2010

CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY

FLAT ROOFS
Author : SERGIU NEGHINA
Coordinator : Prof. JOÃO RAMÔA CORREIA
TABLE OF CONTENTS

[ ] INTRODUCTION ………………………………………….….pg.3
[2] ROOFS TYPOLOGY AND DESIGN ……………………..pg.3
[ ] DESIGN CONCERNING CLIMATE ……………………..pg.4
[ ] FLAT ROOFS ……………………………………………….…..pg.5
[ ] FLAT ROOFS BUILDING METHODS ………………..…pg.5
[6] TYPES OF FLAT ROOFS DEPENDING ON THE
COVERING LAYERS …………………………………….…pg.6
[ ] FLAT ROOF REHABILITATION …………………..…….pg.11
[ ] REPAIRING NEWER FLAT ROOFS …………..……….pg.11
[ ] CONCLUSION …………………………………………………pg.13
[ ] REFERRENCES ………………………………………………pg.13

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[1] INTRODUCTION

The roof is probably the most important component of the building envelope separating the interior and the
exterior environments of a building. It serves as the outer upper structure to protect the indoor environment
as well as to facilitate its climate control. Normally, the most important role the roof plays is to stop rain, wind
a d e essi e heat, ut it’s role a ha ge depe di g of it’s use.

[2] ROOFS TYPOLOGY AND DESIGN

Roof designs have changed over the years reflecting a general trend towards cost savings, efficiency, and ease
of installation. Victorian era mansard slate roofs, with geometric patterns of multicolored titles, are perhaps
the most artistic and difficult roofs to build (and fix).
Picture 1 : Roof types – adopted from [1]

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With modern roofs, the major cost repair and replacement is labor. Older homes with slate roofs have the
dual expense of labor and material. Sometimes homeowners who need to replace a slate roof will opt for
asphalt shingle replacement, because the price of new slate roofing can be as much as 10 times that of asphalt
shingles.

Roofs can be pitched at almost any angle, from nearly flat to almost vertical. While a roofs pitch is mostly a
matter of design, the roofing materials that can be used are beholden to the pitch, if they are to shed water,
snow, and debris. Flat roofs cannot be covered with asphalt shingles; mansard roofs cannot be made with
built-in roofing.

[3] DESIGN CONCERNING CLIMATE

Climate and weather patterns are the primary concerns for the general design of the roof. A flat roof, for
instance, is impractical in a part of the country with a great deal of snow or rain – that’s h houses i e
England generally have sleepy pitched roofs.

The type of roofing material needed to need weather conditions and the slope of the roof are secondary
concerns. Clay tile roofs, for example, look beautiful on Spanish-style homes in the Southwest. However, clay
tile does not perform very well in colder climates, where ice an snow can back up into the tiles and cause roof
damage. A slate roof with a steep pitch, on the other hand, performs very well in cold climates, but may not
shed heat very well in hot climates.

Seasonal weather should also be taken into account when choosing a color for your roofing material. (example
in Picture 2 ). Asphalt shingles, for example, come in a variety of colors, from the white to pitch black, with
shades of gray, green and red also available. As you would guess, a black roof pitched at a low angle on a
house in Florida is not the brightest idea for keeping a house cool. In hot climates, while shingles, Spanish tiles,
and wood shakes or shingles will help defle t the su ’s heat. I old li ates, slate a d dark asphalt shi gles
ill a sor the su ’s heat. Picture 2 : Weather implication in roof Design.

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[4] FLAT ROOFS

Flat roofs are ’t a tually flat, but must slope to drain water or manufactures will not guarantee their products.
The actual slope depends on the application, but most manufacturers recommend ¼ inc. per ft. the slope may
be achieved with the framing of the roof or with tapered insulation. Water is usually contained at the edges of
a flat roof with a curb or a wall and directed to a central drain or scupper at the edge of the roof. A continuous
gutter at the edge of a flat roof can also collect water.

The selection of an appropriate roofing system for a flat roof can be complicated. As with all roofs, climate is
one factor. But the fact that a flat roof is covered with a large continuous waterproof membrane presents
some special technical problems, such as expansion and contraction. If the effects of foot traffic must also be
considered. For these reasons, a flat roof is best selected by a design professional and constructed by a
reputable roofing contractor.

Old-style flat roofs were built up from as many as five layers of asphalt felt paper, each one sandwiched
between beds of molten tar, applied with the kind of labor-intensive steps builders do ’t ha e the ti e for
today. But if you have an old built-up roof, ou do ’t e too eager to tear it off. First, re o al of so u h
heavy material is a major project. Second, if the roof was applied over a solid frame and covered with gravel
(called ballast) to keep it flat and shielded from sunlight, the surface could last 40 years or more. Third, most
of these flat roofs just do ’t spri g a leak so e here i the iddle of the i terla ed la ers, here it is diffi ult
to make a long-lasting repair. They normally open up along the edges, at seams protected by metal flashing,
which are easier to fix.

[5] FLAT ROOF BUILDING METHODS

There are several application methods for flat roofs.

1. Built-up roof – A built-up roof is composed of several layers of asphalt-impregnated felt interspersed
with coats of hot tar ( bitumen) and capped with gravel. This traditional and effective method is in
widespread use. The application is technical and should be performed by professional roofers.
Warranties range from one to five years.
2. Single-ply roof – A more recent development in roofing, the single-ply roof is less labor intensive and
more elastic than the built-up roof. The single-ply roof is applied as a membrane and glued, weighted
with gravel ballast, or mechanically fastened to the roof. Seams are glued with adhesive or heat sealed.
Single-ply roofs are usually applied to large areas, but, like the built-up roof, can also cover small areas.
Application is technical: warranties start at five years.
3. Liquid-applied roof – Liquid-applied roofing polymerizes from chemicals suspended in volatile solvents
to form a watertight elastometric membrane that adheres to the sheating. Application is usually in
several coats, using brush, roller, or spray. Liquid-applied roofs are practical for small areas, where they
may be applied by an untrained person without specialized tools; their flexibility allows them to be
applied without the cant strips required of built-up roofs.

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[6] TYPES OF FLAT ROOFS DEPENDING ON THE COATINGS

 Polyurethane Foam Roofing is the most energy efficient, waterproof roofing material available for flat
roofs. Coated with white, elastomeric coating, sprayed on polyurethane roofing can last 30–50 years if
properly installed and re-coats are applied at 5 years, 25 years, and every 20 years afterwards. These
roofs provide a thermal barrier that has no air infiltration.
Picture 3 : Example of Foam Spraying on a
Flat Roof.

 Asphalt is an aliphatic compound and in almost all cases a byproduct of the oil industry. Some asphalt
is manufactured from oil as the intended purpose, and this is limited to high quality asphalt produced
for longer lasting asphalt built-up roofs. Asphalt ages through photo-oxidation accelerated by heat. As
it ages, the asphalts melt point rises and there is a loss of plasticizers. As mass is lost, the asphalt
shrinks and forms a surface similar to alligator skin. Asphalt breaks down slowly in water, and the more
exposure the more rapid the degradation. Asphalt also dissolves readily when exposed to oils and
some solvents. There are four types of roofing asphalt. Each type is created by heating and blowing
with oxygen. The longer the process the higher the melt-point of the asphalt. Therefore, Type I asphalt
has characteristics closest to coal tar
and can only be used on dead level
surfaces. Type II, is considered flat and
can be applied to surfaces up to 1/4 in
12 slopes. Type III, is considered to be
"steep" asphalt but is limited to slopes
up to 2 in 12, and Type IV is "special
steep". The drawback is, the longer it
is processed, the shorter the life. Dead
level roofs where Type I asphalt was
used as the flood and gravel adhesive
has performed nearly as well as Coal
Tar. Asphalt roofs are also sustainable
by restoring the lifecycle by making
repairs and recoating with compatible
Picture 4 : Example of an Asphalt Flat Roof.
products. The process can be
repeated as necessary at a significant
cost savings with very little impact on the environment. Asphalt BUR is made up of multiple layers of
reinforcing plies and asphalt forming a redundancy of water proofing layers. The reflectivity of built up
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 roofs depend on the surfacing material used. Gravel is the most common and they are referred to as
asphalt and gravel roofs. Asphalt degradation is a growing concern. UV-rays oxidize the surface of the
asphalt and produces a chalk-like residue. As plasticizers leach out of the asphalt, asphalt built up roofs
becomes brittle. Cracking inevitably follows, allowing water to penetrate the system causing blisters,
cracks and leaks. Compared to other systems, installation of asphalt roofs is energy-intensive (hot
processes typically use LP gas as the heat source), and contributes to atmospheric air pollution (toxic,


and green-house gases are lost from the asphalt during installation).
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer is a synthetic rubber most commonly used in single-ply roofing
because it is readily available and relatively simple to apply. EPDM as a roofing membrane has
advanced significantly over recent years. Problems previously associated with it included moisture gain
under the membrane by vapor drive (occurring on roofs with air conditioned space beneath), and that
EPDM did not like to adhere to itself and seam problems occurred. Simply adding a vapor barrier will
help to resolve vapor drive. Seaming has become simple with the addition of Factory Applied Tape,
resulting in a faster installation. The addition of these tapes has reduced labor by as much as 75%. Rolls
of EPDM are available with Factory Applied Tape pre-applied to one edge. This is an uncured EPDM
tape. The other edge is marked to indicate the appropriate overlap. The Factory Applied Tape is laid
into the primed overlap and rolled with a little pressure. The resulting seam is stronger, and neater.
Any details are taken care of with the appropriate tape. The process involves applying primer with a
brush, allowing it to flash off to touch dry (this takes moments), then applying the tape and rolling to
ensure it is properly bonded. It is a low cost membrane, but when properly applied in appropriate
places, its current warranted life-span has reached 30 years and its expected life-span has reached 50
years and this continues to rise with every year that passes. Typically, there are three installation
methods. Ballasted at 1,000 lbs/sq or 10 lbs/sq.ft. with large round stones. Mechanically attached is
another method and is suitable in some applications where wind velocities are not usually high. Fully
adhered is the most expensive installation method but proves to give the longest performance of the
three methods. The new generation of EPDM, FleeceBack, has been combined with a polyester fleece
backing and fabricated with a patented hot melt adhesive technology which provides consistent bond
strength between the fleece backing and the membrane. This has resulted in largely eliminating
shrinkage of the product, whilst still allowing it to stretch up to 300% and move with the building
through the seasons. The fleece improves puncture and tear resistance considerably and .045 mil
EPDM with a fleece backing is 180% stronger than .060 mil bare EPDM.

Picture 5 : Example of EPFM roofing

membrane applying method.
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 Turbo Seal is a self healing gel like membrane that never cures. Made of 45% recycled tire rubber, it


goes on top of existing tar (asphalt) roofs then capped with a sheet membrane.
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene is a synthetic rubber roof flashing material. It is more popularly known
as Hypalon. This product is usually reinforced and depending upon manufacturer, seams can be heat
welded or adhered with a solvent based adhesive.

Picture 6 : Example of Hypalon roofing system.

 A Bitumen is a term applied to both coal tar pitch and asphalt products. Modified Bitumens were
developed in Europe in the 1970s when Europeans became concerned with the lower performance
standards of roofing asphalt. Modifiers were added to replace the plasticizers that had been removed
by advanced methods in the distillation process. The two most common modifiers are APP (attactic
polypropylene) from Italy and SBS (styrene-butadiene-styrene)from France. The United States started
developing modified bitumen
compounds in the late 1970s and Picture 7 : Example of Bitumen membrane
early 1980s. APP was added to covering system.
asphalt to enhance aging
characteristics and was applied to
polyester, fiberglass, or polyester
and fiberglass membranes to
form a sheet good, cut in
manageable lengths for handling.
Usually applied by heating up the
underside of the roll with a torch
provided a significant fire hazard
and was outlawed in some
municipalities when buildings
caught fire and some burnt to the
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 ground. Another problem developed when a lack of standards allowed some manufacturers to produce
goods with amounts of APP insufficient to enhance the aging characteristics. SBS is used as a modifier
for enhancing substandard asphalt and provides a degree of flexibility much like rubber. It also is
applied to a myriad of carriers and produced as a sheet-good in rolls that can be easily handled. SEBS -
(styrene ethylene butadiene styrene) is a relatively new formulation increasing flexibility of the sheet


and longevity.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) membrane roofing is also known as vinyl roofing. Vinyl is derived from two
simple ingredients: fossil fuel and salt. Petroleum or natural gas is processed to make ethylene, and
salt is subjected to electrolysis to separate out the natural element chlorine. Ethylene and chlorine are
combined to produce ethylene dichloride (EDC), which is further processed into a gas called vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM). In the next step, known as polymerization, the VCM molecule forms chains,
converting the gas into a fine, white powder – vinyl resin – which becomes the basis for the final
process, compounding. In compounding, vinyl resin may be blended with additives such as stabilizers
for durability, plasticizers for flexibility and pigments for color. Thermoplastic PVC roofing is extremely
strong, as its heat-welded seams form a permanent, watertight bond that is stronger than the
membrane itself. PVC resin is modified with plasticizers and UV stabilizers, and reinforced with
fiberglass non-woven mats or polyester woven scrims, for use as a flexible roofing membrane. PVC is,
however, subject to plasticizer migration. (a process by which the plasticizers migrate out of the sheet
causing it to become brittle.) Thus a thicker membrane has a larger reservoir of plasticizer to maintain
flexibility over its lifespan. PVC is often blended with other polymers to add to the performance
capabilities of the original PVC formulation, such as KEE - Keytone Ethylene Ester. Such blends are
referred to as either a CPA - Copolymer Alloy, or a TPA - Tripolymer Alloy. Vinyl roofs are inherently fire
resistant due to their chemical composition and have a broader range of fire ratings over common
substrates. PVC has been sold for commercial roofing use for more than 40 years. Vinyl roofing
membranes long life cycle – and the associated lower energy consumption to both produce the raw
material and process it into useful products – is a significant factor in their sustainability as a building
product. Vinyl roofs provide an
energy-efficient roofing option Picture 8 : PVC membrane roofing.
due to their inherently light
coloring. While the surface of a
black roof can experience a
temperature increase of as much
as 90 degrees under the heat of
the full sun, a white reflective
roof typically increases only 10-
25 degrees Fahrenheit. Vinyl
membranes can also be used in
waterproofing applications for
roofing. This is a common
technique used in association
with green, or planted, roofs.

 Keytone Ethylene Ester is much like PVC membrane roofing in many of its physical characteristics and
appearance. However, some of its chemical characteristics are an improvement over the traditional
PVC. For example, KEE has little or no plasticizer migration over time far increasing its lifespan over
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 that of traditional PVC. This is the reason for several CPA and TPA blends by various manufacturers.
KEE is more popularly known as Evaloy.

 Thermoplastic Polyolefin single-ply roofing. This roofing material can be fully adhered, mechanically
fastened, or ballasted. TPO seam strengths are reported to be three to four times higher than EPDM
roofing systems. This is a popular choice for "Green" building. It is available in white, grey, and black.
Using white roof material helps reduce the "heat island effect" and solar heat gain in the building.
However, TPO has changed formulations over the years and each manufacturer has its own mix of
"polyolefins" (plastics.) This means that TPO remains largely unproven in real world applications as its
current formulation exists today.

 Coal Tar Pitch is a known carcinogen, forbidden by code in many areas, and even where permitted it
should be avoided where possible, due to health concerns. In patching existing coal tar roofs, worker
and building occupant exposure should be avoided, or minimized to the maximum extent possible.
Coal Tar fumes are hazardous and provisions must be made during application to prevent fumes from
getting into the building. Workers should wear protective equipment and clothing, and commonly get
higher compensation (Pitch Pay) for exposure to the health risks. Coal Tar is an aromatic hydrocarbon
and a by-product from the coking process of the coal industry. It is historically in abundance where coal
is used in steel manufacturing. It ages very slowly through volatilization and is an excellent
waterproofing and oil resistant product. Roofs are manufactured by heating the coal tar and applying
between layers of coal tar saturated felts. It has limitations to application on dead level or flat roofs
with slopes less than 1/4 in 12. It has a tendency to soften in warm temperatures and "heal" itself. It is
always ballasted with gravel to provide a walking surface. Coal Tar provides an extremely long life cycle
that is sustainable and
renewable. It takes energy Picture 9 : Example of Coal Tar Pitch roof.
to manufacture and to
construct a roof with it but
its proven longevity with
periodic maintenance
provides service for many
years, with ages from 50 to
70 years not uncommon,
with some now performing
for over a century. Coal tar
pitch is often confused with
asphalt, and asphalt with
coal tar pitch. Although they
are both black and both are
melted in a kettle when used
in roofing, that is where the
similarity stops.

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[7] FLAT ROOFS REHABILITATION

Fixing Edge Leaks

Along the edge of a flat roof, water

enters where metal flashing is raised.
Hairline breaks can be sealed with a
liberal coat of roof cement and
reinforcing fabric. Larger and longer
openings need to be reset. After
cleaning out any debris, trowel as much
tar as you can fit under the raised edge
and re-nail the flashing to the roof. Add
a coat of tar on top of the metal and
over the nails, extending it past the
flashing onto the roof a few inches. Then
embed in the tar a layer of fiberglass
roofing tape, and add a final, top coat of
tar.

Picture 10 : Example of important points

[8] REPAIRING NEWER FLAT ROOFS
that need extra attention on a flat foor.
With modern coatings such as modified bitumen, bubbles, punctures, and other openings are easier to fix –
with one caution. The rubbery sheets of these roofs are not joined to each other with tar. They are fused by
heating the material until it begins to melt, making it easy to add a waterproof cover. The old section can be
cleaned, scarified, and the heated to fuse with a patch piece. But because of fire danger, this is best done by a
professional roofer.

Three Common Flat Roofs Problems

1. Too many roofers leap to the ultimate solution for a leaky flat roof: a whole new roof. Sometimes of
ourse, that’s the est ad i e. But i ge eral, do ’t opt for re o al a d repla e e t u til ou take a
shot at fixing spot leaks, particularly when they occur anywhere near a protrusion through the roof
surface. That includes the edges, interior drains (drainage holes in the roof overhang that commence
to down spouts), the perimeter of skylights, chimneys, and plumbing vent pipes.

2. There will be a need of a new roof – if not immediately, then in a year or two- if there are bubbly areas
that compress when you walk on them. They might be the size of your foot or larger. Bubbles indicate
that some of the layers of roofing have delaminated. If you step down and hear the sucking sound of
ater, ou’ll eed the roof u h soo er tha later – there’s ater trapped i side our roof, rotti g
away.

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3. Most flat roofs retain some water in puddles. Standing water can result because the roof was not built
with enough slope or because the building – or even a few supporting joists – have gradually settled
o er the ears. These depressio s a ause pro le s here ater that does ’t i ediatel drai
stands against seams. In the summer, large puddles also can become stagnant. Depressions in modern
flat roofs made of rubber-like sheets can be filled before they begin to leak by bonding on pieces of
new roofing contoured to raise the low spot.

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[9] CONCLUSION

When choosing a roof design remember that flat roofs are the most cost-efficient roof shape as all room
space can be used fully (below and above the roof) and as this roof allows easy revision/placement of solar
panels. They also provide space for outdoor recreational use such as roof gardens. Applying a tough
waterproofing membrane forms the ideal substrate for green roof planting schemes.

[10] REFERRENCES

(1) CREATIVE HOMEOWNER PRESS - Ultimate Guide to Home Repair & Improvement : ROOFING 1.9

(2) ROY CHUDLEY, ROGER GREENO – Construction Technology – Fourth Edition

(3) OTHER INTERNET SOURCES – Wikipedia – Free Encyclopedia

(4) ROY CHUDLEY, ROGER GREENO – Building Construction Handbook – Sixth Edition

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