and clathrin plays a key role in the formation of
vesicles.