L OEB CLASS I CAL L IB RARY

POU NDED BY JA MES OEB

L , LL .

ED ITED BY

1T E PA G E C H em )

e
. .
, . . .
,

TE CA PPS
.
, PH D . .
, LL . D .
TW H D ROU SE . . . , r D
. .

L A P O ST
. .
, MA . E . H . W A R M IN G T O N M A R R HIST, . . . SOC .

GAL EN

ON TH E N A T U R A L F A C U LT I ES
 GALEN
ON THE NATU RAL FA CU LT I ES

WI T H AN E N G LI S H T R A NS LA T I O N B Y

A RT H U R J OH N B ROOK , MD . .

LO NDO N
W I L L I A M H E I N E MA N N L T D
'

CA M BR I D G E M A SSA C H U S ET TS
,

H A RV A R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R ESS
 e
F i rs t P ri n t d 1 9 1 6
er e
R p in t d 1 9 2 8 , 1 9 4 7 1 9 5 2
,
 P RE F A C E

T H E t e x t u sed is ( wi t h a few un import an t m odi fi

ca t i ons
) t h a t of K ii h n
( V ol I I )
. as ed i t e
,
d by G e org
He l mr e ich ; Te ubn e L ei pz i g 1 8 93 Th e n um bers
e
r , ,
.

of th e pag e s of Kuhn s d i t ion ar ep rin t ed at t hesi d e

’

of th e G re ek t e x t a p a ra ll e
, l m a rk ( H ) in th e li ne
indi cat ing t he e xact poin t of d ivi sion b e t we en
K ii hn s p ages
’
.

Wor ds in the Engl ish te xt wh i ch a r een close d in

sq uare brackets ar es u pple m en t a ry or e x pl an at ory ;
p ra ct i cally all e x pl an at ions however a r erel eg at e d t o
, ,

t he footno t es or in t r od u ct ion I n th e foo t no t es also

.
, ,

at ten t ion is dr awn t o wor d s whi ch a r eof pa r t i c ul ar

philologi cal interest from t hepo in t of vi ew of m o d ern

m e d i cin e .

I h a ve m ad e t h et ra nsl at ion di re ct l y from t h e

G re ek ; where p as sa ges of spe ci al di ffi cu l t y occu rre d ,

I h a ve b een abl e to co m p a re m y own version wi t h

Lin acr e s Lat i n t ransl at ion ( 1 5 23
) an d t heFren ch
’

ren d e ring of Ch arles Dar e mb e r

g ( 1854 in this
res pe ct I a m a lso pe culi arly fort u n at ei n h a ving ha d
t he h el p of Mr A W P i ck ard Ca m b ri d ge of Balliol
'

. . .

College O xford who mos t kindly wen t t hro u g h t he

, ,
 P R EF A CE
proofs an d m ad e m any v a l u abl e suggestions from the
poin t of view of e xa ct s chol arship .

My b e st t h a nks a r ed u et o t heEdi t ors for th eir

co u rt e sy a n d for t hekin dly in t eres t t hey h ave taken
in the work I h ave also grat efully t o acknowle dge
.

th e re ceipt of mu ch assis t a n c e an d en cou ragemen t

from Sir Willi am Osler R egi u s P rofessor of M edi
,

cine at O x ford an d
, fro m D r J D Com rie firs t
. . .
,

l e ct u rer on t heH is t ory of M e d i cine a t E d inb u rgh

Universi t y P rofe
. ssor D A r cy W Tho m pson of Uni
’

versi t y Coll e g e D un d e e a n d Sir W T This e

e
, ,
l t on . .

D yer l at ed ire
,
ctor of t h R oy al Bo t ani c G ard e ns a t
Ke w h a ve v ery kin d ly h elpe d m e
, t o i d entify severa l
a nim als a n d pl a n t s m en t ione d by G alen .

I ca nno t con clu d e wi t ho ut e x pressing a word of

grat i t ude t o my former biologi cal t e ach ers P rofe ssors ,

Pa t ri ck G e dd es an d J A rt h u r Tho m son
. Th e .

e x perien ce r e a re d on t h e fo u nd at ion of t heir te aching

has gone fa r t o h el p me in interpreting t hegre at
m e d i ca l biol ogist of G ree ce .

I sho u l d b e gl ad t o t hink t h at th e present work

migh t h el p however li t t l e t o h as t en t heco ming
, ,

re u nion b e t ween t h e h u m ani t ies

“ a n d m o d ern bio

logi cal s cien ce their presen t s e p a ration I believe t o

be a ga ins t t h ebest interest of bot h .

A J B . . .

22m) STA T I O NA R Y H OS P I TAL AL D ERS H OT

, .

Ma r ch , 1 9 1 6.
 CO NTE NT S

0 O O O O O O O O 0 0 O O 0 O O 0 0 O O
o 0 0 o 0 O 0 0 0 O 0 0 0

SY N O PS I S OF C H AP T E RS o 0 o 0 o o

BOO K I 0 o 0

BOO K II o o o 0 o o 0

B OO K II I o 0 o o o o
 I NT ROD U CT I ON

IF th e work of Hippo c rat es be ta ken as r e pr c H ip pocn t e

n d 6 1mm
sen t i ng t hefo u n d a t ion u pon wh i ch t h eedifi ceof
a

his t ori ca l G reek m e d i cine was re ared t h en t he, work

of G al e n who l iv e
,
d som e s ix h u n d re d ye ars l at er ,

may be looke d u pon as t h es umm i t or ape x of t he

sa me edifi ce G a l en s m eri t is to h a ve crys t a llise d
.
’

or brough t t o a fo cus all t hebes t work of t heG re e k

m e di ca l s chools whi ch ha d pre ceded his own t i m e .

It is essen t i ally i a t heform of G a l e

_
n ism t h a t G reek
m edi cin e was t ra ns m i t t e d t o aft er a ges .

The an cien t G reeks referre d t he origins of m edi cin e TheBe gin

t o a god A sklepios ( ca ll e d in Lat in A e s cu l a pi u s ) $5 13; ,

t h ereby t e st ify ing to t h ei r a ppre ci at ion of t h et ru ly in Gm

d i v ine fun ct ion of t heh e aling art . The e m bl e m of

A es cul a pi us fam ili ar in me d i cal sym bolis m at t he
,

presen t day was a s t a ff wi t h a s e

, rp e n t coil e d ro u nd
it t h e
,
ani m a l t ypifying wisdo m in general a n d m ore ,

p a rt i c ul a rly t h ewis d om of t h em e d icin e m an wi t h

~
,

h is s e m i m i r ac u l ou s pow e
~
rs o v er lifea n d d e at h .

B y eel l ee
jb e
z r wis e ep e
ntr as s r s a nd ha r ml e
ss as d ov e
s .

ix
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

T he temples of A es cu l api u s were s cattered over

th e a n cien t H elleni c worl d To the m t hesi ck an d .

a il i n g resor t e d i n crowds Th e t re at m en t wh i ch wa s
.
,

in t heh a nds of a n h ere d i t ary pries t hoo d co m bin e d ,

t he best of t h em ethods carried on at o ur pre sen t —day

h e al t h -resort s ou r hy d rop at hi cs s an at ori u m s a n d
, , ,

n u rsing-ho m es Fresh air w at er-cu res m a ss age

.
, , ,

gym n a st i cs psy choth era py an d n at ural me t ho d s in

, ,

ge neral were c hi e fly relie d on .

i
H ppocr ate H ippo crat es
s , th eF
her of M e d i cine ( 5 t h to 4 t h
at

gigt nf t h ece wa s a sso ci at e d wi t h t heA s cl e pi e

t
n t u ries , um
”gum s“ of Cos an isl an d off t heso u t h -west coa s t of A si a
,

M inor n ea r R ho d es H e app aren t ly revi t ali z ed t he

,
.

work of th e h e a l t h -te m pl es whi ch ha d before his ,

t i m e been showing a c er t a in d e cline in vigo u r co u ple d ,

wi t h a correspon d ing e x ce ssive t en d en cy t ow a rd s

sophis t ry an d pries t cra ft .

Ce ls u s s ays : H ipp ocr a t e p rimus q uide m e

“
s Co us x

o mnibus me mo ria dignis a b s t udio s ap ie n t iae dis cip linam

bane se
"
a r a v it H e me ans t h at H ippo crat es firs t ga ve
p .

t h ephysi ci a n an in d epen d ent s t an d ing sep a ra t ing ,

hi m fro m t h ecosmologi ca l spe cul at or H ippo crat es

.

confine d th e m e d i ca l m an t o m e d i cine H e di d wi t h
.

m e d i cal tho u gh t wh at So crat es d id wi t h t hough t in

ge neral —he bro u gh t it down fro m hea ven to ea rt h .
"

H is w at chword was B ack t o N at u re !

A t t hes am e t ime while a ssigning t hephysi ci a n
,

his pos t H ippo crat es woul d n ot l e

, t hi m r e ga rd t h at
post as sa cros a n ct H e set his face aga ins t an y
.

x
 I NT R O D U CTI O N

t en d en cy t o m yst e
ry -m ongering, t o e x cl u siveness to,

sace rd o t a l is m H ewas in fact oppos e d to th e S piri t

e
.
, ,

of t rad e -u ni onism in m e d i cine H is con c rn was r at her

.

wi t h t h e
’ ”
physi ci an s d u t ies t h an h is righ t s .

A t t he d awn of r e cor d e d m e d i cal his t o ry H ippo

cr at es s t ands for t h e fu n da m en t a l a n d pri m a ry
import a n ce o f se eing cle ar l — t h a t is of clinica l obs e
y r

v at io n
. A nd wh at h e observe d was th at t heh um a n
orga ni sm when e x pose d to cert a in a bnorm a l con
d it ion s—c ert ain s t resses —
,

t ends to beh a ve in a ce rt a in
“ ”
way : th at in o t her words e a c h , d ise as e t en d s t o
run a cert a in defini t e c o ur se To h im a dis e as e was
.

essen t i ally a pro cess one an d in d ivisibl e a n d t h u s

, ,

his pract i cal proble m was ess e n t i ally on e of p r ognosis

“ wh t will be t h e n at u ra l course of t his d is e
a as e if
,

l eft t o itself ? He re h e foun d hi m self t o no s ma ll

e x t en t in opposi t ion wi t h th e t e ach ing of the neigh
bou ri n g m e d i ca l s ch ool of Cni d u s w h ere a more,

s t at i c vi ew-po in t l a id spe ci al emph asis u pon t he

minu t i a e of diagnosis .

Observ at ion t a u ght H ippo cr at es to pl ace um ~

boun d ed fa i t h in t here cu p e rat ive powers of t he

living org anism —in wh at w e some t i m es ca ll nowa
d ays t h ev is me dica t r ix Na t u rae H is obse rv a t ion
.

“
was t h at even wi t h a very consi d era bl e ah

norm al i t y of envi ron m en t a l s t ress t h eorganism ,

in t hel a rge m ajori t y of ca ses m an ages even t ually

,

by it s own inh eren t powers t o a dj u s t i t self t o t he

new condi t ions .
“
Me re ly give N at u re a ch an ce ”
,

sa i d t h efat h e r of m ed i cin ein e ffe c t ,

“ a n d m os t

11 1
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

dise ase s will cu re th e m selves A nd a ccord ingly

.

“
his t re atment was m ainly di re cted t ow a rds gi v in g
"
N at u re a ch an ce .

H is keen sense of t hesoli da ri t y ( or rat h er of ,

t hecons t a n t in t erpl ay ) be t ween t heorga ni s m an d

it s environ m en t ( t he“ condi t ions to whi ch it is
“
e x posed ) is inst an ced in his book A irs W aters , , ,
”
an d P l aces A s we re cognise i n our popu la r
.
,

“
everyd ay psy chology t h at it t akes t wo to m ake ,

a
q u a rrel ,
so H ippo crat es re cognise d th at i n
p at hology it takes two ( orga nism a n d environ m en t )
,

t o m ak e a d ise a se .

A s a n ou t s t an ding e xam pl e of his power of

c lini ca l observ at ion we m a
y re cal l t he f acies Hip
ocr a t ica a n a ccura t e s t u dy of t h e co u nten a n c e of
p ,

a dying m an .

H is ide als for t heprofession ar ee m bod ied in

t e Hippo crat i c o a t h
h “
.

An a t omy . I m press e d by t his vi e w of th e orga nism as a

u ni t y t he H ippo crat i c s chool t en d e
, d in so m e
d egre e t o ove rlook t h e i m port an ce of its con
s t it ue nt
p ar ts Th e b a l a n ce was r e
.
-a dj u st e d l at er
on by t hel abo u rs of t he a n at o m i ca l s chool o f
A l e xan d ri a wh i ch u n d e
, r t he ae gis of t he e
, n

lighten e d P t ole m ies a rose in t he 3 r d cent u ry

,

a c . Two pro m inen t e x ponen t s of a n at omy b e

longing t o t h i s s chool we r eH e rophil u s a n d Era si
s t rat u s t hel at t e
,
r of who m we sh al l fr e q u en t ly m e et
w i t h in t hefollowing p ag e s (v p 95 cl . .

Xll
 I NT R O D U CT I O N

A ft er th ed e t h of
a s t er t heH ippo crat i c Th e
th eM a
E mp i e
, _

s chool t en d ed a s so oft en h a ppens W i t h t hebes t

ir s .

of cu l t u ral m ov e m en t s t o show signs i tself of

,

d i m inishing vi t ali t y : t h el ette r bega n t o obs cu re

an d h am per t heS piri t Theco m p a ra t ively s ma l l
.

e le m en t of t h eory wh i ch e x is t ed in t h e H ip
o cra t ic physiology was m ad e t h egro u n d work of a
p
so m ewh at over el borat e
- a
“
d sys t e m A ga ins t t h i s .

t en d en cy on t h e p a rt of t h e D ogm a t i c
“ ”
or
”
R at ion alis t s chool t here a rose also at A l e x a nd ri a
, ,

t hese ct of t h eE m piri cis t s t he

“
I t is n ot
. y ,

sa i d
,
“
t heca use b u t t h ecu re of d ise ases t h at
con ce rns us ; n ot how we di ges t b u t wh at is ,
”
d iges t ible .

Horace s ai d Gr ae
“
cia ca ta
p f er um v ict or em G ek
Med in e
r
e
ce P ol i t i ca l d o mi n at i on t he o ccu p at i on of i R m e
” ic

p zt
.
, n o .

t erri t ory by a r m i e s d oe s not n e ce

'

,
ssa rily m e an rea l
conq u est . H orace s sta t e m ent applied t o m e di cin e
’

a s to o t h er bran ch es of cul t u re .

Th e in t rod u cer of G reek m edi cin e into Rome

was A s clepi ad es ( l s t cen t ury A m an of
forcefu l person al i t y an d eq u ipp e , d wi t h a fu lly
d eveloped philosophi c syste m of he a l t h a n d d ise as e
-

whi ch co m mended i t sel f t o t heR o m a n sa vant s of

t h eday h e soon a t t a ined to th e pinn acl e of pro
,

fe s s ion a l su cc ess in t h eL at in capita l : h e is in d e ed

t o a l l t i m e t he type of t hefashion abl e (a n d so m e
“ ”
wh at faddy ) Wes t -end physi ci an H is sys t e m .

was a -purely m e ch a n is t i c on e being b a s e , d u pon

x ii i
 I NT R O D U CT I O N

th e atomi c do ctrine of L eu cipp u s an d D emo critus ,

whi ch had been co m pl e t e d by Epi cu r u s a n d r e c en t ly

in t ro d u ce d t o t heR o m an p u bli c in Lu cr e t iu s s gre at

'

po e m “
DeRe r um Nat u r a . Th e d isbelief of A s e le
iad e in t h e s elf-m a in t a ining pow e rs of t hel i ving
p s

organism ar ee x posed an d refu t ed at consid e ra ble

l engt h by G al en in t h evolu m e b e fore us .

O ut of th e t e aching of A s cl e pi ad es t h at physio
log i ca l pro cesses d epend u pon t hep a rt i cu l a r way in
wh i ch t he u l t i m at e in d i v is ible m ol e cu les co m e

toge t h er ( i v 1 7? t ra in o v v odcp r ifw 7rp rr wv x e

“
u
' ’ ’
t v wv c m
c

p d r wv r aw dwa O
‘

d w) t h ere w as d evelop ed by his p u pil ,

T li e m is on of La o d i ce a a sys t e m of m e d i cine cha

,

r act e r is ed by t h em o st eng a ging si m pli ci t y bo t h of

d i a gnosis a n d t re atmen t . This s o-call e d M e t hodi c
sys t e m was in t ende d to s t rike a bal a n ce b e twe e n
t h ee x cessive l e aning t o a priorism shown by t he
R at ion alist ( Hippo crat i c) s chool an d t heoppo si t e
ten d en cy of t he E m piri cis t s .
“
A pat hologi cal
th eory we m u st h av e s a i d t h e M e t ho d is t s in
,
”

e ffe ct “ b u t l e
,
t it be si m pl e . Th e y h eld t h at t he
mol e cu l a r grou ps cons t i t u t ing t h e tiss u es were
t r a vers e d by m in u t e ch a nn e “
ls (1 ropar
'

, pores
al l dise ases belonge d t o one or o t her of two
cl asses ; if t he ch ann e l s were const ri ct ed t he
d ise ase was on e of s t as is an d if t hey

w ere d il at e d t h edise a se w as on e of fl ux
Flu x a n d st a sis w ere in d i cat ed respe ct ively by
in cre as ean d diminution of t hen at u ra l se cre t ions ;
xiv
 I N T R O D U CT I O N

t rea tmen t of Opposi t es by opposi t es of sta si s

was —
by m e t h od s ca using d il at a t ion of th e ch annel s an d ,

conve rsely .

W il d as it m ay see m t h is p at h ologi ca l t h eory of

’
,

t heM e t ho d ist s c on t a ine d an e le m en t of t r ut h ; in

v a rio u s g u ises i t has cropp e d u p on ce a n d a ga in at
d i ffe ren t e po chs of m e d i ca l h ist ory ; even t o— day
t h ere a r e p at hologi st s who t end t o d e s cri be cert a i n
cl a sses of di se as e in t er m s of v a so - cons t ri ct ion a n d

vaso -d il at at ion The vi ce of t heM e t hodis t t eaching

.

was t h at it looked on a di se as e t oo m u ch as so m e
t h ing fi x e d an d fini t e an indepe n d en t e nt i o be
, ty t ,

consi d e re d en t ir e ly a p ar t fro m i t s p a rt i cul a r setting .

The M e t h od is t s ill u st rat e for u s t h e t yranny of na me s .

In it s d e fe ct s as in i t s vir t u e s this s chool ha s

a n alogues a t t he resent d a
p y ; we ar eal l a cq u ain t e d
wi t h t h e m e d i ca l man t o wh o m a n am e (s u ch l e t us ,

sa
y as
,
t u berculosis
" “
go u t or in t e
,
“
,
s t in a l a u t o
”
in t o xi cat ion ) s t an ds for an en t i t y on e an d in d i ,

vi sibl e t o be t r eat ed by a defin i t e an d un va ryi ng

,

formul a .

To s u ch an indi vi d u al th e ol d G erm a n sayi ng

Je r ma nn hat a m End e in B is c/ze
de n Tube
r/
ru los e e
is simply—in com prehensibl e .

X
“ “
X
‘ ‘
l
‘ '
4

A ll th e m e d i ca l s ch ools w hi ch I h a ve m en t ione d e
Gal n.

were s t ill hol ding t h eir gro und in t h e2n d cen t u ry

A D
. .wi t h more or l e
, ss popul a r a ccep t an cewh e
n th e ,

gre at Galen m ad e h is entry in t o t heworl d of

Gr a eco- R o m an m e d i cin e .
 I NT R O D UCT I ON

Cl au d ius G al enus was born at P ergam os in A si a

M inor in t hey e ar 1 3 1 A O H is fa t her was one
. .

Nicon a w e
, ll -t o-d o a r chi t e ct of t h at ci t y “ I .

ha d t hegr e at goo d fort u ne s ays Ga l en 1 “ t o

, ,

h a ve a s a fa t her a highly am i abl ej ust goo d and , , ,

benevolen t m an My m o t h e . r on t h eo t her h an d
, ,

poss e sse d a v e ry bad t emper sh e u se d so m e t i m es t o

bi t e h e r serving-m a i d s a n d sh e was perp e
, t u ally
sho u t ing a t m y fa t her a n d q u arrelling wi t h h im
worse t h a n X a n t hippe wi t h So crat es When t h e re .
,

for e I co m p ared t hee xcell e

, n ce of my fat her s ’

d isposi t ion wi t h t hedisgracefu l p a ssions of m y

m o t h er I resol ved t o e m bra c e a n d love t heformer
,

q u ali t i es a n d t o a voi d a n d h at e t hel a t t er

, .

Nicon called h is son I Mi é s wh i ch m e ‘

a /
,
a ns
q uie t ,

p ea ce a ble a n d al t ho u gh
,
t h e physi ci a n e ven t ua lly

t u rne d ou t t o be a m a n of e lev at e d ch a ra ct er it is ,

possibl e t h at his so m e wh a t e x cessive l e a ning t ow ar d s

c on t roversy
( e x e m pl i fi ed in t h e fol l owm
g p a ges
) m a
y
h a ve res u l t ed fro m t hefa ct t h at he w as never q u i t e
a bl e t o t hrow of f t hewors t si d e of t hem atern a l
inheri t a n ce .

H is fa t h er a m an w e
,
ll s chool e d in m at h e m at i cs
a n d ph ilosophy sa w t o it t h at
,
his s on sho u l d n ot
l ack a lib e ral e d ucat ion P ergam os i t self was a n
.

a n cien t cen t re of ci v il is at ion con t aining am ong, ,

o t he r cu l t u re -ins t i t u t ions a libra ry only se con d in

,

i m por t an ce t o th a t of A le xa n d ri a i t s e lf ; it also
con t a ine d a n A scl e p i e
um .

On t he Afi ct ions of t he M ind p 4 1 ( K uh n s ’
1 .
,
 I NT R O D UCT I ON

e xpedi t ion aga inst t heG erm ans wh o a t t h at t ime ,

we re t hre at e ning t he nor t h e rn frontiers of t he

E m pire an d h e wa s a n x io u s t h at his cons u l t in g
,

physi ci a n sho u ld a ccomp a ny him t o th e fron t .

P a t rio t is m in t his sense how e ver see m s t o h a ve

, ,

had no ch a r m s for t heP ergam ene an d h e ple a d e d ,

v igorou sly t o bee x cu se d Even t u ally t h eE m peror

.
,

ga v eh im per m ission t o re m ain at ho m e e n t r u sting ,

t o his ca re t h e yo u ng prin ceCo m m o d us .

Th ere aft er we know li t t l e of G al e n s his t ory ’

b eyon d th e fa ct t h at h e n ow en t e red upon a perio d

o f gre a t li t era ry a ct ivi t y P robably h e die d a bo u t
.

t he e n d of t h e cen t u ry .

G al en wro t e e xt ensively ,
n ot only on a n at o m y ,
physiology ,
an d me
d i cine in G e
neral but also on

ar ew e ll e x e m plified in his m e d i l wri t ings A ca .

c onsi de
r bl e n u m ber of un d oubt edly gen u ine works
a

of his h a ve co m e down to u s Th e fu ll i m por t an ce .

of h is contrib u t ions t o m e d i cine d oes n ot a ppe ar

t o h a ve been re cogni z e d t ill so m e time a ft e r his
de at h
, b u t even t u ally as alre ady poin t e
,
d ou t th e ,

te rm s G al enis m a n d G reek medi cin e be cam e pra e

t i ca lly synonymous .

A few word s m ay be d evo t e d to t hes u bsequen t

h ist ory of his wri t ings .

r t hefin al break -u p of t heR o m an

D u ring an d aft e
Em pire cam e t i m es of con fusion an d of so ci a l r e
x v iii
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

c onst ruct ion whi ch l e ft li t t l e oppor t u ni t y for s cien t ifi c

,

t ho u gh t a n d rese a rch Th e By zan t in e E m pire fr om

.
,

th e 4 t h c en t ury onwa rd s was t hes cene of m u ch in

,

tern al t u rm oil in whi ch t h em ili t a n t act ivi t ies of t h e

,

now St a t e -es t a blish ed Chris t i a n ch u r ch pl ayed a not

in considera bl ep a rt Th e B y za n t ine m e d i ca l s chol ars
.

were a t bes t co m pilers an d a t ypi ca l co m p il er w as

,

Oriba si u s bo dy -physi ci a n t o t heE m p e

,
ror J u li a n
cen t u ry his e x ce ll en rw sis was w ri t t e
( 4 t h ,
t Sy p n

in order to m ak e t h ehuge m a ss of th e G a l eni c

wri t ings av ail abl efor t heo rd i n a ry pract i t ioner .

G reek m e d i cine S pre ad wi t h general G reek cu l t u re Ar a ian

b
nw m c
, ,

t hro u gho u t Syri a , fro m t h e

an d n c e was ca rri e d by
'

t h eN es t ori a ns a pers e
,
cu t ed h er e t i ca l se ct ,
in t o
Persi a ; here it be ca m e im pl ant e d an d
,
h en ce
e ve n t u ally spre ad t o t h e M oh am m e d an world .

Se v er a l of t h eP roph e t s s u ccessors ( s u ch as t h e
'

Ca l i phs H ar u n -al -R ash i d a n d A bd u l -R ah m an I I I )

‘

we r egre at p at rons of G reek l ea rn ing a n d espe ci ally ,

of medi cin e The A rabi a n s chol ars i m bibed A ris

.

t ot l e a n d G al e n wi t h a vi d i t y A pa rt i al assi m il at i on
.
,

how e ver was t h efart hes t st a ge to whi ch t h e

,
y could
a t t a in wi t h th e e xcep t ion of ph a rmacology th e ,

A rabi ans m ad e pract i ca lly no in d ep e n d en t a dd i t ions

t o me d i cine They were ess e
. n t i al ly sys t e m a t i z e rs an d
“
Ave r r ois che il gra n co me nt o f e
"
c o m men t a t ors . o 1

A e rr hoe s w h o mad e t he gre at Comm e n t a ry ( Da n t e )

r hoe
v

I t wa s A e in t he1 2t h ce
.

v r s ( E bn Ros hd ) w h o n t u ry
in t rod u ce d A ris t o t l et o t h eMo h a mme d a n worl d a nd t he
, ,

Comme n t a ry re fe rred t o was on A ris t ot l e

,

.
 ERI TROD U CTI ON

m ay s t and as et ype p
th ar ee
xc n e
l le of th e M osle m
c

sage .

A vi ce
nn a ( Ebn ( l 0t h t o 1 1 t h cen t u ry )
S in a),
is t h efor e m os t n am e in A rabi a n m e d i cine : h is
“
Book of t heCa non in M e di cine wh e n t rans
,

l a t e d in t o Lat in e ven oversh ad ow e

, d t hea u t hori t y
of G al e n hi m self for som e fo u r cen t u ries Of t his .

work t h em e d i cal h ist ori a n Ma x N e u b u rger s ays

“
A vi cenn a a ccord ing t o his ligh t s imp a rted t o
, ,

con t e m por a ry m edi ca l s cien ce t hea ppe a ran ce of

almos t mat h em at i ca l accu racy whil s t t h ear t of
,

t hera peu t i cs a l t ho u gh
, e m piri cis m d id n ot wholly
l ack re cogni t ion was d e d u ce d as a logi ca l se
,

ue n cefro m t h e ore t i cal ( G aleni c an d A ris t o t eli an )

q
"
pre m ises .

l nt r od uo H a ving a rrive d a t s u ch a con d i t ion in t heh an ds

n
of t h eMoli am m e da n s G al en i s m was now d e st i n e
tio of
Ar a b ia n d
e
,

St zt e t o p ass on cem ore t o t heW e st From t h e1 1 t h ce

fi i ‘
v s t, . n
”
t u ry onw a rd s La t in t ransl at ions of t his A rabi an
“

M e d i cine ( being G reek m e d i cine in ori e n t a l t ra p

pings ) bega n t o m ake t h e i r w ay in t o E u rop e; her e
t he y help e d t o u n d er m ine t hea u t hor i t y of t heo n e
me d i cal s chool of n at ive gro wt h wh i ch t heWes t
pro du ced d u ring th e M i d dle A ges—n am ely t he
S chool of Sal e rno .

Blen d ing wi t h t heSchol a st i c ph ilosophy at t he

u niv e rsi t ies of N a ples an d M on t p e llier t het e achings ,

of A rist o t l e an d G al en now a ss u m e d a posi t ion of

s u pr em e a u t h or i t y : fro m t h e ir wor d in m at t er s
'

xx
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

e
s cien ti fi c an d medi cal th ere was no a ppe al
, In .

ref ren ce t o th is period t heP e rgamen e was refe rred

t o in l t e r ti
a m es as t h e “
M edi ca l P ope of t h eMiddl e
"
A ges .

I t was of cou rs e t helogi ca l si de of G al e ni s m

whi ch chie fl y co mm en d e d i t t o t hem e d i a ev al School
me n as t o t he
, ess en t i ally spe cul at ive M osl e ms .

Th e year wh e
1 4 53, n Const a n t i nopl e fell in t o t heTh e
h an d s of t h eTurks is often t a k en as marking t he
,
R m a a“

comm en ce m en t of th e R en as ce n ce A m ong t he
.

ma ny fac t ors whi ch ten d e d t o st i m u l at e an d a wa ken .

m en s m inds d uring t h ese sp acio u s t imes was t het e

'

d is covery of t he G reek cl assi cs whi ch w e ,

re brough t
t o Europe by among o t h e
,
rs t hes chol a rs who fl e d
,

from By z an t i u m Th e A ra bo Schol as t i c ve rsio n s of

.
-

A ris t otl e an d G alen were n ow confron t ed by t h eir

G reek origi n al s A passion for G re
. e k le arn ing was
a roused Th e freshn ess an d tr u t h of t h e
. se ol d
wri t in gs h elpe d t o a wak e n m en t o a r e newed sense
of t h eir own dign i t y an d wor t h an d t o b ra ce t he m
,

in t h eir own s t r u ggl e for s e lf-e x pr ession .

Pro m inent in t his H u ma nis t m ovement w as t h e

English physi cian Tho m as Li n ac r e( c 1 4 60-1 5 24 )
, .

who h aving ga ine d in I t al y a n e x t ra ordi n a ry z ea l for

,

t he New Lea rni ng d e vo t e d t h eres t of h is l ifea ft er

, ,

re t u rning t o Engl and t o t he pro m o t ion of t he

,

lilt er aehuma nior e s a n d espe c i a lly t o m ak ing G al en

,

a cc essibl et o rea d e rs of La t i n Th u s t he De
.

Na t ur a li bus F acu lt at ibus a pp e

”
a red in Lon d on in
 I NT R O D UCT I ON

1 5 23 , an d pre ce d ed a n d followed by several

was
ot he r t ransl at ions all m arke d by m in u t e accu racy
,

a n d el ega nt L at ini t y .

Two n e w p a rt i es now a rose in t he m e d i cal worl d

th e so-call e d G re eks an d t hem ore cons e rv at ive
A rabist s .

Par e
ls
ac us. B ut t h eswing of epen d l m did
th not ce as e
u u

wi t h t he cre at ion of a t he p a rty ; t he

liber l G reek
d a z zl ing v ision of free d o m was to drive some t o a y e t
more an a rchi ca l posi t ion Pa r acel sus who flo u rish e
.
, d
i n t h efirst h a lf of t h el 6t h cen t u ry may be t aken ,

a s t ypifying this e xt r e m is t ten d en cy H is on e cry

.

w sa ,
“
Let us a w ay wi t h al l a u t hori t y wh at soever ,

an d g e
"
t b ack to N at ure ! A t his fi rs t l e ct u re as
professor at t hem e d i ca l s chool of B asl e h e sym
b ol ically burned t he works of Gal en an d of his ch ief
A rabi an e xponent A vi cenn a ,
.

Rem en n co
Bu t th efin
l coll apse of authori t y in medi cine
a

An t mi t
a o co u l d not be bro u gh t abo u t by m ere n eg ativis m
s a. .

I t was th e cons t ru ct ive work of the R en as cen ce

a n at o m ist s p art i cu l arly those of t h eI t ali a n s chool
, ,

wh i ch fin ally bro u gh t G alenism t o t he gro u n d .

Ve s ali u s ( 1 5 1 4 t h em o d ern F at her of A n a

to m y for d isse ct ing h u ma n bo d i e
,
s was fier ce ly ,

a ss a ile d by t h ehos t s of or t h od o xy in cl u ding t h at

,

s t ou t G al enis t his old t e ach er Jacq u es D ubois

,

( J a cob u s Sylvi u s
) V es ali u s h eld on his wa
.
y how ,

ever proving inte

,
r a l ia t h a t G al en had been wrong
, ,

xxii
 I N T R O D U C TI O N

in saying t h at t hei nterventri cul a r sep t u m ot th e

h ea rt was perm e a bl e (of presen t volu m e p
. , .

M i ch a el S erve t u s ( 1 5 09—5 3 ) s u gges t e d t h a t t he

blood in ord e
,
r t o ge t fro m t h erigh t t o t hel eft
side of t hehe a rt m igh t h ave t o pa ss t hro u gh t he
,

l u ngs For his he t erodo x op in ions h e wa s b u rn e d at

.

t he st a ke .

A no t h er l 6t h-cen t u ry anat omist A ndre a Ce , sal p in o ,

is consi dered by t he I t a l i a ns t o h ave been a d is covere r

of th e circu l at ion of t hebloo d before H a rvey ; h e
c ert a inly had a m ore or less cle a r i d e a of t h ecir c u l a

t ion b u t as in t he
, ,
cas e of t he org a ni c evol u t ionis t s

before D a rwin ,
h e fa il e d t o prove his poin t by
con cl u sive demons t ra t ion .

Willi am H ar v e y t he gre at English m an who foun d e d

$2
3;
1

modern e xperimen t al physiology a n d was t h efirs t t o ( 1 57 8—

,

1 66 7)

est a b l ish n ot only t hefact of t hecircu l at ion b u t a lso

t he physi cal l aws govern in g it is co m monly re ckon e
, d
t h eFat her of M o d ern M edi c ine H e ow e
. d his in
te re st in t he move m en t s of t hebloo d t o Fa b ri cio
of A cq u apen d e n t e his t u t or a t P a d ua who d rew his
, ,

a tten t ion t o t h e v alv e s in t heve ins t h u s s u gg e ,

s t in g
t h ei d ea of a c ir cu l a r as opposed to a t o- a nd - fro
mo t ion H a rv e
.
’
y s great generalis at i on b ase d u pon a ,

long seri e s of ex periment s i n v i va was consi d ere , d to

h a ve given t he co u
p d e g r dce t o t heGal e ni c physiology ,

an d h e n cet hrew t e mpora ry d i s cre d i t u po n t h e whol e

sys t em of m e d i cin e a sso ci at e d t h e
re wi t h .

M o d e rn m e d i cine base d u pon a p a ins t aking

,

xx iii
 I NT R O D U CTI ON

rese a rch in t o th e de t a ils of physiologi l fun t ion

ca c ,

had begun .

While we cannot su ffi ci en t ly com m en d t h eres u l t s

of t helong mo d e rn perio d of resea rch -work t o whi ch
th e l abo u rs of t heR e
e
n as cen ce a n at o m is t s from V esa
y form a fi t t ing pr l u de we y e
l i u s t o H a rv e , t by no
me a ns
was so

h u n d re d ye a rs of virt ua l negl e ct : it m ay be t h at h e
will hel p us t o see so m e t hing fund am en t ally i m por
t an t for m e di ca l pract i ce whi ch is beyon d t hepower
ev e n of ou r m i cros copes an d X -rays t o reve a l Whil e .

t he v al u e of his work u n d o u b t ed ly lies m a inly in it s

en abling u s t o envis age one of t hegre at est of t he
e a rly s t eps at ta ine d by m an in medi cal k nowl e dge ,

it a lso has a very defini t ein t rinsi c val u e of it s own .

N o att e m p t can be m ade h ere to det ermine how

m u ch of G a len s work is in t h etr u e sens eof th e
’

word origin al an d how m u ch is drawn from t he

, ,

l a bo u rs of his pre d e cessors I n any case t h e

.
,re is no
do u b t t h at h e was m u ch m ore t h a n a m ere co m pil e r
an d sys t e m at iz er of o t h er men s work : h e was gre at
’

eno u g h t o beabl e n ot m e re ly t o coll e

. ct to d iges t
, ,

an d t o a ssi m il a t ea ll t h e bes t of t he work done before

his t i m eb u t a dding t o t his t h eo ut co meof his own
, ,

obs e rva t ions e x p e

,
ri m e n t s an d re fle ct ions t o presen t
, ,

x x iv
 I NT R O D UCTI ON
“
Wh at n ow is t his N at u re or biol ogi cal prin cipl e
, ,

u pon whi ch G al en l ike H ippo crat e

, s b ases t hewhole ,

of his m e d i cal t e a ching an d whi ch we may add , , ,

is cons t an t ly overlook e d- if in d e ed ever properly

“

a pprehen d e d—b
y m a ny physiologis t s of t hepresen t
d ay By using t his t e rm G a len m e a n t si m ply t h at ,

when we d e al w i t h a l i ving t hing we ar ede a ling ,

rily wi t h ving is n ot ,

e u n de rst oo d

ri t i cise wi t h consi d er
to c

a
m er it
y m a ny of t hem e d i cal an d surgi ca l
spe ci a lis t s of h is t i m e who act ed on t hea ss u m p t ion
,

m ci t if n ot e x pl i ci t at t h e as m e re
( i pli ) t h whol e w ly
t he s u m of it s p ar t s a n d t h at if in a n a iling organis m
, , ,

t hese p a rts were t re at e d e ach in a n d for i t self t h e ,

h e al t h of th e whol e orga nis m could in t h is way be

e ven t u ally res t ore d .

G al en e xpr e sse d t his ide a of t heu n i t y of t h e

orga nism by s aying t h at it was governe d by a P hys ic
or N a t u re hum s fir e
c p St o w e ? 7 6 ( QM ) wi t h whose ,

“ f
a cul t ies or powers it was t h epro v in c e of gb cr t v

OAO La ( physi - ology N a t u re - lore ) o d ea l I w as b e

’
t t
Y
.
,

ca u se Hippo cr at e s had a cle ar sens eof t his prin cipl e

t h at G al e n calle d h im m a s er
t “
G re at es t say t he
.
,

M osle m s “ is A ll ah an d M oh amm e
, ,
d is h is prophe t .

G re at es t s ai d G al e
,
”
n “
is t heP hysis an d H ippo
, ,

crat es is i t s proph e t N ever d id M oh a m m e

. d m or e
z e alo u sly m a in t a in t h eu ni t y of t he G o d he ad t h an
H i ppo crat es an d Galen th e u ni t y of th e organism .

x x vi
 I NT R O D UCT I O N

But we sh all not h ave rea d be fore we dis ove r Gal e

far n c
'
s
mm “
t ha t the t erm P hysiology as u se d by G al en s t an d s
, ,

n ot m erely for wh a t w e u nders t an d by it now ad ays ,

bu t also for a l arge pa rt of P hy sics as we l l This is .

one of t hechief so u rces of confu sion in h is wri t i ngs .

H a vin g graspe d for e x am ple t heuniquen ess of t h e

, ,

proc ess of spe le

cifi c s e ct ion ( BAH) r oi} oix a ov ) by whi ch
’

t he s nou ris h t hemselves b eproceeds to a pply

t i ssu e ,

t his p rin ci ple in e x pl an ation of en t ir ely di fferent

cl asses of ph e no m en a ; t hus h e m ix es it up with t he
physi ca l ph e no m enon of t heat t ra ct ion of t hel od e
s t one for iron of d ry grain for moist u re e
, tc , I t is .

no t ewort hy however in t hese l a tter inst a n ces t h a t

, , ,

he does n ot ven t u re to foll ow out his compa rison t o

it s logi ca l con clusion h e certa inly st ops sho rt of
hinting t h at t helod est one ( l ike a livin g orga n or
t issu e ) as simila t e
: th e me t a l whi ch it h as a t t ra ct e d !

S ett i ng aside however t hes e occas ion al h a lf

, ,

hea rted atte m p t s to a pply his prin ciple of a qbuim s i n

regions wher eit has no n atu ral standin g w e s hall ,

find th at in t h efi el d of biology G a l e n moves wi t h an

assu r an c e bre d of fi r st - h an d e xperien ce .

“
A gain t his
s a biolog iz e physi cs m ay Th e
tte m p t t o
Meh
bes e t th e convers e a ttempt of th e m e
c a n i cal
ch an i ca l P hy i s cian ,

At om ist s chool Th us in A s cl epiad es h e foun d a

.

do u gh t y d efen d er of th e view th a t p hysiology was

“
merely physi cs G a len s irebein g ro u se d h e is
’

.
,

not co n t en t wi t h d riv ing t heene m y out of t h e

biologi ca l ca m p b ut mus t nee d s at t empt also t o
,

X X VI]
 I N T R O D UCTI ON

dislo dge him fro m t h a t of physi cs , in whi ch he ha s

eve ry right to be .

I n defen ce of th e u nive rsal validity of his prin cipl e ,

G al en also t e n d s t o e xcessive disp a ra g e m en t of mor

h ol o ical fa c t o rs wi t n ess h is obj e ct i on t o t h eview
p g
of t hea n at o m ist Era sis t rat us th a t t heca libre of
v essels pl ayed a pa rt in de t ermining t hese cretion
of fl u i d s ( p t h at d ig e
. st i on was ca use d by t h e

m e ch an i cal a ct ion of t he s t o mach w alls (p . an d

dropsy by ind u rat ion of t h eliver ( p

.
.

Whil e co m b at ing t he atomi c e x pl an at ion of physi ca l

pro cess e s G al en of co u rse r e

,
alise d t h a t t her e were
m any of t h ese whi ch coul d only bee x pl ained a c ’

“
cord ing t o wh a t w e sho u l d now call me ch ani ca l
l aws . For e xam ple non -living t hings cou ld b e
,

s u bj e cted to ¢ opd ( p assive m ot ion ) t h ey answere d ,

to t hel a ws of gra vi t y (r a t s 7 i { Maw oia m éoa e v

’
a

p o rr a is
‘
p, . F u rtherm ore G a len
, d id n ot fa il

t o see t h at living t hings a lso were n ot e n t irely

e x e m p t e d fro m t heoperat ion of t hese l a ws ; t hey
t oo m ay b e a t l e a s t p a r t ly s u bj e ct t o gra vi t y ( loo .

a hollo w orga n e x er t s by virt u eof it s ca vi t y

, ,

an a t t ract ion si m il a r t o t h at of d il at ing bellows

as well a s by vir t u e of t h e
,
living t iss u e of i t s w alls ,

a spe cifi ca lly

“ vi t a l or s e le ct ive kin d of at t ra ct ion
( p.

A s a t yp eof ch a ract e ri s t i cally vi t al a ct ion we

m ay t ak e nut ri t ion in whi ch o ccu rs a ph eno m enon
,

x x vii i
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

whi ch G al en ca lls act iv e on (Spa m wfi x imU t S)

mot i ‘

or m or et e chni cally a lt e
, ,
r a t ion
( M o n ols
g
) Th is
active t yp e of mo t ion canno t b e a d e u at ely s t a t ed
q
i n t erms of t hepa sive m ove m es n t s ( gro u pin gs an d
re -gro u pings of s cons t i t u en t par t s acc or d ing t o
) i t
c ert a in e m piri ca l
“
l a ws ”
. A lte rat ion invol ves s e lf
mov e me nt, a self- de te rm in at ion of th e organ ism or
orga ni c pa rt G al e . n d oes n ot a tte m p t t o e x pl ain
t his fu n dam e n t al ch a ract erist i c of a l t e r at ion an
y
fu rt her ; b econ t en t s hi m s e l f wi t h r eferring his
opponen t s t o A ris t o t l e s work on t h e Com pl ete “
’

”
A l t erat ion of Su bs t a n c e ( p .

Th e m ost impor t a n t ch aract eris t i c of t h eP hysi s

or N at u re is i t s r e xm
’
— i t s a rt i s t i c cre a t iven es s In
.

o t h er words the l iving organis m is a cre at ive a rtist

, .

This fe at u r em ay b e observed t ypica lly in it s prim a ry

fun ct ions of g ro wt h an d nut r ition ; t hese ar ede
pen d en t ou t h ec h a ract eris t i c f a cultie s or powe r s ,

by virt u e of whi ch ea ch p a rt d raws t o i t self wh at

is proper or a ppropri at e to it (7 0 ol e iov ) an d rej e ct s
x

wh at is forei g n (r o m ommy ) th ere aft er a ppro ,

p riat in
g or assi m il a t ing t heat t ract e d m a t eri a l ; t his
assi m il at ion is a n e xam pl e of th e a lt e ra t ion ( or q u al i
t at i v e ch ange a lr e
) ad y a ll u d e d t o ; t h u s t he food eat en
is “a
l t ered in t o t he v a rio u s t iss u es of t hebod y e a ch ,

of th ese h a vin g b e en provi d e d by N a t u re wi t h it s

own spe cifi c facu l t i es of at t ract ion an d repulsion .

An yof t h eop era t ions of th e l i vi ng p a r t m aybe Th eT re

e
h
e e
look e
d on in t h r e eways ei t h e sw m
ca t g on s'
r ( a ) as a , a ,

xx i x
 I NT R O D U CTI ON
facu lty, po t enti ality ; ( b) as an ee
py e
’

ta whi
v
’
ch , is t his
86m m; in operat ion ; or ( c) as an épyov , t h
’
eprod u ct

or e ffe ct of t he

W h t pp er t o met o b ee
a a r t in r e
a se mbl n e s be tw e e n c a a c
t heG l e ni l nd t hemo d e
a ca rn vi t lis t i vi e
a ws of He nri a c

Be rgson m y p e rh ps be ll de
a d t he re G l e
a n s it l a u o a
’ ‘

v a

e ret iv e pre se
.

prin ipl 3 x i) o
c e w 1 (
“
r x
i
nt s
no ns c a
n logi e s w i t h l E ol t ion é t r i e bo t h m nife st t he
,

a a
’
v u ir cr a c a
ing q li t t i ve h nge( AA t w - h nge
:
a t ivi t y in pro d
’
c uc ua a c a c
z o o i s, c a

me nt ) in bo t h t her et iv e h nge nno t ben ly s e c d in t o

a c a ca a a

se ri es of s t t i c s t t es bu t is one nd on t in o us I n G l e
,

a a a n a c u a

h o we ver i t o me s t o an e n d w i t h t he de el op me f t he
.
, ,

c nt o v
l wh e res in B e rgson it on t in e s in de fini t e
,

i nd iv id ua a ly as c u

t he eol t ion of l ife Thet h re eas p e lifemay

,

v u ct s of org ni a c
be t ab u l t e
.

d t h us
a

My oa m l v ép y '
e ta l py ov
Work t bed on e Work b e
o ing d on e Work donefi ni he d s

Fu t ur easp et P re n t asp et P s t sp et
.

se
. . ,

c c a a c

St r t u r e
. . .

F n t ion u c uc

Th e
. .

é l n it l A t h in g a v a . .

A h nging w h i ch c a
nno t be u n de r ca

s t o od as um a s

of s t t i c pa rt s ; a

a ons t an t be c

com ing ne ve r ,

s t oppin t
l es t t igt hel p
a

7 is re h e d 011 ac

Be e e e e
.

gs o
rn s
“
t l o B
’
g on
“
p h ilo B g on s
“
o t r s
’
s r s
’
u

l ogi l asp e
”
cact sop h i l sp et look of p hy si l ca a c ca

s ie n e
. .

c c .

Gale
n re
cogni z e
d ret iv e ness x n) i n t h e
( e de el op
“
c a r
’
v v

me nt of t he n d ivi d a l nd i t i n y ) nd in t he
p r t s (on t og e u a s a a

m in t ea n n eof t h e
as ebu t hef il e
c d t o ppr ei t e t her et iv e a a c a c a

eol u t ion of sp ei es ( h y loge ny ) w h i h is of o rs ep r t of

,

c c u a

ss p0 t het e
v c

t he s mepro ce leologis t t hepossib li t e

, , ,

a s (5 i i 0

dp e) of t heP h y sis ar e d t o Be
li mi t e rgs on t h e y eun
.

ar ~
u is ,

XX X
 I NT R OD UCT I ON

Like his m as t er H ippo crat es G al en a ttached G l e a

'
n s
Ne
w
,

fu n da m e n t a l i m port a n c e t o clini cal obse rva t ion

t o t hee v iden ce of t hesenses as t h eindispensa b l e
groundwork of a l l m e d i ca l knowl e dge H e had .

also however
,
a fort e
,
for ra pi d generalisat ion fro m
observat ions an d h is logi ca l pro cl ivi t ies d isposed him
,

li m i t ed G al e n a nd B e rgson ag re ein at t ach ing mos t p ract i ca l

impor t a n ce t o t he m i d dl e gory —t h at of Fu n ct i on
.

ca t e
W h il eit mu s t becon ce de d t h at G al e n following A r is t ot l e
.

had n e ve r se rio u sl y q u e s t ion e d t h efi x it y of s p e ci e s t he

, ,

follo wi ng q u o t a t ion fro m h is work On H a bits ( ch ap ii ) w ill

s h o w t h at hemu s t h a v eat l e as t ha d oc asion a l gli mme
. .

rings c

of ou r mo de rn poin t of v i e w on t hemat t e r Re fe r r ing t o

a sxim il a/ ion he s ay s : J u s t as e ve ry t h ing wee
.

a t or d rink
“

be co me s a lt e re d i n q u al it y so of co u rs e al s o d o es t heal t e
,

ring
fact or i t s e lf be co me re
al t e A cl e a r proof of t he
,

d as

s i mil at ion o f t h ings w h i ch a re be ing nou ri s h e

.

d t o t h a t w h i ch
is no u ris h ing t h e m is t h e ch ang e w h i ch occu rs in pl an t s an d
se ed s ; t h is of t e n goe s so far t h at w h a t is h ig h l y no x i ou s in
one s oil be co me s wh e n t ra nspl n t e d i n to a no t h e r soil r ot
a

me re ly ha rml e ss bu t act ua ll y u s e fu l T h is has be e n l arg e

, ,

ly
pu t t o t het e s t by t h os ew h o compos eme
, .

m oirs o n fa r ming
a n d on p l an t s as a lso b y z ool o gi ca l au t h ors who h a ve
wri t t e n on t hech ange s w h i ch o ccu r accord i ng t o t he
,

cou n t ri e s in wh i ch a ni mal s liv e Sin cet h e re forenot only

is t heno u ris h m e n t al t ere d by t h ec re a t u re nou ris h e
.
, ,

d bu t
t helat t e r i t se lf also u n d e rgoe s someslig h t al t e
,

ra t ion t his
eat ion m t ne ce ssa l y be omemwide r a ble i n t he
.

sl ight al t r us ri c c
cou rseof t ime nd t h u s prop e
a s re
rt i e s u l t ing fro m prolong ed
h bi t mus t omet o beon p wi t h n t r l prope rt i e
,

a c a s ””
ar a u a

G le n f ils t o e et hepossibili t y t h t t he n t r l pro

.

a a s a a u a

pe t iet h e mse lves ori gin t e

»

r s d in t h is w y a a t ivi t i e s wh i h a s ac c
gr d ll y b e meh bi t u l — t h t is t o ”y t h t t hee ffet s of
,

a ua ca a a a sa a c

t re m y be come seon d n t re and so e ve

,

n ur u a a
“
c n t lly a u ua
n t ei t s e
,

a ur lf
The w h ol ep ssa geh owe ver m y becomme n de d t o mod e
.

a rn a
biologis t s —p r t i l rly mig h t nesay t o t h os eb t e
, ,

a cu a ri oo ac
l ogi t w h o h v en t y e t r elis e d how e x t r ordin rily r e
, ,

s s a o a la a a
t i eis t het e
v r m speifi i t y wh e
“ ”
n appl ie
c d t o t he
c su bj et c
m t te
a ir i e
r of t h e ne sc c .
 I NT R O D UCTI ON

pa r t i c u l a rly t o d e d u ct i ve re asoning Ex am pl es of an .

a l m os t E u cl ide a n m e t hod of a rg u m ent m a be fo un d

y
in t h e Na t ur a l F acult ie s a
( g Book I I I ch a p . Whil e . .

t his me t ho d u n d oub t e d ly ga v ehim m u ch h elp in

his se a rch for t r u t h it also n ot u nfre q u en t ly l e
, d him
‘

a s t ra y .This is evi d e n ced by h is a t t e m p t al re ady ,

no t e d t o a pply t hebiologi ca l prin cipl e of t he¢ um s

,

i n physi cs Ch aract e . ris t i c e x a m pl e s of at t em p t s t o

force fa ct s t o fi t pre m ises wi ll be fo u n d in Book I I .

ch ap ix . wh ere our a ut hor d e m ons t rat es t h at yello w

.

“ ”
bil e is virt u ally dry an d also by a pro cess of , ,

e xcl u sion a ssigns t o the sple e

,
n t hefu n ct ion of cl e ar

ing aw ay bl ack bil e St ra nges t of al l is his at t emp t

.

t o prove t h at t he s am eprin ciple of sp e cifi c at t ra ct ion

by whi ch th e u l t i ma t e t iss u es no u ri sh th e m selves

a n d th e l od e a t t ra c t s iron ! acco u n t s for t he
( s t one )
re cep t ion of food i n t o t hes t o m ach of u rine in t o ,

t heki dneys of bile into th e g a ll -bl ad d er a n d of

, ,

se m en in t o t h eu t erus .

These ins t an c es ar egiven however wi t ho u t pre , ,

j u d i ce t o t hesys t em of general is at ion an d de d u ct ion

whi ch in G al en s h an ds oft en prove d e xceedingly
,
’

fru i t ful H e is s ai d t o h av et ri e d to uni t e pro

.
“

fe s s ion al a n d s cien t i fic m e d i cine wi t h a philosoph i c

l ink . H e obj e ct ed however t o su ch e x t re m e

, ,

attemp t s a t si m pli fi cat ion of m e d i ca l s ci e n ce a s t h at

of the M e tho dis t s t o whom d ise ases were isol at e d
'

entities wi t ho u t any rel at ionships in t i m e or sp ace

,

( v
. p
.
p )
xv s u ra . .

H e b a se d m u ch of his p a t holog i cal re asoning u pon

x x xn
 I N T R O D U CTI ON
ot h er wounds A t o t h er t i m es h e visi t e d t he
.

copper - m in es of Cypr u s in se a rch for copp e

.

r, an d
Pal e s t in efor th e r e sin calle d Ba l m of G il e ad .

By in clin a t i on an d t ra ining G alen was t here verse

of a
“
p a r t y -ma n ”
I n t heNa t u ra l F ac ult ie
. s p
( 5 5) .

h e spe a ks of -t heb ane of se ct a ri a n p a r t iz anship ,

h a rd er t r} h e a l t h an any i t ch H e po u rs s co rn
.

u pon t he i gnora n t Era sist r a t e a nd A scl e

a ns
pia
de ans ”
, who a t t e m pt e d t o hi d et heir own in com
e en ce under th e shield of som e gre a t m an s n ame
’

p t

( of p .

Of t h et wo chief obj e ct s of his cens u re in t h e

Nat u r a l F acu lt ie s G al e n de als perh a ps l e
,
ss rigoro u sly
wi t h Erasis t r a t us t h a n wi t h A s cl e pi ad es Erasis t rat u s .

d id a t l e as t re cogniz e t he e x is t en ce of a vi t a l prin cipl e

i n t he orga nis m a lbei t wi t h his eye on t hes t r u ct u re
, , s
whi ch t he s calpel d ispl aye d he t en d e d fre q u e n t ly t o
forge t it Th e res e . a r c hes of t he an a t o m i ca l s chool

of A l e x a n d ri a ha d been n at u r a lly of t h egre a t e st

servi cet o s u rgery but in m e d i cine t h ey so m e t i m e
,
s
had a t enden cy to che ck progress by d ivert ing
at t en t ion from t he whol e t o t h e pa rt .

A no t h er novel con ception fre q u en t ly o ccurring in

G al en s wri t ings is t h at of t he
’

W M e t h ebr e t h i a ,

This wor d is u se d in t wo s en es as m e nin

s i it
p r )
us .
g s ,
a

he inspire d whi h w as d r wn in t o t h e left

( )
1 t ai r, c a

si d eof t heh ert an d t hen ce c rrie d l l over t he

a a a

bo dy by t he rt eri es ; this has not a fe

a w n logi e s a a

wi t h o xygen pa rt i cu l arly as it s
,
t ion in t h et issu e s
ac

xx x iv
 I NT R O D U CT I O N

is at t end e
d wi t h the a ppe a ran c e of th e o- s ca lled
W
‘

being m a de u p of m at t er in t he mos t s u bt l e
i ma gin a bl e s t a t e (Leai r ) This vi t a l prin cipl e be
. .
‘

ca m e resol ve d i n t o t hree kinds : ( a ) wv e fiu ¢ m x 6v a v

or spirit us n a t ur a lis ca rri e

,
d by t h ev e ins an d pre
,

siding over t hes u b cons cious vege t at iv e life ; t his

“
n at u ral spiri t is t h erefore pra ct i cally eq u ival en t
t o t he( pil o t s or nat ure itsel f ( 6) Th e n v e
“ ”
. iiua
i or S irit us v it a lis ; h ere p a r t i cu l a rly is a so u r ce
C w n x c v
p
of err or sin cet heair a lre ady a ll u d e d w a s being
,

ca rried by t he a rt eri es ten d s t o be confu se d wi t h t his

prin cipl e of in di vi d ua li t y or re l at iv ea u t onom y in

t h ec ircul a t o ry ( in clu di n g perh a ps t hev aso m o t or )
, ,

syst e m ( c) Th e m e iina ll/ U XL dV or s pin t us a nima lis

'

. K

ca rri ed by longi t u di na l ca n a ls in t he
( a ni m a
“

nerves t h is corr e spon d s t o t heipux j v .

“‘ ”
Th is vi ew of a vi t a l prin cipl e a s n e cess arily
on s is t in g of m at t er in a finely d ivi d e d fl u i d or
, ,

“
et h e ”
ri c s t ate is not u nkn own even in o ur day .

Belief in t h e fu n dam e nta l i m port a n ce of t h eP ne u ma

forme d t h e b as is of t h et e aching of a not h e r vi t a list
s chool in a n cient G re e cet h at of th e P n e
, u mat i st s .

It t a i l h ere t h ev a r i o u s w ays
ce ss a ry t o d e
n ne Gal e
n an d
Ch e m
is u
t he
in whi ch G alen s vi 6 f t he
’
ti on o

mm
of -
do te s t o t he t e x t of t hepresen t t ra nsl a t ion .

i
l essen t hefor ce of his general physiologi ca l con clu
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

sions t o t hee x t en t th at m igh t be anti cip at e d In .

his Opinion t he e , a t b u lk of th e bloo d t r a vel

wi t h a t o
of i t ,
mixed W i t h i n sp i r e d ai r mov e d in t hes am e
,

“W an g t he a r t er i es ; w he re as w enow Kn ow t hat
al go e s o ut w a rd b t hea rt e ri es an r e t u rns
by tlre i t her case bloo d i s ca r r ie e
”

W A KE e d to t h
t i ss u es by blo od - vess e ls a n d G alen s i d e as of t iss u e
’

' .

,
\
n u t ri t i on were won d e rfu lly sou hd Thei ngen i o u s
.

c ir cul at ion )
th e l e ft v e n

(p . A s will be seen h e was conversan t wi t h

,

t h e a n as t omos e s be t we en t heul t i mat e bran ches oi

art eries a n d veins a l t ho u gh h e i m agined th at t hey
e
,

w re n ot u se d under M
con d i t ions .

G al en not only a m an of gr e
wa s at in t ell e ct u al
gift s b u t one also of s t rong mora l fibre
,
In .

“
his shor t t re at ise Th a t th e best P hysi ci an is also a
P hilosopher h e o u t lines his profession al id e al s It .

is ne cessa ry for t hee ffi cien t he a ler t o be versed in

th e t hr e ebran ch e “
s of pli il OSOphy v iz (a) logic, ,

t he s cien ceof how t o t hink ( 6) p hy sics t h es cien ce

—
,

of wh at is i c of N at ure in t hewi d est sense ;

.
“
.

0) et hics th e s cien ce of wh at to do The amoun t of

( ,
.

t oil wh i ch h e who wish e s t o be a physi ci a n m u st

u n d ergo— fi r st l y in m as t e
,
ring t hework of his pre
de ce ss or s an d a ft erw a r d s in s t udying d ise a se a t firs t

h and—m akes it a bsol u t e ly ne ces sa ry th a t h e s ho ul d

x xx vi
 I NT R O D U CT IO N

possess pe rfe ct self-co t h a t h e should s corn

money an d th e we ak res of t hes e ns es and ,

sho uld l ive l aborious d ays .

R e ad ers of t hefol lowing pa ges will no t i ce th a t

Galen u ses wh at we sho ul d ca ll d is t in ct ly im
mod erat e l ang u a ge t owa rds t hos ewho ven t u red t o
d i ffer fro m t h eviews of his m as t er H ippoc ra t e s
( whi ch were a lso his own
) Th e e .m ploy m en t of s u ch

l ang u age was one of th e few weakn e ss es of his ag e

whi ch h e did n ot t rans cend P ossibly al so his m o t her s
’

chol eri c t e m per m ay h a ve pre d ispo sed h im to it .

Th e fact t oo t h a t his vivise ct ion e x pe ri m en t s ( e

, , g . .

pp 5 9 27 3 ) w e
.
,
re ca rrie d ou t a ppa ren t ly wi t hou t a ny
kin d of a n a est h e t isa t ion being e ve n t ho u gh t of is
abhorr e n t t o the fe elings of t o—day b u t m u st be e , x

ca se d a lso on t h egro u n d th a t ca llo u sness tow a r d s

a nim al s was t h en cus t o m a ry me n h a ving proba bly

,

never t hough t mu ch abou t t hesubj e ct .

G l en
a is a m as t er
of l ngu ge using a highly
a a Gale
n '
s
e e
,

polis hed v a rie t y of A t ti c prose wi t h a pre

G m k St y ‘
c ision whi c h

can be only ve ry i m perfe ct ly repro d u ce d in a no t h er

t ong u e . Ev e ry word h e u ses has an e xact an d

de finite m e an ing a t t a ch e d t o it Tra nsl at ion is
.

pa rt i cu l a rly d i ffi cu l t when a word s t a n d s for a

physiologi ca l con cep t ion whi ch is n ot now h e ld ;
ins t a n ces ar e t he word s a na dos is pr os /be d s an d , ,

r ox lz sis
p p y in
, d i cat ing cert ai n st eps in t h eproc ess
by wh i ch n u t ri m en t is conveye d from t heal i m en ta ry
ca n a l t o t het i ss u e s .

xxx vi i
 I NT R O D UCTI ON
R e ad ers will be surprised t ofind how m any word s
ar e u sed by G al en whi ch th ey would h a ve thought
had b e e n e x pressly co ined to fit m od ern c on ceptions ;

th u s o u r a u t hor e m ploys not merely su ch t erms

as h
p y siolo
gy p ,
h i /aid s at ,p y anas t omos is but also
ro h , ,

ha mna l op oie t ic a na e
,
s t he
sia an d ev en as e
, p t ic! I t is
only fa ir however to rem ark t h a t t hese t e rms
, , ,

pa r t i cul arly t hel as t were not used by G alen in

,

q u i t e t h eir mode rn signifi ca n ce .

To resu m e then Wh at contribu t ion can Gal en

,

bring t o t hea rt of h e al ing at t hepresen t d ay ? I t

wa s n ot surely for no t hing t h at t he
, ,
great P ergam ene
gave l aws t o t hem edi cal worl d for over a t ho u sand
ye a rs
L et us d raw atten t ion on ce more t o
( )
l The high idea l whi ch h e set before the
profession .

( )
2 H is insis t en c e on im m e d i a t e con t a ct wi t h
n a t u re as t h epri ma ry con di t ion for arriving at an
u ndersta n di ng of dise a se ; on th e n ee d for d u e
c onside ra t ion of previo u s a u t hori t ies ; on t h e nee d
a lso for re fle ct ion — for e m ploy m en t of t h emin d s ’

eye (7) Aoyrm) Oe ‘

wpfa ) as an a id to th e physi cal eye .

( )
3 H is essen t i a lly broad ou t look, whi ch oft en
h elped him in t hecomprehension of a pheno m enon
th ro ugh h is knowle d ge of an an alogous pheno m enon
l d of n at ur e
in ano t her f e i
.

x x x viii
 I NT R O D U CT I ON

( )
4 H is keen a ppre cia t ion of t heunit y of t he
organi sm an d of th e in t er-dc e
e
,

hi s rea lisa t ion t h at th e vi t a l pli gg g m n a ( physiolo g i ca l

a n d pa t hologi ca l
) in a l i v in or a ni nl rr be
u nd ers t ood when consi d ered in
e n vi r onn enf fi f his is t h e
i
foun da t ion for th e war t h at G al en w aged d out rance
d

on th e M e t hodist s to whom d ise as es were t hings

,

withou t rel at ion t o anyt hing This d isp ute is u n ~ .

,

fort un a t ely n ot t o u ch ed u po n in t he
, present vol u m e .

Wh at G alen co m ba te d was t het en d en cy famil ia r ,

e nough in ou r own day t o re du ce m edi cin e to t h e

,

scien ce of fin d ing a l abel for e ach pa t i ent an d t h en ,

t re at ing n ot t h e pa tien t b u t t h e l a bel , ( Th is .

t enden cy we m ay rem a rk in pa renthesi s

, is one ,

whi ch is obviously well s u i t ed for th e sta nd ardisbzg

purposes of a St at e medi ca l ser v i c e an d is th erefore ,

one whi ch al l wh o h a ve t h ewea l of the profession

a t h ea rt m u s t m ost j ealo u sly wat ch in t hedi ffi cul t
days t h at l i e a h ea d
) .

( 5) H is rea l isa tion of th e i nappropri ateness an d

in ade q u acy of physi cal formul a e in e xpl a ining physi o
logi cal act i vi t ies Gal en s di sp u tes wi t h A s clepiades
’
.

over r tx r pfirra e xe over t heci v a py a

'
'

iv a cr uipt a r a 7 a
‘ ’
‘ ‘
. . .

'
0 K a i a ui da s dyxoc is b u t a noth er aspe ct of
0 7 01 6 2
x .
,

his qu a rrel wi t h th e M ethod is t s reg a rd ing t hei r

“ ”
pathologi cal uni t s whos e pri m ary c h ara ct eris t ic
,

was j u st t h is sam e dmié a a ( i m pa ssiv e ness t o envi ron

m en t,
uni m p res siona bi l i t y W e h ave of co urs e
x xx ix
 I NT R O D UCT I O N

our P hysi at ri c or l a t ro m e ch a ni cal s choo l at t he

presen t day t o who m s u ch pro cesses a s a bsorption
,

from t hea l imenta ry can al t herespirat ory inter

,

ch a nge of ga ses a n d t he a ct ion of t he ren al

,

epitheli u m a r es u s cep t ibl e of a p u rely physi cal

ex pl an t ion
a
‘ .

( 6) H is q u arrel wi t h t heA n ato m ist s whi ch wa s ,

in e ss en ce t hes am e as th at wi t h t heA to m is t s an d ,

whi ch a rose from h is cl e a r re alis at ion t h at th at

pri m ary an d in d ispens abl e d e sid erat um a v i e
w of t he ,

whole co u ld never be ob t ained by a m ere su mm ation

,

of p a rti al views ; h en ce a l so his s e , nse of the

,

d angers wh i ch wo u ld bese t t h em edi ca l ar t if it wer e

a llowed to fa ll into t h e h an d s of a m ere c row d of
c o m pe t ing spe ci alis t s wi t ho u t a n y orga nising he ad t o

g u i d e t hem .

In t e
r ms of fil t ra t ion , di ffusion , and os mosi s
.
 SY NO P S I S OF CH A P T E RS

BOO K I
CHAP TEB I
Dis t in ct ion be t ween t hee ffe ct s of ( a ) t heorgan i s m s p sy che
’

or so u l ( 6) it p hy is or n a t u re Theau t h or propos e s to
r—t he
s s

co nfin eh i ms e lf t o a consi de rat i o n of t hela t t e

.

ve g et a t iv e— aspect of l ife .

CH AP m 11
fini t ion o f t e
De rms D iffe re n t kin ds of mot ion A l te r at io n
or q u al i t a t iv echa nge R e f u t a t ion of t he
.

Sop h is t s obje
.

’
c
t ion t h a t s u ch ch a ng eis only ppa r e
n t not r e The
.

al a

f o u r f u n d am e n t a l q ua li t i e
s of H ippoc r a t e s ( l at e
.
,

r A ri s
t ot l e) Di s t in ct ion be t we en f a cul t y act iv it y ( funct ion )
and e je
.
, ,

ct ( work or pr od u ct ) .

C H APTER I II
I t is b y vir t e o f t he
u f ou q l it iet h t e
r ac h pa r t f n t i o ns
ua s a u c

So me t h ori t i e s s u bord in t et hed y and t he

.

au a
- st
m oi r

pri n ipl e c s t o t hehot and t heol d W it S EE M

c

he re
.

C HA PT ER TV
We mus t su ppos et h t t h e re ef l t ie
a s aror e spon ding in
ac u c r
n m be
u r t o t hev isibl ee je ct s ( or pr od t s ) wi t h wh i h we uc c
ar ef m ili r a a .

C H APTER V
Ge ne sis growt h an d n u t ri t i on Ge ne s is (e mbryoge n y ) sub
d ivi d e ne
.

s is n d org noge ne
, ,

d in t o hi s t og e a sis G rowt h is a

t ri d i me nsion l e xp nsion of t heso li d par t s forme

.

a a a d
d u ring ge ne sis N ut r i t ion
. .

X
 S Y N O PS I S O F CH A P TE RS

C H APTER V I
T heproce ss of g e ne sis ( e mbry o ge n y ) fro m i ns e m in t ion a
on ward s E a h of t heim lee cle me n t ry h o mog e s ne o us a
p r t s ( t iss ue s ) is prod e sp ei l bl e
.

n d of t hefo r
, ,

a d y uc a c a u
im y
r lt e
ar r t ivef l t i e
a s ( s h s eon d ry l t e
a a cu r t i ve uc c a a a
acu l t iebe ing t op oie s ti ne n Op Oi t as etc A sp ei l
c, r c zc. c a

f unct ion nd elso orr e spon d s t o e h of t h e s esp ei l

.

a us a c ac c a
t iss u e s Thebringin of t h e s et iss e s t oge t he r in t o
s nd t hed i p fi of t h e
u
s eorg ns is p e rfor me
.

o gr an a s os a d by a

no t h e
a r f ul t y ll e d d ia pl t i
ac mou l d ing o r f o m
ca as c, r a
li e
,

v .

C HA PTER V II
W eno w p ss fro m ge a ne sis t o g rowt h G row t h e ss e n t i lly a a

pos t -n t l pro e ss ; it involve s t wo f t ors e

.

a a c x p nsion ac a

nd n u t ri t ion e x pl in e
,

a d by n logy of f mili r h il d s
a a a a a a c
’

game
,

C H APT E R V II I
N t ri t ion
u .

C H A PTER I X
Theset h re epri mary f cul t i e s (g e ne s is grow t h n t ri t ion )
a u

h v ev r o s ot h e rs s u bs er vi ent t o t he
, ,

a a i u m .

C H A PT E R X
N t ri t ion not
u si mpl epro e ss a ( 1 ) Ne e d of s u bsi d i ry c a
org ns for t hev rio u s s t ge s o f al t e r t ion eg of bred
.

a a a a a

in t o blood of t h t in t o bon ee ( 2) N e e
.
, .
,

t a d lso of c a

org ns for e x re t ing t henon - u t ili z bl e por t ions of t he

.
, ,

a c a

food eg mu h v e get bl e m tte r is s p e

c rfl uo us ( 3 ) Ne
a ed a u

of org ns of t h ird kin d for d is t rib t ing t hep b l u m

. . .
, ,

a a u a u

t h ro u g h t he
,

b od y .

C H APTER X I
N ut ri t ion an lys e d in t o t he
a s of ppli t i on (p r o t he
s t ag e sis ) a ca s

Thes t g e
,

ad h e sion (p osp hy sis ) n d ssi mil t ion

r s a a a a

r t a in p t h ologi l on d i t i ons D i ffe re

.

d by e
ill u s t r t e
,

a c nt a ca c

rm n ut ime
.

sh de a s of men ing of t het e a nt r .

 S Y N O PS I S OF CH A P TE R S

C HA PT E R X I I
Thet w o h ie f me
c d i o -p h ilosop h i l s h ools —A t o m is t
c d ca c an

Vi t lis t H ippo r t e
a s dhe ren t of t hel t t e
c a r s h ool an a a c

h is d o t rin eof n origin l prin ipl eor n t r e in

.

” “
c a a c a u

e ve ry living t hi ng ( d o t rin eof t heu ni t y of t he c

org nis m)a .

C H APT ER X III
F il u reof A s l e
a pi de s t o n de
c rs t a n d t hef n t ons of ki d n e
a u ys u c i

an d re te
u rs H is hypo t h e sis of v pori z t ion of i m bib e d a a

fl i ds is h e rer e f te A de mons t r t ion of rin ry s er e

.

u d u a u a c

t ion in t heliving ni m l ; t hefore

.

t h o gh t nda r t is t i a u a a c

skill of N t r ev in d i t e d a u Re f t t ion l so of A le ca u a a sc

piad e di sb e li ef i n t hesp e ci l se l et iv e t ion of p u rg

.

’
s s a c ac a

t i ve d ru gs .

C H APT E R X I V
W h il eA s l e pi de
c s de n ies i n t ot o t heobvio s f t of speifi
a u ac c c

attr t ion
ac E pi r s gr n t s t he f t l t h o g h h is cu u a ac a u

tte mpt t o e x pl in i t by t he t o m i hypo t h e sis breks

, ,

a a a c a

d ow n Re f t t ion of t heE pi ren t h e u a or y of m gn e ti cu a a c

I ns t n e s of sp eifi t t r t ion of t h orns

.

attr t ion
ac a c c c a ac

n d a ni m l po isons by m e d i me n t s of mois t u reb y

.

a a ca

co rn e
,

t, c .

C H A PT ER XV
I t now b e ing gr n t e d t h t t he rin eis s er e a ted by t he a u c
ki d n e y s t he t i o a l e of t h is s er e t ion is e
ra n q ire
n d in t o c u

Th e ki d n e en t meh ni l fil t e rs b t eby vir t u e

, .

ys ar o c a ca u ar

of t h e ir n tu e poss e ss ed of a s pe ifi f l t y of at t r e
,

a r c c acu a
t ion .

C H A PT E R X VI
l i t tu
ras s r a g in by h is f vo ri t eprin ipl eof ho o m e
s, a a n a u c rr r :

o ld n e ve re xp l in t he s ere t ion of rin e by t heki d n e

,

c u a
ys . c u

W h il eh owe ve r he knowl e dge d t h t t heki d n e ys d

ac a o
s ere t e rin eh e m ke s no t t e mp t t o e x pl i n t h is ; he
, ,

c u a a a
ignore s b t doe s n t tte mpt t r e f t et heH ippo r t i
,

u o a o u c a c
d o t rin e of sp eifi at t r t ion Se r vil e posi t i on t a k e
, ,

c c c acn
p by A s l e pi d e s nd E r sis t r t s i n re
.

u c a ga rd t o t h is
a a a u
f un ct i on of u ri n ry s ere t ion a c .
 S Y NO P S I S O F C H A P TE R S

C HA PTER XV I I
T h reeot h e r tte mp t s ( by d h e
a re n t s of t heE i t rat e an a r as s
s h ool nd by Ly s of M e
c a d oni ) t ex pl in h ow t he
cu ac a o a

y s o me
ki d n e t se p r t e t rin efro m t hebloo d A l l
c o a a ou u

t hes eignor et heobvio us prin ipl eof t t r t ion

.

c a ac .

BOO K I I

C H APTER I
o r de r to e rs l of foo d from li me
x pl i n d isp e a n t ry c n l
a a a a a
v id t he ve ins ( d o i ) t h e r eis no n e e d t invok e
a na wi t h
s s o

E r sis t r t s t heho o
a a u i sin e he reg in t heprin
rr r r a cu c a a

ipl e of sp eifi t t r t i on is op e r t iv e m ore ove

, ,

c c c a r blo od
ac a

is lso d riv e n forw rd by t heo mpre ssing t ion of t he

,

a a c ac
s t om h nd t he on t r t ions of t hev e
ac a ins Possib li t y
c ac i

h owe ver of E as ist t u f t or pl y ing e

.
,

,
r r t in m inor
ra
’
s s ac a a c a

C H AP T E R II
eE i t rat e
r as s an i d et h t bil e b eo me s se p r te
a d o t fro m
a c a a u
t he bl oo d in t heli ve r b e s eb e ing t het h inn e
r fl u i d it ca u
lon e n e nte r t hen rro w s t o m t a of t hebil e
, ,

a ca -d ts a a uc
w h il et het h i k er blood n on ly e nt er t hew i de
,

c r mo u t h s ca
of t heh e p t i ve n ules a c .

C H APTE R III
hemo ph l o i l f t ors e
o u ge st ed by E r sis t r t s e a a u ar

u i t e in d
r ca ac

eq t et o e
a xp i n biologi l
ua h pp e nings a ca a

in onsis t en t wi t h h is wn s t t e me n t s T he
.

i t t
r as s r a u s c o a

i mm n e n eof t hep kg/ i or n t re; hes h ping is not

.

a c s s a u r a

me re ly ext ern l lik et h t of s t t ry b t involve

a s t hea a a ua u

e n t ires bs t an e I n ge ne sis (e n y ) t hese

m bryog e me
,

u c n is
t he t iv e nd t he me ns t r l bloo d t hep ssiveprin i
.

ac a ua a c

p le A t t r t iv e l t e r t iv e nd for m t i vef c l t i e
, ,

ac a s of a a a a u

t hes e me E mbry og e n y is n t r lly followe

. , ,

n d by a u a

g ro w t h t h e set wo f n t ions d is t ing is h e

.

d u c u .
 S Y N O PS I S O F CH A P TE RS

CHA PT E R IV
U nju t i fi e
s d l i m by E c a i t te t h t t he ir fo n de r hd
ras s ra an s a u a

a sso i t ions wi t h t hePe

c a ri p t eti ( A ris t o t eli n ) s h ool a c a c

The h r t eis t i p h y siologi l t e ne

.

c a ac r t s of t h t s h ool
c ca a c

( w h i h wee ll n t i ip t e
c i d by H ippo r t e
a a s ) in no w y
c a c a a

a gr e ewi t h t h oseof E r sis t r t s s v et h t bo t h e gn i e a a u a a r co 7

t he p rpos e fuln e
ss of N t re; in pr t i eh owe ve
,

u r a u ac c

E rasis t r t s ss u me d n me ro s e x e
, ,

a u a p t ions t o t h is prin u u c

ci pl e D iffi u l t y of n de rs t n d ing wh y here

c j et e
d t he
u a c
biologi ca l pr in ipl eof t t r t ion in f vo r of n t om i l
.

c a ac a u a a ca

f t ors
ac .

CHA P TER V
f urt h e
r d ifli cul t y raise d by E is t at us s s t a t e
ment ’
r as r
regardi ng se cr e t ion of bil ein t helive r .

VI J HA PTER

Thes meh ol d s w i t h n ut ri t ion E v e

a n if wegr n t t h t v e in s a a
n t blood by vir t eof t hehor r or
ir n t ri e
.

m y ob t in t he
a a u u
i ( h p i
v a cu ch ow o l d t h is e
a x pl in t hen u t ri t ion ofc u a

ne rve h ypot h e sis of min t ee le me

.

s E it t ? r as s r a u s s n t a ry
’
u

ne rv e s nd v e ss e
a ls w i h in t heordin ry visibl en e rv e
t s a
si m pl y t h ro ws t hed iffi l t y f r t h er b k An d is cu u ac

E i t t
r as s r a min u t e si m pl e n e
us s
’
rv es s e p t ibl e of u c
f rt he
u r n ly sis at he
a At i i t wou ld s m e If so
as on s s as u ?

t h is is Oppos e d t o t he on e ons t r t i ve nd
, ,

p t ion of c c a c uc a
rt is t i N t rew h i h E r sis t r t s h i mse
a c a u lf s h e
c s wi t h a a u ar
H ippo r t e s nd t hew ri t e
c a r A d if h is m in t en e
a rv eis n u
rell y e le me n t ry d n t f r t h e r d ivi sibl e t h e
.

a a an n it o u ,

nno t
ca ord ing t o h is own h ow ing on t in
ac c vi t y s c a a ca

t he re foret heho o i d oe
, ,

s n ot pply t it An d
rr r v a cu a o
how o l d t h is prin ipl e ppl y t t her e
.

c u s t or t ion t o it
c a o a s
origin l b lk of p r t w h i h h d beo met h in t h ro g h
a u a a c a c u
d is es ew h ea rem orem t t e r m s t b eo m e t t a h e d th n a u c a c a

r n s w y A q o t t ion fro m E r ”s is t r t s s h ows t h t he

,

?
u a a u a a a u a
d id know l e
ac d g en “
ttr t ion l t h o g h not e
a xact ly
a ac a u
in t heHi ppo r t i s e nse
,

c a c .
 S Y N O P SI S O F C H A P TE RS

C H A PT E R V I I
In t he l s t re sor t t he l t i m t eliving e leme n t s (E i t t ‘
a u a r a s s ra u s s
i mp l e ee
,

s l ) mu s t d r w i n t h e
v ss ir foo d by vir t eof
s a u an
in h ere n t t t r t i v ef l t y lik et h t w h i h t helo de
a ac s t on e acu a c
exe r t s on iron T h s t he ree ss of n d i fro m u c a a os s ,
be ginning t e an b e e in e
.

nd xp o d wi t h o t ss ming , c s u a u a
ho o rr cui r va

C H APTE R V III
Er as i tr tu
s a d isr e g rd for t heh m o u rs I n repet t
s s
’
a u s c . o
e x e s i v efor m t ion of bil eh owe ve r pr e ve n t ion is be t te
.

c s a r
re ord ingly wem s t onsi d e
, ,

th n a cu a cc r it p t h ology u c s a

D oe s bloo d p e ex is t in t hefo od o d oe s it o mein t o

.

- r r c
e x is t e n ein t hebody E i t t p re
,

c ly n t o m i l ? r as s r a us s
’
u a a ca
e x pl n t i on of d op y Hee
a a n t ire ly voi d s t heq e
r v s t ion a u
of t hefo r q li t i e s ( eg t hei mpor t n eof inn t eh et )
.

u ua a c a a

in t heg e ne r t ion of t heh mo rs e Ye t t he probl e

. .

a t m u u c.

of blood -pro d t ion is no l e

,

ss i mpor t n t t h n t h t of
uc a a a

s t ri ed i ge
a s t ion P roof t h t bil ed oe sn t p e -e x is t i t he a o r u
e d The fo r f un d me n t l q li t i e s of H ippo r t e
.

o u as nd a ua c a a

A ris t o t l e H w t he h mo u rs ef r me d fro m food t k e

.

o nu ar o a

in t o t hev e ins w h e n h et is in propor t ion t e m o n t

.

: a a a u

bloo d re s l t s wh e n in e x e ss bil e; wh e n de fi ie
,

u : nt c c

ph le g m V rio s on d i t ions d e te
, ,

a r mining ol d or w r m
u c c a
te m pe r me n t s Thefo r pri m ry d is es e s re s lt e h
.

a u a a u ac
fro m e ss of neof t hefo u r q li t i e
.

x e c o s E r is t r t s ua as a u

knowl e d ge s t h is w h e n he s r b e s t he
.

u n w illingl y ac a c i
in d iget ion o rring in fe
s ve r t imp i e
cc u d f n t ion of t he o a r u c

s t o m h For w h t
ac ses t h is f n t io t e ? P roofa ca u u c a sa

t h t i t is t he fever (e x e ss of inn t eh et )
.

a c a a

If t he n h et pl y s so i mpor t a n t p r t in bnor m l
.

a a a a a a
f un t ioning so m s t it lso in nor m l ( i e e of
, ,

c u a a ca u s s

e r si involv e d in t h os e
. .
.

uc a a of dys r si of p h y siology in c a a,

t h os eof p t h olog y ) A lik e rg me

a nt e x pl ins t he a u a

gee i f t he
.

n s s h mo
o s A dd i t ion of w rm t h t o t h ings
u ur a

lredy w r m m k e s t he m bi t t e r ; t h s h on e
.

a a a a y t rns t u u o
bil ein p e opl ewh o e lred y w r m ; wh e rew r m t h
ar a a a a

de fi ie nt
c in ld p e opl eit t rns t se
as o f l bl oo d T h is u o u u

is proof t h t bil ed o e s not p e e x is t s s h in t he

.
, ,

a a - r , a uc ,

fo od .

x lv iii
 SY N O PS I S OF CH A P TE RS

BOO K I I I
C H APT E R I .

re pi t l t ion of e
ca u a r t in poin t s pre viou sly d e
c mons t r t e
a d a .

Eve ry p r t of t he ni m l h
a n ttr t iv e nd
a n a as a a ac a a

lt e
a r t iv e( ssi m il t iv e
a ) f u l t y i t t t r t s t he
a a n t ri e
ntac a ac u

j i ewh i h is prope
u c r t o it A ssi mil t ion is pree
c de d a c

by d h e
.

asion (p osp hy i ) d t h t g in by ppli t ion

r s s an a a a a ca

(p o t heis ) A ppli t ion t hego l of

,

r s s ttr t ion
ca It a a ac

w o l d n t h ow e ve r b efollowe dhe
. .

u o d by sion nd a a
ssi m il t ion if e h p rt d id n t lso poss e
, ,

a a ac ss f l t y
a o a a a cu

for e t ining in p os it i n t he
r a n t ri me n t wh i h h b e o e n u c as

ppli e
a d A p rior i nee
. si t y for t h is e tent i e fac l t y
c s r v u .

CH A PTER II
Th es mef l t y t beprov e
a a cu d po teo io i I t orr espon d ing
a s r r s c
t io ( i et he t iv t ion of t h is f l t y or po t e
.

f u nc n ac a nt i l t y) a cu a i

we e n t hel rg eh ollo w org ns no t bly t he t e

.

ll s e in a r s a ,
a u u

nd s t o m
a h ac .

C H A PTER I II
E xer is eof t here
c te n t i v ef l t y p r t i l rl y we ll s e
acu e n in t he a cu a

te
u r s I t obj et is t llo w t hee
u s m bry o t
c t t in f ll
o a o a a u

de ve lop me n t t h is b e ing o mpl e te e l t y —t he

.

d w f c a n a cu

e x p lsi v e —h i t he rt o q i e s en t o me
,

u s in t o pl y C h r
u c c a a

te
.

e
,

i t i signs nd sy mp t o ms of T ig h t grip a

pr gn rn tyelos reof os
ac r s c a c

of t e r s on growing e
.

u u m bry o a n( accu a c u

te ri d ring op e r t ion of t he r e te n t i ve f l t y
,

u u a a cu

d e x p lsiv e t ivi t i e s of t e
.

Dil t t ion of
a a 08 a n r s t f ll
u ac u u a u

te rm or w h e n fo e t s die s P rol ps efrom n d ee

u xer is e a u u c

of t h i s f l t y Role of t hemi d wife A e ssory mus l e

.
,

ac u . s . cc c
in p r t ri t io n
a u .

CH P ER I V A T

Same t wo f l tie s se
a cu e n in s t o m h G ml i g o borbo ygmi ac u n s r r

h o w t h t t h is org n is w ek d is n t gripping it
.

S a a a an o s
on t e
c n t s t i g h t ly e no gh U n d ede lay of food in wek
u . u a a
 SY N O P S I S O F C H A PTE R S
s t oma h prove c d n t t be d ue t o n rro wn e
o ss of pyl or s
o a u

le ng t h of s t y d e pend s on wh e
a t he r d iw l i n ( no t h er a a a

ins t n eof t he h r t e
a c ris t i lly vi t a l pro e
c a ac ss of l t e ca c a ra

t ion ) h t ke n pl eor n t E r sis t r t s w rong in

\
as a ac o a a u

s t ion me rel y t o t hemeh ni l t ion of

.

a t t rib t ing d ig e
u c a ca ac

t hes t o m h w lls ac Vhe n d ig et ion o m pl e

a ted t he n s c ,

pylor s o pe ns d llows on t e
.

u an n t s t o p ss d own w rd s
a c a a

j st 0 t e ve n t of e mby o o m pl e te
,

u as ri w h e
3 u n de lop me d r c .

Cu a r r s n V
'

If at t ract ion an d e li min at ion al way s proce ede d p a r i p ssu a

“

t he con t e s eh ollo w org ns ( in cl ud ng gall -bl ad d e

,

n t of t h e r a i

an d u rin r y bl a dd e
a r wo u l d n e ve r v a ry in a mo u n t A
»

re te nt i e fac u l t y t h e reforealso logi c lly n e ede

.

r d It s a

e x is t en ced e m ons t ra t e d Ex p u lsion d e te

.

rm i n e
, ,

d by q u li a

t at i e va n d q u a n t i t a t iv ech anges of con t en t s D ia rr h oe

“
a .

o f s t omach Vo mi t ing . .

C H APTER V I
ry org ni p r t h n pp e
E ve a c t it e d
a er ion for t heq l i
as a a an av s ua
t ies w h i h e ppropri t end fore
c ar ign t o it re
a spet iv ely a a c

A t t r t ion n ee~ ily l ed s t o ert in be fi t ree

ne iv e
.

ac c s ar d a a c a c

This g i n n ee s re
ss i t t e te
.
.

a a nt ion c a .

Ca m V II
Inte
ract ion be t we en t w b od i e s ; t hes t ronge r mas t e
o r s t he
we a ke r ; a de lete rio u s d r u g mas t e rs t heforce s of t he

body wh e re as foo d is m as t e re d by t h e m t h is mas t e ry

i s an al t e ra t ion n d t heam ou n t of a l t e
,

a ra t ion va ri e s wi t h
t he d iff eren t organs t h u s a pa r t i a l a l t e rat ion is e ffe ct e
,

d
in mon t h by sa li v a b ut mu h gre at er in s t o mach w h e re c

not onl y g as t ri c j u i ceb u t a ls o bil epn e u ma inn t e he

, ,

at a

( i eo x i d at ion a nd o t h e r we re
.
, ,

r ful fa ct ors bro u g h t a

t o be ne e d of co u si e t abl e al t e
. .

a r on it ra t ion in s t omach
li
 SY N O PS I S or C H A P TE R S

as a r nsi t ion -s t geb e

t a t we
en foo d d blood ; apper
a an a
a n cc of f ee s i n in t e
a c s t in eno t h e
r proof of gret l t e r a a a a
t ion e ffet ed i n s t om h
c A le p i de d e ni l of r el
ac sc a s s
’
a a
l it t i eh ng e i n s t o m h re b tte
.

d E ’
i t t
ge
ua a v c a s ac u r as s r a us
t h t d ig e s t ion in ny w y r e se
mbl e
.

ni l a a s bo il ing a a a

pro e ss o me
c s fro m h is t king word s t oo li t e
c r lly a a .

C H A PT E R V III
E r sis t r t s d e
a ani e
s t h t t hes t om h e
u xe r t s ny p ll in t he
a ac a u

act of s w llow ing T h t heis w rong h owe

a ve r is prov e
a d
by t he n t o mi l s t ru t reo f t hes t o m h —it inn e
.
, ,

a a ca rc u ac s

o t w i t h longi t ud in l fibr e
c a s obvio usly t s a i ac as a v s a

fro nt ( t t r t on ) w h ils t i t s o u t e
’
a ac i r o te xe r is e
s t h roug h c a c

irc l r fibre s a i te
.

t he on t ra t ion of i t
,

c c rgo ( pro
s c u a v s a

nl i n ) ; t h e
s o l t ter ls o o me s in t o pl y in vo mi t ing
a a c a

he st om h use s t he e p h s
.

ac kin d of h n d t o
o so a as a a

The u n t ions of t he
,

d r w in i t s foo d w i t h
a tw o ts c o c a
prov e d lso by viv s e a ct ion Sw llow in g an not
i be a c
t t rib t ed me e ly t t heforceof gr vi t y
.

a u r o a .

C H APT E R I X
s efo r f u l t i e
Th e s w h i h s bs e
u ac rv en t ri t ion c u u ar et h u s

n t i n many d iffe
pp re
a a ren t pa r t s of t hebody .

C H APT E R X
e
Ned for e l bor t ing t hes t t e
a me n t s of t he ie
a n t p hy i a an c s

S periori t y of A n i en t s t o Mode rns T h s s t t e

o

i c an s u c i a

of ff irs n onl y beret ifi e relly e ffi i e

. .

a a d by
ca nt c a a c

ed t ion of y o t h
uca T he chi e f req u isi t e
u s of s h n uc a

e
.

d u ca t ion .

C H A T E R XI P

F or t hes k eof t hefea w w h o r ell y w is h t r t h t herg m ent a u a u

w ill b eon t in e A t h ird kin d of fi b e —t hebl iq e

,

d c u r o u

s bs e s e
rv e te t h eway in w h i h t h is fibre is
.

u t ion r n c

d ispos ed in d iffe ren t co t s a .

 S Y N O PSI S O F CH A P TE R S

C H APT E R X II
I he
‘
f t or wh i h brings t hee
ac x p lsi v ef l t y i n t o t ion is
c u acu ac

ess en t i lly on d i t ion of t heorg n or it on t e

a a c n t s wh i h a s c c

is t here verseof t h t wh i h d e ter m in e d t t r t ion a c a ac

A n log y be t we e
.

a n bor t ion n d nor m l p r t u ri t ion a a a a

Wh t e ve r prod e s d is omf or t m st bee x pelle
.

a uc d Th t c u a

lso d etermin e s e x p l sion of on t e

.

d is o m for t
c a n t s fro m u c
g ll -bl d d e r is n t so e vi d en t i n t he s eof s t o m h
logi l l y de
a a o as ca ac

te dd e r e n be
,

u u i a y bl
r us , r n t bu tr a mon c ca ca

te
.
, ,

st rad .

C H APT E R X I I I
E x p lsion t k epl e
u a t h ro u g h t he
s ac sa mechann e l as at t ract i n o
i n s t o m h g ll -bl dd e ac r ut e ru s ) Simi l rly t he
a a a

de liv e ry ( n d i ) of n t ri me n t t o t heliv e r from t he

, , .

a a os s u

food -can l id t heme a r se nt e ri v e ins m ay ha v e it s d ir e t ion

c c
re ve rse d Con t in u o s giv e -n d -t k eb e u t we e n d i ffe re nt a a

p r t s of t hebod y ; s u pe
a rio r s t re ng t h of e r t a in pa r t s is c

n t u r l of o t h e
a a rs a q i re d W he n l i ve
c r on t a ins bun d
u c a
food nd s t om ch d e pl e te d l tte
, .

ant a r m y d r w on
a a a a
form e r t h is o u rs w h e n nim l n ge t no t h ing t o et
,

cc a a ca a

n d so pr e ve n t s s t rv t ion Si m il rly w h e n onep rt

,

a a a a a

beome s ove r d is t e n de d it t e n ds t o d e posi t it s e x e

.
,

c ~ ss i n c
so mewek e r p r t n er it t h is p asse s it on t o somes t ill
,

a a a
we ake r p r t w h i ch nno t ge
a t id of i tca he n ed e po it r c s s
of v rio s kin d s F r t h e r ins t n e s of re ve rs l of t he
,

a u u a c a
norm l d iret ion of n d o is fro m t hefood n l t h ro g h
.

a c a a s ca a u

t he ve ins Su h re ve rs l of f n t ions wo l d in any s e

c a u c u ca

bee x p et e I n t hevo m i t ing of i n t e

.

d c p io i a r r s t in l a
obs t ru t i on mat t e r m y be rri e d ba k w rd s ll t he
.

s t in e
c a ca c a a
w y from t hein t e t o t hemo t h ; n ot s rprising
,

a u u
t he re fore t h t un d e r e r t in ir u ms t a n e
,

a s food
c a c c c
m te ri l mig h t bed rive n rig h t bac k fro m t heskin
, , ,

a a
s rf et o t heli me
u ac n t ry can l ( eg in e
a x e a ssi v e h illing a c c
o f s rf e ) n ot m h n e e de d t o de te rmin et h is r e ve
. .

u ac uc rs l a

of d ir e t i on c A t ion of p rg t iv e c d r ugs po n t e m in l
u a u r a s
of v e ins ; onep r t d r ws fro m no t h e r u n t il w h ol eb od y
.

a a a

p r t i ip t e
a c s ; si m il rly i n in t e
a s t in l obs t r t ion e h
a a uc ac

pa r t p ss e s on t hei rri t t in g s bs t an cet o it s wek e

,

a a r u a
 S Y N O P SI S O F CH A P TE R S
ne ig h bou r R e ve rs l of d iret ion of fl ow occu rs nota c
me ly on o sion b t lso ons t n t ly (as in r t e ri e
.

re cca u s a c a a

l ngs h er t e T he v rio s s t ge
,

u t a s of norm l n t ri
c. a u a a u

t ion d e s rib e W h t hes t o m h so me t i me

, ,

d c s d r ws ac a

ba k t hen t ri me ed on t por t l v e
.

c n t it d u ins nd a s o a a
liv e r A si m il r e b b nd a l t ion t o t hespl e
ow in r e e
a n a

i on of t he pa r t s of t h ebody t
. .

Com ar s l ot of ni m ls o a a a

a t a es t Thev lv e
a s of t heh er t e provision of
a a ar a
N t r et pre ve n t t h is o t h e rwis ein evi t bl er e
.

a u o g rgi t a u a

t ion t h o g h e
, ve n t he
u y renot q i t ee ffi i e nt a u c .

C H APTER X I V
Thes up e rfi i l r t eri es whe
c a n t he
ay d il t ed raw in i fr om a a r
t he t mosp h e re d t hed e eper on e s fi nev poro s
, ,

a an a a u

blo od fro m t hev e ins nd h er t L ig h t e r m t te

, ,

rs h a a a uc as
l w ys bed r wn in in pr e fere
n et h evi e
.

i wil l
a r a a r; a c o a

t h is is why t he rt e ri e
s in t hefood - n l d r w in p
a ca a a r ac

ti lly non eof t hen ut ri e

ca nt m t te r on t in e
d in it a c a .

C H APT E R XV
The t wo k in d s o f t t r t ion —t he meh n i l at t ra t ion of
a ac c a ca c

d il t ing b e
a llows nd t he p hysi l ( vi t l ) t t r t ion
“ ”
a ca a a ac

by living t is e of n u t ri e nt m t t e
su r w h i h is sp eifi lly a c c ca

a lli ed or ppropri t et o it Thefor me a r kin d —t h t “

i— t s pri m rily o n lig h t

a a

re
.

s l t ing fro m ho o
u rr r v acu ac a

m tte a r whe r es vi t a l at t r t ion ha no e

a ss en t i l on e rn ac s a c c

w i t h s h meh ni l f t ors A h ollo w org n e xe r is e

,

uc c a ca ac s a c
by vir t ueof it s vi t y t hefor me
.
,

r kin d of t t r t ion nd
ca a ac a
by vir t ueof t heli ving t issu eof it w ll t hes eon d kin d
, ,

s a s, c

A ppli t ion of t h is t o q u e s t ion of on t e n t s of r t e ri e

.

ca s c a

n
a tomos e of
as rte i e nd
s e ins a F o min in inte
r s a v ra a r

et i l e p t m of he llowing so meblood t o p ss
.

v n r cu a r rt
s u a a a
from rig h t t o l e ft v en t ri l e L rgesi zeof or t a prob bly
,

c a a a

d u et o f t t h t it n ot me re ly c rri e s t hepn em
.

ac a a u a
r ee iv e
c d fro m t hel ngs bu t ls o so meof t hebloo d
u a
w h i ch p e r ol t e s t h ro g h s e p t u m fro m r igh t v e n t ri l e
,

c a u c

Thu s r t e ri es rr y not me re l y pn e lso so me

.

a ca u ma b u t a

l ig h t v p oro u s bl ood whi ch e rt ain p rt s n e ed mor e

,

a c a
,
 S Y N OP S I S O F C H A PTE R S
t ha n t heord in ry t h i k bl ood of t hev e
a ins Th eorg ni
c a c
p rt s m s t h v et h e ir bl ood pply s ff i e n t ly n er t o
.

a u a ‘
su u ic a

a llow t h em t o bsorb it a omp rison w i t h n irrig t ion

c a a a

sy s t e
m in g rd e
a n De a t ils of t hepro e s of n t ri t ion
a c s u

in t he l t i m t espeifi t iss e s so me enou ris h e

.

u a c c u d fro m ar

t h ebl ood d iret ly ; in o t h e

c rs s eri e s of in t e r me di tea a
st ge
a s mu s t pr ee d eo mpl e t e ssi mil t ion
c c for e x mpl e
a a a

m rro w is n in t e rme di t es t ag eb e t wee

,

a a n bl ood nd
a a
bon e
F rom t h ege ne r lis t i ons r riv ed t in t he pre se
.

a a a n t work a
we n d eca d e t he
uc ex pla n t ion of l l kin d s of pa r t l r
a a i cu a
p he no men ; n ins t n ceis gi v e
a a n s h o w ing t heoo-op e
a r a
t ion of v r i o s f t ors pre vio usly d is usse
,

a u ac d c .
 F A A HNOY
HE P I ( DTEI K ON A TNA MEQ N

A
I
9dv e a 9a i r ere a l fe
‘
E7 r 6 1 377 11 311
’
3
’
7 a 10 ta/ 5 20 941 1

xa ra
'
wpoa t pe aw 73m 7 60V {(1 i 60 7 5 7 0 3
e
,

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7
p o a 9
(11 11 7 02 9 6 717 a v 7 a y e p 7 r o re 7 a 36
p a 7 179 xr v
l x n
' ‘
,
p s ,

36 13r e pa 7 13 ? (fiv o e ws e e e
”
i
'
3 u s xa l 1 o
'

p
f
ya
'

. .

( m 02
p
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x n c a e r a 3 1 3wo t x a l 3 t a 1 ov y e
p v oq a 13r a c
'

ov a/N i g e l ( u n /cm
p ).
p e v T a u
-
r m a Za 9nn /c77v 36 my
) ,
' “

e re pa v M 7 6 1 u e 0133 013 7 09 a lu m 7 1) Ke fe
' ' ’
v a 3
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, . .
,

7 17 a v v q 9e r e
,

o13 was/ v Ké a h
t
Xpn
'

T a L a
y .

y se {0 7/1 7 }
1 Xe fe wc a pe wu a a cfinv e tav s iv a t
'
7 re

we wpe u oc x a l ”1 137 771! 6 13 807 6 ? ll v 7r 01336 11 09 ov r ws ' ‘

e
w 137 1 0 7 601! d a m/ 17901 11 ov oy a r wv 3 1 a ¢ 9e
- t p 0p é v nm

(b e 7 02 9 7 r o7t 7t o i e 9 o s o v r w c o v e
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a ov
-
, c 137 7 0 p e
'
v

v o s w9 7 2 3 1 01 e o 9a t
’
x,ha c 9 a aa Kat
¢ 1 {13 a
1
-
e
. .

(pa /Le e
e
v m m 3 6 ( 3 11 0 1 01 79 r d ( u m a l TO 7
1 1 1 1
t z .

e
, ,

a 13g ufv e
‘ 0 9a 1f r e te
al 7 é e a 9a t voe w e
p ¢ ¢ p
'

a ( a /L v
p
‘
'
y .
,

013 r v fis
d x
‘
.

1 T h at is P o wers t hepowe
“
On t heN a t u r a l
rs of t he ”

P hy s i or N t re By t h t G l e n pr t i ll y m ens w h t
,

s a u a a ac ca a a

wes ho l d ll t hep hysiologi l or biologi l powe rs t he

.

u ca ca ca

teris t i f l t i es of t heliving org nis m ; h is P h y sis

,

ch r a ac c acu a

is t hesu b ons i ous vi t al p m ipleof t he ni m l o r pl n t

c c ’
c a a a .
 G A LEN
ON T HE N A T U R A L F A CU LTI ES l

B OO K I

SI NC E feel ing an d vol un t a ry m o t ion arepe culi a r to

an im als w hils t growt h an d n u t ri t ion ar eco mm on t o

y look on t e
,

pl a n t s as well we m a h m
for er as e fe t s f c 2

e e e
,

of t e h 3 011 1 3 an
d t h l a t t er as e ff ect s of t h na t u r
4
.

A nd if t here be anyone who allows a sh are in soul

t o pl an t s as well an d sep a ra t e s t hetwo kin d s of
sou l n am in g t he a t i v ea n d t h e
,

kin d in q u es t ion v e g et ,

o t her s e
,

ns o r t h is person is n ot s ayi ng an y t hing else

y , ,

al t ho u g h his l ang ua ge is so m ewh a t u nusu a l We

however for ou r pa rt ar econvin ce
.
,

d t h at th e chief
,

meri t of l an gu a ge is cl e
,

a rn ess and we know th at ,

nothin g de t ract s so mu c h from t his as do un fam ili ar

t erm s ; a ccord in gly wee m ploy t hose terms whi ch
t heb u lk of pe opl e ar eaccus t o m e d t o u se an d we
at an im als ar egoverne d a t on c e by t heir soul
,

sa
y th
an d by t h eir n at u re an d pl an t s by th e ir n at ur e
al one an d th a t growt h an d n u t r i t ion ar e
,

th e e ffe ct s
of nat ur en ot of so u l
,
'

.
,

L ik eA ris t o t l e h owe ve r heal so as cri be s q uas i v i tal p ro

s t o in ani mat et h ings cf I n t rod u ct ion p x x vi i
o

part i e
, ,

B r yan h e rere n de d n e ffe ral l y a wor k or de

ct is li t e e
.

re
, . .
,
2
a d ;
king it is so me t h ing donecomp l e te
, ,

s t ri ct l y d as d is t i n
gu i he d ro m e ne r ge ia w h i ch is t he act ua l doi ng t he
, , ,

s ac t iv it y

wh i ch prod u ce s t h is e
, ,

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eL
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, , . .

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. . na t u a r .

3
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 ON T H E N A T U R A L F A C U LT IES ,

II
T H U S we sh all e n q u i re in t heco u rse of t his ,

t re a t i s efro m w hat f a cult ie s t h ese e ffe ct s t he m selv e s

as well a s a n y o t h e r e
, ,

ffe ct s of n at u re wh i c h t h e re
m ay be t ake t h e
,
ir origin .

Firs t however w em u s t d is t ing u ish an d e xpl ain

a rly t h e rm s whi c h wear egoing t o use
,

v a rio u s t e
,

cl e

in t h is t re at ise an d t o wh at t hin g s wea pply t h em

,

a n d thi s will prove t o be n ot mer e ly an e xpl a n at ion of

te r m s bu t at t hes am e tim e a de m onst ration of t he
e ffe c t s of n a t u re .

When t h erefore su ch an d s u ch a body un d ergoes

, ,

no ch an g e fro m it s e xis t in g s t a t e we say th a t it i s ,

at r e st ; b u t i f i t depa rt s from t his i n any respe ct

we r oe
,

t h en say t h a t in t his respe ct i t u nde g s mo t ion 1 .

A ccord ingly wh e ,
n it d e p a rt s in v a rio u s w ays from
it s pre -e x ist ing s t a t e it w ill b e said t o u nd e
, rgo
v a ri o u s k in d s of m o t ion Th u s if t h at whi ch is .
,

whi t ebe com es bl a ck or wh at i s bl a ck be co m es ,

w hi t e it u n d ergoes m o t ion in respe ct t o colou r ; or

,

if wh at was previo u sl y swee t now be com e s bit t er or

conversely fro m b e
,

ing bi t t er now be co m e
,

, s sweet it ,

will b e sa i d t o u n d ergo m o t ion in respe ct t o fl a v o ur ;

t o bot h of t h e se inst a n c es as well as t o t h ose
d we sh all a pply th e t erm
,

previo u sly menti on e ,

q ua lit at iv emo t io n A n d fu rt h er it i s n ot only t hings

whi ch ar eal t e
.
,

re d i n rega rd to colour an d fl avo u r

whi ch we say u n d e
, , rgo m o t ion wh en a w a rm t hing
be co m es col d an d a col d w a rm
, h ere too we spe ak ,

of it s u n d e rgoin g mot ion ; si mil arly als o wh en any

Mot ion ( kin e sis ) is A ris t o t l es ge nera l t er m for wh a t we
’

wou l d ra t h e r ca ll cha ng e I t in cl u d e s v rio u s kin d s of ch ange a

as we ll as mov e me n t prope
.
,

r cf In t ro du ct ion p x x i x
. .
, . .
 G AL EN

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C on v e
y n e t r nspor t t r nsi t p e l m eh ni
1 “ ” “ " “
a c a a ur c a
d is t ing is h e d fro m l t e t zon ( q u li
.

cal or p ssiv e
, ,

m o t ion
a as u a ra a

t at i eh ng e
,

v ) c a
W x ing nd w” ning t hel t t e r li t e
.

“9
a a r ll y 27101 1295 a
a a a 7 37
was t ing or d elin e f S o t h d wimng D t h ed njne
,
’

; c n
c c c u c v r u

B eoming n d pe L t in ge n e l io t
.
, .

3 ris o p t io ra c c rr u

A d s u bs t n t ia m pmg
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.
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( L in acre ) .

6
 ON T H E N A T U R AL F A CU L TI ES I ,
. 11

t hing be co m es dr y or d ry
m oist ,
m oist N ow , t h
. e
co mm on t erm whi c h w e a pply t o a ll t hese ca s es is

a lt et i
ra on .
f
T his is on e kind of m o t i on B u t t here is anot h er .

kind whi ch o ccurs in bodi es whi ch c h ange t heir

posi t ion or as w e say p ass fro m on e pl ace t o a no t h er ;
t he rece
, ,

n am e of t his is t ra sfe n n
1
4
Th ese t wo k in ds of m ot ion t h en ar esimpl e an d
.

, ,

pri m ary whil e c o m po u n d e

,
d fro m th e m we h ave gr owt h
a n d de as wh en a s m a ll t hing be comes bigger
2
ca
y , ,

or a big t hing s m all er each reta ining at the same ,

time it s pa rt i cu l ar form A n d t w o o t h er kinds of

ar e e
.

ne e
m to ion g -
sis an d d st r u c t i on
3
genesis bein g a
4 an d d es t ru ct ion being t h e
,

coming in to e x is t en ce ,

opposi t e
Now common to al l kinds of m oti on is change
.

f rom
t he s t a t ew hil e
,

p re e
-xi st in
g co mm on t o all con d i t io n s

x is t ing st a t e
,

of rest is re tent ion of t he r e -e T h e

p .

Soph is t s how e ,
ver wh ile allowing t h at bre ad in turn
,

ing in t o blood be com es ch a nge d as rega rd s sigh t t a s t e , ,

a n d t ou ch wil l not a gree t h at t his c h a nge o cc u rs in

,

re a li t y . Th u s so m e of t h e m hol d t h a t all s u ch
ph e no m en a a r et ri cks a n d ill u sions of ou r senses ;
t h es enses t h e y say ar ea ffe ct e d now in one way
r wh ere as t heu n de
, , ,

now in a not h e rlyin g s u bs t a n ce

s ech a nges t o w h i c h t h e
,

d oes n ot adm i t of an y of t h e
n a m es ar egiv e n O t h ers ( s u ch as A n axa gora s ) 5 will
.

h a ve it t h at t heq u ali t ies d o e x ist in it bu t t h at t hey ,

P refor m t ionis t d o t rin eof A n x gor s T o h im t he

a
”
c a a a

a pp re ant l t er t ion q li t i e
a s t ook pl ew h e
a in n a n mbe
ua r of ac u
m in t ep e
u ex is t ing bod i e
r s ll b e i g t hes meq li t y a ai n a ua

me t og et her n s ffi i e n t n mb e rs t o m pre
, ,

ca i u c ss t h t q li t y
u i a ua

on t hese ns e Thef t or wh i h ni t e
s d t he m in t e
ac q lity c u u ua

bere I n t heb e
.

rs w N o s ginn ing s y s A n x gor s

“

r—t h e
a as u a a a a

ll t h ings e x ist e d t oge t he n came

.
, ,
“
a N o us and bro gh t u

t hem i n t o ord e r .

7
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Not e h r t e n ew i t h me
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Arall y ing r ou n d : l it a pl ace wh er et wo gl e ns me et

T h u s accor ing t o Gompe rz ( Gr ek Thinke
e r s ) t he
. .

hy po
t he h t t hebre a lr e
,

sis of A n a x goras
a w as t a
“
ad a dy con

t a in ed t heco u n t l ess for ms of mat t e r a s s u ch wh i ch t he

h u man bod y d ispl ays T h e ir min u t eness of si zewo u l d w i t h
d raw t h e m fro m our pe rce p t ion F o r t hed e fe we
.

ak
‘
ct or

ne ss oi t hes e n ses is t henarrowne i r re

ss of t h e ce p t i vear e
.

’
a .
 O N T H E N A T U R A L F A C U L T I ES I , . 11

nee d to re cogniz e th e co mp le tea lt e r a t ion o

f subst ance
In thi s way nobody will su ppose th a t bread r e
.

re
, p
s ents a kin d of m eet ing - pl a c e 1
for bon e fl esh ne rve , , ,

an d all t h eother pa rt s an d t h a t each of th ese

subsequ en t ly be com es sepa ra te
,

d in th e body an d
goes to j oin its o w n
2
kind ; before an y separ at i on
takes pl ace th e whol e of th e bread obviously be comes
,

blood ; (at any rate if a m an t a kes no o t her food

for a prolonged peri od h e will h a ve blood en cl os e
,

d
e
,

in his vein s all t h sa me ) 3 A nd cl ea rly thi s di s

.

prov es th e view of those who cons ider th e elem ents ‘

u n ch an eabl e as al so for t h a t m a tter does th e oil

g , , ,

whi ch is entir ely used u p in th e fl am e of th e l am p ,

or th e faggots wh i ch in a some wh at longer time , ,

t urn into fire .

I said ho wever th at I was not going to enter into

, ,

an a rgu m ent wi t h th ese peopl e an d it was only

be cau se t h ee x ampl e was d rawn from t hes u bj e ct
,

m at t er of m e di cine an d be cause I need it for th e

present treat ise tha t I h ave men t ion e
,

, d it We sh all .

th en as I said renoun ce ou r co n t roversy wi t h t hem

, , ,

sin ce those who wi sh m ay get a good gr asp of th e

views of t h ean ci ents from our own pe rson a l in v e s
t igat i on s in t o th es e m at t ers
The dis cu ssi on whi ch fol lows we sh al l devote
.

entir ely as w e origin ally proposed to an enqui ry

, ,

into th e nu m ber an d ch a ra cter of th e f acult ie s of

N at ure an d wh at is th e e ffe ct wh i ch ea ch nat urall y

,

The se el usiv ep art i cl e s ar ere n de re d v isi bl e an d t angibl e b y

t he re ce ss of n ut r it ion w hi ch comb i n e s t he m ”

Th e re fore t he bl ood mus t h ave co me fro m t heb re The

, .

ad
food from t hea li me n t a ry ca n al was su ppose d b y G al e n t o be
.

conv e rt ed in t o bl ood in an d by t he p or t a l v e ins p

f
c 17
eleme is me a n t al l ho mog e ne
. . . .

nt s o us a morp h o us
“ ”
By
s u bs t ance s su ch as me as w e ll as t hee leme
,

t als & c n t a ry
e
, , .
,
t issu s .
1 I
 G A L EN

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7

Work or p o d t L t p
1
f p 3 no t e? r
uc . a . o us c . . .

Op e2r t ion t iv t ion or f n t ioning L t t io f l it

a ac a u c a ac c oc. c

i e on o mi t n t ( eon d ry ) or p a ssi v”e ffet ion G l e

. . . .
, , .

3 a c c n a s c a a c a
is on t r s t ing t iv e d p ssiv e mo t on f p 6 no t e1
. . .

c a ac an a i c

lredy in d i t ed t he r eis no e x t E nglis h e

. . . .
,

q i
4
A s a a ca ac u va

le e
n t for t heG r ek te r m p hy i w h i h is prin ipl e i mm n e
,

nt s s, c a c a

12
 O N T H E N A T U R AL F A C U L T I ES I , . 1 1. —1 1 1

produ ce s Now of course I me a n by an e ffe

. ct th at 1

whi ch has al read y com e in t o e xi s t e

, ,

n c e a n d has be e n
co m pl et e d by t heact i vity of t hese fa cu l t ies for
2 —
e xample bl ood flesh or n e rve A nd act ir ity is t h e .

n am e I give t o t h eact i v ec h a nge or mot ion an d

, , ,

t h eca us eof t h is I ca l l a f ac ulty Th u s wh en .

food t u rns in t o blood t h em o t i on of t h efood i s

,

passi ve a nd t h at of t h ev ein a ct i v e Si m il a rly

,

- .
,

when t h el imbs h a ve t h e ir posi t ion al t ered it is t he

,

m u s cl e wh i ch pro d u ces an d t h ebones whi ch u n d e

,

r
go t hemo t ion I n t h e s ecas es I ca ll t h em ot ion of
,

t he vein a n d of t h em u s cl e an act ivity an d t hat of

t he d e e
,

foo an d t h bones a s
y pm t om or a
ff c t io n
3
sin ce

t he rgoe s a lt e r at ion a n d t hesec on d

,

first grou p u n d e
group is m e rely t r a nspor te d On e migh t t h e . re fore
also spea k of t h e
, ,

y as n e fi e of N t u re
'

a c ivi
4
t t a c t a

for e x am pl ediges t ion a bsorpt ion? blood -prod u ct ion ;

,

one coul d n ot how ever in every ca se ca ll t hee ffe

,

ct an

sh is an e ffe
, ,

a ct ivi t y t hus fl e ct of N a t u re b u t i t i s or , ,

co u rse n ot an a ct ivi t y I t i s t h erefore cl e

. a r t h at

of t h es e t erms is u se d i n t wo senses bu t n ot t he
, , ,

on e ,

o t h er .

Ir
'
a ppe a rs t o m e t hen t h at t hevein as well as
, ,

a ch of t he
,

e o t h er pa rt s fu n ct ions in su ch an d s u ch a
way a ccordi ng t o t he m ann er in whi ch t he
,

f o ur q ua li
i n t hean i mal i t se lf w h e rea s our t e rm N at u re s u gg e
“ ”
st s
so me t h ing more t r a n ce n den t wearefor ce d of t e n h owe ve
,

s r
to e mploy i t in d e f u l t of a b e tte r wor d f p 2 no t e1
, ,

a c

I n G re e k a na d osis T h is proce ss in cl u d e s t wo s t a g e
. .
, .
.

5
s
( 1 ) t ra ns m ission of foo d fro m al i me n t a ry ca n al t o li ve r (r t he
.

r a

m oret h a n ou r absorp t ion ( 2) f u r t h er t r a ns m is sion fro m

li v e r t o t iss u e s A na d osis is li t a y ie ld in g u p a de liv e ry
s bere
‘

i t may so me t i me n de re d d i pe
. .
,

rsa l D is t rib u t ion

s

r s t ag e; cf p 1 63 no t e4
.

( d ia d osis ) is a f u r t he . .
, 1
3 .
 G A L EN

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 O N T H E N A TU R AL F A CU LTI E S I m , .

e emi
ti s 1 ar ed Th ere ar ehowever a cons i d erabl e
x

number of not un disti nguish ed men —ph ilosoph ers

.
, ,

an d physi cian s — who refer act i on to t h e W a rm an d t h e

Col d a n d who s u bordin at e t o t h ese a s p assive t h e
D ry an d th e M oist ; A ris t o t le in fa ct was t h efirst
, , ,

d to bring b ack t heca uses of t he

, ,

who at t e m p t e
v a rio u s spe ci al act i v i ties t o t hes eprin cipl es an d h e
w as followe d l at er by t h e Th ese l a t t e
,

St oi c s chool r .
,

of co u rs eco u l d logi call y m ake act ive p rin cipl e s of

the W a rm an d Col d s in ce t h e
,

,
y re fer th e c h ange of
t he el e m en t s t h e m s e lves in t o on ea no t her t o c ert a in
difl it siom a n d conde
’
ns azt ions
2
This doe s n ot hol d
d t he
.

of A r is t o t l ehowever ; seein g t h at h e e m ploy e

four q u aliti es t o ex pl a in t hegenesis of t hee
,

lem en t s
h e o u gh t properly t o h ave a lso referr e d t h eca u ses of
,

all t h e spe ci a l act i vi t ies t o t hese H ow is it t h at h e .

u ses t h e fo u r q u ali t ies in his book On G ene si s an d

”
D est r u ct ion whi l st in his M e t eorology h is
m s an d m any other works h e u ses t hetwo
, ,

P robl e ”
,

only ? Of co u rse if anyone were t o m a intai n t h at in

t he ca s e of ani m als an d pl an t s t h e
,

Wa rm an d Col d
a re mor e a ct i ve t h e D ry an d Mois t le
,
s s s o h e migh t ,

perh aps h ave even H ippo crat es on hi s side bu t if h e

were t o say t h at t h is h appens in all cas es h e wo u l d , ,

I im agin e l ack s u pport n ot merely from H ippo c rat es

b ut even from A ris t otle h i m self—if at l eas t A ris t o t l e
, , ,

, ,

chose t o reme m b e r wh at h e hi msel f t a u gh t u s in h is

”
work O n G enes is an d D es t r u ct ion n ot as a m a tter ,

of simpl e stat em en t b u t wi t h an acco m p anying

,

d emons t r at ion I h ave howev e

. r al so invest i gat e d
t hese q u esti ons in so fa r as t hey ar eof v a l u e t o a
, ,

physi ci an in my work On T e
,
mpe ra m en t s "
.

S in ce he a t an d col d t e n d t o ca u s ed iff usi on an d con d e nsa

t i on re s pe ct iv e ly .
 G AL EN

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enesis corr e
G s pon d s t o t heint ra ut e rin elifeor wh at we
m y ca ll e mb y oge A l t e t ion h e reme ne
ans h is t og e
,

a ny r sis ra

or t iss u eprod u t ion s h p ing or mo l d ing ( in G re e

.

- c k d i p l si ) a u a a s

mens t he
a or derin g of t h ese t iss ues int o organs (organ oge nesis ) .

x8
 O N T H E NA T U R A L F A CU LTI E S I , . v .
—v i

n amely G enesis G ro wth an d Nutriti on G en e

, , , sis .
,

how e v er is not a si m pl e act i vi ty of N at ure but is com ,

pound ed of a lt e
,

rat ion an d of shaping 1 Th at is t o say .

,

in order th at bone nerv e veins an d all o t her [t i ss u es ]

may co m e i n t o e xi s t en ce t h eu nde rlying su bs tance
, , ,

fro m wh i ch th e anim al springs must -b ea lt e re

,

d an d
in ord er th a t t hesu bst a n ce so a l t ere d may a cqu ire
it s appropri at e sh a pe an d po siti on its cavi t i e s out , ,

gro wt hs at t ac hmen t s an d so fort h i t has t o un d ergo

,

e
, ,

a s ha
p i ng or f o rm a t i v pro cess 2
One woul d be .

j ust ified in call ing t his s u bst a n ce whi ch u nd ergoes

al t erat ion t he ma te r ia l of t he a ni m al j u st as wood i s ,

t he m at eri al of a ship an d wax of an im a ge , .

G ro wt h is an in cre as e an d e x pansion in l ength

bread t h an d t hi ckn ess of t hesoli d pa rt s of t he
,

animal
( t hose wh i ch h a ve b e en s u bj e cte d t o th e

mo u l d i ng or sh a ping pro cess) A ul ri l ion is an ad di tion .

'

t o t hese wi t hou t e x pa ns ion

, .

us sp e ak t h en ,in t h efi rst pl ace of G enesi s

Ls r '

whi ch as w e h a ve sa id resul t s from a lt e

, ,

, r at ion t o
,

ge t h er wi t h shapi ng
Th e seed h avi ng been ca st in t o t hewomb or into
.

t he ea rt h ( for t h ere is no di fferen c e ) 8 t h en aft er a , ,

cert a in d e fi ni t e period a great n u m be r of pa rt s

be com e cons t i t u t e d in t he
,

subs t a n c e wh i ch is being
genera te d th ese d i ffe r as reg ards m oistu re dryness
an d in all t h e
, ,

coldn ess an d w a rm t h o t h er q u ali t i es

4
,

7
p 25 n ot e4
f
o
N ot ei n d e t e n logy of s e me n w i t h fe rt il i se
d se
e
. . .
,

q a ua a a ds
of pl n t s ( i
a of game te w i t h z go t e
s ) St ri t l y spekin g of y c a

o u rs ese me n co rr e spon ds t o poll en f p 1 30 not e2

. . .
,

c c
t he four pri mary q uali t i e
. .
, .
, .

s ; cf hap . c .
 GA L EN
5 évr e 7 r o7Le
e
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27t oo o g nep L L

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¢
°
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7

ov o a C
p
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e
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n wr a : [Ca l p a k w ra ,
p
'

n
7 6 ico 0 0 1 7 3777 11 2 x a L o a r a
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p [LGV.ou17

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p p p xa L
l B 157 779
'

p
x ou< 07 779 x a a
p 7 07 7 9 x a L a
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-
x n ro
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¢ p 0 ri 9 .

100 7 6 2 726 17 n w7 a 9 7 6 [cm 0 7 02 € 2d73 e

,
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,

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p v /cr L /c
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V rio s s eon d ry or d e
a u c ri v t iv ed iffe
a re n es in t het iss e s a c u

N o t ep e e m in en eof s ens eof t o h

.

- r c uc

De ii l e
.

9 A n im q
a, c s

Lit hom e t he
. .

om nn= of si m il r p r t s t h ro g h ou t
o cr o a a u

s me l l t h ro gh Her e fe rs t o t hee le men t ry t i ss e

,

a a
”
u s a u

on e iv e n ot being s s e p t ibl eof f u r t h e

.
,

c cd as r n lysis
u c a a .

20
 ON T H E N A T U R A L F A CU L TI E S I , . VI

whi ch n r lly d erive t h erefrom

at u a Th es e deri v a l

s you ar ea cq u ai n t e d w i t h if you h a v e
.

t i ve q u a li t i e , ,

given any sort of s ci ent ifi c cons idera t ion to th e

q u es t ion of gen e sis an d d e st ru ction For fi rst an d .
,

fore m ost a ft er t h eq u a li t ies m en t i on e d c o m e t he

o t her s o call e d t angible d is t i n ctions a n d a ft er t h e m
-

t hos e whi c h a ppe al t o t a st e s m ell a n d sigh t

Now t an gibl e dist in ct ions ar eh ard ness an d soft n ess
, ,
.

fri abili t y lightn e ss h e a v in e

,

v is cosi t y , ,
ss densi t y , , ,

ra ri t y s m oo t hn e ss ro u ghn e ,
ss t hi ckness an d t hin ,

se h a ve be en d u ly m e
,

ness ; al l of th e n t ioned by
A ris t o t l e 2 A nd of co u rse yo u know t hose w hi ch
ll a n d sigh t Th er e
.

a ppe a l t o tas t e sme fore if .

r at ive fa cul t ies a r e

, , ,

you wish t o know whi ch a l t e '

pri m a ry an d ele m en t a ry t h ey ar em ois t u re dry , ,

n ess col d n ess a n d w a rm t h an d if y o u wi sh t o

s a rise fro m t h ecombin at ion of
, , ,

know whi ch on e
t h ese t hey will be fo u n d t o be in e a c h a ni m a l of a
nu m ber correspon d ing t o it s s e
,

ns ibl e ele me nts Th e .

n ame s e ns ible e leme nts is giv e n t o al l th e homoge neo us 3

pa rt s of th e bo dy an d t h e ,
s ear et o b ed e tecte d

not by an y syst e m b u t by person a l observ at ion of

,

disse ct ions 4 .

Now N at u re const ru ct s bone car t il a ge nerve m e m

brane li gam en t v ein a n d s o fort h at t hefirs t s t a ge
, , ,

of t hea ni m a l s g e ne
, , , ,

s isf e m ploy ing at t his t a sk a

’
’

fa cul t y whi ch is in genera l t erms gen e

.

rat i ve an d
in m or ed e
, ,

al t e ra t ive and , , t a il w a r m ing chillin g

'

d ryi ng or m ois t en ing ; or s u ch as spring fro m t he

, ,

T h at is by t heb odi l y e y ean d n ot b y t hem in d s e ye

’

Theobs e rv e r is h e reca ll e d an a ut op t e e ye wit ne

, , .

s or
“ - ss ”

Ou r me d i ca l t e rm ut op y t h u s m e a ns li t erall y a p e
.

a s rsona l
i nsp ect ion of in t e rn a”l p ar t s ord in aril y h i d d e n
Le al t e r at ion is t hee a rli e r ”of t het wo s t ge
.
,
“
s wh i ch a

cons t i t u t e e sis cf p 1 8 no t e1
.

m bry og e ny or ge ne . . .
, .

2
 GAL EN

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x da e
p w q r
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1
Th et e
r ms Ga le s a e ost
n act uall y u s e r : op oi t ic ne
e u ro

e e
,

p oi t ic, chond r op oi ti
c.

22
 ON T H E N A T U R A L FA C U L T I E S I ,
. V!

blending of these for e x ample t h ebone -prod ucing, , ,

nerv e p rod u cing an d ca rt il age prod cing facu l t i e

- - u s 1

ce for t he
,

( s in sake of cle arn ess t hese n am es must

be u sed as well )
Now t h epe cu li ar 2 flesh of t h el iver is of t his kin d
.

as well also t h at of t h e spleen t h at of t h eki d neys

t h at of t h el u ngs a n d t h at of t h eh ea rt ; s o a lso
, , ,

t h eprope r s u bs t a n ce of t h e
,

bra in st om a ch gulle t
in t est ines an d u t erus is a se leme
, ,

ns ible
,

,
e nt of si m il ar ,

pa rt s al l t hrough simpl e a n d u n com po un d ed Th at

is t o say if you re m ove fro m e ach of t h eorga ns
.
, ,

men t ioned it s a r t e ries veins an d n erves 3 th e

,

s u bst a n ce re m ain ing in e ach organ is fro m t h e

, , ,

po int
of view of t h esens es simpl e an d elemen t a ry A s
,

.
,

rega rds t hose orga ns consis t ing of t wo d issimil a r

co a ts
4 of
whi ch ea ch is s im pl e of t h ese organ s t he
a r e t heel e m e n t s — for e xa mple t he coa ts
, ,

c oat s

of t h est o m ach oesoph agus intes t ines an d a rt eries ;

,

, , ,

e ach of t h ese t wo co at s has an a l t erative fa cul t y

pe culi a r to i t whi ch has engendered it from t h e
m ens t r u a l blo od of t hemo t her
,

Th u s th e spe cia l .

al t e rat ive facul t ies in ea ch a ni mal a r eof t h esam e

n u m ber as t heele m en t a ry p a rt s 5 ; a n d fu rt her
t he act ivit ie
,

s m ust ne cessa rily correspond e a ch to on e

of th e S pe ci al pa rt s j u st as ea ch p ar t has it s spe ci al
use —for e xample t hose d u ct s whi ch e x t en d from
,

t he
,

ki dn eys in t o th e bl ad d er an d wh i ch ar ecall e d
ters for th ese ar enot art eri es sin ce th ey d o n ot
,

u re ,

pul sat e nor d o t h ey consist of t wo coat s ; an d th ey

9
As w es h o l d
u say, par e
n hy m c a (a t rm u e
e d b y B rasi s
s

t r at a s)
T hese we r ell t hee leme s t h t A ri s t o t l efor
n t a ry t iss u e
.

3
a a

ex ampl eh d r e d ; ot he
cogn iz e r t issu es (e g fle m us cl e
,

a sh a )
he be ve
li e d t o be co mpl exe s of t h e se
.
, .

et iss e
.

Or t u n ica. i . . s u .
 GAL EN
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, .

le
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. . .
,

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7 4
 GA L EN
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'

p a iv a fi a L
.
pe v
Q
e '

M 9 8 6 7 8611 L 7 y
’

i
°

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'

a L 7 7
1 x a 7 r o 7t 7t 7 f a 15r 7
7 77

1 Li t t h . e ux e
a t ic o r i ncr e
ment l f a acu l ty .
 O N T H E N A T U R AL F A CU L TI ES I ,
. v 1. —
v 11

t here nothing ine ffe ctive or s u pe rfl uou s or ca pa bl e

is

of being be t t e
,

r d isposed This h owever I sh all .

, ,

demonstrate i n my work On th e U se of Parts .

P a ss m enow ef
lty of G rowt h 1 l et u s
to th a cu

fi rs t men t ion t h at t h is too is pr e sen t in th e fo e t us

r o as is also t henu t ri t ive fa cul t y
,

in ut e
,

but th at
t h at st a ge t hese two fa cul t ies ar e as it were
,

at , ,

handmaids t o those lre y a a d m 2

en t i oned an d do n ot ,

poss ess in th ems el ves suprem e au thority When

however t enim l
.
,

h a a t n ed its com pl ete siz e

3 has at ai

then d u ring t hewhol e peri od following its birth an d

, ,

un t il t heacme is reach ed th e facul t y of growt h is

,

pre d om i na n t w h il e th e a lterat ive an d nu t ri t i ve

facu l t i es ar ea cce sso ry—ia fact act as it s h and m aids
,

, .

Wh at t hen is the property of t hi s facu lty of grow t h ?

, ,

To e xt en d in eve ry dire ct ion th at whi ch has al rea dy

co m e in to e xi s t en ce —th a t is t o sa
y t he soli d pa rts of
t he body th e a rteri e
,

, s v eins nerves bones ca rtil ages

, , , , ,

membra nes ligament s an d the v ariou s co ats whi ch

, ,

we h a ve j ust called el ementa ry homogeneous an d , ,

sim ple An d I s hall stat e in wh at way they ga in thi s

.

e xt ens ion in every dire ction fi rs t givin g an ill ustra ,

ti on for th e sake of cl ea rn ess .

Chi ldren t ake th e bl adders of pigs fil l them with ,

ai r an d th en rub them on ash es n e ar th e fire so as to

, ,

wa rm bu t not to inj ur e th em Thi s is a comm on

, .

2
et e lteo r t iv eand s h ap ing facul t i e
th a a ne
s ( h ist oge ti c
n d org nog e ne
.

a a ti ) c

If t h ered ing i s corre

:
a ct we ca n on l y s u ppose t h t G le n a a
me an t t he embry o .
 G A LE N
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7
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,
.

28
 O N TH E N A T U RA L F A C U LT I ES , I . vn

ga m e in th e d is tr i ct of I on ia a n d among not a few ,

o t her n ations A s th ey rub they sin g songs to a

.
, ,

ce r ta in mea sure ti me an d rhythm an d a ll th eir words

ar e
, , ,

a n e x ho r ta tion to th e bl a dder to incre a se i n si z e .

When it appe a rs t o them fa irly wel l distend ed they ,

a a in blow a i r i nto it a n d e x a nd it fu rt her ; then

g p
they r u b it aga in Th is they do se v e ra l tim es u n t il
.
,

th e bl a dder seems to them to h a v e become l arg e

enou g h Now cl ea rly i n these doin gs of th e chil dren
.
, , ,

th e more th e inte rior ca v ity of th e bl adder increa ses

in siz e t h ethinner necessarily does its su bsta nce
, , ,

bec om e . B ut i f the chi ldren were able to brin g

,

no u rishment to th is thin p art th en th ey wo u ld m ake ,

th e bl a dder b ig i n th e sa me way th a t N ature does .

A s i t is howe v er they ca nn ot do wh at N ature does

, , ,

for to imita te thi s is beyond th e po wer not only of

c hildren but of any on e soe v er ; it is a pro pe r ty of
,

N a t u re alon e .

I t w ill now th erefore b e cl e ar to you th at n ut r ition

, ,

is a necessity for g rowin g th in gs For if su ch bod ies .

we re distended but not at th e sa m e time nou rish ed

, ,

they would tak e on a false app ea ra nce of g ro wth ,

not a tru e growth A nd further to be distended

.
,

in al l dire ct io ns belon gs only to bodies whose

g rowt h is di rected by N ature ; for those which ar e
distended by u s underg o this d istension in on e
direction but grow l ess in th e oth ers ; it is im
possible to find a body wh ich will rem a in entire
a n d not be torn thro u g h whilst w e stretch it i n
th e th re e dimensions Th us N a ture alone has th e .

power to e x pand a b ody in al l directions s o th at i t

rem a ins unru ptured an d preser v es com pletely it s
pre v ious form .

29
 G AL EN

Ka i
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7

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7 6 11 60 011 1 .

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'
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.
1
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5

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7
~
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.

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7
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1

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’ '

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'
L
'

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7 I A 7

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A
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’
,
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'
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 O N T H E N A T U R A L F A C U LT I E S ,
I . v n. -
1x

S uch then is growt h,

it cann ot occur an d w ithout
the n utri m ent which flows to th e pa rt an d is worked
u
p into it .

WE h av e then i t see m s a rri v ed a t th e subj ect

, , ,

of N utrition which is th e third an d rem a inin g con

,

sidera tion which w e pro posed at th e outset For .

,

wh en the m atter wh ich flows to e a ch pa rt of the

body in th e form of nutri ment is bein g worked u p
into it this a cti v i ty is n71t 7i tion an d its c a use is the
n u t r it iv e acu lt
, ,

f y O f co u rse the k ind of a cti v ity

h ere in v ol v ed is al s o a n a lt e
.
,

r at ion but not an a lter a ,

tion like th a t occurrin g at the sta g e of For

in th e l atter c a se someth in g co m es into e x istence
wh ich did not e x ist pre v io u sly whil e i n nutrition th e ,

in flowin g m ateri a l b ecomes assimil ated to th a t which

has alre ady c ome i nto e x istence Th erefore the .
,

former kind of alteration has with reason been termed

ene s is an d the l a tter assi mila t ion
g , , .

IX

Now since th e thre e fa culti es of N a tu re h av e

,

be en e x h austi v ely de a lt with an d th e a nim a l would ,

a
pp e a r not to need an y others ( bein g possessed of
the mea ns for g rowin g for atta in in g co m pletion a n d
, ,

for m ai ntai n in g itself as lon g a time a s possible )

th is tr e atise mi ght s e e
,

m t o be alr eady com plete a n d

'

to constitute a n e xpo sition of al l th e fa culties of

N ature I f howe v er one considers th at it has not
.
, ,

i e n ot t hepr e - ve
n at a l de l opmen t of t iss u eal r e
ad y
de scr i be
.

d qf cha p v i
. . . .
 G AL EN

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11 01 7u5
'
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09
p 7 7 0 5 11 .

871 01501 11 0158 65777 770 0 7 0 7 61 9 611 0 157 029 8v v ci71 6 1 9

5

, ,

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'

'
p 7 7 p7
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7 779 ll 7 8 y ap 0 1571 77 0 11 0 8
5 5

xp 7 7 .

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'

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1
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m 60 7 L 7 79
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f
c m h
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6 i9 GZ O L 1ca Lx v 1 057 a 7 0 1
'

77 1157 0 1 7 86011 7 0 1 8 6 159

5

p p
'
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'
p
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7 7 8686 1 1c7 0 1 16 0 6 0100571 0 11 1ca L
p 0 9 , , .

Likk wv 7 1511 01 11 71 611 01 11 7

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.
7 7 6 11 11 777 1 10 7 7 6 1ca L0 15677
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'

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r

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A d mini t r at io n l it
s eo n o my
“
c
ef
.

Th e t i t io o f
.
,
9 ac va n r un ct i on i g f th in o s fa cu l ty th acu l ty
t u l op e t io n p 3 n o te
,

in ac a of ra . . .
, 2 .

32
 G A L EN

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7 19

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5

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.
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.

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86 M 7 6pu 9p67 177 a

'

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p ,

6 6 1 1 0 7 09 ( 61 1 60 90 1 6 1 y a 6 159
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p p 7 y 7
.

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7 0 9a t 7 01 ,

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, 1 0 11 15

1 Li t ee ty “
m o re e
n c ss i t r i t iv eh o w e
ver t h an our
r s c

l a w of N at u r e cf p 3 14 n o t e
.
, ,
“ ”
1
His p o i n t is t hat n o gr e h a ngein co l o u rs or in any
. . .
,
.

at
2
c

t h i ng e l ecan t ak epl aceat ones te

,

s , p .

34
 O N TH E N A T U R AL F A CU L T I E S , I . 1

thi s l w 1
a e v ery anim al needs se v eral organs for
alt e
,

r in th e nutriment For in orde r th at th e yell ow

g .

may b e come re d an d th e red yellow one sim p l e

, ,

p rocess of a lter ation is requir ed but in order th at ,

the wh ite m ay becom e bl a ck a n d th e bl ack wh ite

e
, ,

al l the inte rmedi te st g es

a a ar needed 2
S o also a .
,

th in g whic h is v ery soft c annot al l at once be come

v ery h a rd nor v ice ve
rs a ; nor simil arly can a nythin
, , g
whi ch has a v e ry bad sm ell suddenly become qu ite
fragrant nor again can the con v ers e h appen
, .

How then could blood e v er turn into bon ewith

,

, , ,

out h av in g fir st become as far as possibl e thicken ed

, ,

an d white ? A nd how coul d bread tu rn into bl ood

wi thout h av in g g radu ally pa rted with its wh ite
ness an d g radu ally a cqu ired redn ess ? Thus it is
quite e a sy for blood to becom e fl esh ; for if N ature ,

thick en it to suc h an e xtent th at it acqui res a

certa in consistency a n d ce ases to be fl uid it thu s ,

becom es ori gin a l newly-formed fl esh ; but in order

th at blood m ay turn into bone much ti m e is needed ,

an d mu ch el aboration an d transform ation of the

blood Fu rther it is quite cle a r th at bre ad an d
.
,

more pa rti cul arly l ett uce beet an d th e l ike r e

, ,

, , ,

quire a great de a l of alteration in order to become

This then is on e re ason why th ere ar eso m any

, ,

organs concern ed in th e a ltera tion of food A .

second re as on is the n ature of th e s up e r l uil ie

j s 3 For
a s we a r eun a bl e to
.
,

dra w an y nourishm ent from

g rass althou g h this is possibl e for ca ttle simil a rly
, ,

we can deri v e nourishment from r adi shes albeit not ,

3
N o t qu i teou r w as tep r od uct s s i ncet h e s ear e con
s ide red as be in g p ar t l y s y n t het i c w he re
as t h e G re k pe
e rm e
,

111 01 0 w e r es i m p ly su pe r fl u o us s u bs t an ce
,

s w h i ch co u l d n o t be
us e d an d we r et h rown as i de .
 G A LE N

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1
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N o te at u r e jl p 1 2 n o t e4 ; p 4 7 not e
1 ”
ou r n
s c ]
Th e ter m m ei h e r ere ered 07 7 opr t eis e x pl a in e
. .
,

nd
, ,
2
d
‘

a as , 1 11 za

on p 3 3 cf a l s o foot n o t eon mep a ge L i n creo ft e n a a

t ran sl ate
d i t co n v e n ie may u s u a lly ber e nd e re
. . . .

ns and it d
p op e pe own sp e
,

r r cul ia cia l
r or own p ar t i cul a r in E ng l is h
S o me ti mes i t i s a l mo s t e q ual t o a kin cogna ter e l ate
.
, , ,

d : cf , , .

36
 ON T HE N A T U R A L FA C U LT I ES , 1 . x

to th e sa m e e xten t as from m ea t ; for al most th e

whol e of th e l atte r is maste red by our n at u r e s
l
; _

it is transformed an d altered an d constituted useful

blood ; but i n the r adi sh wh a t is a pp rop ri at e 2 an d
, ,

ca pa bl e of be in g a ltered ( a n d th a t only with d itfi

culty a n d with much l a bo ur) is th e v ery s m a l l est
,

a rt ; al most th e whol e of it i s s u rp l us m atter an d

p ,

p a ss es t h rou g h the d i g esti ve or g a ns only a v ery

little b ein g ta ken u p into th e v ein s as blood—nor is
,

thi s itself enti rely uti lisa bl e bl ood N atu r e there .

,

fore h ad need of a se cond process of se pa ration for

th e su pe r fl u it i e
,

s in th e v eins Moreov er these su p er

.

fl ui t ie
,

s need on th e on e h and certai n fres h ro u tes to

, ,

conduct th em to th e outl ets so th a t th ey m ay not ,

s o il
p th e u seful substan ces an d th ey a lso need
re
,

c e r ta in se r v o i rs as , it were in wh ich th ey a r e ,

collected till th ey re a ch a su ffi cie n t qu a ntity a n d

are
,

th en disch a rg ed .

Th us th en you h av e di sco v ered bodil y pa rts of a

, , _

second kind consecrated i n thi s cas e to the [remo v al

of th e ] s u p e r flui t i e
,

s of th e food There i s howe v er .

, ,

al so a third kin d for ca rryi n

g th e pa bul um i n e v ery
direction ; these ar el ik e a n u mber of roa ds inte
,

r
se ct in g the whol e body

Th us th ere is one entra nce—tha t th rou g h th e

.

mouth — for all th e v a rious ar ti cl es of food Wh at .

recei v es nou rishm ent h owe v er is not one s in gl e pa rt

, , ,

but a grea t m any pa rts an d these widely se pa ra te d

,

do not be s urp ris ed th erefore a t th e a b u nda nce or

, ,

o r a ns which N a tu re has crea ted for th e

g p u r pose 01
nutrition For those of th em whi ch h av e to do wi th
.

p 3 19 n o t e W it h Gal e i e an d m a m wema y
'

2 n s t o x os as

co mpa re t he Ge r ma n te r ms a ge n a nd f e md u se
.

d by Abe
, .

r ‘

h al d en in co nn e ct i o n wi t h hi s t h e o ry of d e nsi v e
fe fer me n ts in
 GAL EN

ofi u r a
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p
7 eXéw9 op ow v n u .

1
T ra n s i t e1 f
c p 6, 11 0t
i e of t hel ivin g organ i m cf p 2 noteI
. . .
,

. . s , . .
, .

i wi t h n u t r i tion
s
W emi g h t p ehap y more h o r t”l y
. .

a i mi la t ion of
r s sa s
‘‘
ss

e
e e of food to f”e L i n c re r end e
, ,

foo d t o f d r or “
d , rs , a ,

n u tr i men t i m n ut ri to ass imil at io cu .

38
 ON TH E N A T U R A L F A CU LT I ES ,
1 . x .
—x 1

a lterati on pr epar e th e nutriment s u i tabl e for ea ch

pa rt ; oth ers separate out th e su p e rfl ui t i e

s ; some

pass these alo n g oth ers store th em u p oth ers e

,
x ,

c rete them ; some again are paths for th e trans it 1

in all d irecti ons of th e u t ilisablej u ices S o if you
, ,

W is h to gain a thorough acquai ntance w ith all t h e

.
,

fac u lti es of Natu re 2 you wi l l hav e to consider each

,

one of these organs

Now in givi n g an account of th ese we must be
.

gin
with those e ffects of Nature together w ith their ,

corresponding pa rts and faculties wh ich are closely ,

c onn ected with th e purpose to be ach ie v ed ?

L e u s once more th en recall th e actual purpos e

'
r , ,

for w hi ch Nature has construct ed all th ese pa rts I ts .

name as pre v iously stated is nut r it ion and th e d e

,
fin i , ,

tion co rresponding to th e nam e is an as simila tio n of

s t o t hat whi ch re
t ha t which no ur is he ce
iv e
s no ur is hme
‘
nt .

An d in order that this may come abo ut w e m ust

assume a prel im inary process of adhe
,
5
sion and for ,

that again one of p r e

, se nta t ion 6
, For W h ene v er th e .

j uice which i s destin ed to nourish any of th e parts of

the animal is emitted from th e v essels it is in th e ,

first place di spersed all through this part ne xt it is ,

presented and n e x t it adh e res and becom es com

pl e te
, ,

l y assimilated .

Lit p o p hysis “i eatta h men t i mpl n ta t ion

r s L c a

Li t p o t hei Onei al mo t te
. . .
, ,

appos i t ion
r s s s, mp t e d t o ”
s s

retai n t hete rms p o t hei and p o p hy i in t ran la t ion

. .

r s s s r s s s s as
t h ey ob io u l y c rr epond mu c h more c l el y t o G a len
,
’
v s o s os s

p hy iol o gi ca l con cep t ions th an an y E ngl is h o r e

s mi -
Engl i h s s
wo rd can s .
 G A LEN

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I n a nLLsac L
L th e su b
c u taneou s ti ssu e is so ft and p i t s on p re u re I n t he W h i t e
,
.

“ ”
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ss .

d i eas e referred t o h ere ( b y w h i c h i p rob bl y mean t n”od ul r

s s a a

lepr osy ) t he same tiss u e

s ar eind u ra te d and brawny The .

40
 G A LE N
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 O N T H E N AT U RA L F A C U L T I ES I ,
. x 1. —x u

A lso that w hich is stil l conta in ed in th e v eins and

, ,

sti ll more that w hich is in the stomach from th e fact

, ,

that it is desti ned to nourish if properly elabo r ated ,

”
has been call ed nutriment S imilarly w e ca ll th e
d s of food n u trim
.

v a rious ki n
”
ent not because they
are al ready nourishing t h eanimal nor because th ey
,

e xist in th e same sta te as th e material which actually

is nourishin g it but be cause th ey are abl e and
,

destined to nou rish it if they be properly elabo rated .

Th is was also what H ippocrates said v iz z N utri , ,

‘

ment is what is e n gaged in nourishi ng as al so is ,

quasi -nutriment an d what is destin ed to be nutri

,
”
ment For to that w hich is already be ing assim i
lated h e ga v e th e nam e of nu t r ime
.

nt ; to th e similar

mate rial which is b e ing presented or be coming

adhe r ent th e nam e of q uas i-n ut ri me
, nt ; and to e v ery

th ing else — that is co n tained in th e stomach and

d n ut ri me
,

v eins — the nam e of de s t ine nt .

I T is qu ite cl ear th erefore that nut r ition mu st

, ,

necessarily be a process o f assi m ilatio n of that w hich

is nou ris hi ng to that which is be ing nou rished .

Some however say that this ass imi lati on does not
, ,

occu r in reality but is merely apparent ; th ese ar e

,

th e peopl e who th ink that Nature is not art istic that ,

sh ed oes not sh ow forethought for th e a n imal s '

welfare and that sh e has a bsol utely no nati v e powers

whereby she
,

alte r s some substances attracts oth e rs

, ,

and discharges others .

N ow speaki ng g e nerally th ere h ave arisen th e

, ,

fol lo wing two sects in medicin e and phil osophy

43
 G A LE N
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 G AL EN

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 O N T H E N A T U RAL F A CU L TI E S I , . 11 1 1

what is foreign F u rther s hesk ilfu lly moulds e v ery

.

t h ing d uring th e st a g e
,

of g e nesis ; and she also pro

v ides for th e creatures a ft e r birth employing h e r e ,

oth er faculti e s agai n nam e ly one of a ffection and

, ,

forethought for o ffsprin g and on e of sociability and ,

friendship for k indred A cco r din g to th e other

.

school none of these thi gs e ist in th e natu res [of

,
n x 1

li v ing thi ngs ] n or is th ere in th e soul any ori ginal

,

innate idea whether of agreeme n t or d i ffer e n ce 01

, ,

s e paration or synthesis of j ustice or inj ustice of th e, ,

beautifu l or ugly ; al l su ch th in gs th ey say arise in

u s f r om se
,

ns at io n a nd t hro u h s e
,

g ns at ion and ani mals ,

are steered by ce rtai n images an d memories .

S ome of th ese p e opl e have e v en e x p r essly declared

that th e soul poss e sses no reasoni n g faculty but that ,

we are l ed l ik e cattle by th e im pression of ou r s e ns es ,

and are un able to r e fuse or dissent from anyth ing .

In th e i r v iew ob v i o u sly courage w isdom temp e ranc e

, , , , ,

and self-control ar e all mere nonsens e we do not ,

lo v e either each other or our o ffspring nor do th e ,

gods care anything for us Thi s sch ool also d espises .

dreams birds om e n s and th e whol e of astrology

, , , ,

subj ects wi th which w e hav e dealt at greater l ength

in anoth er wo rk i n w hich w e d iscu ss th e v iews
2
,

of A scl e piades th e physi cian 3 Those wh o wish t o .

do so may fami liari z e th e mselves with th ese a r gu

ments a n d they may also consider at th is po int wh i c h
,

of th e two road s lyi ng befor e u s i s th e bett e r on e to

take H ippocrates took th e fir s t -mention e d A c c o rd

. .

ing to this teachi n g substan ce is one a n d is su bj e c t

to a lt e
,

r a t ion ; there is a c ons e ns u s i n th e mov e

1
F or “
nat u res in t heplu ral invol v in g t hei d ea of a
”

ne a ra t e
,

na t u re i mmanen t i n ea c h indivi d ua l cf p 3 6 not e 1

p A l os t wor k
. . .
, ,

For A sc l ep iad e
.

s v p 4 9 n ot e 5
3
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 O N TH E N A TU R A L F A CU L T I ES , I . 11 11 1

Erasist ratu s ,
P ra xagoras ,1
and all oth er physici ans

e
of emin ence but p r acti ca lly every butch er is aware
,

of thi s from th e fact that h e daily obs erv s both th e

,

positi on of th e kidn eys and the duct ( term ed the

u r e t e r which runs fr o m each kidney into the bladder
) ,

and from thi s arrangement he infers the ir character

ist i c use an d faculty But e v en lea v i ng th e butch ers
.
,

aside al l peopl e who su ffer ei ther from frequ ent

,

dysu ria or from retention of urin e ca l l th emsel v es

“ ”
2
neph riti cs when they feel pain in th e loins an d
,

pass sandy matter in their water .

I d o not suppo se that A scl epiades e v er saw a stone

which had been passed by one of th es e su fferers or ,

observ ed that this was preceded by a sharp pa in

in t h eregion be tween kidneys and bladder as th e
ston e tra v e rsed th e u reter or that wh en th e s tone , ,

was passed both th e pain and th e retention at once

,

ceas ed I t is worth wh il e th e n l ea rn ing how hi s

.
, ,

theo ry accounts for th e presence of u rin e in the

bladder and one is forced to marv el at th e ingenuity
,

of a ma n who puts aside th ese broad clearly v isible ,

3
rou t es and postulates oth e rs w hich are narrow in
v isibl e —i ndeed
, ,

e n ti rely imperc e ptibl e H is V i ew

, .
,

in fact is that th e flu id which we dr in k pass es i nto

,

th e bladder by being resol v ed into v apou rs and that

e
, ,

wh en th se have b e en again condensed it thus ,

regains it s pre v iou s form and t urns from v apour into,

fl uid H e s imply looks u pon th e bladder as a sponge

.

or a piece of wool and not as the pe rfectly com

,

pact and impe rv i ous body that it is wi th two v e ry ,

1
Dioc l es of Ca ry s tu s was t h ec h i ef rep r es en ta t ive of t he
Do gma ti c o r Hi ppoc ra t i c s c h oo l i n t he fi rs t h a l f o f t h e fo u rt h
cen t u ry B c P raxagora s was his d is c i pl e and foll owed hi m i n
t he lea d e rs h i p of t hes c h oo l F or Erasi st ra t us cf p 95 e t se
. .
,

q
Su ffer e Th e
. .
, . .

3
rs from k i dney t roubl e u ret e rs .
 GAL EN

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U n l e o t h e r w i e t at e d pe ri toneu m tand pa ri
“
ss s s s s for
etal p e r i tone
,

u m a l on e .

52
 G A L EN

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 O N T H E N A T U R A L F A C U LT I E S I ,
. 11 1 1 1

th rou gh e v e rything w hich i n a n y way co m es in con

tact with them and will n e v er c ome to a sta n dstill
,
.

But if th is b e assumed then they wil l tra v e r se not

, ,

merely th e peritoneum but also the epigastrium and

w ill be
,

co m e d ispersed into th e s u rrounding air ;

oth erwi s e they wil l ce rtainly coll ect u nder th e skin .

E v en these considerations howe v er our present

day A s cl e p iade
, ,

a n s attempt to answer d e spite th e ,

fact that th ey always get soundly laugh ed at by all

who happen to be pr e sent at th eir d iSpu t a t ions on
th es e subj e cts —a o di ffi cul t an e v il to get ri d of is
th is sectarian parti z anship so e x cessi v ely resistant ,

to all cleans i ng processes hard e r to h eal than an y ,

itch !
Thu s one of our S ophists who is a thoroughly
,

hardened di s p u ter a n d as skil ful a master of langu age

as th ere e v e r was o n ce got i n to a discussion with m e
,

on this subj e ct ; so far from be ing put out of

count e n ance by a n y of th e abo v e -mentioned con
sideratio n s h e e v en e x pressed his su rpris e that I
,

should try to overturn ob v iou s facts by ri dic ulou s

“ ”
“
arguments ! Fo r said h e
, one may cl early
,

observ e any day in th e cas e of any bladder that i f , ,

one fills it with water o r air and th e n ties u p it s n e ck

and sq u e e z es it all ro un d it does not l e t an ythin g out
,

at any poi n t but accurately retai n s al l it s cont e nts

A nd su rely said e if there were a ny l arge an d
, .

” “
, b ,

perceptibl e chann e ls coming into it from th e ki dn ey s

the liq u id would ru n out thro u gh these wh en th e
bladder was squ e e z e d in th e same way that i t,

entered 1 H a vi ng abruptly mad e th ese an d

1
Re gu rgi ta t ion h oweve r is p reven te d b y t h efac t t h a t
t h eu re te r r un s for n ea rl y on ein c h obli q uel y t h roug h t he
, ,

bl add er wa ll be fo re op e ni n g i n to i t s ca vi t y a nd t h us an
effi ci en t val ve
,

is p ro d u ce d .

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On the (a r t i t i c o r c rea t ive k i ll ) h own b y t h e
s s s
l ivin o rgan m ( 11 ) pp 25 4 5 4 7 ; I n t rod u c ti n p x xix
is 11 . o

l5i et d en ia l of A r i to t l e
1 11 0 1 9

i c t u m t h t N t i ed oe
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n o t h i n g n vai n
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W e ere mind ed of t heview f cer tain
. ar o

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58
 ON TH E N AT U R A L F A C ULTI ES , I . xi u

well d ilated We were th erefore fu rth er compell e

.
, d ,

to show th em in a sti l l li v ing a ni mal th e u rin e ,

pl ai n ly running ou t through th e ureters into the

bl adder ; e ve n th us we hardly hoped to check th e ir
nonsensical tal k .

N ow th e method of d emonstr ation is as follows .

One has to di v ide th e peritone u m in front of th e

u reters th en secure th ese wi th ligatures an d ne x t
, , ,

ha v in g ba ndaged u p th e animal l et h im go ( for h e ,

will not conti nu e to ur i n ate ) A fter th is o n e l oosens

.

th e e xt ernal bandages and shows the bladder empty

and t h eureters quite fu l l and di stended—in fact
almost on th e point of ruptur ing ; on remo v ing th e
ligature from them one th en plai nly se es th e bladder
,

beco m ing fill ed with u rine .

Wh en th is has bee n m ad e qu ite clear th en before

the animal u rinates one has to t i ea ligature ro u nd
, ,

his penis and th en to sque e z e th e bladder all over ; sti l l

n othing goes back through th e ur e te rs t o th e kidn eys .

H ere then it becomes obviou s that not onl y in a

, ,

dead ani m al but in one which is still l i v in g th e

, ,

ureters are pre v ented from recei v i ng back th e ur in e

from th e bladder Th ese observ ations hav ing been
.

m ad e o n e n ow loosens th e li gatu r e from th e animal s

,
’

penis a n d allows him to urinate then again ligatu res

,

on e of th e u reters and l ea v es the oth er to di scharge

into the bladder A llowin g th en some time to elapse
.

one now d e monstr ate

, , ,

s that th e u reter which was

li gatured is ob v iously full and di stend e d on th e sid e
ne xt to th e kidne y s whil e th e other one— t hat from
whi ch th e ligature had bee n ta ken—is itself flaccid
,

but has filled the bladder wi th u rin e Th e n again .

, ,

one mus t di v ide th e ful l ur eter and demonstrate how

,
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T h i s was t hep roces s b y wh i c h n u t ri m”ent was tak en up

from t hea l i en ta ry ca na l ; a b so r p t ion d isper sa l

“
m , ,
’’
qf.

62
 O N TH E N A T U RAL F A C U L T I E S I ,
. xn i

naturally in sympathy with anything e l s e all ,

subs tance bein g di v ided and broken u p into ih

"
harmonious eleme n ts and absurd mol ecul es .

Necessarily then besides mak ing co u ntl e ss oth e r

, ,

state m ents in opposition to plai n fact h e was ig n oran t ,

of Nature s faculties both that att r acti n g what is

’

appropriate and that e x pelli n g what is for e ign Th u s

,
.

h e i n v ented some wretch ed nonsense to e x plain

blood -production and L aa’os zis l an d bei n g utt e rly '

, ,

u n abl e to find anything to say regarding th e

clearing-out 2 of s u pe rfl u it i e
s h e did not h esitate ,

to j oin issue with obvious facts a n d i n this matter of , ,

urinary secretion to d epri v e both th e kidn e ys and ,

the ureters of their acti v i ty by assu m i n g that there ,

were certain invisible chann e ls open ing in to th e

bl adder I t was of course a grand and impressive
.
, ,

thing to do to mi strust th e ob v io u s a n d to p in one s

’

, ,

faith in th in gs which could not b e seen

A lso in the matter of th e y e llow bil e h e makes
, ,

an e v en grander an d more spirited v enture ; for h e

says this is actually generated in th e bil e -d ucts not ,

merely separated out .

How comes it then that in cas es of jaundice two , ,

thin gs happen at the same time— that the d ej e ctio n s

conta in absol ut e ly no bile a n d that th e whole body ,

becomes full of it ? H e is forced h ere again to talk

nonsense j ust as h e did in r e gard to th e u ri n e H e
, .

also talks no l ess nonsense about th e black bile and

th e Splee n not u nderstandi n g what was said by
,

H ippocrates ; and h e att e mpts i n st u pid— I might

sa i n sa n e — la n g u age to contradict what h e k n ows
y ,

nothi ng about .

p I 3 no te5 Th esub ject is de

.
'

, . a l t wi t h more full y in
c h ap xvi
. .

9
Li t ca t ha r sis
. .
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Th eE p r
m i i ci s s t .
f I n t rod u c t ion
c .
, p . xiii .

3 l“ ul es
H is 57 x 01 or mo ec
He
.

d oe n t y organ ized or“ l ivin g bod inan i ma t e

” “

t h in g s were al so t houg h t t o p osse n tu re of?p 2 n te 1

s o sa
ss a s .
,
o .

66
 O N TH E N A TU R A L F A CU L TI E S I ,
. xm

Nor is Hippoc rates th e only on e who kn ows t his to

be so whi lst thos e w ho ta ke e x pe ri e nce alone as the ir
,

sta rti n g-point 1 know oth erwis e ; th ey as well as all ,

physicians who are engaged in th e practi ce of

medi cin e are of th is opinion A scl epiades how
,
.
,

e v er is an e x ception ; h e would h ol d it a betrayal of

,

his assumed el eme n ts 2

to co n fess th e truth about
such matters For if a singl e dru g were to be dis
.

covered which attracted such an d su ch a humour

only th ere would ob v i ou sly be dan ger of th e Opini on
,

gain ing ground that th er e is in e ery body a faculty

v 3

which attracts its own parti cular qual ity H e th ere

fore says that safflowe
.

r
‘ th e C n idi an b er ry 5 an d

H ippophae t he
, ,

6 do not draw phl egm fr om

a ,
body but ,

actuall y mak e it Mor e o v er h e h olds that th e

.
,

flower and scal es of bronz e and bu rnt bro n z e i tself , ,

and germa n der 7 and w ild mastich 8 dissol v e th e

,

bod y i nto water and that dr opsical patients deri v e

,

benefit from these substan ces not because th ey are ,

purged by th em but because they are rid of s u b ,

stances whi ch actually h elp to inc r eas e th e diseas e

for if the medi c i ne does not e v ac u ate 9 the dropsical
,

fl ui d conta in e d in th e bod y but generates it it , ,

aggravates the condi ti on fu rther Moreov e r scam .

,

mony accordi ng to th e A scl e piad e an a r gum e nt not

, ,

only fails to evacuate 9 th e bil e fr om th e bod ies of

jaundiced subj ects but actually tu rns th e us e ful ,

blood into bil e and d issolv e s th e body ; in fact it

,

does all ma nn er of e v il an d in creas es th e d ise ase .

A nd yet th is d rug m ay be cl e arly seen to do good

to numb e rs of peopl e ! Y e s says h e th e y deri v e , ,

4
Ca rt h amu s tin ctori u s. G nid iu m
Dap h n e .

E up h o rb ia nt h t h aca o a mn os 7
Te u c r i u m c h a ma edr y s.
e f 5 qf p 98 note 1
.

A t r t y li gu mmi fe r
ac s a.
9
On u s o 17 6 1 1 1 6 ) . .
, .

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7c
 ON T H E N A T U R A L F A C ULTI E S I , . x1 1 1 .
~
x1v

adherents of A sclepiades w ill assent to this —or

rather th ey will — not possibly bu t certa i n ly—de
, ,

clare that th ey disbelie v e it l est th ey sh ould betray

,

their darlin g prej u dic es .

X IV

LET u s pass on th en again to a n other pi e ce of

, ,

nonsense for th e sophists do not allow one to engage

in enquiri es that are of any wo rth , albeit th ere are
many su c h th e y compel on e to spe nd one s tim e in
’

dissipat ing th e fallacious argu ments wh ich they brin g

forwa r d .

What th en is t his piece of nonsens e ? I t h as to

, ,

do with th e famous and far -renown ed ston e whi ch

draws iron [th e lod estone ] It mi ght be thought
.

that th is woul d draw 1 th eir m inds to a b e l i e f that

there are in all bodies certain f am il ie s by which
they attract their own proper qualiti es .

Now Epicurus despite th e fact that h e employs in

,

h is P hysics 2 el e me n ts s imilar t o those of A scl epiades 3 ,

yet allows that iron is attracted by th e lodestone 4 ,

an d cha ff by amber H e e v en tries to gi v e th e cause

.

of th e phenome n on His v i ew is that th e atoms

.

which flow fr om th e ston e are related in shape to

those flowi n g from th e iron and s o th ey become ,

easily interlocked with o n e a n oth er ; th us it is that ,

after collid ing with each of th e two compact mass es

( th e ston e and th e iro n
) th ey then rebou n d into the
middl e a n d so become e n tangled with each other ,

3 eul ti ma tepa r t i cl e of E p i c u ru s was t he

Th o r atom
(lit of As c l ep iad e t he o r mol ec ul e
“
n on 57 s, 11 0;

A sc l ep i ad es too k his a to mi c t h eo ry from E p i c urus and he

.
.

again fro m De moc r i t u s ; 11 p 4 9 note

,
5
Li t H e a n st one
r cul e
. . .
,

. .
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1 c n o te3 Thec i i
f .
p 61 , . re olu t ion in fever w r s s or s s as
cer tain regula ri t y ; h en ce
.

obser ved t o ta k e pl ace wi t h a

ar o e t hed oc t r in eof c r i ti ca l d ay s
s
”
.
 ON T H E N A T U R AL F A C U L TI E S I , . 111 11

maintains that th ere is no su ch th ing as a crisis ,

or cri t ical day and that Nature do e s absol u tely

1
,

noth ing for the preser v ati on of th e animal For .

his constant aim is to follow out logi cal con se

ue n ce s and to upset ob v ious fact in this respect
q ,

be ing opposed to Epicu ru s ; for th e latt er al ways

stated th e obser v ed fact although h e gi ves an i n ,

e ffe cti v e e x planation of it For that th ese smal l .

,

corpuscles belongin g to th e l odest on e rebou nd and ,

beco m e enta n gl ed with oth er sim ilar particl es of

th e i r on and that th e n by means of this e n ta n gle
, ,

ment ( which ca nn ot be seen a n ywhere ) such a hea v y

s u bstance as iron is a t t r acted —I fail to understa n d
how anybody co u ld beli e v e th is E v en if we admit .

th is the same principl e w il l not e x plain th e fact that

, ,

wh e n th e iron has another piece brought in contact

with it this becomes atta c h ed to it
,
.

For what are we to say ? That forsooth som e of , ,

th e particl es that flow from th e l odestone collide

with the i r on and th en rebo u nd back and that it is ,

by these that th e i r on becom e s suspended ? that

others p e netrate i n to it a n d rapidly pass th ro u gh it by
,

way of its empty chann el s ? 2 that these th e n collide

with th e seco n d piece of iron and are not abl e to
pe n et rate it although th ey penetrated the fi rst
piece ? and that th ey then course back to th e fi rst
piec e and prod uce entanglements l ik e th e fo r mer
,

ones ?
.
Th e h ypoth esis here becomes cl ea r ly re futed by
its abs u rdity A s a matter o f fact I have seen fi v e
.
,

writing-stylets of iron attached to one anoth er in a

l in e only th e first one being in contact with th e
,

3
reh
Th es e we e p ace or channel s be
pot h t ica l s twee
s n t he
t
a o ms ; 4 In . not ion p xiv
, . .

75
 G A LEN

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76
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78
 O N T H E N A T U RA L F A C U L TI E S I ,
. xxv

Th en again wh en a sm all body be

, ,
comes e n
tan gl ed with another sm all bod y or w h e n a body
‘

in motion becom e s entangled with anoth er al so in

moti on they do not rebo und at once Fo r fu rth er
,
.
, ,

there will of course b e others w hich b r ea k in u pon

th e m fr om abo v e from below from front a n d rear
, , ,

from right and le ft and wh ich shake and a gitate

,

th em and ne v er l e t th e m rest Mor e over we must .

,

pe rforce suppose that each of th ese small bodies has

a large num ber of these hook -li ke e x tremities For .

by one it attach es itse l f to its n e ighbou rs by anoth er

-th e topmost on e—to th e l odestone and by th e
,

bottom one to th e iron For if it were attached to

.

th e stone abo v e a n d not i n terlock ed with th e iron

below this would be of no use Thus th e u pp e r pa rt
,
1
.
,

of th e su pe rior e x tremity must han g fr om th e l ode

stone and th e iron must be a t ta c hed to the lower
,

end of th e i n ferior e x tr e mi ty and since th ey inte r ,

lock with ea c h other by th eir sides as well they ,

must of course have h ooks there too

, , K eep in .

mind al so abo v e e v eryth ing what small bodies th es e

, ,

are whi ch possess al l th es e di fferent kinds of out

g ro wths S til l more remember how in order that
.
, ,

th e second piece of ir on may be come atta ched to th e

fi rst the thi rd to th e second and to that th e fou rth
, , ,

th e se abs u rd littl e pa rticl e s must both penetrate th e

pas sages in the fi rst piece of iron a n d a t th e sam e
time rebou n d from th e piece comi ng ne xt in th e
s e ries although this s e cond pi ece is natur ally in
,

ev e ry way simil ar to th e fi rst .

S uch an hypothes is once agai n is ce rtainly not

, ,

l a c ki ng in audacity in fact to te ll th e tru th it is far

, ,

more sha m el e ss than th e pre v ious ones ; accordi n g

1
fro m t hepoin t of view of t het h e
o ry .
 GA L EN

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 ON T H E N AT U RA L F A CU L T I ES I m ,
.

an d, g i those of E pi cu rus ha ve be en co nfu te

a a n, d by
A scl epi ad es who a dh er e
,
d al way s t o logical sequ en ce ,

a bo u t which Epi c urus evi d en t ly ca res li t t le

Now peopl e of t hepresen t d ay do n ot begin by

.

gett in g a cl ea r com prehension of t h ese se ct s as w ell

as of t he
,

be t t er ones t h e re a ft er devo t in g a long ti m e

t o j u d ging an d t es t ing t he
,

tru e an d fa lse in e a c h of
t he m d e spi t e the ir ignora n ce t hey s t yl e t he m selves
, ,
"
so m e physi ci a ns an d o t hers philosoph ers No
won d er t h en t h at they honour t he
.

, ,
fa lse e q u ally wi t h
th e t r u e For eve ryone be co m es like the firs t t e ach er
.

th at h e co m es across wi t ho u t w ai t ing t o l e a rn a ny
A nd there ar eso m e of
,

th ing from anybody else .

th e m who even if t h ey m ee t wi t h m ore t h an one

tea cher ar e e u nin t e
, ,

t so lligent a n d slow - wi t t ed t h at
y
even by t hetim e t h e y h a ve reach ed ol d aget h ey ar e
,

stil l in ca pa bl e of u n d e rst an d i ng t hes t eps of an a rg u

ment . I n t heold days su ch people us e d t o be
se t to m eni a l ta sk s . Wh a t will be th e end of it
G od knows !
Now we u su all y refrain from arg u ing wi t h peopl e
wh ose pri n ciples a r ewrong fro m t heou t s e t St ill
,

h a v ing been co m p e
,

lled by the n at u ral co u rse of

even t s t o en t e r in t o som e kind of a di s cu ssion wi t h
th e m we m u s t add t his fu rt h e
, r t o wh at was sa i d
th at it is n ot only cat h a rt i c d rugs w hi c h n at u rally
at t r a ct their sp e ci a l q u a li t ies 1 b ut al so t hos e whi ch

re m ove t horns a n d t hepo in t s of a rrows s u c h as some

,

t i mes be come deeply e m be dd e d in t h e fl esh Those .

d ru gs a lso whi ch d raw ou t a n im a l poisons or poisons

a pplie d t o a rrows all show t h e sam e facu l t y as d oes
t helo d es t one Th u s I m yself h a ve seen a t horn
.
,

w hi ch was e m bed d e d in a yo u ng m an s foo t fa il t o

’

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t h r in
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84
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1 Th ew ay t h at corn can at t r ac t mois t u r e.

 O N T H E N A T U RA L F A CU L T I ES , I m
.

illustration a ffo r ded by For t h o sewho refu secom ? 1

to admit t h at anyth in g is at t ract e d by a nything e l se

will I im ag ine be h ere p ro v ed m or eign or a n t r e
,
'

, ,

g a rdin
g N at u re th a n th e v ery
p ea s a nts W h en f or .
,

my own pa rt I fi rs t l ea rned of wh at h appe ns I was

surp rised an d felt a nx ious to s e eit w ith my own
, ,

eyes A fte
,

. rwa rds wh en e x p eri ence also had con

,

fi rm ed its tr uth I sou g h t lon g a mon g th e v a rious

,

sects for an e x pl an ation an d with th e e x ce ption , ,

of th a t which gav e the first pl a ce to a t t r act ion I ,

coul d find non e w hich e v en a ppro a ch ed pl a usibility

al l the others be
,

in g ridicu lou s an d ob v iously qui te

unten a bl e .

Wh at h appens th en is th e followin g Wh en our

a sa nts ar e
, , .

p e brin g in g corn from th e cou ntry into th e

city in w a gons an d wis h to fil ch some a w ay without
be in g dete cte
,

d th ey fill ea rthen j ars wi th w ater an d

,

stand th em amon g th e corn ; th e corn th en dra ws

th e moi stu re in t o its el f throu gh th e jar an d a cqu ires
addition al b u lk a n d wei ht but th e fa ct is ne v er
g
dete
,

cted by th e onlookers un less someone wh o kn ew

a bout the trick be fore m ak es a more ca reful in s e
p c
tion Y et if you ca re to s e
.
, t down th e sa m e v ess el in
th e v e ry hot sun you wil l find th e da ily loss to be
v ery li ttle inde e
,

d Thus corn h as a g rea ter power

.

th a n e xtreme sol ar h ea t of dra win g to its elf th e

2
mois ure in its n ei ghbourh ood
t Thus t he theory .

th a t th e w ater is ca rried towa rds th e ra refied pa rt of

the a i r su rroundi g s ( pa rti cul a rly wh en th a t is
n u s

distin ctly w arm ) is utter nonsense ; for a lthou gh it is

3
e
Sp i c tt r t i o n o t he p rope
fi c f “
a r q i l i ty ; f IL
”
ac ul C 85 ,
n o te3
Th eo ry f e p o r ti on insuffi ie
.

o nt t o acco n t f
va it a c
o te1
u or .

p 1 04
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LL

1 N as a l mu cu s was oe
s u pp sd t o be t hen n - t il iz bl e
o p art u a

of th en t ri me
u n t con v ye
e d t o t he bra i n of p 214 n o te
. . 3 .
, .

90
 ON TH E N A TU RA L F A C U LTI E S ,
I . xv

A nd h ow is by th e v ei ns im possible ?
p ro pulsion
Th e situ ation of the kidneys is aga inst it Th ey .

do not occu py a position bene ath th e hollow v ein

v e-
[ v en a c av a
] as does the sie lik e [ethmoid ] p a ss a e
g
in the nose a n d pa l a te in rel a tion to th e s u r p lus
m atter from th e brain ; 1 they a r esitu a ted on both
sides of it Besides if th e kidn eys a r elik e sie v es
.
, ,

a n d re ad ily l et th e thinner serou s [wh ey - like ] po rtion

throu g h a n d kee p out the thicker po rtion th en
, ,

th e whole of th e blood conta in ed in th e v en a cav a

must go to them j ust as the w hol e of th e wine
,

is thrown into the fil t ers Fu rther th e e x a m pl e .

,

of milk bein g m a de into ch e es e will show cle a rly

wh at I me a n For this too a lthou g h it i s a l l
.
, ,

th ro wn into th e wicker strainers does not all ,

percol a te throu g h ; su ch pa rt of it as is too fine in

p pro ortion to the w i dth of th e mesh es p a sses do wn

ward s an d this is ca ll ed 717q [serum ] th e rema inin g

,

thick portion which is destined to becom e ch eese

c annot g e t down since th e p ores of th e stra iners will
,

not admit it Thus it is th a t if th e blood -seru m has

.
,

simil a rly to percol a te throu g h the kidneys th e whol e ,

of th e blood m ust come to them an d not merely one ,

pa r t of it .

Wh a t th en is th e appea rance as found on dis

, ,

section ?
One di v ision of th e v en a cav a is c a rried u pw a rds 2
to th e h ea rt a n d th e oth er m ounts u pon the s p ine
,

an d e x ten ds alon
g its whole len gth as fa r as th e l e gs ;
th us one di v ision does not e v en come n ea r th e
9
He me a n s fro m it s o ri gi n in t he li v e r ( i ein t het h re e
he pat i c e H is i d e a was t h at t heu ppe
. .

v in s ) r d i v i s i o n t oo k
n u t r i me n t to h e a r t l u n s he ad e t c an d t he l o we
.

g r d i v is io n
to l owe r p a r t of bod y On t here l at i o n of ri g h t au r icl et o
.
, , , ,

ve na ca v e an d r i h t v e n tri cl eqf p 321 n o t e

.

g , s 4 an d 5
. .
, .

91
 G A L EN

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Wea rr i v eat el ief by e x cl u d i ng o t he

ou r r p o ssi bil i t i e
b s
t heme
.

3 cha ni s t i c p h y s i cis t s pp 4 5- 47
p 85 n o te
. . .

f
c . . 3 , .
 GA LEN

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.

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. .

ar t s no hol ké o r at t r ct ion , a , is a

f ll y i n Boo k III c h ap viii

u .
,
. .

94
 ON TH E N A T U R AL F A CU LT I ES , l . xv i

XV I

Now wh il eE rasist rat u s 1 for som e reason r e pli e d at

a t le rta in o th e s he
,

gre ngth to c e r foolis h d oct rin e

d ov e r t hev i e w he l d b y H i ppo c rat e
,

e n tire l y pas s e s
n th in king i t w orth wh il eto m e
,

no t e v e n t ion i t
‘

On De
,
"
“
as he d id in his w ork gl ut i t ion ; in th at
w ork as m ay b e s e e n he di d go so fa r as at l eas t to
,

mak e m e
,

n t ion of th e w or d att r act ion w ri ti ng so m e ,

wh at as follo w s :
“ N o w the s to ma ch d o e s no t a
pp e a r t o e xe rci s e
u t wh e
,
”
an
y att ra ct ion
1
B
. n h e is deal ing wi th
dosis he doe s no t m e n tion the Hi ppo c r at i c v i ew e v e n
t o th e e xt e n t of a singl e sy ll a bl e Y e t we s h o u l d
n sat is fi e d if he h ad e ve n me re
.

h av ebe e l y w ri tte n
th is : H i ppo c rat e s li e s in sayi ng The fl e s h 2 att racts
both from t hes to m a ch an d from W i th o u t for i t ’

ca nno t attra ct e i th e r from t hes t om ach or from wi th

,

ou t .
”
Or if he had th o ug ht i t w o rth wh il e to s ta te
th at H i ppo c rate s was w rong in c ri ti c iz ing the weak
n e ss of t hen e c k of the u te ru s s e e “
ing th at the
ori fi c eof the u t e
,

ru s has no po we r of att ractin g

sem e n 3 or if he[E rasi s t rat us] had th o u g ht prop e r
”

t o w ri te an y o th e r si m il ar o pinion th e
,

n we in ou r
tu rn w o u l d h av e d e fe d o u rs e l v e
s in t h e
,

n de follo w ing
te rm s :
My good s ir d o no t r un us d ow n in thi s
,

rhetori c al fas h ion wi th o u t so m eproof ; s ta te so m e

'

de fi ni t eobj e ct ion t o ou r v i e w in ord e '

r th at e i the r
e a s b y a b rilli a n t r e
,

y ou m a
y c onvin c fu t ation of t h e
a nci e n t d o ct rin e or th at on t h eo th e r h an d we may
c on v e rt y ou from y o u r ignoran c e Y e
, , ,

t why d o I
.

i et he. t i ss u e
. s . cf p 291 . . .
 G A L EN

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1
Th is favou ri p rin i pl ,
was Erasi st r at u s no n i n
’
s te c ek w
Lat in as t h “
h orror v a u i ”
a ned in E n glis h as
“
Nat u r s
’
c e
a h orr n e
b ec
o f a v a cuu m
”
al t h ou h t h s
g te rms ar not an ee e
e G r e 7 b K GVOdfl GVOV pro a l y m a ns e ek e
,

c
xa t t ra n s l at ion of t h . b b
 ON T HE N A T U R AL F A CU L T I E S ,
l . xv i

ede ecomee e l whe n

na t ur a l t
nc
y f o n m t o b fi ll d
a v acuu r

on ce w eh e gr n t e d t he tt r ct iv e f c l ty of
,

av a a a a u

the ki d n e y s N o w l th o g h Er si tr t s kn ew th t a u a s a u a

rt inl y eis te d he n e i the r

.

th i f c l ty m os t c e
,

s a u a x

n t ion e d i t nor d e
,

me ni e d i t nor di d he m k e n y a a

m e n t as to hi vi e tion of ri n e
,

state w s on the s ec r e s u .

W hy d id hegiv eno t i c e t th e e ry b e ginn in g of a v

h is G e n e r l P r i n c i pl es th t he was going to s p e k
s—fi t l y wh t th e
a a a

a bo t n t r l ct i i t i e
u a u a a v y eh o w rs a ar

y ta ke pl ce n d in wh t si t t ions— n d the n
,

th e a a a ua a

c l re
,

in the cas e of ri n ry s e c re
,

tion d e
u d th t th i
a a a s

t ook pl c eth ro g h th e ki dn ey s b t l e ft o t it
,

a u u u s

me
,

th od of occ rre n ce I t m st the n h e b ee n for

u u av

h o w d ig etion o cc rs or
, ,

no p rpos e th t he tol d
u a us s u

e es e cre
,

s
p en d s t im p on t h u tion of bili ry su pe r a

fl it i e; 2 for in the s e cas e s l so i t w o l d h e b e

u s e
n a u av

s ffi c i e
u n t to h en m ed the p rts th o g h wh i ch t he
av a a r u

f n ct ion take s pl ce n d to h e
u omi tt e d the m eth od
a a av

On the c on t r ry in th e s ec s e s hew
.

bl e to t e
,

a ll a as a us

re
,

no t m e l y th ro g h wh t org ns b t lso in wh t
u a a u a a

w y i t o cc u rs -s h e lso d id I t hi nk in the cas e of

,

a a a

no t s t isfi e
, ,

a n do i ; for he w
a s a d w i th s y in g th t
as a a a

thi s took pl c eth ro g h t he e ins b t he l so c on

a u v u a

id ee d f ll y th e m e th o d whi ch heh e
,

s r u l d t o b e fro m
t he te c m to be c om er e fill e
,

nde n cy of a va d C on uu .

ce rning t hes ec r e ti on f ri n eh ow ee r he w ri t e s o u v

th t th is occ rs th ro g h t heki d n e y s b t d oe
, ,

a u s no t
u ,
u

a dd i n wh at may i t o cc u rs I d o no t th in k h e co u l d
at th is was from t he te n d e
.

sa
y th n cy of m atte r to fi ll
a v ac u u m 1 3 for if t h is w e r eso nobod y w o u l d h a v e
e ve r di e d of r e te n t ion of ur in esin c eno m or e can
, , ,

t he va cu u m not t he ma t t e r e vacua t ed a l t h o u gh G a l e
ne ls e
wh e reu se é w in t he lat t e r ( non -cl as s ica l ) se
ns ee
, ,

s x cv g pp 6 7
se q e n ceal most a co n
.
, . .
.
‘
21 5 A k olou t h i i s f o l l ow i n -
g up
a a. a u

se q ue nce
.
, ,

f Boo k ch p 1
2 3
.
p 1 23 o
v. . . . a . .
 G A L EN

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ssa ry ct c r and abovet he
ov e me
ch anical
te
.

9
f p 1 1 9, no 2
c . . .
pp.9 1 , 93 .
 GA L EN

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 ON TH E N A T U R A L F A C U L T I ES ,
1 . 71 V !

cond u ct a s ec on d q u an ti ty of un pu rifi e d bloo d t o t h e

ki d n ey s —occ u pi e d as they ar eb y the blood whi ch
had pr ec e de d th e r eis no passag e l e ft W h at powe r
n wh i ch w il l dra w ba c k t h epu rifi e
.

h av e w eth e
,

d
blood from t h eki dn e y s ? A n d wh at po w e
, ,

r in the
pl ac ew il l bi d th is blood r e
,

ne xt tir e to the lo we r
a rt of t h ev e an d w ill e
,

n a ca v a n j oin on ano the r

p
qu an t i ty co m ing from abov eno t to proc e
,

ed d own
w ar d s b e for et u rni ng off in to th e ki dn e ys ?
N o w E rasis tratu s r e a l iz ed th at all the s e i d e as w e re
ope n to m an y obj ections an d h e c o ul d onl y fi n d on e
a whi ch he l d good in al l r e s ect s— n am e
,

id e p l y th at
of a tt ract ion S in c eth e r e for e h edi d no t wis h e i th e
,

, r
to ge t in t o di ffi c u l t i e s or t o m e n t ion th e v i e
, ,

w of
Hi ppo c rate s h ed e e m ed i t b e tt er to say noth ing a t
al l as t o the m a nn e r i n wh i ch s ec r e
,

ti on occurs .

But e v e n if he ke pt sil e n ce I am no t going t o

F or I kno w th at if on e pass e s o v e r t he
,

do so .

Hippoc rati c v i ew an d m ake s som eo the r prono u n c e

me nt a bo u t t hefun cti on of t h eki d n e y s on e ca nno t
fail to m ak e on e se
,

lf u tte rl y ri d i c u lo u s I t was .

for th is r e ason th at E rasi tr at u s k e s

pt sil e n ce a n d
As c l e i ad e s l i ed ; th ey ar e li k e sl av e s wh o h v e h ad
p a

pl e n ty to say in the e arl y

pa r t of the ir c ar ee r an d
h av e m an ag ed b y e xce
,

ssiv e ras cali ty to es ca pe m an y

an d fr eq u e n t acc u sati on s bu t wh o l at e r wh e n caug ht
in the act of th i e
,

ving canno t fi n d an y e
, ,

. x c us e ; th e
m or em od e st on ethe n ke e p s sil e n ce as th ou g h
th un d e
,

rs tru ck wh il st the m or e sh am el e ss con tin u e

, s
t o h i d e t hemi ssing a r t i c l eb e n eath h is ar m an d
de ni es on oath th at h ehas e ve r s ee n i t F or i t was .

in th is way also th at As c l e pi ades whe n all su b tl e

e x c us e s h ad fa il e
,

d hi m an d the r e was no l on g e r any

ro m for nons e ns e a bo u t con v eyan ce to w ard s t h e
o “

1 03
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 O N T H E N A T U R AL F A CU L T I E S I ,
. xv n

or t ry any s h i ft in o rd er t o fin d somepl au sibl e e x

pl an at ion wh i ch d o e s no t d em a n d the
p rin c i p l eof

N o w th os en e a r t he t im e s of E ra s i s t rat u s m ain t a in

th at t h epart s abo v et heki d n e ys re ce iv epu r eblood

si d u eb e ing h e
,

wh ils t t h ewat e ry r e a vy t e n d s t o ru n
r pe rc ol at ing th ro u g h t he
, ,

d o w n war ds ; th at th is aft e
ki dn ey s the m s e lve s is th us r e re d se rv ice a bl e
,

nde an d

lo w the ki d n e
,

n t as bloo d t o all t h epa rt s b e

,

is s e ys .

F or a c e rtain p e rio d at l e as t th is v i e
, ,

w al so fo u n d
fav o u r an d flo u ris he d an d was h e l d t o b e t r ue ; a ft e r
ct t o t heE rasi
,

a t im e h owe v e r i t b ecam e s us pe
a n s th e ms e l v e
,

s t ra t e
,

s an d at l as t they aba n d on ed i t
, .

F or appar e n tl y t he follo wing tw o poin t s we r e

ass um e d ne i the r of wh i ch is c on c e de d b y an y on e
n ca pa bl eof b e ing prov e Th e fi rs t is t he
, ,

nor is e v e d .

he av in e s s of t h es e ro u s fl u i d w h i ch was sa id t o be
“

p rod u c e d in t h e v e n a c av a an d wh i ch d i d no t e
,

xi s t

ar e e
, ,

n t l y at the b ei nning wh n th is fl u i d wa s
a
pp g
be ing ca rri e d u p fro m the s t o m ach t o t heliv e r
, ,

W hy th e n d id i t no t at on c er un d o w n war ds wh e
.

n
i t was in the s esi t u at io ns ? A nd if t hew at e
, ,

ry fl u i d
is s o h e av y wh at pl a u s ibil i ty can an y on e fi n d in the
sta t e me n t th a t i t assist s in the pro c e
,

ss of a nadosis ?
I n t hes e c on d p l ac eth e reis th i s ab s u r d i ty th at
e v e n if i t b e agre e d th a t all t h e w at e ry fl ui d d o e
,

s fa ll
d o w n wa rd s an d onl y whe n i t is in the v e n a c a v a 1
st i ll i t is di ffi c u l t or rath e r im possibl et o say th ro u g h
, ,

wh at m e
, , ,

i t is go ing t o fall in to t heki d n e

,

a ns ys
se e ing th at th e s ear eno t si t uat e d be
,

lo w bu t on
e i th e r si d eof t hev e n a ca v a an d th at t h ev e
,

n a c av a
is no t ins e rt e d in t o the m b ut me re l y s e
,

, n d s a bran ch 2
1
Not at n erlie
a ar t gewh e i t i t il l on i t w y from
s a n s s s a

t he al i me n al to t h e l ive re n al v e
,

nt ra r in
y ca . a .

1
 G AL EN

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3
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Su r l En s mbl ed
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e eCh ose
s s ”
( Dar e
m be
r g) .
 ON TH E N A T U RA L F A C U L T I ES ,
l . xv n

t hese peopl e rapidly pass a l m ost t hes am e q u antity as

t h ey d r i n k A nd t ha t even Eras is t rat u s was aw are of
t hi s is known t o t hos e who h a ve re a d t h e
.

firs t book of
”
h is G ene ra l P rin ciples 1 Th us Ly cus is spe aking
“

n ei t h er goo d E ras ist ra t ism nor good A s cl e

.

ia di s m
p ,

H e is t herefore a s t he
,

fa r less goo d Hippo crat is m .

, ,

sa ying is l ik ea whi t e crow whi c h canno t mi x wi th

t h egen u ine crows owing t o its colo u r nor wi t h t h e
, ,

pige ons ow ing t o it s si z e For all t his however h e i s .

, ,

n ot t o be disrega rd e d ; h e m ay perh aps be s t at ing , ,

so m e won d erfu l -tr u th unk nown t o any of hi s pre ,

d ee
css ors

gree d t h a t al l pa rts whi ch ar eun

.

N ow it is a

de r oin
g g nu t ri t ion pro d u ce a cert a i n am oun t of
resi d u e bu t it is nei t her agree d nor is it l ikely
t h at th e ki d neys a lone s m a ll bodi es as t hey a r e
, ,

, ,

co u l d hold fo u r whol e coug h} a n d so m etim es

?

e ven more of resi du a l m at t er For th is su rplus

, .

must ne ce ssa ri ly be grea t er in qu an t i ty in e a ch

of th e l arger vis ce ra ; t hus for e x ampl e t h a t of
t h el un g if it corr e spon d s in am o u n t to t h esiz e of
, ,

t h evis c us wi l l obvio u sly be m any t i m es more t h an

,

t h at in t h e ki d neys an d t h u s t h ewhole of th e thorax

,

d an d t hea ni m al will b e at on ce
,

wil l be com e fill e

s uffocat e d Bu t if it b esa i d t h at t h eresid u al m atter
, _

is e q u al in am ou n t i n ea ch of t h eo t h er pa rt s where
.

ar e t hebladde
,

rs one m ay ask t hro u gh whi ch it is

x cre t ed ? For if t hekidn eys prod u ce in d rink ers
, ,

e ,

t hree an d so m e t i m es fo u r co ngii of s u perfl u ous

m a t t er t h at of e ach of t h eo t her vi scera w ill be
mu ch mor e an d th us an enormous barr e
,

l will be
d e d t o conta in t he
,

ne e waste pro d u cts of them al l .

3
A bou t t we lveq u ar t s T h is is abou t fi v et i me s as m u ch
as t h e a vera geda il y e t ion and cou l d onl y be
x cr e pass e
.

d if a
ve ry l argeamo u n t of winew e red ru nk
,

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p
f

l
f
c p r m i s n owaday s l i mi t e
T h is t e
89 3
d to th e
d r aw ing act i on of a blis t e
. . .

r cf p 223 . . . .

1 1 6
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p
9

1 et e r m o i s u se
Th d bo t h s eifi lly for t he s t o mach c ca
x
p a

rop e r and also (a prob bly h e re) 1 a om ewh t W i d e r sens e

30
s a 11 s a

r t he s t o m ch e g ion in cl u d ing t he d j e
a n t pa rt of t he
r a ac

sm ll in t e s t ine t h is was t hepar t of t heali me

,

a ,
n t a ry can al
1 1 8
 ON T H E N A T U RA L F A CU LTI ES ,
11 . 1

so false as t o be d e t e ct e d even by A s clepi a d es Now .

,

Erasis t rat u s consi d e rs i t a bsol u t ely c e rt a in th at if

a nyt hin g flows fro m t h ev eins
,

one of t wo t h in gs ,

m u s t h a pp e n : ei t h e r a co m pl e t ely e m pty spa c e w ill

res u l t or t hecon t i guo u s q u an t um of fl u id wil l r un
in an d ta ke t h epl a ce of t h at whi ch has been
,

evacu at e d A s cl e .pi a d es however hol d s t h at n ot

, ,

one of t wo b ut on e of t hree th ings m u s t b e sa i d

'

t o res u l t in th e e m p t ie d ve ssel s : ei t h er t h e re will

be an en t irely e m pt y sp ace or t he con t iguou s
port ion will flow in or t hevessel will contract For
,

.
,

wh erea s in th e ca s e of ree d s an d t u bes it is tru e to

if t h ese be s u b m erge d in w at er an d ar e
,

sa y t ha t , ,

e m p t i e d of th e ai r wh i c h t hey con t a in in their

l um ens th en ei t h er a co m pl e tely e m p t y spa ce w ill
l eft or t h e
,

be con t ig u o u s po rt ion will m ove onw a rds ;

in t h e
,

ca se of vein s t his n o longer hol d s sin c e t hei r

coa t s ca n coll a pse an d so fa ll in u p on t h e

,

in t erior '

ca vi t y I t m ay be seen t h en how fa lse this

hypo t hesis —by Z eus I ca nnot ca ll it a demons t ra
.
, ,

t i on —
,

o f Era sis t r a t u s is .

A nd from ano t her point of V i ew even if it wer e

t ru e it is s perfl o s if t e
, ,

u u u h s t o ch h as t hepower
m a 1

of com pressing t h ev e
, ,

in s as h e hi m sel f s u ppose d a n d
the
, ,

ve in s a ga in of con t ract in g u pon their con t ents an d

propell ing t h e m forw a rd s 2
For a pa rt from oth er
rat ions no p le
.
,

consi d e t hora 3 wo u l d ever t a ke pl ac e in

,

t h ebo dy if d elivery of n u t ri men t r e

,
s u l t e d m erely
from t heten d en cy of a v a cu u m t o be com e refill e d
Now if t h eco m pression of t h esto m ach be co m e
.

,
s
w eaker th e fu r t h er it goes an d ca nnot rea ch t o an ,

fr o m wh i ch n u t ri m e n t was b e li eve d t o bea bs orbe d by t he

me
s nt ee
ri c ve ins f p 309 n ot e2
c

1 00 no t e 2 ; p 1 6 7 no t e
. . .
,
3
f
c 2
act er is t ie l e
. , .
.
,

in E raais t rat u s s pa t h o l o gy
3 ”
si on
’
A c ar

1
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 ON TH E N A T U R AL F A CU L TI ES, I I . u

6
by an y me ans any o t h er ca us e for t h ese cre t ion of
.

urin e ; we ne ce ssa rily a pp e a r m a d if w e m a in t a in

t h a t t he urin e pas ses in t o t heki d n eys in t h eform of
v a po u r an d we cert a inly cu t a p oo r fig u rewh en w e
t a lk a bou t t het e
,

nden cy of a v acu um to be com e

re fil l e d ; 1 t h is idea is foolish in t heca se of blood ,

and i m possibl e n ay perfe ct ly nons ens i cal in th e ,

eu rine
, ,
2
cas e of t h .

This t h e n is one bl under m ad e by th os e who

m sel ves from t h e
, ,

d isso ci a t e t h e prin cipl e of at t ract i on

A no t h er is t h a t whi ch t h ey m a ke about t he
.

se cr el ion
o
fy e l lo w b i le For i n t h is ca s e t oo it is n ot a fa ct

t h at wh en t he bl ood runs pa st t hem o u t hs [st o mat a ]

.
, ,

of t he bil e -d uct s t h ere will be a t horo u gh sepa ra t ion

”
out on ] of bili a ry w ast e mat t er - “
Well .

e
,

t u s suppose th a t it is n ot se cre t ed b ut
ca r ri e d wi t h th e bl ood a ll o v er t he bod y B u t you
.
,

sapi en t fol k Er as is t r at us h ims elf suppos ed t h at N a t u re

t ook t ho u gh t for t h e
,

a ni m al s
'
fu t u re an d was work
m anl ik e in her m e t hod ; a n d a t t hesa me t i m e h e
,

m a in t a ined th at t h ebili ary fl u i d was useless in

every way for t hea n im a ls N ow th ese two t hin g s
ar e
.

in co m pa t i bl e .For how co u l d N at u re be st ill

looke d on as e x e r c ising for e t ho u gh t for t h ea ni mal
wh en sh e allowe d a nox io u s h u m o u r su ch as t hi s to
be ca rri e d off an d di s t rib u t ed wi t h t h e bl ood ?
Th is however is a sm all m at t e r I sh a ll ag a in
poin t out h ere t hegrea t es t a n d m ost obvi o u s e rror
, , .

For if t h e lf t o t hen arrower

.

yell ow bil e adj u st s i t s e

v essel s an d st om at a a n d t heblood t o t h ewi d e
,
r on e s
for no ot h e r re
,

ason t h a n t h a t bl ood is t h i cke r an d

bil e t hi nn er an d th at the s t o mat a of t h eve ins ar e

,

H orror v acui 9
B u t E ras is t ra t u s had ne
ver uph e
ld
t his in t hee
ase of u r in ary se re
.

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, , , .

Or ar t is t i c sk ill “
a r t is t r y
,
”
c
f B ook I ch ap xi i . . .
, . .

3 Onl y ; ”
In t rod p x x vi i i
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n al t hough hehas not ye
t cl e e
. .
,
.

arly d ifi
’
4 a , r

1 26
 ON TH E N A T U R A L F A CU LT I ES ,
II . 111

III

T H U S eve ry hypoth esis of

,
h
c ann e
ls 1
e x pl an a
as an

t i on of n at ur al fu n ct ionin g is pe rfe ct nonsens e For .

,

if there were n ot an inbor n f a cu lty given by N a t ure

t o e a ch one of t he organs at t hev ery beginning then ,

a ni m a ls co u ld not con t in u e t o live even for a few

d ays far l ess for t h enu m ber of yea rs whi ch t h ey

For l e
,

a ct u ally do . t us s u ppose they w ere under no

2
gu a r di anship l ackin g in cre at ive ingenu i t y an d fore
t hough t ; l e
,

t u s S u ppose t hey were ste e re d only by

m at e 3
ri l for ces an d n ot by an y spe ci al
a ,

( h e on e a t t ra ct ing wh a t is proper a no t her

V
t t o it

rej e ct i ng wh at is foreign an d y e
,

t a noth er ca u s ing
al t er a t ion an d ad hesion of t h em at t er d es t ined t o
,

]
no u rish it ) ; if w e suppose t his I am sur e it woul d ,

be ri di cu lous for us to d is cu ss n at u ral or s t ill more

psy chi ca l act ivities—
, , ,

, o r in fact life a s a whole 4

, , .

For t h ere is not a s ingl e a nim a l whi ch coul d li ve

or en d u re for t h eshort es t tim e if possessing wi t h in
‘

i t s elf so m any d i fferent p ar t s it did n ot e m ploy fa cu l

,

t ies wh i ch were a ttr a ct ive of wh a t is a ppropri a t e ,

el imin at i ve of wh at is foreign an d alterat ive of wh at

is d est ine d for nu t riti on On t h eo t her h a n d if w e
,

h ave t hes efacu l t ies weno longer nee d 6 17071 776 15

.
,

, ,

li t t l e or big restin g on an u nproven hypo t hesis for

x pl a ining t h e
,

e se
,

cre t i on of u ri ne a n d bile an d t h e

of so me f a v o ur a bles it ua t ion ( in wh i ch
,

con cep t ion

po int a lone Erasist rat us shows som e common sense

sin ce he d oe s regard all th e pa rt s of t hebod y as
,

e nt iat e d p h y siologi ca l fro m p h y si ca l pro ce ss es ( bot h ar e

n at u ral ) y e t sepa rat e s t hem de fini t e
ly fr om t heps y chi cal
”

f p 2 foo t n ot e A p sy chical f un ct ion o r ac t ivi t y 18 i n

.

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. .
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60 707 1
7 6 0 0 0 7 0 2
’
9 0 6
0 2 7 77 0 0 0 7
7 0 — 00 000 0
7 0
7 7

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,
00 0 9 0 0 7 ,

7 0 9 0 606 07 6 60 9 00 76 676 7 779 0 0000

’
0779
0 60 1 7 7 0 0 07 0 677 6 0 6 650 7 0
7 7 .

060 60 1 76 00601 7 0 7 0 0
7 0 00 7 1
"

K0 } 0770 6 6 0 0000
. 7
f V ,

81 0 67 66 1 0 1 7 8
fl l
7 0 0 77 6 000 , 0 00 61 0007 9 00 0
0 01 77

1 TheSp e r ma to z oo n n ow beo me c s an o rg ni m p r o pe
a r s

d t o t he
G a l e a tt ri bu t e me
e n w h at weh o u l d
.

3 n 60 0 67 771 or s s

x3 0
 O N TH E N A TU R AL F A C U LT I E S ,
II . in

s im ply by be in g cloth ed e xtern ally in a form an d

a rtifici a l sh a e But N a ture d oe s not p res er v e t h e
p
o ri gin al ch a ra cter of any kind of m a tt er ; if s hedi d
.

so then a ll pa rts of th e an imal would be blood —th a t

,

bl ood n a mely which flows to th e semen from th e

, ,

im pre gn ated fem a l e an d which is so to s pea k li ke , ,

the sta tu a ry s wax a sin gl e u nifo rm m a tter subj ected

’

to th e art ifi ce
, ,

r From thi s blood th ere a ri ses no pa rt

.

of the a n im a l w hich is as red an d moist [as blood is ] ,

fo r bone a rte ry v e in nerv e ca rtil ag e fat gl and

membrane an d m a rrow ar enot blood thou g h th ey
, , , , , , ,

, ,

a ris e from it .

I wo u ld then as k Erasi st ratus hims elf to inform

me wha t the al terin g coagul a tin g an d sh ap in g , ,
“
a ent is H e would doubtless say Either N a ture
g .
,

or th e semen m ean in g th e sam e thin g in both

,

ca ses but e xpl a in in g it by di fferent de v i ces For

, .

th a t wh ich was p re v iou sly semen wh en it begins

to p rocre a te an d to sh ape th e a ni m al be
,

comes so to
a s eci al nat u re
, ,

sa
y , p
l
For in .th e s a me w a
y th at

Ph idi as possessed th e fa culties of h is art e v en before

touch in g his m a teri a l an d th en a cti v ated these in con
ne
,

ct i on with th is m ate ri a l
( for e v ery fa culty rem ains

ino p er ati v e in th e a bsence of its pro per m ateri al ) so it ,

is with the semen : its fa culti es it possessed from the

be ginnin g 2 whil e it s a cti v iti es it does not recei v e
,

fro m its m ate ri al but it m a nifests th em in co n nection

,

therewith .

A nd of cou rse if it were to be o v e rwh elmed

, ,

with a g re a t qu antity of blood it woul d p e rish , ,

whil e if it were to be enti re l y de p ri v ed of blood

t o t hefe rt i l ized o v u m : t o him t hem at e r na l co nt ri bu t i on i
—me
s

u rel y pas i v e r efood for t hepe r m Thee o h -

m a k ing
svu ru T h eo r y w as not d ee
s s
p c

l ope d t i ll t he se e nt e
en t h ce
.

v nt u r v
v

(f p
. 1 9 n ote
.
, 3 .
 G AL EN

007 000 0 00 7 6001 7 47 00 1 9

'
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0
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7
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,
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,
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00 0 7 7 6601 0 76 0 07 0 0 90 76 0 91 67 7 6 0 77077 0 000076 1 9 ,

600 000 96 0 60767 1 76 770 7 1 00 00

, 0001 0 000007 770 0 1

76 0 7 0 7 00 77 6 00
0 .

1 e
wes h o u l d b ta l k i ng p sych o l o gy , not b i o l o gy ; cf
s t o mach , p 3 07 , n o t e
.

3
act i o n now d e e ee e
. .

2 A tt r scri b d no t m r l y as q ua l it a t i v but
a l s o as q uant zta t i ve . c f .
p 85 ,
. no t e
.3
( 32
 G A LEN

T6 8 00 7 7 6000 ; 77 a px77 7 00 {0500 87700007 1

’

7
7 0 7

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7
0 x 0 0 00 06 1
7 9 77
7
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A

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7, 6 7
7
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0 1 00
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00 76 01 0 6 0 66 0 7 7 7 007 7 77 060 0 0 7 77 7 00 0 77 60 0 7 09
7
, 0
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60 07 0; 0 0006 7 000 0 0 0 6 1 77 7 0 06 77 7 0
°
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07 007 86 9 07 0 7 6 090, 9 6 69 7 7 0 0 00 0 1 00 6076 0 06 000 7 00

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0 00 0 0 .
0
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7 6 00

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77 077909 0 51 0 007 00 607 0 0 0 0 90 1 7 00 0

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0770 77877 76 0 1 77 0 0001 07 7 1 76 77 8 000 01 9 656 0 0 777 0 1

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’

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0 t .

00 77 81 0 77 00 0 7 1 76 7) (750 06 677 76 0 9 770 77 007 7 00 06 0

"

0600 677 67 7 0 7 00 7 1 00 06 7 7 7 0 0 0 0600 7 6 01 7 69770 1 0 7

60 07 07 7 0 0 77 6000 7 0 0 0)
“
1 7 7 77 076 01 67 009 677 6 7 779
4 ,

676 7 0 60 9 7 00779 77 0 676 7 7 6 0 6 1 0 6 06 7 6 7 779 0000 0007 00

, ,

7 07 7 070 07 07 0 6 676 0 0 9607 11 x1 7 07 v 1 06 7 0 0 6 7 007 00 '

670 77 76 0 1 7 0 00 00 0 7 7 00 9 676 6 1 000 067 6 7 0 1 81 0 7 00

,

77 6 6 (0 00 1 09 77 0 1 0 600 0 07 7 016000 7 09 .

A 00 6 6 7 07 0 31 0 7 7 00 0 96 07 07 0 676 0 0 7 0 007 07
606 7 0 7 6 0
0
6 606 1 6 0 01 76 00
(

0
00
0 079 65 0

1 606 0 90 1 7 06
070
00 0 0
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£
0 6 1 77 ,

7 7 0600; 5 0 7 0
xp 7 77 07 9 000
7 .

1Ar i t o t e
s l i n nd St o i d l i ty of n t i end pas i e
a a c ua a ac v a a s v

pri n i p l e
c

N o t et h t er ly e l o pme
m b ry o ni d ee s ri be
nt 1 8 d e
.

2
a a d as c v c a

pr ocess of 71 71 0 766077 cf p 1 30 n o te2

7
7
. . .
, .

1 34
 O N T H E N A T U RA L F A C U LT I ES , II . 771

A nd wh a t is th e semen ? Cle arly th e a cti v e p r in

ci l e of th e ani m al th e ma terial p rinci pl e bein g the
p
menstru al bl ood 1 Ne xt se
,

ein g th at th e acti v e p ri n
,

ci l e
.

p em ploys th is fa culty
p rim a rily therefore in ord er

th at an y one of th e th in gs fashion e
, ,

d by it m ay come
into e xistence it [th e prin ci pl e ] m ust n ecessa rily be
,

p o s sessed of it s own faculty H ow . th en w as B r asis

, ,

t r a t u s un a w a re of it if th e p rim a ry function of th e
,

semen be to d ra w to itsel f a du e pro po rtio n of bl ood ?

Now this fl uid would b e in du e pro po rtion if it were
,

so thin an d v aporous th at as soon as it was dr awn

, ,

li ke dew into e v ery pa rt of th e semen it would ,

e v e rywh ere cea s e to d ispl ay its own pa rticu l ar

ch a ra cter ; for so th e semen wil l e asily domin a te a n d
qui ckly assi mil ate it —in fact wil l u seit as food I t
will t he
.
,

n I im a gi ne dr aw to its el f a second a n d a
, ,

th i rd quantum an d thu s by feedin g it a cqu ires for

,

itself consider bl e bu lk
a a n d qu ntity
a
2
I n fact t he
rat ivef aculty h as now been disco v ered as well
.
,

a lt e ,

althou h a bout th is al so Eras istratus h as not wri t ten a

g
word A nd thirdly th e s pi g fa culty W il l beco m e
.
,
h a n 3

e v ident by v i rtu e of wh ich th e semen fi rstly sur

,

rounds itself wi th a thin m embran e lik e a kind of

su perfici al condensa tion ; th is i s wh at was d es cribed
by Hi ppocra tes i n th e six th -d ay bir th which a o , ,

cordin g to his statement fell from th e s in gi n g

g irl an d resembl ed th e p ellicl e of a n e
,

gg An d .

followin g this all th e other sta g es will occur su ch as

ar e
,
“
described by h im in his work O n the Chi l d s '

N a ture .

Bu t if ea ch of th e pa rts form ed were to rem ain

as sm all as wh en it fi rst ca me i nto e xi stence of wh at

u s ewoul d
,

th at be ? Th ey hav e th en to grow , , .

3
On t heal t er a t ive an d shap i ng facu l t i es cf p 1 8 n o te1
. .
, .

x
 G A L EN

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’
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06 1006 00 . 76 0 6 001 07 7 000 96 0 6 607706007 0
7 07 0 6

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7 01
8 00, 0 00007 70 96 69 00 9770 77 00 000 0 I ] 76 0 76 7 070 000
,

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0 60 0 00 7 07 060 01 76000
’

7 0 77 7

6 1 00 1 76 0 7 00 169 07 9 76 6/ X000 077060 0 7 606 1 0 77

1 0 11
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7
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00 7 77 7 6001 7 0 06 1 6077
7
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7 0 1 0 7 6 1 00

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’

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96 0 60 6 676 007 0 7 00 77 60 0 00 000 6
"
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06
7
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,

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,

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0 1 0 079 066 1 7 7
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00 6 07 0 0 0 3 160
6 6
 GAL EN

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.

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f

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I 6 0
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A 01 0 7 07 6 06 1 0 . I LV

qf I t od u ct
. n r ion , p . xx vi .
9
f p:
c . 15 .
 O N T H E N A T U RA L F A CU L TI E S 11 . 111 -1 17
,

p l i
a t ed or a g a rmen t wh en be in g w ov e n ? I t i s no t

so h ow e
,

v er G ro wth b e longs t o t h at wh i ch has

s pe ct to i ts form wh e
.

alr eady b ee n c o m pl e
,

ted i n r e r eas ,

th e proces s b y wh i ch th at wh i ch is st il l be comin
g
a ttai ns i ts form is t e rm e d no t gro wth b u t g e n esis _
.

Th at wh i ch is gro ws wh il e th at wh i ch is not
, , ,

b e co m e s .

T HI S also was u nk no wn to E rasis t ratus wh om

nothi ng es caped it h is follo we rs s p e
,

ak in an
, y way
trul y in m a in ta ining th at he was fam ilia r w i th t he
P e ri pa te ti c ph ilosop h e rs N o w in so far as h e
.
,

a cc la im s N atu r e as b e ing an a rti s t in cons t r u ction

e v e n I r ecogniz et h eP e rip at e tic te
,

ach in gs b u t in
othe r r e spects h ed oe s not co m e n e a r th e
,

m F or if .

an y on e wi ll m akehims e lf acq u ain t e d w i th the

w ri ti ngs of Aris to tl e an d Th e oph rastu s the s e wil l
e
,

e a r t o h i m t o c ons is t of c o mm n ta ri e s on t h e
a
pp
N at u r e -lor e [phy siology] 1 of H i ppoc ra tes — ac co rdin g

to whi ch t h eprin c i pl es of heat col d d ryn e ss an d

m oist u r e a ct u pon an d ar e
, ,

acted u pon b y on e a noth e r

the h o t prin c i pl e b e ing the m ost acti v e an d t he
,

c ol d coming n e x t to i t in po we r ; all this was s ta ted

in the fi rst pl ace b y H i ppo c ra tes an d sec on d l y by
A ris to tl e Fu rthe r i t is at on ce the H i ppo c ra ti c
an d t h e
.
,

Aris t o te li an teach ing that the pa r ts wh i ch

be ing no u ris he d r ec ei v e th a t no u ris h m e nt
thr o u g h o ut the ir wh ol es u b sta n ce an d th at sim il arl y
proc e ss es of mingling an d a lt e
, ,

rat ion in v ol v e the e n ti r e

,

s u bst a n c e 3 . Mo re o v e r th a t di g e s tion 1 s a s pec i e s of

,

F or d e fi n i t ions of al t e at ion and mingling ( 07 002

r 9
“
te m 1

pe rame
,

) cf Boo k L chaps ii and i ii

”
nt .
, . . .

l
 GA L E N

00 00x6 1 0 71 0 6 06 7 0 3 00770 7 00 7 0 000

67 09 6
6 9 7 770

6 60 006000 77 01 0 7 770 0 6 0 1
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0 7
7
7 7 0
7 5 ,

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71 06 7 7 70 0 655770 1 0 671 7 779 7 7 1 607 77 01 0 7 160 6 01 9 71 0 6

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’
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,

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77 0
0 00

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3 0
’

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0 0

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,

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0 0
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'
60 01 67 100 7 779 6 006 0 6 01 9 1 77 77 071 0167 779 060 7 7 013 7 09
0 77 1607 0 0 10 0 1 0 6 0 0 910 9 6 1 77 6 0 1 0 7 07 6 07 79 0
y

0 0 A 0 6 ,

06 07 6 009 0 0 9 109 5
7
5 7
77 7 0 0 7 0
9 71 0 6 0770 6 6 7 0 07 0
1
.

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,

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'
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’

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1 40
 G A LEN
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«
, ,

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1
,

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1 “
U se le ss or gan s ; of 5 6 no t e 2 F or fa lla c y of
s view on t h e
p e
. , .

Er as is t r a t m on v p 20
’
s 5 . . .

1
42
 ON TH E N AT U R AL F A C U L T I ES , II . IV

t h ey must eith er advan ce t he one proposition or th e

ot her A ccord ing t o t h eform er one t heP eri pa teti cs
.

had no accu rat e a cq u a in t a n ce wi t h N at ure an d

accor d in g t o t h e
1 ,

se con d Era sis t rat u s I t is m y t ask

th en t o po in t ou t t heopposi t ion between the t wo
.
, ,

do ct rines an d t h e
,

,
irs t o m a ke th e choi ce .

But t h ey cer t a inly wi ll n ot ab an d on their reveren ce

for Erasis t rat us V e ry well t h en ; l e
.
, t th em s t 0p
t a l king a bout th e P eripa teti c philosophers For .

among th e num erous physiologi cal t e ach in gs reg ar d

ing the genesis an d destru ct ion of anim als t he ir ,

h ea l t h t h eir disea ses an d the m eth ods of tre at ing

, ,

t h ese there will be foun d one only whi ch i s co mm on

to Erasist rat u s an d t heP eripa t e t i cs— n am ely t he
,

v iew t h at N at ur e do e
,

s everyt h in g for some p urpose ,

an d no t h ing in v a in .

But even a s regards this d o ctrin e th eir a gree

ment is only verb a l ; in pract i ce Erasis t rat u s m akes
h a vo c of it a t housand t i m es over For accord ing .
,

t o h im th e spleen w as m ad e for no purpose

, as
also t he
,

o m entum ; s imil arly t oo th e a rt eries whi ch

t hese a r e
,

a r e ins ert ed
,

into ki dn eys 1 - a l t h o u gh

pr act i cally th e l argest of all those t h at spring fr om

t hegr eat a rtery [aorta] ! A nd t o j u d ge by th e
Er as ist r at e a n ar u m en t
g th ere
, m u st be co u n t l ess
o t h er usel es s s t r u ct u res ; for if h e knows no t h ing
,

at al l abou t t h ese stru ct u res h e has li t t l e m ore

,

a n ato m i ca l knowledge t h an a b u t cher wh il eif h e is

a cq u ainted wi t h th e m an d y e
, ,

t d oes n ot s t at e th eir
u s eh e cl e a rly im a gin es th at t h ey w er em ad e for no

p u rp ose like t hespleen Why how e

,

, . ver sho u l d I
, ,

d is cu ss these s t ru ct u res fu lly belonging as t h ey do

,

t o t he On the U seof P art s whi ch I am

“ ”
t re at ise
pe
,

rson ally abo u t to compl e t e ?

 GAL EN

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.
1

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,

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’

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.
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eSt oi s
Th c ThePe rip t e
2
t i s ( A ris t o t e
li ns )
a c a

A ris t o t l e re d t he
g rd e 0 0 1 10 1 6 d i ffe ren e s ppre he n de
. .

3 a 11 1 16d c a

by o r s e ns e
u s ( t he ol d t hew r m t hem ois t nd t hed y )
c a a r as
f ndame n t al w h il et heSt oi cs h el d t he fou r c0 r po e lele me
, , ,

u ,
nt s r a

1 44
 G A LE N
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’

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'
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’

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‘

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’

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0068
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7 7 9

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’

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1 0 0
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’ '

7 1 , .

10
7 00 7 00 07 6 7
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0 6

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’
77 60 ,

eo is 00 10 t het r nsv e
1
J c r rs efiss reby w h i h t hepor t al
7 6, a u c

ve
in e rs t hel i ve
nt e
,

r .

1 46
 O N TH E N A T U R A L F A CU LT I E S I I ,
. iv .
-v

common einto wh i ch th e v eins from th e g te

sp ac a

w y [of t h e
a l iver 1 con d u ct t heu n ur ifi e
p d bl ood n d a

from w hi h in t e firs t pl et he[bil i ry ] p ss ges

,

c ac ,
a a a

t ke over t he bil e n d s eon dly t he[br n h e

,

a a s ] of
c a c

t heve na v t ke over t h ep rifie d blood For it

, ,

ca a a u .

wo u l d n ot only h a ve don e him no h a rm to h a ve

m en t ion ed t he ide a of at t r act ion bu t h e wo u l d t h ere ,

by h ave been a ble t o get ri d of co u ntless other dis

ut e d q ues t ions
p .

AT e t u l m oment
th ac a however t he Erasi
te
,

eeng ge d in
,

st r a n
a s ar a a cons i d era bl e b at t l e n ot

rs b u t al so am ongst t hems elv e

,

onl y wi t h o t h e s an d so
t h ey ca nnot e x pl ai n t h e pas sa ge fro m t hefi rs t book
,

of t h e G enera l P rin ciples i n whi ch Era sis t rat u s

“
,
”

says S in ce t here a r et wo kinds of vessels openi ng 2

t hesam e pl a ce t h eone ki n d e xt endin g to t h e
,

at

ga ll -bl adder an d t heo t h er t o t hev ena ca va the

,

s u l t is t h at of t h en u t rim ent carried up from t he

,

re ,

al imen t a ry ca n al th a t pa r t whi ch fi t s bo t h kin ds of

,

sto ma t a is re ceive d in t o bo t h kin d s of vessel s som e

be ing ca rried i n t o th e ga ll -bl add e r an d t h erest
,

pa ssing over int o t h even a ca va

,
”
For it is di ffi cu l t
t o say wh at w e ar et o u nders t a n d by t hewor d s
.

“ opening at t h esam e pl a c e whi ch ar ewri t t en

at t he beginn ing of t his p assa ge Ei t her t hey m e a n
t ween t h et e rmi n at ion of
.

t h ere is a junc ion t 3

be
t h evein wh i ch is on t h econ ca ve s u rfa ceof t h e
l iver 4 and two o t h er v as cu l a r ter m in at ions ( t h at
of t h evessel on t h econv e x s u rfa ce of t h eliv e r5
3
Lit “
n as t omosing
a
” 3
Moreli t era ll y syn apse
“ ”

The por t a l v e The he in or v e

.

pa t i c v e
. .
,

in . i ns .

I
 GAL EN

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7 7 100

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7
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’

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7
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, ,

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’

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'

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’

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0
.
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.
7

1
Th epor t l v e
a in .
qf . p . 1 20, no t e1 .
 GA L EN

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169 0 7 0 0
’
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0 7 6 060 90 1
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0 ,

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, . 06 060
077
71 0 7
0
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0 .

X
0
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0
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.
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7
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1 75

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°
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”
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7 7
0 0
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6
.

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0

f p
c no t el
272,
onemi gh t as s ume
. . .

an 0117 01 16
071 .
 ON T HE N AT U RA L F A CU LT I ES ,
u . vi

blood is r u nn ing w ay t hr ou gh t h estom at a of

a

t he ve in s an d is b e
,
ing d i spersed th en sin ce an , ,

a bsol ut e ly e m p t y spa ce ca nnot resul t a n d th e vei ns

s was wh at b eov e
,

ca nno t coll a pse

( for t hi rlooke d )
t he
,

it was t herefore sh own t o be n e cess a ry th a t

a dj oinin g q u an t u m of fl u i d sho u l d fl ow in an d fill

t hepla ce of t h e fl u id ev acu ate d It is in t h is way .

t h at w e m ay s u ppose th e ve i ns to be nou ris h ed ;

t h ey g e t t he benefi t of t h eblood whi ch th ey con t a in
B ut how a bo u t t henerves ?
.

1
For t h ey do not al so
con t a in blood One mi gh t ob viously say th at th ey
ir s u pply fro t eve ns
.

dra w t h e m h i 2
B ut Erasi st rat us
.

will n ot h a ve it so W h at furt h er contr iv an ce th en

.
, ,

does h e s u ppose ? H e says t h at a nerve h as w it hin

i t s elf veins an d a rt eries l ike a rope woven by ,

N at u re ou t of t hre e d i ffe ren t s t ra nds By m eans of .

th is hypo t hesis h e im a gine d th at his theo ry would

es ca pe fro m t heide a of at t r act io n For if th e nerve .

con t a in wi t h in i t self a blood -vessel it will no

longer ne ed t h eadven t i t iou s flow of oth er bl ood
from t here al ve in lyi ng adj acen t ; t hi s fi ct i t iou s
vessel perc eptibl e only in t h e
, ory 3 will su ffi ce it for ,

nou rish m en t .

Bu t t his a gain is su cceeded by another si mil a r

,

For t his sm all vess e

,

d i ffi cu l t y . l will no u rish its elf ,

b ut it will n ot be a bl e t o nou ris h this adj ac en t

simpl enerve or a rt ery u nl ess t h ese possess some ,

innat e p r ocl ivi t y for a t t ra ct ing n u t ri m en t For how

could t h e nerv e
.

being simpl e at t ract it s nou rish m ent

as do th e co m posi t e ve ins by vir t u e of t h e
, , ,

, tenden cy
3
v isibl et o t hem in d s e ye d is t in gu is h e
’
d f rom as
t hebo d ily e y e f p 21 no t e c 4 Theo et on w i t h o u t q li r ua
fi t it n me mere ly v is ible not theor e
. . . .
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,

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h er t wh e
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as c nd a a a a

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, , ,

p
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d t h r ou g h t hen e
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i t w as m pr t i ll y , ac ca

1 52
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1 54
 O N TH E N A T U R A L F A C U LT I E S ,
II . vi

hysici a ns will l ea v e no e m pt y s pa c e in it ; oth er

p
w ise i t would not be on e body but m a n y s e par a t e d ,

by e m p t y S pace s But if it consists of m an y bodies

.
,
"
“
th en we h a v e es ca p ed by the b a ck door as th e ,

sa yi n g is to A scle p i ades seein g th a t w e h av e

e
, ,

ostu l ated ce r ta in in /za r monious e

l e
m nt s O nce a a in
g
p .
,
“
th en w e must ca ll N atur e in a rtisti c
,
for th is
nece ssa rily follows th e as sum ption of such el em ents .

For this reason some of th e Eras ist ra t e an s seem to

me to h av e done v e ry fooli shly in reducin g th e sim p le

v esse l s to elements such as th ese Y et it m akes no
.

d i fference to m e since th e theory of both pa rti es

,

re ga rdin g nutrition will be shown to be a bsurd F01 .

in th ese minute sim ple v essel s constit u tin g th e l a rg e

p erce p ti bl e ner v es it is im ossibl e a ccordin
, p g to
,
th e
th eory of those who would kee p th e form er con
“
t in u ou s th at an y
,
refillin g of a v a cuum should
ta ke pl a ce since no v a cu um can occur in a con
,

tinn u m e v en if an yth in g does run a way ; for the

pa rts l e ft come to g eth er ( as is seen in th e ca se
of w ater) an d ag ain become one ta kin g u p th e ,

whole s pa ce of th at wh ich pre v io u sly se pa rated them .

“ "
Nor w ill a ny refillin g occu r if w e a cce pt th e
a r ument of th e other Erasist r at e a ns since none of
g
their e le me
,

nt s need it For this p rinci pl e only holds

of thin gs whi ch ar ep erce ptibl e an d not of those
.

wh ich e xist merely in th eory ; this Era sistra tu s

e xpressly a cknowl ed g es for h e sta tes th at it is
,

not a v a cu um such as th is inters pe rsed i n sm a ll

,

p ortions a mon g the corp uscles th a t h is v a rious ,

tre atises dea l with but a v a cu u m which is cl e ar

, ,

p erce ptible com pl ete in its elf l a r g e in siz e e v ident

, , , ,

or howe v er else one c a res to te rm it ( for wh at ,

Eras istratu s hi ms elf says is th at th ere cann ot be a

,

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5 8
 ON TH E N A T U RA L F A CU L T I E S , II . vi

s h apes th e animal an d m akes it grow an d recei v e

nou rishment a r epresent from the seed onw ards ;
,

where as none of these inh ar moni ous a n d n on pa rtite

corp uscl es conta ins within itself an y form a ti v e ,

i ncrem ent a l 1 n utriti v e

,
or i n a word a ny a rtistic
, , ,

p ower ; it is by hy p,oth esi s u nim p ression a bl e a n d,

u ntransform abl e 2 wh erea s as we h av e pre v iou sly

, ,

shown none of th e p rocesses m entioned ta kes pl a ce

3
,

witho u t tr ans form ation alter ation an d com plete , ,

interm ix ture A nd owin g to this necessity those who

belon g to th ese sects ar eun abl e to follow out th e
.
, ,

consequences of th e ir su pposed el em ents an d t h e y ar e ,

al l therefore forced to decl are N a t u re de v oid of a t r

I t is not from us h owe v er th a t th e Er as is t rat e

.

, an s
,

shoul d h av e l e a rnt th is but from those v ery ,

p h iloso p h ers who l a

y most stress on a
p relimin a ry

in v esti gation in to th e elements of all e xistin g thin gs .

N ow one can h a rdl y be ri ght in su pposin g th a t

,

Erasistratu s could re a ch su ch a pitch of foolis hness

as to be in ca abl e of reco gn i zi n
p g th e lo g ica l con
sequ ences of this th eory a n d th at whil e a ssu m in g , ,

N atu re to be a rtisti ca ll y cre ati v e h e wou ld a t th e ,

same tim e brea k u p substa nc e into ins ensibl e i n ,

ha rmoniou s an d un transform a bl e elements I f how

, .
,

ev er he will grant th at th ere occurs in th e el eme nts

,

a roce s s of a ltera tion an d tr ansfo rm a tion a n d th a t

p ,

th ere e x ists in them u nity an d continuity th en th at

sim le ve
,

ss e
p l of hi (
s as h e h imself n am es it wi l l t u rn
)
out to bes in g l e an d u ncom pou n ded A nd th e sim ple .

v ein will recei v e nou rish m ent fr om itself an d th e

ne
,

rv e an d artery from th e v e in H ow an d i n wh at .
,

in su mma art e e a e
t q u ippeq od
i fi c m facu l t a t m h b ; u im
t
pa i bi l eee as
q ee e L in r e
i m mu t ibil u pr a s um i t u r ”
)
( ac
-
.

Book L h aps , c . v . xi
.
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9
P ost h s is .
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. note 6 .
 ON THE N A T U R A L F A C U L T I ES , 1 1 . v1

oth er th e principle of th e refilli n g of a v acuum 1 can

give them no h el p—both by reaso n of th e di tfi cul t i e
s

pre v iously mentio n ed and th e actual thinn e ss as I

shal l show—w em ust th e n seek anoth er cause for
,

H ow is it th en that th e tenden cy of a v ac u um
, ,

t o b e come re filled is u nabl e to a fford nourishment

t o one in such a condition ? B ecause its rul e is
that onl y so mu ch of th e contiguous ma t ter shoul d
succe e d as has flowed away Now this is su ffi cient
.

for nourishment in th e cas e of those wh o are in

good conditi on for i n th em what is p r e
, , , se nte d2
mu st be equal to what has flowed away Bu t i n .

th e cas e of those wh o are v ery emaciated and who

u ced a gr eat restoration of nutrition u nl ess what ,

was presented were many tim es gr eater than what

has b e en emptied ou t th ey would n e v er be abl e to
,

regain th eir ori g i n al habit I t is clear th erefore that

.
, ,

these parts will hav e to e x ert a greate r amount of

att ract ion in so far as their requirements are greater
, .

A nd I fail to und e rstan d h ow Erasist r atus does not

percei v e that h ere again h e is p uttin g th e ca rt b e fore
t he horse Because in th e case of th e sick there
.

must b e a large amount o p re se

, ,

f nt at ion 2
in order to
fe e d th em u p h e argues that th e factor of “ r e
,
”
u st play a n equally la r ge part An d how
1 m
filling
co ul d much pr e se
.

nt a t ion ta k e place i f it were not

preceded by an ab undant deliv e r

y
3 of nu triment "

And if h e calls th e con v eyance of food through

th e v eins delivery and it s assumptio n by each
e
,

of th ese si m pl e and v isible nerv es and arteri s not

d e l i v ery bu t dis l ribution 4 as some people ha v e
,

thought fit to nam e it an d th en as cribes con v eyance

,

cf p 1 3 n ote Li t Ll iad os1 e

3 °
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, . . .
.

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 ON T HE N A T U R AL F A CU LT I ES , ll . v 1 1. -
vm

th e l od eston e th e latter h av in g a faculty

of thi s parti cular q u al ity [e
,

x i s t in g i n i ro n PI
] But if
th e b e ginni n g of an adosis depends on th e sq u eezing
a cti o n of th e stomach
2
and th e whol e mo v ement
thereafter on th e pe
,

ri s ta ls is and propulsive acti on of

the v e in s as well as on th e t ra cti o n e x e rt e d by each
of th e parts w hi ch are un d e
,

r g oi ng n ou ri s h m e nt th en
w e can aban d on th e p ri n ci pl eof replacement of
,

e vacuated matter as not b e i n g sui ta bl efor a man

who assum es Nature to b e a s kil l e
,

d arti st ; thu s w e
shal l al so ha v e av oi d e d th e co n t rad ict i o n of As cl e pi
ades though we cannot refute it : for th e di sj u n cti v e
3

argum ent used fo r th e pu rposes of d e m o n s tr ati o n

is in r e
, a l ity d i sj u n cti v enot of two but of thre e
,

alternati v es ; n ow i f we tr eat th e d i sj u n cti on as a

,

d isj u n cti on of two alternati v es one of th e t wo ,

p ro pos iti o n s assumed in c o ns tru cti n g our proof mu st

be false and if as a di sj u n cti v eof thre e alternati v es
n o c o n cl u si o n will be arri v e
,

d at .

N ow E ras i st rat u s ought not to ha v e be en i gnoran t

of thi s if h e had e v er had an yt hi n g to do with th e
Pe ri pa te tics —e ve n in a dream Nor simi l ar l y should
.

h e ha v e been u nacquain ted w ith the ge

, ,

n es is of th e
lzumo urs about w hi ch not h av i n g e v e n an yth in g
mod erately pl a u s i bl et o say h e thinks to d e
, ,

ce i v e us
rati on of su ch matte
,

by the e xcuse that th e c ons i d e rs

is not the l east useful Th en in H ea v en s n am eis it
.
,
’

us e fu l to kno w how food is digest ed in th e stom ach

but unnecessary to kno w how bile comes in t o ex i s te
,

nce
S ifi c att raction ; c
f Boo k L c h a xiv
.
, .

p 1 00,
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E r i t ra t u h el d t hepl een t o beu el e s qf p 1 43

as s s s s s
The
. . . .

Ind u ra t i n G k 6 1 7 08 Lat c i r huso : cond i tion i

3 7
1
s r s

o mmon l y k no wn by L é nn e
. . .
,

n w o c te rm ci ho i from a
’
c s rr s s,

G k ki o mean in g y ell ow o taw m Here agai n we

wn h aven
e xampl e of Er i t ra t u s b ia towargs anatom i c l o t r u c t u ra l
. rr s, r a
’
as s s s a r s

rat h e r t h an fu n c t ional e x planat ions of di seas ecf p 1 24 note 1 . . .

, .

1 70
 O N T H E N A T U RAL F A CU LT I ES I I , . v m

may sm ell o ffensi v ely not in on e way only but in a ,

great many di fferent respe cts ( which cannot be put

in t o words although pe rfectly appreciabl e to th e
,

se n s es) woul d I imagin e condemn in no m easur e d

, , ,

te rms the carelessn ess of Erasistratus in omitt ing

a co nsid e ration so essenti al to th e practi ce of o ur

Thu s it is cl ea r what errors in regard to th e

subj e ct of dropsie s logi cally follow thi s carel essness .

For does it not show th e most e xtrem e carelessness

,

to suppos e that the blood is pre v ented from going

forward into th e li v er owing to th e 72077 070718 3 8 of t he
a ss a es an d that dropsy can ne v er occur in any
p g ,

oth er way ? For to imagin e that d ropsy is ne v er ,

caused by th e spleen 1 or any other part but always by ,

i n du ration of th e li v er 2 is th e standpoint of a man ,

whose intelligence is p erfectly to rpid and who is

quite ou t of tou ch wi th thin gs that happen e v e ry
day For not merely once or twi ce but frequ ently
.
, , ,

we ha v e obser v ed dropsy prod u ced by chroni c

ha e morrhoids which ha v e been suppressed 3 or ,

which th rough immode rate bleeding ha v e gi v en

, ,

th e patient a se v ere ch ill ; similarly in women th e , ,

complete di sapp earance of th e monthly d is charge 4 ,

or an undu e e v acuation su ch as is caused by

v iol ent bl e e di ng from th e womb oft e n p r ovoke ,

dropsy ; and in som e of th em the s o-call ed fem al e

fl u x ends in thi s d isord er I l ea v e ou t of acco u nt .

O n t her i k w h i c h wereuppo e
s s d to at tend t hec h ec k in gg
s s
of h a b i t ua l bl ee d i n g fro m p i l e cf Cel u ( De Re Me d VI s . s s . .

x v iii A tq u e m q i bn d m p a ru m t u t o pp i mit
u s a
q i su r ur, u
angu in i p ofi n i o im be e h be
.

s s r r illi s n on fi n t ;
v nt en im
or u a

n g t ne
a iom han c non mo b m ( i et heh ab i t was to be
p ke
r r u

d on as a p e ri od i ca l c l ea ns ing not as a d i sease

.
, .

) , .

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Lit Chg/1081 8 ; qfl p 238 , 2

e e o ie
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Tha t is t o say , t h ha mat op ic u c s

I 74 »
 ON T HE N A T U RA L F A C U LT I E S ,
n . vm

N o w, E rasi s t r atu s isth oro u gh l y smal l - min ded an d

e tty t o t h e l as t d e g r ee i n a ll hi s d i s pu ta ti on s
p
w h e n for in stan ce in his t re O n Dig e
”
a t ise s ti o n
1
,

h e ar gu e s j ea l o u sl y with th o s ew h o
, ,

c ons i de r th at
thi s is a pro c e ss o f p u t re facti o n o f t hefood ; an d ,

i n h is w or k O n A n a d o s is ,
”
2 w ith th o s
ewho thin k
th at t hean adosis o f bl ood th rou g h th e v e i n s r esu l ts
from t hec o n ti g u ity o f t hea rt e ri es ; al s o i n his ,

wor k “
On Re s i ra ti o n
p w ith th os e w h o mai n ta i n

th at t h eair i s f or c e
,

d al o n g b y c o n t racti o n Nay .

h e d i d no t e v e n h e sitat eto c o n t radict th o s ew h o

,

m ain ta in th at th e u r i n e passes i n t o th e bl adde r i n a

v a oro u s s ta te a ls o th o s e w h o sa th at im b i be d
3
as y
p
fl ui d s ar eca rr i ed in to t h el u n g Th u s h ed e
,

. li g hts
to ch oo s e al way s t hem o st v al u e less d octr i n e s an d
,

to Spe n d his tim e m ore an d m ore i n c o n tradi cti n g

t h ese ; wh e r eas o n th e su bj e ct o f th e or igin of blood
w hi c h i s i n no wa less i m or t a n t th an th e ch li fi
( y p y
ca ti on 4 o f foo d in t hes to m ach ) h e di d no t de i gn to
di s pu t e wi th any o f th e a n ci e n ts nor di d hehi mse l f
ve
,

n tu r e to b rin g forward any o th e r o pin i on d es pite

th e fact th at at th e begi nnin g o f his t r e
,

a ti se on

G en e ral P rin ci pl es h e u n de rto o k to say h o w all th e

v a r i o u s n atu ra l fu n cti ons ta ke l a c e a n d th ro u g h
p ,

wha t pa r ts o f th e an i m al N o w i s it p o ssi bl e th at
wh e n t hefac u l ty whi ch n atu r all y di ges ts food is
, ,

we ak , th e an im al s d i ge
’

s ti o n fai ls w h e r eas th e
facul ty whi ch tu rns th e di g e
,

s t ed foo d in to bl oo d

c anno t su ffe r any k in d o f im paM e nt

5
A r e weto
su ppose thi s l att e r fac u l ty al on e to be as to u g h as
st e el an d u na ffe ct e d b y ci r c u ms ta n c es ? O r is it
th at we a kn ess o f thi s fac u l ty wil l r es ul t i n s o m e

sue r-anon as much u t he d ige s ti v er oce sse s whi ch pr e

i seit p

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1 78
 O N TH E N A T U R AL F A C U L T I E S I I ,
. v m

in th e l i v er wil l resul t in th e va rious a ffecti ons

,
—
pa rticularly j au n di ce whi ch Eras istratus h ims el f
states to occu r wh ere there is much bil e S urely .
,

th e n it is most esse n t ial for th e physician t o know

,

in th e first place that th e bil e is co n ta i ned in th e

,

food its elf from o u tside and secondly that for

, , ,

exam pl e beet contains a great deal of b il e a n d

, ,

bread v e ry littl e whil e oli v e oil conta ins most a n d

, ,

win e l e ast of al l and all th e other a r t icl e s of di et

,

diffe r ent qu antities Woul d it n ot b e absurd for

.

any one to choose v ol u nta r ily those articles which

contain more bil e rather th an those containing less ?
,

What h owe v er if th e bil e is not conta ined in th e

, ,

food b u t comes into e xistence in th e an imal s body ? ’

Will i t not also be u seful to kn ow what st at eof the

,

body is follow e d by a greater and w hat by a small er

occu rrence of bil eP 1 For ob v ious ly it is in o ur
,

po wer to alter and tran smute morbid states of th e

body—in fact to gi v e them a tu rn for th e better
, .

But if we did not know in what respect th ey were

morbid or in what way th ey div e rged from th e
normal how shoul d we be able to ame l iorate them ?
,

Th erefore it i s not u sel ess in tr eatme n t as ,

Erasist ratu s says to kn ow th e actu al truth about

,

the ge n esis of bile Ce rtai n ly i t is not impossibl e

.
,

or e v en di ffi cult to dis co v er that the reason why

hone y prod uces yellow bil e i s not that it contains a
la r ge qua n tity of thi s within itself but b eca u se it
e
,

n a lt er
[ th e hon e y ] underg oes chang e becomi,
g d
an d t r an smuted into b il e For it would be bitter
.

to th e tas te if it co n tai n ed bil e from th e outs e t ,

an d it woul d prod uce an equal quantity of bil e

He re i t is ra t h e r t hel ivin g organ i sm wecon s i d e r t h a n
t he pa rti c ular food t ha t in put in to i t .
 G A LE N
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1 A r ist ot l eHist
, . A nima l .
, iii . x ix . P la t o , Tima e
u s, 80m .

1 82
 O N T H E N AT U R A L F A CU L T I ES , I I . 7 111

in h ol es l ike corpses Fu rth er th e qu estion of th e

.
,

colour of th e blood h as b ee n dealt with not only by

Ar istotl e b u t also by P lato l Now I for my part .
, ,

as I ha v e already said did not set be fore myself

,

th e task of stating wha t has been so w ell demon

st rat e d by th e A ncients s i nce I cann ot sur pass ,

these men either in my views or in my method of

giv ing them e x pression D octrines howe v er which
.
, ,

they eith er stated without demonstration as bei n g ,

self-e v ident ( si n ce they never su spected that there

coul d be Sophis ts so d e graded as to contemn th e
truth in these matters ) or else wh ich th ey actually
omitted to m e n tion at all—th ese I propose to d i
,
r

co v er an d prove .

Now in re fer e nce to th e ge ne s is o

f t heh u mou rs I ,

do not know that any o n e co u l d add a n yth ing wis er

than what has been said by H ippoc r ates A ris t otl e , ,

Pra xagoras P li il ot im u s 2 and ma n y oth er amo n g th e

,

A n c i e nts Th e s e m en de m o n strated that when th e

.

nu tri m ent becomes altered in th e v e ins by the inn ate

h eat blo od i s p r od u ced wh en it is in moderation
, ,

and th e other h umo u rs wh en it is not in proper

p r opo r tion A nd all th e obser v e d facts 3 agree with
.

th is argu m ent Thus those articl es of food which

.
, ,

are by nature warmer are more productive of bil e ,

wh il e those wh ich are cold e r p r odu ce mo r e phlegm .

S imila rly of th e periods of life those which are ,

n atu r ally warm er tend more to bil e and th e colder ,

more to p hl e gm Of occu pations also local iti es and

.
,

seasons and abo v e all of natures 4 themsel ves th e

, , , ,

( older are more phl eg m atic and th e warmer mo r e ,

P hil ot imu s su cceed ed Dioc l e s an d P raxa go ras w ho we re

ive l ead e rs of t heHippoc rati c sc h oo l cf p 5 1 not e 1
,

s u cce
ss

nome
. . . , .

L i t p he na
l i v ing or g ani sms ; qf p 4 7 n ote
. .

1. . , .
 G A L EN

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. 1 ,

1 r i tratu rejec ted t hei dea of inn te h ea t ; heh el d

E as s s a

t h t t heh eat of t heb d y was in t rod u ce

a d from outs id e
o .

1 84
 GA L EN

9
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a ‘

1
efei ver ef di e e ” as a ca us o s as

eh o l d y i r l” t ory ch ge
. . .

As w s u sa c cu a an s
T h i i t he vi t l piri t o p em wh ich ccording
.
,
“
s s a s r n u a a
n d t heP nem t i t h ool w e l b r te
,

t o Er i t r t as s a us a d in u a s sc as a o a
t h el e ft v et ri l e d t h e reft e r c rie rie ll
d by t he rt e
,

n c an a ar a s a
ov e r t hebody t h e reto u b e rvecircul t ory p roce sse
,

, s It s s a .

1 86
 ON THE N A T U R A L F A C U L TI E S I l , . v 1 11

it has be e n i m pair e d For t hew o u n d was not

t the b u bo for i f th e
.

ca pa bl eof i m pairing i t nor y e y

had b e e n th e n th e y w o u l d h av ec au s e d th is dam ag e
, , ,

be for et h efe
,

ve e
r as w ll I f i t was no t th e s eth at
n i t was the e e
.

ca u s e d i t th e x ce ss of h e at or th e s
(
1
f
tw o sy mpt o m s o cc u rr e d be s the b u b o —an al t e
,

si d e ra
tion in t hea rt e ri al an d ca rd i ac m o v e m e n t s 2 an d a n
e xc e ssi v ed e ve lo pm e n t of n at u ral h e at
) N o w t h e
ration of th e se mov e me nt s will no t m e r e
.

al t e l y not
i m pair the fun ct ion of t hes t om ach in an y way : i t
w ill a ct u all y pro v ean ad d it ion al h e l p a m ong th o s e
a ni mal s in wh i ch a cc o rdi ng to E ras is t rat u s t he
ll e d th ro u g h t hea rt e ri e
, ,

pne u ma wh i ch is
p ro pe s an d
in to the ali m e nta ry ca na l is of gre at s e
,

rv i ce in

d ige th e r eis onl y l e ft the n t hed is pr Opor

,

sti on ;
3

t ionat e he o u n t for the da maget o t hegas tri c

, ,

a t t o ac c

act i v i ty . For t h e p n e u m a is d ri v e n in m or e v igoro u sl y

an d c on t in u o u sl y a n d in gr e at e r q u an t i ty no w th an
b e fore ; th u s in th is c as e t he
,

a ni m al wh os e d ig e s t ion

is prom o te d b y pn e u m a w il l di g e s t m or ewhe r e
,

as

the re maini ng fa ct or—a bnormal h e a t— w ill giv ethem

,

i n dig e st ion F or to sa y on t heon eh an d th at t he

.

pn e u ma has a c e rta in prop e rty by v i rt u eof wh i ch i t

, ,

p ro m o t e s d ig e st ion an d th e n t o sa
y th at th is ro
p p e rty
d isappe a rs in ca s e s of fe ve r is si m pl y to ad m i t t he
,

F or wh e y ar eagain as ke
,

abs u rd i ty n th e d wh at i t
is th at has a l t e re d t hepn e u m a th e
.

y w ill onl y b e
a bl e t o r el y the a bnormal h e
,
”
at
p an d
pa rt i c u l a rl y
if i t be t h epn e
, ,

uma i n th e food ca n al wh i ch is in
'

has someanalogy w”i t h oxy ge n bu t t h i s is ls o t hecasewi t h a

e n t u r al p iri t or pn e wh o ese t heliv e

,

th
“
a s um at w a, r s as

d b y t he
an d w h i c h was d i t ri b u t es vei n t h rou gh t he bod y it s

e d ov e
s id e r t hemorev e geta t iv e roc ss e
e f p not e1
pzt roduct ion p xxx i v p s c . . .

, . .
 GA LEN

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n cl i m
a s
ec n t i l l prov eh i t h ei s
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t h at h a s s s

I n ot h e c e
.

9 r words if d y r s a is '

t
fi rs p ri n i l in p a t h
c e p
: sr a z a

n e
.

ology , t he ucr asi a mu s t b ea fir st p rin i pl in p y szol ogy

'

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 ON TH E N AT U RA L FA CU L T I E S I I , . v m

th at in t hecas e of e a ch fu n cti on e u c ra si a is follo we d

by t hem or ean d dy s c rasi a b y t hel e s s fav o u rabl e

, ,

r e for e if thi s b eth e cas e we

,

al t e rnat iv e A n d th e
.
, , ,

m u st s uppos ebloo d t o b e th e o u tc o m eof pro por

t ion at ean d y e ll o w bil e of dis propo rtion at eh e at So .

we nat u rall y fi n d y e l lo w bil eap pe a ri ng in gr e ate

,

st
q uan t i ty in o u rs e l v e s at the w a rm pe rio d s of lifein
wa rm c ou nt ri e s at war m s e asons of t h ey e
,

ar an d

n we ar ein a w arm c on di t ion ; si milar l y in

, ,

wh e
e o l e of w a rm t e m er a m e n ts a n d in c onn ection
p p p
wi th w a rm o cc u pat ions m ode s of lifeor di s e as e
,

s .

A n d t o bein d ou b t as t o wh e
, ,

the r th is h um o u r has
it s g e ne sis in t h eh um an bo dy or is c on ta in e d in t h e
food is wh at you w o u l d e x e
p ct fro m o n e wh o h as — I
wi l l no t s ay fail e d t o s ee th at whe n th o s ewh o ar e
e e av e u n de
,

p e rf ct l y h a l thy h r th e
,
c o m p u lsion of

c irc um s tan c e s t o fas t c ont rary t o c u s t om th e ir

c om e bi tte r an d th e ir u r in ebil e -c olou r e
, ,

m o u ths b e d
r from gn aw in g pa ins in t h e
,

wh il e they s u ffe s to m ach

b u t has as i t w e r ej u s t made a su d de n e n tra n ce
i n t o t hew orl d a n d is no t yet fam ili a r w i th t h e
, ,

phe nom e n a wh i ch o cc u r the r e W h o in fa ct .

,

do e s no t kno w th at an yth ing wh i ch is ov e r c oo ke

,

d
gro w s at firs t sal t an d a ft e r ward s bi tt e r ? A n d if
o u w il l boil h on ey i t s e l f far t h es w e et e s t of al l
y
th ings you can d e m on st rat eth a t e v e n th is b ec o m e s
,

q u ite bi tt e
,

r F or wh at m ay o cc ur as a r es u l t of
.

bo iling in the cas e of o th e r art i c l es wh i ch ar enot

warm b y nat u r ee xi st s n atur all y in h on e y ; for t his
r e ason i t d o e
,

s no t b e c om e s w e e te r on b e ing boil e d
s in ce e xa ct l y the s am e q u a n ti ty of h e a t as is n e e de
,

d
for t hepro d u ct ion of s w e etne ss e xis ts fro m b e for e
'

han d ih the h on ey Th e re for eth e e xte rn al h eat

.
,
 GAL EN

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 O N T H E N A T U R AL F A C U L T I E S I I ,
. W I L -I x

a ccom plis hed in {176 body F or if all art i c l e s of foo d

.

con ta in ed bil efr om the b e gin ni ng an d of th e ms e l v es ,

an d d id no t rod uce i t b y u nde rgo ing ch a ng e in t he

p
an ima l bod y th e ,
n th e y w o u l d p ro d u c ei t s imil arl y
in al l bod i e s ; t hefood wh i ch was bitt e r t o the ta ste
wou l d I ta kei t b epro d u cti v e of bil ewh i l eth at
, , ,

wh i ch tas t e d good an d s w e et w o ul d no t g e n e rate

e ve n the s m al l e s t q u an t i ty of bil e Mor e
. ov er no t ,

onl y h on e y bu t a ll o th e r swe et s u bs t an ce s ar er e a d il y

c on v e rt ed i n t o bil e in the a fore sa i d bo d i es whi ch ar e

wa rm for a ny of t her easons m e n t ion e d .

We ll I h a v e som eh o w or o th e
,
r be en le d in t o th is
dis c u ssion -no t in acc or da n c ewi th m y pl an b u t
, ,

co m p e ll e
d b y t hec o u rs eof t h ea rg u m e n t Th i s.

su bj e ct has b ee n t r eat e d at gr ea t l e ngth by A ri s t ot l e

an d P ra xa goras wh o h av ec orr ect l y e x o u n ded the
, p
v iew of H i ppo c rate s an d P l at o .

IX

F OR th is re ason the th ings th at we h av esai d

ar e no t t o belooke d u p on a s p roofs bu t rath e r as
in d i c a tions of t h ed u ln e ss 1 of th os ewh o th in k
di ffe re n t l y a n d wh o d o not e v e
, n re c ognis e Wh at is
a g re e d on b y e v e ry on e an d is a m att e r of dail y
obs e rv ati on A s for the s c i e
,

. n t ifi c p roo fs of all th is
th e y ar et o b ed raw n from th e
,

s e p rin c i pl e
s of wh i ch
I h av ea lre ady s po ke n 2— nam e l y th at bod i e
, s act
u pon an d ar e d u pon b y e
a ct e a ch o th e r in v i r tu eof
t h eW a rm ,Col d Mois t a n d Dr y
, A n d i f on eis
.

p 15
. .

I
 GA L EN

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p h y s iol ogi s t , th nts of th
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pkg/sis qf p 7 0, no
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 O N T H E N A T U RAL F A C U L T I E S I I , . x
x

in v s tig t ing n t r l ct ivi t i e

e a s wi th
a u a i ew t o t r eat
a a v

me n t ? If the s t o m ach is in a pa rt i c ul a r c as e u na bl e , ,

to e xe r cis e i ts p eris tal t i c an d gri n d ing fun cti ons h ow

ar e w egoing t o b ring i t b ac k to t henorm a l if we
,

d o no t kno w t h eca us eof it s di sa bil i ty ? W h at I

sa
y is 1 th at wem u st c oo l the ov e r - h e
a ted s t o m a ch

an d w a rm the ch i l l e d on e ; so also wem u s t m ois t e n

t he on e wh i ch h as b ec om ed ri e d u p an d c on v e rs e
ly ;
so t oo i n c om b ina tions of th e s ec on d i t ions ; if t he
,

s to m ach b e c o me s at t hesam etim ew a rm e r an d d ri e r

, ,

th an normally the fi rs t prin c i pl eof t re a tm e n t is at

on ce to ch il l an d m ois te n i t ; an d if i t b ecom e
,

c ol d e r an d m ois t e r i t m u st b e w arm ed an d d ri ed ;
so also in o th e r cas e s But h o w on ea rth ar ethe
,

follo we rs of E rasis t rat u s goi ng to act c on fe s s ing as

th e y d o th at th e y m ake no sort of in v e
,

s tigat ion
in t o th e ca u s e of d is e as e ? F or th e fru i t of the
e n q u i ry in to act i v i ti e s is th at b y kno wing t he
cau s e s of the dyscras ia eon e m ay b ri ng th e m b ac k
t o the normal sin ce i t is of no u sefor the pu rpos es
of tre a tm e nt m e re
,

l y to kno w wh at th e acti v i ty of
e a ch orga n is

e ms t o m eth at E rasis t ratu s is u n aware

.

N ow it s e ,

of th is fa ct al so th at th e a ct u al d is eas e is th at
c on d i tion of the body wh i ch no t a cc i d e
,

n ta ll y b u t
p rima ril y an d of i ts e
, ,

lf i m pai rs the norm al fun cti on

Ho w th e
,

n is h e going to d ia gnos e or c u r e di s eas e

.

s
i f h e is e n ti r e l y ignoran t of wh at th e y ar ean d of
, ,

wh at kin d an d n u mb e r ? As r e gar ds t h est o mach

,

ce
,

rtainl y E ras is tratu s he l d th at on e s h oul d at l east

,

{ Th i s is t heo t hod ox Hippoc t i t retmer nt t h t of ra c a a

opp o it eby op p o ite Con t r t t hehomoe op t hic p rinci le
‘
,

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py ,
 O N T H E N A T U R AL FA C U L T I ES II , . ix

a d i ffe re n t t e r m inology st ill kee ps to th e fa ct j u s t

th is m an s inn ov atio ns in no me
,

as the o the rs d o n c la
’

t u r eh av e also b e e n am pl y d on e j u s t i c eto by P l a to 1
Th u s the wh i te -c ol ou r e d s u b sta n c ewh i ch e ve ry on e
.

e ls eca lls phle gm an d wh i ch P r od icu s calls ble

,

nna
e e m
,

w - w c st h u m ou r
{ i nu cu
s is t h ll k no n ol d oi ,

wh i ch c oll ect s m os tl y in ol d pe opl e an d in th os e wh o

h av eb e e n ch ill e d 3 in so m eway an d no t e v e n a ,

l u n ati c c o u l d say th at thi s was a n yt hin g e ls e tha n

col d an d moist .

If the n th e r e is a wa rm an d m ois t h u m o u r an d
a no th e r wh i ch is wa rm a n d d r y and y e t a no th e
, , ,

r
wh i ch is m ois t an d col d is th e r enon e
,

wh i ch is v irt u al l y
s t he u rth c o m bina tion of te m e
,

co ld a nd d r ? l fo r a
y p
me n ts whi ch e x i st s i n al l o th e r th ings non -e x ist e nt
in t heh um ou rs a lon e? N o t h eblack bi leis s u ch a
, ,

h um o ur Th is acc ord ing t o in t e

. llige n t phy si c i ans
p h il oso ph e rs t e n d s t o b ein e as r e
,

an d x ce ss gard s
s easons m ainl y in t hefall of t hey e
, ,

a r a n d as r e g a r d s

r t hep ri m e of l ife A n d si m i la rl y
, ,

ag e
,

s ma in l y aft e
y say th at th e r e ar ec ol d an d d ry m od e s of
.

al so th e
, , ,

l ife r e gions c ons t i t u t ions an d d is e as e s N at u re .

they s u ppos eis no t d e fe

, , , ,

ct i v e in th is singl e c o m bin a
tion ; l i kethe th r e e oth e
,

r c om bin ations i t e xte n ds

e ve rywh e
,

re .

A t th is po i n t also I w o u l d gl ad l y h av e b ee n a bl e
to ask E rasi st ratu s wh e th e
, ,

r h is a rt ist i c N atu r e
“

has n ot c on s t r u ct e d an y orga n for c le a r ing a wa

y a
h u m o u r s u ch as th i s F or wh ils t the rear etw o
organ s for the e
.

xc re t ion of u rin e an d anoth e r of

con s id e rabl esi z efor th at of ye l lo w b il e d o e s t he
,

P la t o Ti m e 8 3— a 86 p ass im
u s,

f t he te m bl e hoe e
.
, ,

c nno
r a w h i c h is t ill
rr d s us
e e e affe te
. .
,

c f t h Sc ot c h t rm “
co l d d ”
f r
“
c d wi t h a o
col d ; Ge rm cr lcdl le
.

”
. t .

2
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 GA LEN

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-
.

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En ame n t a n d su pp u r t ion a ( of sp le
e n ssoci ”t e
a d a

wi t h t ox e mi a or cacoch y my
a
“ ”
. Li t . mel anc hol i c .

2 06
 ON THE N AT U RA L FA CU LT I ES ,
II . 1x

in te rn al su ppu rati on i t de st roy s th e body an d fi ll s i t

wi th e v i l h u m ou rs ; 1 th is aga in is agr e
,

e d on not onl y
s b u t also b y P l at o an d m a n y oth e
,

b y Hi ppo c rat e rs
in c l u ding t h eEm pi ri c phy s i c i an s A n d t hej au n di ce
, ,

wh i ch occ u rs wh e n t heS pl e en is out of ord e r is

da rke r in c olo u r an d t hec i c at ri c e s of ul ce rs ar e “

F or g e n e aking wh e n the s pl e e
,

da rk ra ll y s pe n is
d raw ing the at rabili a ry 2 h u m o u r in to i ts e lf t o a l e
.
, ,

ss
d e gr e eth an is p ro pe r th e blood is un pu rifi e d an d
t he wh ol ebo dy take s on a bad c olou r An d wh e
, ,

n .

d oe s i t d raw th is i n to a l e ss d e gr e eth an pro pe r?

Ob v io u sl y wh e n i t [t heS pl e e n ] is in a ba d c on di t ion
Th u s j u s t as the ki d n e y s wh os efu n ct ion i t is to
.
,

att ra ct t he u rin ed o th is ba dl y wh e y ar eout

,

n th e
,
'

of orde r so a lso the S pl e e

,

n wh i ch has i n i ts e lf a
n ativ epo w e
, ,

r of att ract ing an at rabil i ary q u ali ty 3 if

it e ve r h appe ns t o b e w e ak m u s t n e ce ssa rily e xe r c is e
,

th is att ra ction b ad l y wi th the r e

,

s u l t th at the bl oo d
be c o m e s th i cke r an d d arke
,

r .

N o w al l th e s e p oin t s a ffor din g as they d o the

gr e at e
,

s t he l p in the d i a gnosis an d in t hec u r e of

di s e as ew e r ee n tir e l y pas s e d ov e r b y E rasist ra tu s
an d h e r e e e e e e — he
,

e
p t n d d t o d e s p is e th s e gr a t m n
wh o d o e s no t de spis e ord in ary p o pl e but al way s
je a lo u sl y a tta c ks t h e
,

m os t a bs u rd d oct rin e s He n ce
i t was c l e a rl y b e cau s ehe had nothi ng to say again s t
.
,

the s tat e me n ts mad eb y the an c i e n ts r e ga rd ing t he

fu n ct ion an d ut ili ty of the spl e e n an d a lso b e cau s e
h e c o u l d di s c o v e r n o th ing n e
,

w h im s e lf th at he
e nd e I h owe
,

d b y say in g no thi ng at all v e r for m y

pa rt h a v ed e m onst ra t e
.
,

d fi rs t l y from t heca us e
,

: by

wh i ch e v e
, ,

r yth ing th ro u g h o u t n atu r e is go v e rn ed (by

i et he comb i n t ion of se a nsi b l eq uali t i es w hi c h we call

bl ck b il e f p 8 no t e3
. .

a . c . . .
,
 G A L EN
I A A A A
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v7 L v p a
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L

1
Not et h aterean be n rm l b l ck b il e
th
”

remen s t hefood as int rod uce

c o a a
2 The term f ood h e
.

d i nto
nt (t r op be
a

rm nut ime
t h e t o mac h ; t h et e
s a ns t he
) me s am e r

21 0
 O N T H E N A TU RA L F A C ULT I ES II ,
. 1 11

m c d parti c u l ar n am e has
nor l on i t ion 1 b u t no
it s a

b ee n giv e n to [s u ch a c on d i t ion of ] t heh um ou r

,

at so m e e av e ca ll e
,

e xc e t th o l e h d i t co r ro siv e or
p p p
ace tos eb e c au s ei t al s o bec o m e s s h ar p li ke v in e gar
an d c orr od e s the ani m al s bo dy —as also t h eea rth if
,
’

i t b e po u r e
,

d ou t u pon it é — an d i t
p rod u ce s a k in d of
fe rm e n ta tion an d s e e th ing acc om pani e d by b u bbl e s

an a bnorm a l pu tr e faction h a v ing bec om ea dd e

,

d to
t he n at u ra l c on d it ion of t heb la ck h um o u r I t s e e ms .

to m ealso th at m os t of the an c i e n t phy si c ia ns gi v e

t hen a m ebla ck hu mo u r an d no t black bi let o the
nor mal po rt ion of th is h um ou r wh i ch is d is ch arg ed
from t hebo w e l an d wh i ch al s o fr eq u e
,

n t l y ris e s to t h
t op [of the s to m a ch - c on te n ts ] ; an d th e y c all bla ck
bi le th at pa rt wh i ch th ro u g h a kin d of c om b u sti on
,

an d u tr e f act ion has had i ts q u ali ty ch an g e d to a c i d

p
reis no n e e d h owe
.
,

Th e v e r to d is pu te a bo u t n am e s
al is e t he fact s wh i ch a re
, ,

bu t we m u s t r e
,

as follo w

sis of blood e ve
,

In t heg e ne ryth in g in the n u tr i

2 wh i ch b e
me longs n at u rall y to t h ethi ck an d
,

n t
e a rth l ikepa rt of t h efoo d
- an d wh i ch d o e s no t
2

l l t h eal te rat ion prod u c e

,

takeon w e d b y t hei nn at e
he at —al l th is t h e S pl e e n d raw s in t o i ts e lf On the
r h an d th at par t of t h en u t rim e
.

oth e n t whi ch is
roa st e
,

d s o to S pe ak or b u rn t ( th i s wi ll b e th e
w a rm e swe e s t pa rt of i t l ik eh on e
, ,

st an d te y an d
be c om e e a re
,

fat ) s
y ll ow b ile an d is c l e d aw ay

th ro u gh t hes o-c all e d bili ary 3 v e ss e

, ,

ls ; no w th is
no t li kewh at i t is
,

i s th in m oi st a n d fl u i d
whe n h av ing b e e n roast e
,

d t o an e xce
, ,

s siv e de gr e ei t
be s ye llow fi e
,

c om e ry an d thi ck li kethe y ol k of
,

, , ,

food in t hed i ge st e d co n d i t ion as it is conv e ye d t o t he

t i ue
ss s cf pp 4 1 — 43 Not ei d e of i mpe rfe c t ly oxi di ze
,

a d
m te ri al be d by t he e
. .

i ng b sorbe S p le f p 2 1 4 not e1
. .

i\
a a n c
Li t chole dochous b il e re ce
. . . .
,

.
- , ing .

21
 G A L EN

50
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4 1 150 1 11 9Li7 e p 0v 3 s 7 0 7 7 c
'

p
'

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050 7r e
1 150 Lv e p yeK a i 7 015 p e
e
0 7 iv
’ ' ’
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' ' '
L

7 0p u p 1 5 7r a1 7 15V o l o v { fe
'
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p
7 51 9 é py é p
a o e v o v r
1La 7 5
L
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9
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,
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e
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v
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Tima u s , 8 2 o-D.
pcf 90, t 1 no e Thet e rm t rr h refe
rs t o t h is ca a
”

i ch w s ppo s e
d t o t ak epl et h ro ug h
. . .

r nning
u d ow , wh
”
n as u ac
 ON T H E N A T U R AL F A C U L T I ES ,
ll . 1x

u al i t y th at if it w ere ca rri e d al l over t h e body i t

q , ,

wo u l d d o a ce r t a in amo u n t of h a rm For th at whi c h .

is d e ci d e d ly t hi ck a n d ea rt hy in nature a n d has
d a l t erat ion in t h e
,

en t irely es ca p e liver i s d ra wn by ,

t he s pleen in t o i t s elf 1
; th e o t h er pa r t w hi ch is only
m od e ra t ely t hi ck a ft e r being el a borate d [i n t he
h

l iver ] is carri e d a l l ove r th e bod y For th e blood in

.

m any pa rt s of t h e
,

b od y has n e e d of a ce rt a in am oun t
of t hi ckening a s a lso I t a ke it of t he fi reb s whi ch

it con t a ins A nd t heu seof t h ese has been disc ussed

, , ,

by P l at o a d it will a lso be dis cu ss ed by m ein su ch

.

2 n

of my t re at ises as m ay de al wi t h t heu se of p a rt s
,

An d th e bloo d a lso nee d s n ot l e ast t h eyello w

.

h u m o u r wh i ch has as y e
,

t not re a ch e d t h ee x t re m e
,

s t a ge of co m b u s t ion ; in th e t rea t ises m ention ed it

w i ll be poin t e d ou t wh at p u rpose is s u bse rve d by t his .

Now N at u re h a s m ad e no orga n for cl ea rin g aw ay

phle gm t his being col d an d m oist a n d as it were
, , , ,

h alf-d ig e s t ed nu t rim en t ; s u ch a s u bsta n ce there

s not nee d t o be evacu at e
,

fore d o e
e
d but rem ai ns in
t h bo dy an d u ndergoes a l t e
, ,

r a t ion t here A nd p er .

h aps one canno t properly give t h en am e of p /zle gm

t o the s u rpl u s - s u bst a n ce whi ch ru ns down fro m
t h ebra in 3 b u t one sho u l d cal l it muc us [bl en na
]
'

or co ryza—as i n fact it is act u ally term ed ; in a ny

,

d ou t in t het re at is e“ On t h e
, ,

cas e it will be po in t e

Use of P ar ts how N at ure h as provided for t he

,
”
,

ev acu at ion of t his subs t a n ce Fur t h er th e d evi ce .

,

provi d e d by N at u re whi ch ens u res t h at t he phlegm

whi ch forms in the stom ach an d in t es t i nes may be
evacu ated in th e most rapid an d e ffe ct i ve way
possibl e—this al so wi ll be des cribed in t h a t com
th epo e
s of r th ecr ibrifo rm pl t eof
a th ee
t h m oi d in t o th e
2
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 ON TH E N A TU R AL F A C U LTI E S I I , . 1 11

in cl u di ng t h e blood (t he blo od its elf be ing an

el even t h ) t h is is n ot a d epa rtu re fro m th e tea ch ing
of H ippoc rates for P raxagoras divi d es i n t o spe
,

cies

v a ri e t ies t hehu m ou rs whi ch H ippo c ra tes fi rst

,

an d

m entioned wi t h th e d e m o n st r at i on proper to ea ch
Those then ar et o be pra ised who e x pl a in t he
.
,

, ,

po in t s w hi ch h a ve been d ul y m entione d as a ls o ,

t hose who a dd wh at has been left ou t ; for it is not

possible for t hesam e m an t o m ak e bot h a begin
n ing a n d an e nd Those on th e ot her h a n d d ese rve
c ens u re who ar e
. ,
,

so i m pa t ient th at t h ey wil l n ot w a i t
t o le a rn a n
y of th e t hi ngs wh i c h h a v ebe e n d u ly

me n t ione d as do a lso t hose who a r eso a m bi t iou s

“

in t heir l u s t aft er novel d o ct rin e s t h ey ar e

,

t h at
alw ays at t e
, ,

m p t ing so m e fr au d u l en t soph is t ry e i t h er ,

p u rposely n e gl e ct ing cert a in s u bj e ct s as Era sis t r a t us

s in t hecase of t h eh u m o u rs or uns cr u p u lo u sly
,

doe ,

a t t a ck ing o t h er peopl e as doe s t hi s same wri t er as

well as m any of t hemore re cen t au t hori t ies

, ,

Bu t l e
.

t t his di s cu ssion co m e t o a n e n d here an d I

sh all add in t hethi rd book al l t h a t re ma ins

,

.
 I

07 1 0 5 15 9700 ye
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0011 11 71 1 11 5 071 0 07ra pa y e

’
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7 01 11
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“
Of food to f e
ede 1 ,
of th ee
nviron me
nt to t h e
rga n is m
o of p 39 h p c a x i.
n ot e2
. . . .
,
“
Dr aw ing cf .
p 1 1 6,
. .

2
 BOOK I II

1 1 has
“
be en mad e cl e ar in t h epr e ce d ing dis cu ssion
t h at n u t ri t ion occ u rs by an a lt e r a t ion or as simila t io n of

t h at w hi c h nou ri sh es t o t h at whi ch re ceives nou rish

m ent 1 an
,d t h at t h er e e x is t s in ev e ry p a rt of t he ani m al

a facu l t y w hi ch in V ie w of i t s act i vi t y we cal l in

genera l t e rms a lt e r at iv eor m ore spe cifi ca lly as si mi
,

an d n ut r it i veI t was also sh own t h at a su ffi ci en t

, , , ,

la t iv e
supply of t hem at t er whi ch t h epart b e
.

in g nou rishe d
ma kes into nutri m en t for i t self is ens u re d by v irtu e
of ano t h er facu l t y whi ch n at u ral ly a t t ra ct s its pr ope r
7uice [ h m o u r t h at th at j u i c e is prop e
] r t o e ach pa rt
'

wh i ch is ad a p t ed for as simi l at i on a n d t h at th e facu lty

w hi ch at t ract s t hej ui ce is calle d by re a son of it s
,

a t t ractiv eor
,

a ct ivi t y ,
e i
p p s as t i c
2
I t has also be en
’

shown t h at assi m il at ion is pre ce d ed by ad he sion

this a gai n by p re se ntat ion 3 t h e l a tter s t a ge

,

an d

being as on e migh t s ay t h ee
,

n d or goa l of t he
, ,

t o t h e at t r act i ve fa c ul t y
, ,

a ct ivi t y correspon d ing

For t hea ct u a l bringing u p of n u t ri m en t from th e

.

v e ins i n t o each of t hep art s t ak e s pl ace th rough

t h ea ct i v a t ion of t h ea t t ra ct ive facul t y 4 wh il st t o ,

3 Fo r t h e set e rms (p ros t he s is an d p r osp hy sis i n G re ek ) cf

no t e
.

p 3 9, s 5 and 6
h ro ug”h t he-ene r gizi ng ( or f unct ion ing) o f t h e
. .

“
Li t t
at t r act iv efac l t y ; t h efa cul t y ( 8 5 7 ) i n op e
.

u ra t ion is an 1 11 0 1 3

act ivi t y f p 3 not e

C 2 . .
, .

2
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.

2
Th 3 r th eory arr ived at

2 26
 O N T H E N A T U RA L F A CU LTI E S I I I , . 11

II

S INCE howe v er it is not

, ,
habit to employ our
this kin d of demonstration l alon e b ut to add ,

thereto cog e nt and compe l li ng proo fs drawn from

ob v i ou s facts w e w il l also proceed to th e latter ki nd
,

in th e present i nsta nce we will demonst rate th at in

certain parts of th e body t irer e tent iv e ac ult
f y is so
obvious that its op e ration can be actu ally recognised
by th e se ns es whi lst in oth er parts it is l ess ob v io us

to th e se nses but i s ca pable e v en h ere of be

,

, ing
det ected by th e a rg u m e nt 3 .

Let u s b e gin ou r e x position then by fi rst deal ing , ,

systematically for a whil e with ce rtain definite parts

of th e body in reference to which we may acc u rately
,

t est and enq u ir e what sort of th ing th e r etenti v e

facul t y is
N ow coul d one be gi n th e enquir y in any bette
.

,
r
way than with th e largest and hollowest organs ?
P e rso n ally I do not thin k one cou l d It is to b e e x

e
.

ct ed that in thes e ow i ng to thei r siz e th e

p , ,

activities will show quite cl early wh e r eas with ,

respe ct to th e small organs e v en if th ey poss ess a ,

strong faculty of thi s ki nd its acti v ation wil l not at ,

once be r ecognisabl e to sens e .

Now tho s e parts of th e ani m al whi ch are especial ly

holl ow and large are th e stomach and th e orga n
whi c h is cal l e d th e womb or ute r us 3 W hat prev e n ts .
'

us the n fr om takin g u p th ese fi r st and c o n sid e rin g

, ,

the ir acti v ities conduct in g th e enqu i ry o n our own

,

p rocess of 11 07 6 7 0 7 0 o r t h eor iz in g ; cf p 1 5 1 not e 3 ;

”
11
”
6 01 1 1 . .
,

p 205 not e 1
TheG ree k wo rd s for t he11 1 6 1 11 8 ( 111 61 11 1 6 a nd
.
.
, 0

p roba bl y o wet h ei r plu ra l form to t hebe l ief t h a t t heo r gan

was b i co r nu at e i n t heh u man as it is in so me of t hel owe r
,

spec i es .
2 27
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230
 ON THE N AT U R A L F A CU L TI E S I I I ,
111

th eut eru s p ble ca a of contracti ng u pon an d of r e

ining t hee m bryo
,

ta bu t in order t h at th e l at t er may
r s i z e When t h erefore t h eobj e ct
,

a rri v e a t a prop e .
,

for whi ch t heu t e rus bro u gh t it s re t en t iv e fac ul t y

,

in t o pl ay has been fulfill e d it t hen s t ops t his facu l t y

,

a n d brings it b a ck t o a s t a t e of res t an d e m ploys

i nstea d of it a no t h er fa cul t y hi t h ert o q u ies cen t — t he
,

r o u ls iv e f acu l t y I n t his ca se a ga in t h eq u ies c en t

p p .

an d a ctive s t a t es ar ebo t h d e t ermine d by u t ili t y ;

wh en t his calls t h ere is activi t y ; when it does
,

not t h ere is rest

, .

H ere t h en on ce more w e mus t observe well

A r t [a rtis t i c t en d en cy ] of N at u re—h ow sh e has
, ,

t he
,

n ot merely pl a ced i n e ac h orga n th e ca pa bil i t ies

of u sefu l act ivi t ies b ut h as also fore -or d ain ed t he
,

t im e s bo t h of res t a n d m ove m ent For wh en eve ry .

t h i ng conne ct e d wi t h t hepregn a n cy proc ee d s pro

perly t hee ,
limina t iv efacul t y re m ains qu ies cen t as
t hough it d id n ot e x is t b u t if a nyt hing goes wrong
,

i n conne ction ei t h er wi t h th e ch orion or an y of

t heo t h er m em bra nes or with th e foetu s i t self an d
its co m pl e t ion is en t irely desp aired of t h en t he
,

rus no longer aw a i t s t henin e -months p eriod b u t

,

ut e

t he n t iv efa cu l t y fort hwi t h ce as es an d a ll ows t h e

,

ret e
h ere t ofore inoperat ive facu l t y t o com e in t o act i on
Now it is t h at so m e t h i ng is done —in fa ct useful
.

work e ffe ct ed — by t h ee liminat iv eor p r 0p 1Lls Lve

,

f
'

acu lt
y
f as been ca lled re c eivi ng l ike t he
( or so it t oo h
rest it s n ames from t hecorrespon di ng act i v iti es )
, , , ,

, .

Fu rt her our th eory ca n I th ink demonstra te bot h

, , ,

t og e t her ; for see ing t h at t hey su cc eed e ach o t h er

an d t h at t heone k eeps gi v ing pl ac e to t h eo t h er
,

a ccor d ing a s u t ili t y d e m a n d s it seems n ot u nre a son

,
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 O N TH E N A T U R AL F A CU L T I E S ,
I II . 11 1

In t h e se of th e opposit e ( t h e el i m in a tive )
ca

facul t y th e os opens wh ils t t hewhol e fun d u s a p

a r as possibl et o t h e x pelling t he
, ,

r oa ch e s as n e os e
p
e m b ryo as it d oes s o ; a n d a long wi t h t h efun d us t he
,

con t ig u o u s p a rt s — whi ch form as it were a gird le

ro u n d t h ewhol e organ — co-opera t e in t h ework
t hey sq u ee z e u pon t he em bryo an d propel it b odily
outwa rd s A n d in m any wo m en who e x er cise su ch
.
,

a facu l t y im m od e rat ely viol en t pa ins ca u se forcibl e

prol a pse of t h ewhol e wo m b ; h ere a lmost th e sa m e
,

t hing h appens as fr e u en t ly o ccu rs in wr e stling -

b ou t s
q
a n d s t r u ggles when i n ou r ea gerness to overt urn an d

thro w ot h ers w e ar eou rselves upset a long with t he m ;

,

for sim il arly wh en t heu t er u s is for cing th e e m b ryo

forwa rd it som e t im es be com es en t i rely prol a pse d an d
pa rt i cu l a rly wh en t hel igam en t s conne cting it with
,

t he spine h appen t o be n at urally l ax l

A won d erfu l devi ce of N at ure s also is th is—t h at
.

wh en th e foet us is al ive t heos uteri is closed wi th

,

rfe ct accu ra cy b ut if it d ies t h e03 at on ce ope n s

,

pe
p to t h e e x t en t whi ch is ne cessa ry for t h efoe t u s to
, ,

m ake it s e x it Th e m idwife however d oes n ot m ake

t he pa rt u rien t woma n ge
.
, ,

t u p at on ce a n d s it d o wn on
t he [obs t e t ri c ch a ir b u t sh e beg ins by pa lp at in g t he
] ,

05 as i t gr ad u ally di l at es a n d th e fi rst t hin g sh e says

enough t o adm i t t hel i tt l e

,
“
is t h at i t has d il at e d
fing e r t h en th at it is bigge
,
“
r now an d as we "

n q ui ries fro m t im e t o t i m e s h ea nswers t h at

,

m ak ee
t h esi z e of t h e
,

dil a t a t ion i s i n crea sing A n d wh en

it is s u ffi ci en t to a llow of t he tra nsi t of t h efoet u s 2
.

sh e t h en ma k es t h epat ien t get u p from h er bed an d

,

1
Re of u t e
l ax at ion ro -sacr l ligame n t s as an i mpo r t a n t
a
pr e
d ispo m g ca u se
s of prol ps u s u t eria

T h at in at t hee nd of t h efirs t s t g eof la bour

.

a
, a .
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1
Th pye
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.

2 “
Chy l os ig, chy l ifi ca t ion .
f
c . p . 240, .
 O N TH E N A T U RA L F A CU LTI E S I I I , . xv

an a bnorm ally lon g ti m e in th e stoma ch as wou ld be

r eslow I n d e d t he
,

n at u ra l if th e i r d i ge sti on we . e
s u r ri s e on e
,

chi e f wa i n w hi ch th e se e o l e w i ll i s
y p p p
in t h e le n gth o f ti m eth at n o t food a lone but even
fl u i d s w i ll r e m ai n i n th e
_

i r s tomach s Now th e.

a s one would im ag i n e
,

act u a l ca u se o f thi s i s n o t

r o u t let o f t h est om ach b e

,

th a t t helow e
,
1
i n g fai rl y
n a rrow w i ll a llow noth in g to p ass b e
,

fore b e ing
d t o a fi n es t at e o f d i v i si o n T h e r ear ea
,

r ed u c e .

g re at m a ny peopl e w h o fr e qu e n t l y swallow l ar ge
q u an titi e s o f b i g fr u it- s ton e s ; on eperson w h o was
h old i n g a g old ri n g i n his m o u th inad v e rt e
,

n tl y
swallowed it a n o th e
,

r swallowe d a c o i n an d v a ri o us
people h av eswallow e d v ari o us h ar d an d in d i g e
,

s ti bl e

o bj e cts ; ye t all th e s epeopl e e a s i l y p asse d b y t h e

bowel w h a t th e y had sw allowe d w ith o ut th e r ebe i ng

s u bse ue
,

an q n t s ym t o m s N o w s u r el y i f n arro w
y p .

ne ss o f t h e gas t ri c o u t l e t were t hec au s eof u n t ri t u

ra t e d food r e m a i ni n g for an ab n orm a ll y l o n g tim e
none o f th e se ar ti cl e s I h av e me n ti o n e v e
,

d wo u l d e r
h av ee s c ap e d F u rth e rm ore t hefa ct th a t it i s
l i q u i ds w hi ch r e m ai n l o n ge
.
,

s t i n th e se peopl es ’

s t o m ach s i s s u ffi ci e n t t o pu t t hei d e a o f n a rro w ne ss

o f t heo u tl e t o ut o f co u r t F or s u p posin g a r api d

.

de sce n t wer ed e pe nd e n t upon e

,

m u l s fi cat ion th e
i 2
n
s o u ps m i l k an d b arl e y -e m uls i o n 3 wo u l d at o n ce
,

ass
p
al o n g i n e v e ry ca s e B u t as a m att e
, ,

. r o f fa ct this i s
n o t s o F or in people w h o ar ee
. xt re m e l y a sth e n ic it
i s j u st th e se fl u id s w hich r e m ai n u n d i g e ste d w hi ch
pro d u c e
,

a c cu m u l a t e and g u rgl i n gs an d w hich o ppr e ss

an d o v e rl o ad t hes t om ach wh e re
,

as i n s tron g
p er s o n s

not m e r el y d o non eo f th e
,

s e thi n g s h a
ppe n bu t e ven a
lar g eq u an tity o f b re a d or m e
,

a t pas s e s r a i dl y d o wn
p .

Lit barl e ey wat e

.
y 126 b a.r l - r .

23
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o e ou Moree r i t o l ec
x act l y pe n ot e1
' 9 '
Ch l doch s. f s
p 97,
N eb rg e E r sis t r t s t h t ” d iss et ion h d
. . .

3
r s ys
u u a of a a u
“
a c a

ta u g h t h im t o t h in k in terms of n t omy I t w ch i e
a a fly . as

24 2
 ON T H E N A T U RA L F A C U LT I E S I I I , . iv

you rsel f in an an imal if y ou will try to hit u po n th e

t im e at whi c h t h e des cent of food fr om t hest omac h
,

t a k es pl ace Bu t e ven if you should fail to dis cover

t i m ean d no t h ing was yet p assin g d own an d t he
.

t he
s t ion i n t hesto m a ch
, ,

food was st ill undergoing di g e ,

s t ill even t h e n y ou woul d fin d di sse ctio n n ot wi t ho u t

i t s u ses Y o u will observe as we h av e j u st sa id
t h at t h epylor u s is a ccu rat ely close d an d t h at t he
.
, ,

whole s t o m a ch is in a st a te of contraction u pon th e

food very m u ch as t h ewomb con t ract s u pon t he
foet u s For it is never po ssibl e to fin d a v aca n t
.

sp ac e i n t heu t er u s th e st omach or in ei t h er of t he
, ,

t wo bl a d d ers — t h at is ei t her in th a t ca ll ed bil e ,

1
re ceivi ng or in th e o t h er ; wh eth er th eir conten t s
be a b u n dan t or s can t y the ir ca vi t ies ar es e en to be
reple t e a n d fu ll o win g t o t h efact t ha t t heir co at s
,

con t r a ct cons t an t ly u po n th e c on t en t s —
,

so long at

l ea s t as t h eanimal is in a n at u ral con d iti on

,

.
,

Now Era sist rat u s for some rea son de cla res th at it
is t hecon t r act ions 2 of t hes t oma ch whi ch a r et h e
ca u se of every t hi ng—t h at is to sa
y of t h e so ft ening
of t h efo od 3 t her e m ov a l of w ast e m at t er an d t h e
,

a bsorption of t h e food when chyl ifi e

, ,

d [e m uls ified ] .

N ow I h a ve person ally on co u n t l e ss occasions

,

d ivi d e d t h eperi t one u m of a s t ill l iving a nim al

,

a n d h a ve al w ays foun d al l t he int e s t ine

s con t ra ct ing

pe ri st a l t i ca lly “u po n t h e ir con t en t s Th e con di t i on

of t hesto mach however i s fo u nd l ess simple ; as
.

rega rd s t he s u bs t an ces freshly swa llowed it had

, ,

grasp e d t he s eaccu ra t e ly bot h a bo ve an d below i n ,

fact a t e very po in t an d w as as d e ,
voi d of m ove m en t
t he gros s mov e me n t s o r s t ru ct u reo f orga n s w i t h w h i ch he
co n ce rn e d h i ms e lf W”h e rean organ had no obviou s fu n ct ion
e bbe sele eg t hespl e e
.
,

h du d it ss u n (f p c
me
d di l t ing ; no l on gi t d in l mov e
. . . .

on t rct ing ac an a nts u a

in volv e
d ; d p 26 3 no t e. 2 .
, 24 3
.
 GAL EN

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 ON T H E N AT U R A L F A CU L T I ES I I I , . v. -v 1

t hu s being t h at h ere t oo th ereis a ret e ,n tive ,

facu l t y
Sim il arly too t h e
.

st o m ach wh en a o ften h appens s

it is irri t at ed b y aci d i t y ge t s ri d of t h e
, , , , ,

food al t hough
, ,

s t ill un d ig est ed ea rl ier t h a n proper ; or a ga in when

, ,

Oppresse d by th e q u an t i t y of i t s con t ents or dis

or d ered fro m t h ecc e xi st en ce of bo t h con d itions it
,

Vomd mg a lso is an a ffe

,

is seiz e d wi t h diar rhoe a c

t ion of the u pper [pa rt of t h e

.

] st o m ach an alogou s

t o di a rrhoe a an d it o ccurs wh en t h e
,
stom ach is ov er
lo aded or is un abl e to st a n d th e qu al ity of th e food
or s u rplus s u bst a n ces whi ch it con t a in s Thus wh en
s uch a con dition develops in t h elower p arts of t h e
.
,

s t om ach wh il e ,t h ep a rt s a bo u t t h e inle t ar enorma l ,

it e
.

n d s in di a rrho ea where as if t his con d ition is in

u pper stom ach t h el o wer pa rts b eing norm al it
,

t he , ,

e n d s in vomi tin g .

VI
ms m ay often b e cl ea rly observe d in t hose who
‘ ‘
l
aredis in line d for foo d ; wh en oblige d to e
c at t h ey

h ve n ot t h est reng t h to sw llow n d even if they

,

a a ,
a ,

for e th emsel ves t o do so they

c nnot re t a in t h e ,
ca

food bu t at on ce vo m i t it up A nd t hose espe ci ally

, .

who h av ea d isl i ke t o som e pa rt i cu l ar ki nd of food ,

som e t i m es ta ke it u nder co m p u lsion a nd th en ,

pro m p t ly bring it up or if they for ce t h emselves t o

p i t down t h ey ar en ause at e
,

ke e , d an d feel t heir
s t o m ach t urne d up an d ende avo u ring to relieve its elf
,

of it s dis com fort .

Th u s as was sa id at th e begi n n i ng all th e observe d

fact s t e
, ,

s t ifv t h at th e
re m u st e x is t i n al m ost al l pa rt s
of t heani m al a cert a in in cl in at ion to wards or so t o , ,

24 7
 G A L EN
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 O N T H E N A T U R AL F A C U L TI E S I I I , . v u

it . Thus it a tt racts al l th e most useful pa rts or th e

a u 1
foo d in a v poro s an d finely di vide d condi t ion ,

s t oring this u p in it s own co at s an d a pplyi ng 2 it to ,

t h em A n d when it is s u ffi cien t ly fu ll it p u ts aw ay
fro m it as one m igh t so m e t hing t ro u bl esom et he
.

res t
of t h e
, ,

foo d t his h aving i t self m e a nwhile ob t ai n ed som e

profi t fro m it s asso ci at ion wi t h t hestom ach For it
,

is im po ssibl e for t wo bodies whi ch ar ea d apted for

.

a ct ing a n d being act e d upon t o co m e toge t h er with

ou t ei t h er bo t h ac tin g or bein g acted u pon or else ,

one act i n g an d th e o t h er being a cte d u po n For i f .

t he ir for ces ar eeq u al t h ey will a ct an d be act ed

u pon eq u ally an d if t heon e be m u ch s u perior in
,

s t rengt h it w ill e x e rt i t s a ct ivity u po n it s passi ve

,

neighbo u r th u s whil e prod u cing a grea t an d a ppr e

cia bl e
,

e ffe ct it wi ll i t self be act e d upon ei t her li t t l e

or not a t al l But it is h ere in a ls o th a t t hem ain
,

d i fferen ce li es be t ween nou ri shing food an d a dele

te r iou s drug ; t he l atter m ast ers t h efor ce s of t h e

bo dy wh ere as th e former is ma st ered by t h e m 3

, .

There cannot t h en b e food whi ch is s u i t e d for t h e

, ,

a ni m a l whi ch is n ot a lso correspon d in gly s u b d u ed b

y
t h eq u ali t ies e x i st i ng in t h ea nim al An d t o b e .

s u bd u e d me a ns t o un d ergo a lt e ra t ion 4 N ow so m e
pa rt s ar est ronger in power an d ot h ers w eaker
.
,

t h erefore wh il e all wil l subdu e t h e

,

n u t ri m en t wh i ch
is proper t o t heani m al t h ey will n ot all d o so
,

eq u ally Th us th e s t o m ach wi ll s u bd u e an d a l t er it
. s

food b u t n ot to th e s am e e xtent as will th e li ver

,
.

veins art eries an d h e a rt

, , .

We mus t t h er e fore observe to wh at e x t ent it does

al t er it Th e al t erat ion is more t h a n t h at wh i ch
.

Mu t u a l infl ue n eof org nis m nd e

c n viron me
ant a

l i t a t i v e ha n ge cf Boo k L cha p ii
.

Q ua c . .
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'

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hr o x y ge
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2 54
 O N TH E N A T U R AL F A CU LT I E S I I I , . 7 11

mas t i cated Indeed th ere is no compar ison between

.
,

t hese t wo processes w e h ave only to cons ider wh a t

t h es t o ma ch con t a ins — phl egm b ile pne u m a [ in

n at e t he u bs t a n ce of t he
, , ,

] h eat d in ee whol e s
1 an
d d
s t o mach A n d if one considers along with t h is t h e
, ,

a dj ace nt vi scera li ke a lot of bu rning he art hs a ro und

a grea t ca u l d ron— to th e righ t t h e
,

l i ver t o th e left
t heS pleen t h eh ea rt a bove an d a long wi t h it t h e
,

, ,

d i a ph ragm ( s u spended an d in a st at e of consta n t

m ove m en t ) an d t he om en t um sh el t eri ng th em all
you may be
,

li eve wh at a n e xt r aordin ary a l t erat ion it

is whi ch o ccu rs in t h efood ta ken i nto th e st om ac h .

H ow could it e as ily be co m e bl ood if it were n ot

pre viously prepa red by m eans of a cha nge of t h is
ki nd ? It has al rea dy been shown 2 tha t no t h ing is
a l t ered all at on ce fro m one u ali t y t o its opposi t e
q .

H ow t hen coul d brea d beef be ans or an y o t h e

, , ,
r
food t u rn into bl ood if t h ey had n ot previo u sly
u ndergon e so m e other a l t er at ion ? A nd h ow co u ld
t h efa e ces be gen era te d righ t a w ay in th e s m a ll
mt e st i e
n ? 3
For wh at is there i n this organ more
poten t in prod u cing a l t eration t h an th e factors i n t he
s t omach ? I s it t hen u m ber of t hecoa ts or the way
i t is su rrounde d by neighbo uring vis cera or t h e
,

, ti m e
t h at t he food re m a ins in i t or some kind of i nn at e
M ost assure d ly t he
,

h eat whi ch it con t a ins in test in es

h a ve t h ea d van t a ge of th e st om ach in none of t h es e
respe ct s For wh a t possibl e re as on th en will oh
je ct ors hav e it t h at bre ad m ay o ft e
.
, ,

n re main a wh ol e
nigh t in t hest o mach an d s t ill preserv e it s origi n a l
q uali t i es wher e
, as when on ce it is proj e ct ed i n t o th e

T hat is t o s ay fae ces ar eob k s l y a l t e re d food This

al t e rat ion ca nno t h av et ak e n l acee n t i re ly in t hesm a ll
, .

int e s t in e: t he re foreal t e ra t i on 0pfood mu st ta k eplacei n t he

s t omac h .
 G AL EN

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2 56
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 ON T H E N A T U RA L F A C U LTI E S I I I ,
. i n

Erasis t rat u s however is st ill more foolish an d

a bs u rd ei t her t hro u gh n ot pe
,

rcei vin g in wh at sens e

,

t heA n cien t s s a i d t h at d iges t i on is si m il ar t o t he

,

proc ess of boiling or be ca u se h e p u rpos e

,
ly confu se d
hims e lf wi t h soph ist r i es I t is h e says in con ceiva bl e
.
, ,

t h a t diges t ion i n v olving as it d oes su ch t rifl ing

l at ed t o t heboiling proc ess
,

wa rm t h shou ld b e r e
,
.

Thi s is as if we wer et o s u ppose th at it was ne cessa ry

t o pu t t h e fires of E t n a u n d er t hest om a ch befor ei t
c ould m an age t o al t e r t hefo od ; or else t h at whi l e it
was ca p a bl e of al t ering t hefood it d i d n ot d o this
,

by virt u e of it s i nn at e h eat whi ch of cou rs e wa s

mois t so t h at t h e
,

wor d bail was us e d ins t ea d o f

e
,

bak .

Wh at h e ought to ha ve d one if it was fa ct s t h at he

,

wished t o dis p u t e a bo u t was t o ha v e t ried t o show

fi rs t an d fore m ost t h a t t he
, ,

,
food is n ot tra nsm u t e d or
al t ered in u a li t y by t h e s t o m a ch a t a ll a n d se con d ly
q , ,

if heco u l d n ot be confi d e n t of t his h e ought t o ,

h av e trie d t o show t h a t t his a l t era t i on was not of a n y

ad v an t a g e t o t he an im a l 1
. I f a ga in h ewere un abl e
, ,

even t o m ak e t his m isrepresen t a ti on h e o u gh t t o

h a ve a t t e m p t e d t o con fu t e t he
,

po st ul at e con cernin g
t he act i v e r inci le
p p s — t o show i n fa ct t h at t h e fun ct ions

in t he
, ,

t a kin g pl ace v a rious pa rt s d o n ot depen d on t h e

way i n whi ch t h eW a rm Co l d D ry an d M ois t ar e
, , ,

mi x e d bu t on som e o t h er fa ct or A n d if h e ha d n ot
,
.

th e a u da ci t y t o m isrepresen t fa ct s even s o far as t his ,

st il l h e sho ul d h a ve t ried at l e a s t t o show t h a t t h e

W a rm is n ot t hemost act ive of all t heprin ciples
’

whi ch pl ay a pa rt in t hings gov e rn e d by N at u re B u t

if h e was u n abl et o d e
.

m ons t r a t e t his an y more t h an

an
y of t h e pr e vious propositions t h en h eough t n ot t o
,

ha ve ma d e hi m self ridi culo u s by q u a rr e lli n g u s e

le ssl v

2 50
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pp ers t o mefrom o mp rison b e

It a a t we
en t h is nd o t h e
r c a a
p s ge s in G l e n s wri t ings ( not bly U ef P t i v
,
’
as a a a s o a r s,

e e e o t s si mply t he
.
,

t h t ha m ns b y t h “
tw a m o s d o c a
”
uc u an

t he m s l r o ts u cu a I n t h is s et he s t r ig h t or longi
c a
” “
ca a

e oi t he e t w ou l d be t he g e ; t he
.

t u d in l fibr s inn r o
”
a c a ru a
“
cir u l r
”
f br e
c s of t heinn e
a s t in l o t wo ul d bet he
r in t e i a c a

w l ul e v conni e nt e
a s v .

262
 ON TH E N A T U RA L F A C U LTI ES , III . v 1 11

n at u r ein t heg u lle t Now simpl e observ at i on will .

t es t ify th at t h ese coa ts h a ve t h eir fibres ins erted in

con t r ry d ire ct io n s
a
l A nd al t ho u gh Eras is t ra t us did
y for wh at re ason t h ey ar e
.
,

n ot a t t e m p t t o sa lik e t h is ,

I am going t o do so .

The inner co at has it s fibres straight since it e xi sts

for t h epurp ose of t r act ion Th e outer coat has
,

its fibres t ra nsv e rse for t hepurpose of p e ris t alsi s 2

In fact t h em ovements of ea ch of t h emobileorga ns
.
,

of t hebody d epen d on th e set t ing of th e fibre

,

s .

Now pl e ase t es t t h is asse rt ion fi rs t in th e m u s cl es

t h e m sel ves ; in t h ese t h e fibres ar emost d ist i n ct an d ,

t heir m ovem e n t s vi sibl e owing t o t h eir vigo u r A n d

a ft er t h e m s l es pas s to t ep y sic orga ns a n d
.

u c h h a l 3
, ,

you wi l l se e t h at t hey al l m o v e in corresponden ce

wi t h t h eir fibres Th is is why t h efibres t hro u gho u t
th e in t est i n es ar ecircu l a r in bot h coat s —t h ey only
.

con t r a ct pe ris t al t i cally t h ey do n ot e x er cise t r a ct ion

, .

The st o m ach aga i n has so m e of it s fibres longi t u d in al

,

for th e pur pose of t ract ion an d th e o t h ers transv e

,

rse
for t h epu rpose of p e rist alsis 2 For j u st as t h e
n ts in t hem u s cl es “ta k epl a c e when ea ch of
.

m ov e me
t he fibres b e co m e s t igh t ened an d d ra wn t owa rds it s
ori gin su ch also is wh at h a ppens in t hest o m ach ;
,

wh en th e transverse fibres tigh t en t hebre ad t h of ,

Th e te rm h e r er e n de re d pe r is ta l si s is p er ist ol e in G re e k;
3

it is a ppli e d onl y t o t h e in t er mi t t en t mov e me n t s of mus cl e s

pl ace d cir cu l a rl y ro u n d a l u me n or ca vi t y and co mpre he n ds
sy t ol e o r con t rac t ion an d d iast ole
,

s or d il t a t ion I n it s a

m ode rn sign ifi ca n cep e eis h o we ve r also in cl ude s t he

.

r ist a L
m ov e me n t s of l on git d ina l fibr e s cf p 97 no t eI
, . ,

et h os econ t aining non s t ripe d or in v ol u n t a ry mu s cl e

.
. .
, .

3 - “
'

fibr s ; org ns gov rn e

e e d by t he n at u ra l pn e
. .

“
a u ma ; cf
no t e3
.

p 1 86,
By t h is t e rm is me es h o l d e
. .

ant onl y w ha t w u ca ll th
vol u n t ary muscl el .

2
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 O N TH E N A T U R AL F A C U L T I E S ,
I II . v m

c h annel ; would be e xt ra or dinary if t hec h ann e

it l
d id n ot d il at e w hen a m a ss w as pa ssing t hro gh it u
1 .

Obvi o u sly t hen t hed il at a t ion of t h elow e r pa rts

a long wi t h t he con t r a ct ion of t h eu pper is co m mon

bo t h t o d ea d bod ies wh en a nyt hing wh at soever is

p assing t hrough t h e m a n d t o living on e
,

,
s whe t her ,

t he y con t ract perista l t i ca lly ro un d t heir con t en t s or

a tt ract t h e m 2
.

Cu rt a il m ent of l en gt h on th e o t h er h and is , ,

pe c u li ar t o organs whi c h possess long i t u d in a l fibres

fo r t hep u rpose of attra ct ion B u t t hegu lle t was .

sho wn t o be p u ll e d down ; for o t h erwise it woul d

not h a ve dra wn u pon t hel aryn x I t is t h erefore
s t om ach at t ra ct s foo d by t hegullet
.

cl ea r th a t t he .

Fu r t h er in v omil ing t hem ere pa ssive conv e y an ce

of rej e ct e d m at t er up t o t h em ont h wil l c ert ai n ly
, ,

i t s elf s u ffi c e t o keep open t hose pa r t s of t heoe so

phagus whi ch ar ed is t en d e d by t h er e t u rn e d food ;

as it o ccu pies e ach pa rt in fron t [above ] it fi rs t
dil ates t his an d of cou rse le a ves t h epa rt beh in d
,

con t ract e ct a t l e as t t he
,

[ below ] d Thus in t his respe

con d i t ion of t h e
.
,

cis e
,

gulle t is pr e ly s i m il ar t o wh a t it
i s in t hea ct of swa llowin g 3 B u t t h e re b e ing no
.

t ract io n t h ewhole len g t h rem a in s eq u al in su ch

,

cases .

A n d for this re ason it is ea sier t o sw allow th an

t o vomi t for d e gl u ti t ion resul t s from bot h coat s
,

of th e s t o m ach be ing bro u gh t in t o act ion the inn er

one e x e rt ing a p u ll an d t h eo u t e
,

r one h e lping by
perist a lsis an d prop u lsion wh e reas eme s i s o ccu rs
,

fro m t heo u te r coat alone fu n ct ionin g w i t ho u t t here ,

7 a t h is p h e
no me it he
p roof n e
non is r of p eist oleno
‘

a r r

of t t r t io n cf p 97 no t e2
. .

a ac
Cont r t ion and dil at a t ion of coursebe ing reve rse
. .
, .

ac d .

26
 GA LE N
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2 68
 GA LEN

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2 70
 ON T HE N AT U RA L F A C U L T I E S, III
'

. v il l

q nima ls h e also adds th e ca use of t h is : h e says

th at it is o w in g to th e ir v ora city .

The fact s ar eas follows I n all anim als , wh en the

.

a ppe t i t e is v ery intense th e stom a ch ris es u p so th at

, ,

som e peopl ewho h a v e a cle ar p e r cep t ion of this

con d i t i on say th at thei r stom ach cr e e ps ou t of
th em ; in others who ar estill m asticatin g the ir food
,

an d h a v e not yet worked it u p

pro perly in the mouth ,

th e s t om a ch ob v iously sn atch es a w ay th e food from

them aga inst their will I n those a n im al s therefore
.
,

which a r en at ura lly v ora cious in whom the mouth

,
-
,

ca v i ty is of g enerous pro porti ons an d th e stoma ch ,

situ ated close to it ( as in the ca s e of the syn odont an d

ch a nn a) it is in no way su rp risin g th at wh en th ey
ar e su ffi ciently h u n gry an d ar epu rsuin g one of th e
, ,

sm aller anim a ls an d a r e
,
j ust on th e p oint of c atch in g
it the stom ach should under th e im p ulse of desire
, , ,

s prin g into th e mouth A nd this ca nnot possibly ta ke

.

l a ce in an other w a th a n by th e stom a ch d ra win

p y y g
th e food to its elf by me an s of th e gu ll et as thou g h by ,

a h and . I n fa ct j ust as w e oursel v es in ou r e ag er

, ,

ness to gras p more quickly som eth in g lyin g before u s ,

sometimes stretch out our whol e bodi es a lon g with

our h ands so also th e sto m a ch stretch es its elf forw a rd
,

al on with the ullet which is as it were i t s h and

g g , , , .

A nd thus in th ese a nimals in whom those three

factors co-e xist — n e x cessi v e pro p ensi ty for food a
,

a
,

sma ll g ullet an d am pl e mouth pro portions -in these

, ,

an
y sli ght tendency to mo v ement forwa rd s brin gs
th e whole sto m a ch into the m on t h .

Now th e constitution of the organs mi gh t itself

su ffi c e to g i v e a n aturalist an indic ation of their
functions For N a ture woul d ne v er h a v e p u rpose
.

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 GA L EN

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2 74
'
 O N T H E N A T U R A L F A CU L T I E S , III . v m

food by d i tendin g this coat an d hin derin g it s

,
s

a ction .

But Erasistra tus sa id nothin g a bout this no r did ,

h e point out th at th e obl iqu e situ a ti on of th e g ullet

cl ea rly confutes th e tea chin g of those who hold th a t
it is sim ply by v irtu e of th e i m pulse from abo v e th a t
food which is sw a ll o wed re a ch es th e stom a ch The .

only correct thin g he sa id was th at m a ny of th e l on g

necked a nim a ls bend down to swa llow . H ence ,

cl ea rly th e o bser v ed fa ct doe s not show how we

,
.

sw allow bu t how we do not sw allow For from this oh

.

ser v a tion it is cl e a r th a t swall owin g is not d u em erely

to th e im pulse from a bo v e ; it is yet howe v er not cl ea r
, ,

whether it results from th e food bein g a ttra cted by

t h esto ma ch or conducted by the g ullet
,
. For ou r
a rt howe v er h a v in
g en u merated a ll th e di f f erent
p
conside rations —those bas ed on the constitution of the
, ,

or gan s as well as th o se based on th e oth er sym ptoms

,

whic h as j ust mentioned occur both before an d a fter

the g ullet has been e x posed -weh av e thu s su ffi ciently
,

p ro v ed th a t th e inner co a t e x ists for th e

p ur po se of
attr a ction an d th e outer for th e
p ur pose of pro p ulsion .

N ow th e ori gin al task w e set before ou rsel v es

was to demonstra te th a t th e r e te nt iv e fa cul ty e x ists
in e v ery one of th e organs j ust as in th e pre v ious
,

book we p ro v ed the e xistence of the at t ract iv ean d ,

o v er an d a bo v e this th e a lt e rat iv efa culty Thus

,

.
, ,

in the n a t u ra l co u rse of ou r a r gument we h a v e de

m on st r at e
,

d t h ese four fa culties e x is tin g i n th e

s t o m ach— th e a ttra cti v e fac u lty i n co n nection with
sw a llo win g the retenti v e with di g estion th e e
, , x ul
p
si v e with v o m iting an d wi th the descent of di g ested
food into th e sm a ll intestine—an d di g estion itsel f
we ha v e shown to be a proce ss of a lt e r at ion .

3 7
 G AL EN

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 ON T H E N A T U R AL F A C U LT I E S m ,
. x

pa rt ly co n qu e r e d by t h e sophis t r ies of t h ese fell ows

an d h a ve g i v en cre d e n ce t o t h e m ; wh ils t o t h ers

who at t e m pt e d t o a rgu e wi t h t h e m appea r t o m et o
l ac k t o a gre a t e x t e n t t hepo wer of t heAn cien ts .

For t h is re ason I h a ve at t e m p t e d t o p ut toge t her m y

a rg u m e n t s in t heway i n whi ch it s e e m s t o m et he
A n cien t s had any of t h em b e e n s t ill a l i ve wou l d h a ve
d one in opposi t ion t o t hose who wo u l d overt u rn t h e
, ,

fines t do ct rines of our ar t .

I am n ot however u n aw a re t h at I sh all a chieve

, ,

ei t her no t hing at al l or else ve ry li t t l e For I fi nd

.

t h at a gr e at m a ny things whi ch h a ve been c on cl u

s iv e l y de m ons t r a t e d by t heA n cien t s a r eu n i n t e ll i

gibl et o t heb u lk of t heM od e m s owi ng t o t h eir
ignoran c e —n ay t h at by re a son of t h e
, , ir l azin e ss
t h ey will n ot e ven m ake an at t e
,

m p t t o co m prehen d
t he m ; an d even if a ny of t h e m h a v eu n d e rst ood
t hem t h e
,
y h a v enot given t h em i m p a rt i al e x a mi n a

t ion .

Th e fa ct is t h at h e whos ep ur pose is t o know any

t hin g be t t er t h a n t h e m ul t i t u d ed o must far s u rpass
al l o t h ers both as rega r d s h is n at u re a n d h is ea rly

t r a ini ng . A n d wh en h e re a ch es e arly ad ol es c en ce
h e m u s t be com e poss esse d wi t h an a rd en t love for
t r uth l ike one i nsp ir e
, d ; nei t h er d ay nor nigh t m ay
he c e ase t o u rge an d strain himself in ord er to l ea rn
t horo u ghly all t h at has been sa i d by t he m ost illus
t rions of t heA n ci e n t s A n d wh e
. n h e has l ea rn t
t h is t h en for a prolonged peri od he m u st test an d
,

pro v e it obser v ing wh at p a rt of i t is in a gree m en t

, ,

an d wh at in di s a gree m en t wi t h obvio u s fa ct ; t h us

he will choose t hi s an d t u rn a way from t h at To

s u c h a n on em y hope has b e
.

en t h at m y t r e at ise

wo u ld prove of the ve ry gre a t est assis t a n c e .

2 ‘
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282
 O N T H E N A TU RA L F A CU L T I ES I I I , . x7 .
-x1 1

s t om ach d u ring t h ewhol e pe riod of di ges tion l an d ,

t he ut e ru s d u ring t h at of ges t a t ion .

Th u s t oo t heco at of a vein be ing s ingl e consists

of va r io u s kinds of fibres ; wh ils t t heo u t e
, , ,

r co at of
an a rt e ry con sis t s of circu l a r fi bres and its i nn er ,

coa t m os t ly of longi t u di n a l fibres b u t wi t h a few

obliq u e ones also am ongst the m V e i ns t hu s re
,

semble t heu t eru s or t hebl ad d er a s rega rds t he

.

a rr a nge m ent of t h eir fibres even t ho u gh t hey ar e

,

defi cien t in t hi ckne ss ; si m il arly a rteri es r e sem bl e

t h es t o m ac h A lon eof al l orga ns t hein t es t ines
.

consi s t of two coa t s of whi ch bo t h h a ve th eir fibres

t ran sverse 2
Now t h eproof th at it was f or t hebe st

t h at a ll t h e organs sho u l d ben at urally su ch as t hey

.

ar e h for in s a n c e t he in es nes sho u ld be com

( t at t t t i
posed of t w o co at s ) b e lo ngs t o t hes u bj e ct of t h eus e
, ,

u s we u s t n ot now d e
fp
3
o a r t s ; t h m sire t o h e a r a bo u t

ma tt e rs of t h is kind nor why t h ea n at omis t s ar eat

v arian ce rega rd i n g t hen u m ber of co a t s i n ea ch
orga n For t h e s eq u e st ions h a ve been su ffi ci en t ly
di s cu ss e d in t he t r e
.

“
at ise On D isa gree m en t in
A n at om y . A nd t he probl e m as t o why e a ch organ

has s u c h an d s u ch a ch a ract er wil l be disc ussed in

th e t r ea t is e O n th e Use of Part s .

X II

I T is n ot ,however ou r bu siness t o dis cu ss ei t h er

,

of t h es eq u est ions h e re b u t t o consi d er d uly t he

s whi c h t o t h e nu m be
,

na t u r a l ac u lt ie
f , , r of fo u r e x ist ,

in ea ch organ R e t urning t h en t o t his point l e

. t us , ,

coa t wi t h i t s va l v ul aeconn i v e s an d ( 2) t h e
nt e muscul a r coat
of wh i ch t hechi e f lay e
r is mad eup of circu l ar fibre
. , ,

s cf
e1
. .

p. 262, not . Or ut il it y .
28 3
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28 6
 ON TH E N A TU RA L F A C U L T I E S I I I , . 11 1 1

ain is ommon
c to al l th ese conditions an d of this
p ,

t here ar eth r e epossible ca u ses— ei t her e x ce ssi v e

b u lk or weigh t or i rri t at ion b ulk wh e n t heu t eru s
r s u pport t he s t re t ch in g w e
, ,

ca n no long e igh t
when t h econ t e
,

n t s s u rpa ss it s st r e
e
n gt h a n d irri t a t ion

wh en t hefl u i d s whi ch had previo u sly b en p e

, '

nt up
in th e m e m branes flow ou t on t h er u p t u re of t hese
in t o t heu t er u s i t self or else wh en t hewhol e fo e
, , ,

t us
perish es pu t r e fie
,

s a nd is resol ved i nt o perni cious

i chors an d so irri t a t es an d bi t es t hecoat of t he
, ,

ut er u s .

I n al l organs t h en bo t h t heir n atural e ffe cts a n d

, ,

t h eir d isord ers an d m a l ad ies pl a inly t a ke pl a c e on

a n a logo u s l ines
1
som e so cl e arly an d m a nifest ly as t o
,

need no d e m onst ra t ion a n d ot hers l ess pl a inly , ,

al t hough not entirely u nre cogni za ble to t hose who

ar e willi ng t o pay a t t en t ion

Th u s to t a k et hecase of t hestom ach : th e irri ta
.

t ion is evi d e n t h ere be ca u se t hi s orga n poss e sses m os t

se n sibility an d among it s o t h e r affe ct ions t hos e
produ cin g n ause a an d t heso-calle d h e a rt b u rn cle a rly
,

de m ons t rat e t heeli m in a ti ve fa cu l t y whi ch e xpels

for e ign m at t er So also in t h eca se of t h eu t er u s
a n d t h eu rin a ry bl a d d er ; t h is l at t er also m a
.

y be
pl ai nly observe d t o re ceive an d a ccu m u l a t e fl u id u n t il
it is so st re t ch e d by t heam oun t of t his as t o b e
in ca pa bl e of end u rin g t h ep a in ; or it m ay b e th e
u ali t y of t h e ur i ne whi ch irri t a t es it ; for ev e ry s p e r
q u

fl u ou s s u b s t a n ce whi ch l ingers in t hebo dy m u s t

obviou sly p u t refy so m e in a short er a n d so m e in a
, ,

longer t i m e an d t h u s it b e co m es pun gen t ac ri d a n d

b u rdenso m et o t h eorgan wh i ch con t a ins it This

, , ,

Re
1
l at ions h ip be
t ween p hy siology an d pat h ol ogy ag a in
e
mp h as i z e
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 ON T H E N AT U RAL F A C U LT I E S ,
III . xm

c on du ct foo d an d d rin k in to th i s organ b ut in th e ,

con d i t ion of n ause a i t p erforms th e Opp o s i t e se r v ic e

r w hi c h i s be s i d e t he
.

F u rth e r th e ne c k of th e bl adde
l i v e r a lbe i t s in gl e b o th fills an d e m pt i e s t hebl add e r
,

.
, ,

Sim i l arl y th e c a n al of th e u t e r u s afford s an e n t ra n ce

to th e s e m e n an d an e xi t t o t hefo e t us .

Bu t in th is l att e r cas e a gain w h i ls t th e e l i min at iv e

, ,

facu l ty i s e v i d e n t th e a tt r a c t i v efa c u l t y i s no t s o
,

o b v i o u s t o m o s t p e o pl e I t i s h o we v e r th e ce rv ix .

w h ic h H i ppocrate
, ,

s bl am es for in e rt i a of th e ut e r u s
w h e n h e say s I ts ori fi ce has no po we r of a ttr ac t
”
in g se me n .
1

E ras i s t ra tu s h o we v e r an d A s cle p i ad es r e ach e d

, ,

s uch h e ig ht s of w is d om th at th e y d e p ri v e d no t
m e r el y th e s to m ach a n d th e w om b of th i s facu l ty but
als o th e bl add e r b y th e l i v e r an d th e k i d n e y s as well , .

I h av e h o we v e r p oin t e d out in th e fi rs t boo k t h at i t

, ,

is im p o ss i ble t o ass i gn an y ot h e r ca use for th e se cr e ti on

of u r in e or bil e fia

N o w w h e n wefi n d t hat t h e u t e r u s t h e s tom ach

, ,

a n d th e bl add e r b y th e l i v e r c a rr y o ut a tt r action an d

e x p u ls i on t h ro u g h on e an d th e sam e d u ct we n ee d
no l on ge r fe e
,

l s u rp rise d th at N at u r e s h o u l d als o
fr e q u e n tl y d is c h ar ge was t e -s u bs tan c es i n t o t h e
s t om ach th ro u g h th e v e i n s St i ll less n e e d we b e .

as t on i s h e d if a c e rta in am o u n t of th e foo d s h o u l d
,

d u rin g l on g fast s be d rawn b a c k from th e li v e r

,

in t o th e s t om ach th ro u g h th e sam ev e in s 3 by
w h ic h i t was y i e l d e d up to th e l i e r d urin g ah v

sorption of n u t rim e n t T o d isbel i e v e su ch th in gs

‘ .

ca n o ep im e iae(in om i t i ng) it m y l o be
ccu r i n th r a v v a a s
epet e
d t o occ r i n t he”eu nd ei e b orpt i ec h nne
,

x c u
o l s c a v a r a s v a s.

d li e
e p yi e
.

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 ON T H E N A T U R A L F A C U L T I ES ,
I II . xm

th e a rt e ri es th a n th e v e in s I n ea c h of u s pe rs on
.

all y h o we v e r th e l i v e r has s t ron g e r d ra w i n g po we r

, ,

at on e t i m ea n d th e s to m ac h a t a no th e r F or w h e n.

d in th e al i m e
,

th e reis m u c h n u t r i m e n t con ta i n e n ta ry
c a n al an d th e a ppe t i tea n d cra v i n g of th e l i v e r i s vi o
le n t th e n th e v i s c u s 1 e x e r ts far th e s t ron g e s t t ra c tion .

A ga i n w h e
,

,
n t hel i v e r is fu ll a n d d ist e n d e d an d th e
s t o m a c h e m pty a n d in n e e d th e n th e for ce of th e
,

t ra c t i on s h i ft s t o th e l att e r .

S u p p o se we h ad s o m e foo d in ou r h an d s an d we re
s n at c h in g i t from on e a no th e r ; if we we r e e q ua ll y
i n w an t th e s t ron ge
,
r w ou l d be l ik e l y t o p r e v a i l bu t ,

i f h e had sat i sfi e d his a p pe t i t ea n d was h o l d i n g w h a t

,

was o v e r car e le ss l y or was a n x i o u s t o s h a r e i t wi th

,

so m e bod y a n d i f th e w e
,
ak e r was e x c e s s i v el y d e s iro u s
of i t th e r e w o u l d be no th in g t o p r e v e
,
n t th e l att e r
from g e tt i n g i t al l I n a s i m i l a r m a nn e
. r th e st o ma c h
e as i l y a tt ra c t s n u t ri m e n t fro m th e l i v e r w h e n i t
[t h e
st o ma c h ] has a s u ffi ci e n t l y s t ron g crav i n g for i t
an d th e a p p e t i t e of th e v i s c u s is sa ti sfie d And .

som e t i m es t h es u rp l u sage of n u t rim e n t in th e l i v e r

is a r e as on w hy th e a nim a l i s no t h u n g r y for w h e n
th e s to ma c h has be tt e r an d m oreav ai l able food i t
re q u ir es no th i n g fro m e xt r a n e o u s s o u r ces bu t if e v e r ,

i t i s in n eed a n d I S at a l o ss h o w t o s u pp l y t h e n ee d
i t be com es fi l le d wi t h wast e -m atte rs ; th ese ar e
ce rta in b i l i a ry ph l e gm ati c [m u co u s] an d se rou s fl u i ds
an d ar e
,

th e onl y s u b sta nc e
,

s th at th e l i v e r yi el d s in
res pons e t o th e t ra c t i on of th e s tom ac h on th e
occas ion s w h e n th e l att e
,

r t oo is i n w an t of n u t ri m e n t .

N o w just as th e pa rts d ra w foo d fro m ea c h o th e r

so als o th e y som e ti m es d e
, ,

po s i t th e ir e x c ess s u bs ta nc es
"

e l i me
Th n t ry n la a ca a as not be di bleis
ing e n ot con
ee p l n hnon or i
, ,
s id r d a s a c v s cu s.

29
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 G A L EN

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2 98
 ON T H E N A T U R A L F A C U LT I E S I I I , . 11 1 1 1

th e passage of t h e s u p e rfl ui ti e s i s e ffe c t e d of co u rs e , ,

throu gh th e sam e v e i n s by w h i ch abs or pt i on t oo k p l a c e .

F r e q u e n t l y a ls o in di s ease N a t u re p u rg e s th e
a ni m a l th ro u g h th ese sa m e v e in s—a l th o u g h in th i s

c ase th e d i s c h a rge i s no t sa n g ui n e o u s b u t corr e s p on ds

,

t o th e h u m o u r w hi c h i s a t fa u l t T h u s i n c/ wle
. r a th e

e n tir e body is e v a c ua te d by way of th e v e in s l e a d in g

t o th e i n t e s t i n es a n d s to ma c h

re
r of d ili e
.

T o im a gin e th a t m a tt e n t k in d s i s ca rri e d

in on e d i r e c tion onl y w o ul d c h a ra c t e ri s e a ma n w h o
was e n t i r el y i gn oran t of a l l th e n at u r a l fa c u l t i es a n d ,

pa rti c ul a r l y of th e el im i n at i v e fac u l ty w h ic h i s th e ,

o ppos i t e of th e attra c t i v e F or o pp o s i t e m o v e m e n ts
of m at t e r a ct i v e
.

,
a n d p as s i v e m u st n e c es sa ri l y fo ll o w
,

o ppo si t e fa c u l t i es th at i s t o say e v e ry pa rt a ft e
, r it ,

has att rac t e d it s s p e c i al n u t ri e n t ju i c e and has

r e ta in e d an d ta ke n th e be n efi t of i t h as t e n s t o ge t
r i d of a ll t hes u r p l u sa ge as q u ic kl y a n d e ffe ct i v e l y as
p o ss i ble and th i s i t d o es in a ccord anc e w i t h t h e
,

m e c ha ni ca l te n d e ncy of th i s s u rp l u s m a tt e r1 .

H e nc e th e s to mac h cl ea rs a wa y by v o m i t in g t h o se
s u pe r fl u it ies w h ic h co m e t o th e s u rfa c e of i ts con t e n ts g
w hi ls t t hese d i m e n t i t cl e
,

ar s a w ay by d i a rr h oe a .

A n d w h e n th e a n i m al be co m es s ic k th i s m e , a n s th at

th e s t omach i s s t ri v i n g t o be e v a c u at e d by v o m i t i n g .

A n d th e e x p u ls i v e fa c u l ty has in i t s o v io le n t a n d
forc i bl e an ele m e n t th a t in ca s es of ile us
[v o l v ul u s
] ,

w h e n th e l o we r e x i t i s com p le t el y cl ose d v om i t in g ,

of fa e ces occ u r s ; y e t s u c h su rp l us m att e r co u l d no t

be e m i tt e d fro m th e m o u th w i th o u t h a v i n g fi rs t
t rav e rs e d th e w h o le of th e s m all in t e s t i n e th e
u m th e py l oru s th e s t o m
,

je j u n , ,
a ch a n d th e o e s o ph ag us
, .

Wh at i s t h e r e t o w on d e r at th e n if s o m e th in g
, ,

at l e as t pa r t l y e xp li ca bl e in t erms of me ch ani cal la w cf . .

I nt rod uct i on p xx v i ii
, . .
2
qf pp 21 1 24 7
. .
, .
2 99
 GAL EN

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1
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ep . 298 , note1 .
 G A L EN

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302
 O N TH E N A T U RA L F A C U LT I E S , Il l . x m

th e s e conti nue to att ract what j ce

For t his
is ad a nt .

condition 1 causes evacuation of th e conti guou s pa rt ,

and th at agai n of th e part ne x t to it and t his ne v er ,

st o ps u n t il the e x tr eme sur face is reached ; th us as ,

ea ch part keeps pas s ing on matter to i t s neigh

bo u r the original a ffection 2 v ery quickly arri v es at
,

th e e x trem e t e rmination Now this is a lso th e cas e

.

in 111 11 3 ; the in flam e d int estine is unabl e to suppo rt

either the weight or th e acridity of th e wast esu b ,

stances and so does its best to e x cret e them in fact ,

to dri v e them as far away as po ssible A n d be in g .

,

pre v ented from e ffecti n g an e x pulsion d oxm war ds

wh en th e se v e r est pa rt of th e inflam m atio n is th e r e i t ,

e xpels the matter in to th e adj oining pa rt of th e

intestin es situ ated above . Thu s the tendency of th e
e l im inati ve fac u lty is st ep by step upwards until th e
r fl u i t ie
,

su p e s r e a c h th e m outh .

Now thi s will be also spoken of at greater l ength

in my treatis e on disease For th e present howe v er
.
, ,

I thi n k I hav e sh ewn cl ea rly that th ere is a uni v ersal

conv eyance or tra n s ference from one thing i nto
a n other and that as Hippocrates used to say th e r e
, , ,

e x ists in e v e rythi n g a consensu s in th e movem ent of

a ir and fluids A nd I do not think that anyon e
.
,

however slow h is i ntell e ct w ill now be at a loss to

,

understand any of th e se poin ts -how for instan ce , , ,

the stoma c h or intestin es g e t nourished or in what ,

m anner anythin g makes its way in wards from the

ou ter su rface of th e body S eeing that al l parts
.

ha v e th e faculty of attracting what is suitabl e or

well -disposed and of el im inatin g what is troubl e some
or i rritating it is not su rprising that op posite m ove
ments should occur in th em consecuti v ely—as may
,

1 Dia t he
si c
. P at h“ .
 G AL EN

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 ON T H E N ATU R AL F A CU LT I ES ,
Il l . x1 n

Now th e l u ngs th e thora x th e ar t e ries rough and

the mouth and th e nostrils r e

, ,

smoot h th e heart, , ,

v erse th e ir movem e nts at v ery short inter v als and

change th e di r e cti on of th e matters th ey contain .

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,

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.
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, ,

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, ,

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.

su fiicie e 1 that there is something

nt cl arness already
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and that before this again comes pr e
,

ad he s ion , sent a
t ion . Thus as i n th e cas e of th e anima Ls themsel v es
th e end of eating is that th e stomach should be
filled si milarly in th e cas e of each of th e p a rt s th e
, ,

end of p r esenta tion is th e filling of this part with its

approp r iate liqu id S in ce th er e fore every part has
.
, , ,

like th e stomach a cr a ving 2 to b e nou rish ed it too

, ,

en v elops its nutrim e nt a n d clasps it all round as th e

sto m ach does A nd th is [action of th e st om ach] as
.
,

has been already said is necessarily followed by the ,

digestion of th e food although it is not to mak e it ,

su ita bl e for th e oth er parts that th e st omach con

tracts upon it ; if it did so it woul d no longer be a ,

physiological organ 3 but an a ni m al poss ess ing reason

,

”
3
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, .
 O N T H E N A T U RAL F A CU L TI E S Il l . 77 77 7

th e stage of recei v ing n ou r is hment ; it now entirely

assimilates ev erything that had become adhe r ent to
it at th e same time in th e int e sti nes and l iver th ere
takes place adh esion of w hat had been b efore
prese n ted whil e d is pe rsal [a nadosis ] is takin g place
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,
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1 n t a t i on
, .

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,

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,

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of th is by presenti ng all the us e ful part of it to
its own coats th e intestines wi ll be engaged in final
,

assimila t ion of th e j ui ces which hav e ad hered to

th em and so als o will th e l i v er : whil e in the v ariou s
,

pa rts of th e body there wi ll be ta king plac e adhesion

of th e portions of nutrim ent pr e sent e d A nd if th e .

st oma c h i s fo r ced to r e main wi thout food during thi s

time it wi ll draw i t s nutrim ent from th e v e ins in
,

the m esent e ry a n d li v er ; for it wil l not do so from

th e actual body of the l iver ( by body of t helive r I
m ean fi rst and fo r emost it s fl esh p r ope r and after ,

this all th e v e ss e l s conta ined in it) for it is irrati onal

,

to suppose that on e part would draw away from

another part th e j ui ce al ready contain ed in it ,

e specially wh en adh e sion and fi nal assimilati on of

that j uice were alr ea dy taking pl ace ; th e j u ice ,

however that i s i n th e ca v ity of th e veins wil l be

,

abst rac ted by th e part which is st ro n ger and more in

ne ed
I t is in th is way th erefore th at t h estom ach
.

, , ,

wh en it is in n ee d of nou rishment and th e an imal

has nothi n g to eat sei z es it from the v eins in th e
,

l iver A l so i n the cas e of the Sple e n w e have shown

.

in a former passage 2 how it draws all ma t erial from

P p 205 -
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c
P l mon ry v e in o r t h e r le ip l e G l e n mens a
. . . . .
.
,
3 u ft
a r a au r a a

fl u x t h ro ug h t hemi t ral or ifi ce; t hel e

re ft au ri l ewas looke
.
, ,

d c

314
 ON T H E N A T U RAL F A CU L T I ES I I I , . xm .
-x rv

previ ousl y dra wn Now N at ure foresa w t his n e

ce d provi d ed t heca r d i a c openings of t he
.

i 1 an
ss t y
,

v essels wi t h m e m bra no u s a t t a c h m e n t s 2 t o pre v ent

th eir con t e n t s fro m b e
,

ing ca rrie d ba ckwa rd s H ow

an d in wh a t m a n ner t his t ak e
.

s pl ac e W ill be st a t ed
in my work On t heUse of P a rt s wh e
“ ”
re am ong
,

o t h er t hings I show t h at it is i m possibl e for t he

Op e nings of t hev e ss els to be close d so accu rat ely
t h at no t hing at a ll ca n ru n b ack Th u s it is in
e v i t a bl e t ha t t her e
.

fl u x in t o t h ev e no us 77 7 16 3
37 (as 7

will a lso be m a de cl e ar in t h ework men t ioned )

s hould be m u c h gre at er t ha n t hr o u h t heo t her
~
g
Op e nings But wh at it i s i m po rt a n t for ou r prese
. nt
p u rpose t o re cognise is t h at e very t hing poss essing a
l a rge an d a ppre ci a bl e ca v i t y m u st wh en it d il a t es
abs t ract m a t t e
, ,

r from all it s neigh bo u rs a n d w h e ,

n it
m u st s q u e e
,

con t ra ct s ze m at t e r b ack in t o t hem

Th is sho u l d a ll becl e
, .

a r fro m wh a t has a l rea dy be e n

sa id in t h is t re at i se a n d fro m wh at E rasis t ra t u s a n d I
mys e lf h a v ede m onst r a t e d elsewh e re re spe ct ing t he
t enden cy of a v a cu u m to be co m e refille d ‘ .

XI V

A N D fu rt h er, it has been shown i n o t h er t re a t ises

t h a t al l t h e e
a r t eri s po ssess a power whi c h d ri v e s e
e
fro m t h h ea rt , an d by vi rt ue of whi ch t h ey di l a t e
an d con t ra ct .

P u t t oge t h er, th erefore th e t w o fac ts —t h a t t h

. e
a rt eries h a ve t h is mo t ion , an d t h at ee
v ryt hing , wh n e
on r t h e
a r t het e
as rmin t ion of t hep u l mon ry v e
a ins t h n as a a
a p r t f t heh ert f ” p 323 no t e4 Hespe
a o a c a ks h e r eof a
k in d of p hy siologi ca l mi t ral incompetence
.
. .
, .

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,

e meh n i l prin ipl eof ho o m on r s t e

1 “ ” ’

Th c a ca d c rr r va c c t a
w i t h t he p h y si l se
“
m i p h y siologi l prin ipl eof
ca or ca c
sp eifi t t r t on Ap p p t ee h e
c c a ac i remig h t al mo s t be ro r za n ss

re n de re qf not e
.

d fi nit y o r kzns hip

a 2 infra . . , .

378
 O N T H E N AT U RA L F A CU LTI E S I I I , . xi v .
—xv

ful l of w ate r an d sand an d su ck t h eair out of t he

,

t ube wi t h you r mo u t h th e sa n d canno t co m e u p to

o u before t hew a t e r accor d a n c e wi t h t he
,

y for in
prin ciple of t herefilling of a v a cu u m t heligh t er
,

ed t o t heev acu a
m a t t er is a lw ays th e firs t to s u cce

IT is not to be wondere d at th ere fore th at onl y

at t e
, ,

u ch n a m e
a very li t t l e
[ nu rien m r ] s ly
e
t t as ha s

been accu ra t ly e d—g e t s fro m t h es t o ma c h

, ,

l a lmr at e
in t o t hea rt e ries s in ce t hese fi rs t be co m efil l e d
,

wi t h ligh t e r ma t t er We m u st u nders t an d t h at t he
. re
ar e t wo kinds of a tt r act ion t h a t by whi ch a v a cu um ,

be co m es refill e d an d t h a t ca u s e d by a ppropri at en e ss
of q u a li t y ; 1 a i r is d ra wn in t o b e llows in one way an d
iron by t hel od es t one in a not her A n d w em us t a lso
,

underst an d t h at the tract ion whi ch res u l t s from

ev acu at ion a ct s pri ma rily on w h at is ligh t wh ilst ,

t h at fro m a ppropri a t eness of q u a li t y a ct s fr e que n t ly

i t m ay be on wh at is h e
,

a vier
( if t his sho u l d be
Therefore in t he
,

n at u ra lly m ore ne arly rel at e d

ca se of t he h e a rt an d t hea rt eri es it is in so far as
,

t h ey ar e
,

hollow organs ca p a bl e of d i as t ol et h at t h ey
alw ays a t t ra ct t helighter m a t t er firs t
, ,

wh il e in so , ,

far as t h e y re q u ire no u rish m en t it is a ct ua lly i n t o

t h eir 008 15 ( whi c h a r e t he
,

re al bodie s of t h ese organs)

th ta t h eppropri e m er is r wn Of t heblood
a a t a t t d a 3
.

t h en whi ch is t a k e n in t o t h e
,

, i r ca vi t i es wh en t h e y
d il at e t h at pa rt whi c h is m ost proper t o t hem an d
,

2
la t e
Re ki n cf p 36 no t e2
d
” “
a

The oa t s exe rciset he it l t r t ion e vi t i e

s t he
. . . . .
,
3
c v a ac th ca
re
me ly me qf p 1 65 no t e
,

ch n ical a . 2 . .
,
.
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1 T h is v e in ( re a ll y t h ep ul mon ry r t ery ) wa s u ppo se d a a s

t o b et he ch n n e l by w h i h t hel ngs r e
a ce iv e
d n u t ri me
c nt u

from t herigh t h er t cf : p 1 21 no t e3 a

T he oron a ry v e
. . .
,
3
c in
3 G le n s con l u ion of cou rs ei s so far corre ct b u t he
.

’
a c s

has s u b t i t u t ed an i magin ary d ir e ct co m mu ni cat ion b et we e

, , , , ,

s n
t he vent ri cl e s for t he ac t ual an d mor e r oun d bo u t p l mon ary a u

322
 ON T H E N A T U RAL F A CU L TI E S ,
111 . xv

vein whi ch is insert

ed in t o
th e l ngs su gges t s u 1

t h at n ot a l l t hebloo d wh i ch t hev e n a ca v a gi v es
t o t h eh e a rt is d ri v e n away a gai n fro m t heh ea rt
t o th e l u ngs N or ca n it b esa i d t h a t a ny of t he
d in t h eno u rish m en t of t he
.

blood is e x p e nde ac t u a l

bod y of t heh e a rt sin c e t h e , re is ano t her ve in 2

wh i ch brea ks u p in it an d whi ch d oes n ot t ak e i t s

ori gin nor g e t it s sh a re of bloo d fro m t heh ea rt
it se l f A n d even if a c e rt a in am o u n t is s o e x pended
s t ill t hevein le a d ing t o t hel u ngs i s n ot t o s u ch a
.
,

sligh t e xt en t s m a ll e r t h a n t h a t insert e d in t o t h e
h e a rt as t o m ak eit l i kely t h at t h eblo od is u se d as
n u t ri m e n t for t h eh e a rt : t h ed i sp ari t y is m u ch t oo
gr e at fo r s u ch a n e x pl a n at ion I t is t h erefore cl ea r
.

r in t o t hele ft v e
, ,

t h at so m e t hing is t aken o v e n t ri cle 3 .

M ore over of t het wo vess e

, ls conne ct e d wi t h it ,

t h t whi h brings pn e
a c u m a in t o i t fro m t hel u ngs ‘

is m u c h s maller t h a n t hegre a t o u t gro wi ng a rt ery 5

fro m whi c h t hea r t eries a ll ove r t hebo dy ori gi n at e ;
t his wo u l d s u gg e s t t h a t i t n ot m e rely ge t s pneu m a
fro m t hel u ngs b u t t h at it a lso ge t s blood fro m t he
righ t v en t ri cl et hro u gh t hea n as t o m os e
,

s me n t ioned
N ow it belongs t o t het re a t ise On t heU s eof
.

Pa r t s t o show t h at it was bes t t h at so m e p a rt s of

t h ebo dy sh o u l d b eno u rish e d by p u re t h i n an d , ,

v a poro u s bloo d a n d o t hers by t hi ck t u rbi d blood

, , ,

an d t h a t in t his m a t t er also Na t u re ha s overlooked

no t hin g Th u s it is n ot d esira bl e t h at t h e
. se m at t ers
sho u ld be furt h e r d is cu sse d H a v ing men t ione d
.
,

cir cu l a t ion of w h osee x is t en ceheapp ar e n t ly had no i d e a

His vi e w s we ree ve n t uall y corre ct e d by t heRe n as cen ce
, .

a n a t o mis t s f
o i n t ro d u ct ion pp x x i i —xx iii
He me a ns t he le ft a u ri l econsi de red as t h e te
. .
, . . .

c rmin at i on
of t hep ul mon ar y a rt e ri e s cf p 3 1 4 not e3
,

Thea or t a i t s orifi ce be ing ci r cula r appe a r s bi gg e

. . .
,
5
r t h an
esli t lik em i t r l ori fi e
, ,

th a c .

323
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3 26
 O N TH E N AT U R A L F A CU LT I E S I I I , . xv

be d el u ged by a qu a ntity of su perfluous fluid r unnin g

in at unsuita ble times .

For th e way in which they obt a in nourishment is

somewh a t as follows I n th e body 1 which is continu
.

ous throu g hout such as Erasi s tra tus su pposes h is simp le

ve ss el to be it is th e s u perfici a l pa rts which a r ethe
,

fi rst to m ake u se of th e nutriment with w hich th ey

ar ebrou ht into conta ct ; th en th e a rts comin
g p g
ne x t dra w the ir sh are from th ese by v irtu e of their
con t i guity ; an d aga in others from th ese ; a n d this
does not sto p until th e qu ality of th e nutrient sub
sta nce has been distributed amon g al l pa rts of th e
corp uscl e in qu estion A nd for su ch pa rts as ne e
,
d
th e humour whi ch is destined to nouri s h th em to be
al t er ed still furth er N ature has p ro v ided a kind of
,

storeho u se either in th e form of a cen t ra l cav i ty or

e
,

ls e as se a ra te c av e rns 2 or somethin
p g a n alo ous t o
g
,

ca v erns Th us the fl esh of th e v i scera an d of th e

.

muscl es is nou rished from th e bl oo d directly th is ,

h av in g underg one merely a slig ht altera tion ; th e

bones howe v er in order to be nou rished require
, , ,

v ery rea t ch an e an d wh a t bl ood is to flesh m a r row

g g ,

is t o bone ; in th e c as e of th e sm all bones wh ich ,

do not possess central ca v ities th is m a rrow is dis ,

tributed in th eir ca v erns where as in th e l a rg er ,

b ones w hich do cont a in centra l c av ities th e m arrow

is all concentrated in th ese .

For as was p ointed out in th e first book 3 thin gs

, ,

h av i n g a simi l a r substa nce can e as ily ch an g e into one

another wh ere as it is im ossibl e for those whi ch ar e
, p
v ery di f ferent to be assimil ated to on e a noth er w ith
out i nte rmedi ate stag es S u ch a one in res p ect to .

: t hete
rm e
rn o us t i e
s
< ca v ssu .

a
t o

32
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 ON TH E N AT U R A L F A CU LT I E S I I I , . xv

in their tu rn s na tch it a way then those ne x t again

,

ta k e i t fr om these u ntil it rea ch es th e v en a ca v a

, ,

wh ence fin al ly th e kidn eys a ttra ct th at pa rt of it

whi ch is pro p er to them Thu s it is i n no way
.

s u rp ris in g th at wine is ta ken u p more rap idly th an

water owin g to its app ro pria teness of qu ality an d
, , ,

furth er th at th e white cle a r kind of wine is a bsorbed

,
.

more rapidly ow in g to it s th i nn ess whil e bl a ck turbid

,

win e is checked on th e way an d reta rded bec a use

of its thickn ess .

These fa cts a lso wil l a fford abund a nt proof of

, ,

wh at has al re ady been sa id abo ut th e a rteri es ;

e v erywhere in fa ct such blood as is both s p ecifi ca lly
, ,

a ro ri a te a n d at the sa me tim e th in in cons ist

pp p
ency a nswers more readil y to th eir tra ction th an
does bl oo d which is not so ; this is why the a rte ries
which in th eir di ast ole a bsorb v apour pneum a an d
, , , ,

th in blood a ttr a ct eith er none at al l or v ery li ttl e of

the j u ices conta in ed in the stom a ch a n d intestines .

1
3 3
 I ND E X A ND G L OS S A RY

( Th e numbe e t eto t he p ge f t he
rs r p re et e di tio n ; f lle r refe ren e
foo t o te)
a o n u c s
wi ll be
r s s
fo d i th e un n n s .

A bo r tif ie t d r g 28 5
ac n A t i fi e 1 33 u s, r c r,
A bo rtio 23 1 28 5 n, A le p iad e 4 9 t p i—
m sc
fro m di g e
s, c asc
A b o rp tio ti et t A e p i ( a b e e f o rr p t io ) 201
. ,

( A d i-
s n s v rac s s s s nc o c u n
A i mi lati o
,

0. ) na o a s 33 ss n,
A i d it y f ri e24 5 28 7
c o u A t h ei ( we
n a k e) 23 9 s na n ss
t io ) 1 3 A to mi t S h oo l i M e d i i e4 5
. ,

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,

c v u nc n s n c n
e
c
h e o ro h r - ili y ( me la h li ) h mo r
.

t t
,

f im
égg
Ad i (p s p y i )n n A t s ss o u n ar nc o c u u
to ti e 3 9 ss u s ,
A ffi it y 3 3 A tt r a ti o ( al o H r r i)
Al ime
n c n 17 s o ro vacu
nta ry al 1 1 9 3 09 p hy io lo gi l 4 5
, .

can s ca
o at f 23 263 ma g e
, , ,

c s o , ti 7 3 n
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c,
at met 1 99 A r i lel e rt 3 1 5
,

ft
rat io ( q al itati e h ance
n u c o a
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c
righ t f he a rt 3 21
, , , ,

)
a l ef 27 9
n u v c o
A t ho rity
. , ,

7 9 24 1 25 1 u
ti e A e
o
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v u
r io 24 9
, , , , ,

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t ra t ) 63 1 1 9
c .
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,

a n
A na a r a ( dr p y ) 4 1 Be a ty 4 7
, ,

be F il ey e
s c o s u
A a t mo e ( o mm ni at io l l o w 6 3 1 23 1 7 7 1 9 1 28 9
, ,

n s o c ns
e t ei
s s c u
twe d e i te lli e 209 , , , , , ,

n ar i ) 3 21 r u an v ns n
p re
v

A a a ora fo rmat io i t b la k 203 ( al o M e

, ,
i )
l h h
'

n x g
s, ns c 11 . s a nc o c
d o t r i ef 7 h m r)
,

r l ef 27 9 g e me
c n o u ou
An iet w rite B il e h i al b lo ki g
,

c n - s, va u o s, c an c n
t ni
p aS s a c
A i ma l l ife3
,

n 0
An i ma l ( l o H i t y N at r l ) ili o e
,

s 0 a s B 1 93 s or u a us n ss ,
ol d--bloo d e B io lo gy re p di ti o n f b y A t mi t
.
,

c d 18 1 u a o o s
lo g eke S h oo l 4 5
, , ,

nd 27 5 n c c
A o rei a ( wa t f a p pe tite B la dd e r ri a ry 5 1 -5 3 t p a im
.
,

) 24 7 n o n
rte
n x u c ss
ry f bo d y ) 1 4 3 b il e Gall bl ad der
,

( mai
, , , ,

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3 é3
or a n a o ) or o
-p rod tio 1 7 1 69 1 8 3 1 91
, , .

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d
o n,
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,

r s o i c as s as r n
p te
.

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, .
,

ti S h l)
et r ti g hed
c c oo s,
e
a
A rro w d r g f s, u s Bo e t r
or t r f 3 27
x ac n a s n , s uc u o
Bo e - ma rro w 3 27
,

f 83
f N at re
o n
( i of t he li i g B y g mi ( g rgling ) in to ma h
, ,
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ggp
A t r o u a. v n o r u s c
o rgani m) 5 7
.
,

rie t r t ref 286

s
A te B red o tit t io i l 1
,

r s s uc u o a c ns u n o
to d f mo ti o i 3 1 3 bo ( wo ll e l y mp h ati ( l
, , ,

—att ra ti o f i by thro gh
an B ro n n, d in u s n c an s
groi ) 1 85
r ( t he
c n o a r u n
ki 3 1 7 B t he p l mtfl e
,

anato m
,

s n, u c at r
A rt e
s v
ry p lmo n ry 1 21 3 23
. u i t ) 51 a , , s s ,

33
 I N DE X A N D G L O SSA R Y

e ( or p e ) epe rimet n D io l e 6 1
ggg e
Ca x n o c s,
a ed e
/ r c s
Di e fi itio of 1 9 7
, ,
s n n
a et hefo r p ri ma r y 1 8 5
s
Ca rt la g ( gri tle Di e
. ,

) 3 29 s s s s. u
Cat rrh ( m o d i h a rg e
i

) 21 6 D i j t i ea rg met 1 67 , ,

Di t ri b t io ( d i d i ) of trime
a uc us sc s u nc v u n
Cattle( t y pifying he rd
, ,

nt s u n a os s nu
to t i e 1 6 3
as
it y 47
Ce ll f a imal t i e1 5 3
ss u s ,
’
o n Dro p y 4 1 6 7 1 7 1 ss u s , s
t r itio f 3 27 Dr g 6 5 28 5 29 3 ( lso P i n
, , , ,

D y ra ia ( a b o r mal b ledi g s;
nu n o u s, 0. a o so
Ch a geq al itat i e( A lte ra t i ) , , ,

n u v v on sc s n n n
Cha e l ( M rp h logi l hyp t he fo r q a l t e
. .

nn s 17 . o ) 189 o ca o u u i i s
thei-) D y ete r y 205 ,

I ndige
s s s n
Ch e eema ki g 9 1 D y pe ,

s n p ia ( t ion) s s v. s
C h ild bir t h 23 1 28 5
,

C h il d re g a me28 E d atio 27 9
, ,
’
n s uc n,
C h ill 1 7 1 203 ( a l o C ld ) E ffet ( p ro d t wo r k d one
,

17 s ) 18 o c uc
C ho la go g e ( drug t h at d r aw f! E ma iat io 1 6 1
.
. , , ,

u s s o c n,
b il e ) 65 E ma at io 7 7 n ns
C h ol e r a 299 E mb r y o 229
.
,

C ho rio ( me mb r a nee l o i ng E mei ( V mi t ing)

, ,

n nc s un s s v o
bo r hi l d ) 220 E mp iri i t ph y i ia n 69 1 93
.

n c cs s c s,
C hr y i Dp 9
, ,

s us , E m l i ii t 23 9 u s ca i on ,
Ch y le( e m l ifl e d o tet of to m E pi r 71 c n n s s cu us ,
le 23 7
u s
h) ( E m l ifi t i ) p ig t i m on usc s
Cirrh o i ( i d r at io n) f l i e
as r c
E p i p a t i ( att r a ti e
ac v u s ca
r 171
. .

s s n u ) 117 o v s s c c v
Co at ( t i ) 23 E ra i t rat 9 5
, ,

un cs s s us ,
i t te
s
Co ld t io - f n kin 3 01
,

ac n o E o 1 05 s ras s r a an s ,
Co l d - i - t he he a d 21 5 ( a l o C hil l) E t a 25 9
. , ,

s n
E ra ia ( ro pe
v.
Colo ( la rgei teti e
n
r b le ndi g f t he
, ,

) 313 n n o
P
n n s uc s
Col o r 5 fo r q l t le
,

) 1 89 u ua s

f e me 23 3
u
Co e p t io E a po r at io 5 1 8 7 25 1
, ,

n, o s n, n,
rie e ( E mp i i i t p hy
nc v
Co gi ( me a re E pe
.
,

n us ) 111 su x nc 0. r cs
Co t ra t io ( P e ri t l i )
,

ns i i ) s a s s s c an s
E p l i e
n c v.
Coo ki g 1 9 ! fa l t y 23 1 x cu
Co r att r a t i epo we
n u s v
r f 87 ,
,

c v o
Co r y za ( m o di h a rge n w a F a l ty ( po tetia lity ) 1 3
n, ,

uc u s sc : o cu n
o l d 21 5 F ee( l efro m bowe l ) 25 5 ac s o rr u r
,

Fe r metatio 209
c
Cr i i 7 5
,

n n,
C y at h ( meur e Fee r a a ef indi getion 1 86
s s.
) 65 as v as c us o s
Fi bre 3 29
us , ,

s,
D eay 7
c f b l oo d 21 5 o
De ti ere a o i g 227 ir la r d l ongi t dinal 263
, ,

d s n n c cu an u
o bl iq e28 1
uc v
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g u n s
,

n u
,

26 5 27 3 F il tratio 9 1 , , , ,

F i h o ra io ne of 26 9
n,
De mo rit
,

c 1 53 us , s v c us ss
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. ,

s s n ss u s v u
D eire( a p pe t it e Fl io 29 7
. ,

) 24 9 26 9 ux ns ,
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s
ri hi g ) 1 t ( bo r h il d ) 23 3
, ,

o s n us un n c
de
s uc n ac
D ia p hra m ( mid ifi ) 25 5 at h f 28 7
r
,
o
,

e e
g
F o r fe d i g 24 7
, ,

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Fo r e mat e
a rr rc a , c
D ie ri l 1 27 3 01
. .

t 3 5 1 7 9 25 5 c s, a
D igetio a e f 24 3
,

s
,

n , c us F tio ( a ti i ty ) a ef 1 97
,

o , unc n c v
,

c us
,

o
i mp a ir met f 1 8 5 2 1 7 23 7
, ,

n o .
Diget i etr a t a tio food 25 1 Gall -bl a dde r 1 4 7 24 5 n on
,

a b e ef e
c
r ei 28 9
s v c
e
, .

t e
.
, ,
s nc o n v s n,
tr t re ( mA lime Ga r d e
qs
s nt
uc u y C n l) n i rri gatio n oi 3 25 ar a a s, ,

3 36
 I N D EX AN D G L O SSA R Y

Or ganism unit y of 6 1 Py loru re g rgi tation th ough

s, u r
O rga ns n ut rit io n of 3 07
,

P y rrho i t ( ty pi l e
, ,

ns s p ti ) 1 97 ca sc cs
te ri ( mo t h o f wo mb ) 229
, , ,
Os u
fo r fundame
u
O m h ma 1 3 5 Q al itie t he nt l 9
,

vu u n, u s, u a
O xid at io n 21 1
, , ,

O xy ge n (v P e m )
,

. n u a —de
1 8 3 25 9
ri ati e21 v v ,

P ain 28 7 Re l ati i t ” v
Pa rt rit io n 23 1 R eal e y 1 07
, ,

n ns ,
Repir atio 1 7 5 3 05
u v
P at holo g y re lation to P h y iolog y ,

s s n,
Re teti efa lt 225
, ,

n cu
Rh e
v y

Pe a a t 87
s n s, to r i 97 c,
,

Pe r h ( F ish)
ir t e ( A ris to te
0
Pe S fll we( d g ) 6 7
c
l ian) S h ool
.

ti c c a o r ru
isa
'
a
S al i a a t io
,

v f 25 3 c n o
Pe ri ta ls i ( co t ra ction nd d ilata S a mmo y ( d r g ) 6 7
, ,

di ine
n n
l two o t r a te
c
d i Me
s s a u
tio ) 9 7 24 3 263
,

S
hg
n c o s. c n s n c
Pe rito em 5 3 , , , , ,

n u
P h id ia 1 29 S iet i t 1 9 7
,

s, c n s
S o r p io
,

P hi l is t ion, 1 7 3 c 25 3 ns ,
P hil ot i mus 1 8 3 S l p t re1 29
cu u
P hl e g Se ta ri a i m 5 5
, ,

m , 6 7 , 201 21 5 c n s
P h le gm ati te mp era met 1 93 c
,

n Se t- me
c s, di a l ( c
,

0 S chools )
P h y iolo g y 1 3 9 Self-o t ro l 4 7
.
,
"
s c n
P ile-1 7 1 e l e at o
, ,

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ee
s,
P l a t l ife3
n S m n, 1 3 1 , 233
Plato 1 7 3 203 21 5 e at o
,

S ns i n , 4 7
P le t h o r a ( o get io ) 1 1 9
,

c n
, ,

n et
S p um p f e r or ate e
d b twe
n v e e n
Pnema ( a ita l p ri iple
s
e he a rt
, ,

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e
u as v

( as o y ge) 1 8 7 x n
,

r
S um ( wate
,

y p r a rt
of b d loo or
Poi o a tio f 25 1 mil k) 9 1 2 1 3
,

ns , n o
lop me
s c
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,

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,

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c c c v
Siee 9 1
, , ,

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s 25 3 ( 0 a lso Le
s v v s,
P t l e Ski n- di e ae p rosy
.

or a v i 11 7 n, s s
Pott e r e a rt h 21 3 nd L ie /e
, .
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s a n ) l s
Pr a tit io e r 1 97 Sl a e 1 03
,

c n v s,
P r a a go r a 5 1
x s,
,

So ci a b il it y 4 7
P r a it e le 1 29 So p h i t r y 21 9 27 9
,

x s. s
P re fo r mat io i t d o t ri e f S o p hi ts 7
, ,

n s c n o s
A a a go r a
,

n x o ul 4 5
P reetatio ( pro t h ei ) i t i
s
S p eifi se leti on of nutrime nt b y
,

s n n s s s o nu r c c c
met to t i n e 39 ss u s , t i ue ( 0 A tt r t ion p hy sio
Preet io d C re1 6 9
ss s . ac ,

v n n an u l gi l )
o ca
Pri i i e t hefo r f d a meta l
nc c u
,

un n Sp e r mat i d ucts 5 7 c
e l it e) S p ir it ( P nem )
, ,

( ua s u
ae
i v. a
S p le en f nct io n and d ise
.

P rod i u 201 c s, u s of 205 s

P ro lap eof ute r us 23 5
s
—--as an e u e l ene of 1 4 3
,

s ss ss
,

P ro p ul i efa ul t y 23 1 muncto ry of t he li e r
, ,

s v c v
P ros p h y i ( A dheion)
, ,

s s v s 27 7
P rost hei ( 0 P ree Stat ue 1 29
.

nt t i on )
S t i ng r a y ( fi h ) bite
s s s a s,
P y che3 1 5 3
.

~ s
P y h ol o g y r e
s
p u d iatio n of
, , ,

s c by S t oics l 5 1 4 5
A to mi t 801 001 4 5 S t n ch fu n tio n of 1 9 7 23 7 25 1
, , ,

1 r a c
gss
s
P ul mo na ry a r tery 1 21 , , , , , ,

P yl orus ( o utlet of to ma ch ) 23 9 co ats of 26 1

,

s , ,

3 38
 I N D EX AN D G L O SS A R Y

t
S omach , ind p nd n e
- y eewe
e et h
abit s of, 27 1 V acuum te nde ncy to re fil l (9
g e e H rror mom) , .

i v and t ak b t n it and
l e
o
r
iv , 29 1 V al e s of h e ar t
to e l e
v
S n in b ad d 51 r V a po ri ati o n ( E va por at i )
,

treg t h e e e
ret
on
ge ta bledi e
s v.
S n r ladv , of diff n Ve t 35 1 7 9
o rg Ve ge t tt e l ii e3
, , ,
ans , 29 3 a v
a e
Subst n c , 9
,

ew te ta e
fl uifi s ( as - ar terial ( P l mo
.

Su s ubs nc s ) , 3 5 ,
nr
v. u na ry

S wal lowin g ( eDe ghd il i n ) o o ro n ry 323

c a
Sy mpto m 1 3 he
.

p at i
,

1 47
Sy n p e
s c,
me ete ri
,

a s 1 47 s n c,
p o rt l 1 4 7
,

Te e
a
t h 253 re l 1 07 1 4 3
e
,

mpe f e
na
Te r me nt ( ra i mi t re f e a ( hie i n of b od y)
, , ,

a c s s, x u o na cav
met y p rin i p le
v c v
ie
,

) 1 5 1 39 91
o ll ap eof 1 1 9
n ar c s , , ,

gs
Te mpe ran e4 7
c s
Vet i le f her t ommuni tio
,

c n r c s o a c n
T he
ca
o ph t 1 3 9 e twe e
, ,

r as us , b n , 3 21
T ho rn d ug f et r a ti ng 83 e
Vip rs , 8 5
Tiss ed ee ta l t h oo l M e e4 5
s, r s or x c
l o p me
,

nt f 21 Vi is Sc in di cin
t he
o
et o
u s, v
- ir tio in p rod i gac n
,

uc n V iv is c i n , 59 24 1 , 27 3
,

h mo u 1 7 9 1 9 5 rs ol ta r o t o
V un y m i n, 3
te nl o tr ctio n)
u
Tr he a ( wind pi pe ol l
.

ac ) 3 05 V v u us ( i n st i a bs u
T r an fe re e( pa i emo ti o ) 7 ,

s nc ss v n 299 , 3 03
T ra pi ti o 1 5 3
ns n,
,

o t g
V mi i n , 24 1 24 7 , 267
T re atmet i p l e f 1 99
ra
el
.

f ca , 29 9
’

n nc s o
Tri p id f he r t 3 21
, ,

0
W a te
cus cc o a
T be rig id 1 1 9 3 1 7 3 -p rod ucts ( v S pe
,

u s, s rfl uii iu ) u
W he y ( 0 S e m)
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U ity of o rg ni m 6 1 W ine
.

n
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, ’

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U rin e5 1 W ou n d s 1 8 5
.
,

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s ss a s a s , ,

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s ,
Z e
no , of Cit ium , 9
PRI NTE D m G RE A T B Ri TA I N
AT THE W I N D MI LL P RE SS

m u cs woo n ,
S U RRE Y
 THE L O EB C LASS I C A L L I B R A R Y
C CE RO D E F e U S H R ck h m ( 4 t h I mp r eis e
I d ) a a v
C E RO D E I N N ON e H M H bbe
. . . . .

IC tc ll
VE TI E, . . . u .

C C RO D E N A T U R A D O U M AN D A C D EM CA H Rack
I E : E B A I . .

h m a 2n d I mp )
E O C S W lte r M il l e
. .

C CE RO
I r ( 5 t h I mp )
FFI II . a . .

C i cERO D E O R A T OR E E W S tto n nd H Rack h m

: . . . u a . a .

Q V ols ( 2n d I mp )
C CE RO D E R U R CA AN D D E L omu s Cl inton W K e
. .

I EP y es LT E . . .

( 3 d I mp )
r .

C C RO D E S N ECT U
I E : DE AM C T DE DIV I N ON
E TE , I I IA A TI E.

W A F l o ne
,

. . r ( 5 t h I mp ) a c . .

C I CERO IN C : N M P RO M U R ENA P RO S U A P RO
A T I LI A LL
Lo i E Lo r d ( 2nd I mp ei e
, , ,

F o LA cc u sd ) r v s
C CE RO L ETT E R S T O A TT CU S E O Win t e
. . . . .

I : dt 3 Vol I . . . s . s.

( V o l I 6 i k I mp V o ls I I nd I I I 3 d I mp ) a r
C CE RO L ETT E R S T O H S F R EN DS W G l y nn W ill i m
. .
, . .

I : I I . . a s.

3 V o ls ( V o l I nd I I 3 r d I mp V ol I I I 2 d I mp s a u
r ei e d nd e n l rg e
. . . . .
,

v s d ) a a
W C A Ke ( 3 r d I mp )
.

C CE RO P m
I xcs u pp . . . . r. .

C CE RO P RO A Rcm P O S T R D M D E DOMO DE H A R U S
I A, E ITU , ,

P GU M R ON S P RO P
I ES Po N H W tt s ( 2n d I mp )
SI , LA c . . . a . .

C CE RO P RO C N P RO L O M AN A P RO C U N O
I A E CI A, E E I LI L E TI

H G ro eH od g e ( 3 d I mp )
, ,

P RO R O A BI B I . . s . r .

C CE RO P R O M O NE I N P ON M P RO SC RO P RO
I : IL , IS E , AU ,

F ON O P RO R R R O P O S T U MO P RO MA R CE O P RO
TEI , A I I , LL ,

L R Oi GA P RO R E E D O O N H W t ts ( 2n d
l , G EI TA B . . . a .

I mp ) .

C CE RO P RO Q N O P RO Ro c o A M R N O P RO B o cro
I : UI CT I s r E T s
J H F re e s e ( 2n d I mp )
, ,

COM O D O C O N T R A R
E M , U LL U . . . . .

C CE RO T U S C U AN D S P U T A T O N S J E K ing ( 4 t h I m
I : L I I
C CE RO V E RR NE G RA T O N S L H G Gre e
. . . .

I I n w ood 2 01 T . . . . . 5.

( V ol I 2 d I m u
C A U D AN M l t n e
.

L I r . 2 Vols . a au . .

C O U M E A D E R R U S T CA H B A s h 2 V o ls V o l I
L LL E I . . . . . . .

Boo k s I -I V ( 2n d I mp )
H S T OR Y O A E A N D E R J C R o l fe 2 V o l
. .

C R w Q
U T s, I E L X s.
F O R U S E S F o rste r : and C O RNE U S N EP O S J C R o lfe
. . . . .

L . . . LI . . . .

( 2n d I mp )
nne
.

F ON N
B TIS T R A T A E M S AN D A Q UE D UC T S C E Be
US : tt G . . .

nd M
a B M El w in ( 2n d I mp ) c a
F RO N T O C ORR E P O N D ENCE C R H ine
. . . .

: s 2 Vols S a

4 C R o l fe 3 V o l
. . . . .

G E LL I US .
( 2nd I mp )
. . . s. .

9
 TH E L OEB C LASS I C A L L I B R A R Y
H O R A CE AN D E P O D ES C E Be
: n nett ( 1 3 0 I mp 1
ei e
. . . . .

r v d )
s .

H OR A CE S A T R S B R S Lm A ns P O ET I CA H R F i cl o gh I E I T a r u

( 8 t h I mp ei e
, , . . . .

d ) . r v s .

J E ROM E S E E L ETT E R S F A W rig ht

: L CT . . . .

J U V ENA N D P E R U S G G R m y ( 7 t h I mp )
L A SI a sa

B 0 F o te r F G M ooreE n T S g e n d A C
. . . . .

W
\
s va a a
Sc h lei ng e
. . . . . . .
, , .

r 1 3 V o ls V o l I -X I I ( V o l I 8r d I mp
s s.
V o l I I -V I I I X I I 9 d I mp rei e
. . . . .
,

s. d ) , u v s .

L UCAN J D D ff ( 3 d I mp ) u r

L UC R ET U S W H D R o se ( 6t h I mp r e vi e
. . . . .

I d ) u s
MA R T A L W C A Ke 2 V o l ( V o l I 5 th I mp V o l I I
. . . . . . .

I r. s.
4 t h I mp r ei e
. . . . . . .
,

d ) . v s .

M N OR L A T N P O ET S fr o m P
I S YR U S to R
I U B LI LI U S UT I LI U S
N M A N in l di ng G R
A TI A C R RN S
U S, c u A TT I U S , AL U I US I CU L

N M E N S A‘
N
ES I A wi th Ae tn Ph oe
U n ix n VI A US,
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a,
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m
r J W ig h t D ff n d A rn ld M D uff ( 2nd s. . u a o . .

Im )
O V D T H E A R or LO VE AN D O H R P O EM S J H M ozl e
I : T y T E . . . .

( 3 d I mp )
r

O V D FA S T Si J ame s G F r ze
.

I : r (2n d I mp )
I. r a
OV D H E RO D ES AN D A M O ES G r nt Showem n ( 4 t h I mp )
. . .

I : I B a r a
F J M il l e
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I : ET A r 2 V o ls ( V o l I BP SES . . . . . .

l ot h I mp V o l I I 8 t h I mp )
O V D T R S T A AN D E P O N T O A L Whe ele
., . .

I : I I r ( 2nd I mp ) x
P ET RO N S M H ee l t ine S ENECA A O OLO N OS S
. . . . .

IU s P C CY T I
W H D R o se ( 8 t h I mp r ei e
. . . .

. . . d ) u . . v s .

P A UT U S P a l N i o n 5 V o l ( V o l I n d I I 5 t h I mp
L . u x . s. s. a .

V o l I I I 4 t h I mp V o l I V n d V 2 d I mp ) s a u
Me l m o t h s t r n l ti o n rei e
. . . .

P LI N Y LE ERS : TT d by .
’
a s a v s

IM a L H t chin so n 2 V o ls ( V o l I 5 i h I mp V o l I I
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flt
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s 1 0 V 01 V 01 I - V ( V o l I I V 2n d I mp ) 5. 5 s
H E B tl e
. . . . .

P RO R PE TI E S . r ( 5 t h I mp ) . . u . .

P R U D EN T U S H J Th o ms o n 2 V o ls V o l I
I .

H E B tl e
. . . . .

Q U N T AN
I I LI r 4 V o l ( 2 d I mp )
. . . u . s. n .

RE M N S o O D LA T N
A I E H W r mi g to n
r 4 V o ls
L I a n

V ol I ( E nn i s n d Ca e V o l I I ( L i i N ei
. . . . .

il i ) u a c us v us, a v u s,

A i ) V o l I I I ( L il i L w Of t h eX I I
. . .

P ac i u v us , cc u s uc us , a s

T a b l e) V o l I V ( A ch i I nscr ip tio n ) ( V o l I V 2ud I mp )

. .

s r a c s

SA L U S T J C R o lfe ( 3 d I mp ei e
. . . . .

L . d )
. . . r . r v s .

‘
3
 THE L OEB C LASS I C A L L I B R A R Y
SCRI P T ORES HI ST ORI A E A U G U STA E D M ag ic. 3 Vols
ee
. . .

o
( V l I 2n d I mp r v is d )
. . .

S ENECA : A P OCO L OCY N T OS I S Cf P E T RO N U S I

S ENECA : E I ST U LA E M O R A L ES R M G u m me
.

r e 3 V ol s
. .

( V o l I 3 r d I mp V o l s I I a nd I I I 2u d I mp r eis e
. . . . .

d ) v

S ENECA M OR A L E SS A YS J W B as o r e 3 V o l s ( V o l I I
. .
, . . .

3 r d I mp r e v ised V o l I I I 2n d I mp r ev is e
. . . . . . .

d )
S ENECA : T R A G E D I E S F J M ill e
. .
, . .

r 2 V o ls ( V o l I 3 r d
I mp V o l I I 2 d I mp r e v is e
. . . . . .

d ) u

P O EM S AN D L ETT E R S W B A n de
., . . .

SI D O N I U S : rso n 2 V o ls . . . . .

Vol I . .

S I LI U S I T A LI CU S J D D u ff 2 V o ls ( V o l I 2nd I mp . . . . . .

V ol I I 3 r d I m
S T A T I U S J H §Io l e
.

y 2 V Ol S z

J C R o lfe 2 V o l s ( V o l I 7 01 I mp V o l I I
. . . .

S U ET ON I U S . . . . . . .
, .

6 i k I mp )
S ir W m Pe te
.

TAC I T U S : DI A LOG U S A R CO A rs o n ; a nd G I L
M au r iceH u tt o n ( 6 t h I mp )
. .

A N D G E RM A N A I

TAC T U S H S T OR ES AN D A NNA S C H M oo r e n d J
. . .

I : I I L . . . a .

J c k s o n 4 V o l ( V o l I nd I I 3 d I mp V o l s I I I nd
a . s. s . a r .
, . a
I V 2n d I mp )
TE R ENCE J o h n S g e n t 2 V o l s ( V o l I 6 t h I mp V o l
.

. ar av . . . .
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I I 5 t h I mp )
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TE R T U AN A P O O A AN D D E S
L LI : r; L GI P E CT A CU LI S . v
G H Re
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MN I FEU CI U S nd a ll LI X

J H M o zl e ( 2n d I mp ei e
. . . .

V A LE Rw F S y L A CCU S . d ) r v s
VA RRO D E L NO L A T NA R G K e
. . . . .

: nt 2 V o ls ( 2nd
I UA I .

ei e
. . . .

I mp . d ) r v s .

V E L LE I U S P R U AN D R G ES T AE D v I A U U S TI
ATE CU L S ES I G
F W S h ip l e
.

.
y . .

VRI H R F ir l o gh 2 V o ls ( V o l 1 1 7 t h I mp V o l
G I L. a c u

ei e
. . . . . . .

I I 1 3 t h I mp d ) r v s

F Gr ng e
. .

V T R U V U S D E A R C H T ECT U R A
I I : r 2 V o ls I . . a . .

( V o l I 2n d I mp )
. .

G R EE K AU T H O RS
A CH ES TA T U S
I LL I S G a se
l e
e ( 2n d I mp )
e
. . . .

A EN EA S T A CT I C U S , A SCL E P I O D OT U S AN D ONA SA N D ED . Th
e
I l l in o is G r ek Cl ub ( 2nd I mp )
. .
 THE L OEB C LASS I CA L L I B R A R Y
A R S T O T E P O T CS H Rac k h m ( 3 d I mp )
I L : LI I a r
A R S T O T E P ROB EM S W S H e
. . . .

I L : tt 2 V OlS ( Vol I 2nd L

I mp r ei e
. . . . . .

d ) . v s .

A R S T O T E RR ET OR A D A
I L : ND M H Rack h m I CA LEX A BU a

( W it h Pro b l e
. . .

m Vol I I ) s,

H S T OR Y O A E A N D E R A N D I N D CA Re
. .

A RR N IA : I v E F L X I
I l iffe
. . .

R o b o n 2 V o l s ( 2n d 1 m
8 B G li k 7 V o ls
s . .

A R N
T E D NO O H
A EU S : EI P S P I ST A E . . . u c . .

( V o l I V nd V I 2 d I mp )
s. a n
L ETT E R S R J De fe
, .

ST. BA S IL : r i 4 Vol ( 2n d I mp ) . . . r ar . s .

CA M AC H U S AN D LY C O P H RO N A W M r ; A R A T US
L LI . . . ai .

G R M ir a
Re G W B tte
. . .

C M N O A E AN D R A
LE E T F rworth ( 2nd
L X I . v. . . u .

Im
CO fi HLL Cf O PP AN
T p S. . I .

D APH N S AN D C H O E Cf L O N U S
I L . . G .

D E MO S TH ENES I O YN TH AC S P H LI PP CS A ND M N OR L I I I I
O R A T O N S I -X V I I A N D XX J H V ince
,

I . . . .

D MO
E NES I I
ST I I E D E C O RO NA AN D D E FA S A L O ON : L E A TI E.
C A Vi nce nd J H Vi n e ( 2n d I mp r ei e
. . d )
a . . c . . v s .

D E MO S TH ENES I I I M D A N D RO ON A R S T O C R A T ES : EI I A S, TI I

J H V in ce
. ,

T MO I AR O
CB A T ES ,ON I ST G EI T . . . .

D E MO S TH EN ES I V -V I P R VA T E O R A T O N S AN D I N N BA M I I EA E .

A T M rr y ( V o l I V 2n d I mp )
. . u a . . .

D E MO S TH ENES V I I FUNE R A S PEEC H E RO T C E SS A Y : L I

N W nd N J D e
,

witt
,

E OR D A AN D L ETT E R
X I S. . . a . . .

Do C
I R OM AN H S T OR Y E C ry 9 V o l ( V o l
A S S I us : I . . a . s. s.

I nd I I 2n d I mp )
a .

D O C H R YS O S T OM 5 V o l
I V o l s I nd I I J W Co h oo n . s. a . . . .

V o l I I I J W C o h oo n n d H L m r Cr o by V o l I V
. . . . a . a a s . s.

a nd V H L m r C r o b y ( V o l I -I I I 2 d I mp ) a a s s. u

C H O ld f the
. . . .

D O D OR S
I U 12 Vols
US Vol I- V
I CU L r S. s. a
l M Ge e
.

Vol I X R e
. . . .

. r ( V o l I -I I I 2n d I mp )
. u ss . . s. .

D O EN ES L n
I G R D H i k 2 V o l ( V o l I 4t h
AE T I U S. . . c s. s. .

I mp V o l I I 3 d I mp ) r

D O N YS U S o H A CA R NA SS U S R OM AN A N T Q U T ES S pe
. . .
,

I I r l LI : I I I

t r a n l at i o n r ei e
.

man d b y E C ry 7 Vol ( Vol

’
s s v s . a . s. s.

I- I V 2 d I mp ) n
E P CT ET U S W A O l d f t h e
.

I r 2 V o l ( V o l I 2 d I mp )
. . . a . s. . u .

E U R P D ES I A S W y 4 V o l ( V o l I 7 t h I mp Vo ls
I a s.

I V 6 l b I mp ) Ve r et r n
. . . . . .,

l l- s a s.

H S T OR Y Kirs o pp L k e nd
.

E U SE R E CC ES A S T CA
IUS : L I I L I . a a
 THE L OEB C LASS I C A L L I B R A R Y
J . E L Ou lton
. . . 2 Vols .
( Vol I . 2nd I mp .
, Vol . I I 3r d

G A L EN : ON T I I E N A U RA L F A CU L TI m A J r oc k ( 3 r d I mp ) T . . . B . .

R
TH E G EE K A NT R O LOOY Paton 5 V ls ( V ols I . W R . . . o . .

a nd 1 1 4t h I mp , V s I I I a nd I V 3 r d I mp ) . ol . .

T E G EE K UC LI C P E S ( TRE OCRI TU S , I N , MOSC R US )

H R B O O T BO
ee
.

J M Ed m nds ( 7 t h I mp r v is d )
. . o . . .

R
G EE K E LE OY A N D I A U S WI R E NAC E N EA J M MB T TH A R O T . . .

Ed m nds 2 V so (V I 2n d I mp )
. ol . ol . .

G EEK MA TR E N A T I CA L
R KS I v r Tho mas 2 V s W OR . o . ol .

( 2n d I mp ) .

HE ROD m Cf TH E OP B RA S I U S : A ACT E S ’ ‘
CH R R
e
. . .

H RO O T
E D US Go dl y 4 V ls .
( V l s I -
A D
I I I 4 t h I mp ,
. . . o . o . .

V ol I V 3 r d I mp )
el W e
. .

H O
ES I D AN D TH E Ho m xc Y N S H M H G E v yn hit
ee e e
. . . .

( 7 i h I mp r v is d an d n la r g d ) . .

H O I PP A ND
C BA T ES H F R A M EN T S o H R LE US W H S T E G r E AC IT
J o ne
. . . .

s n d E T W ith in g t o n
a 4 Vol ( V o l I Sr d I mp
. . . s. . .

V o ls I I I V 2nd I m )
p M rr y 2 V o ls ( 6t h I mp )
. .

H OM E R I D : LIA . u a . . .

H OM E R O DYSS EY A T M rray 2 V o ls ( 7 t h I mp )
: u
E S F o rs te
. . . . . .

ISA E U S r ( 2nd I mp )
Ge orgeN o rl i n nd La R eV an H oo k 3 V o l s
. . . . .

I S O C RA T ES a u
Re
. . .

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Wood w rd nd H r o l d M tti ngl y ( 2n d I mp e vi e
. . . . .

a a d ) a a r s
J OS EP H U S H S t J Th ck e
. . .

r a y nd R l p h M arcus 9 Vols
\
. . . . a a a . .

V o ls I V I I ( V o ls I V nd V I 2nd I mp ) a
J ULI AN W il m e r Ca eV ig ht 3 V o ls ( V o l I 2n d I mp
. . . .
,

. v r . . . .,

V o l I I 3 d I mp ) r
D AP H NI S ND O O E Th o n le
. .

LO N U S y s tra n l ti o n
’
G : A EL r s a
rei e S Gase lee
.

d b y J M Ed m o nd s
v s nd P R R N US . . a A T E I . . .

( 3 d I mp )
r .

L UC A N A M H rm o n 8 V o l V o l I -V ( V o ls I I I
I . . . a . s . s. . . .

a n d I V 2nd I mp V o l I I I 3 d I mp ) ., . r .

LY Cf CA L L D I A CR U S
C OP R RON. . .

L R
YRA G A E CA J M Ed m nd s 3 V s ( V I 3 r d I mp o ol ol
ee e e
. . . . . . .

ol
V I I 2nd Ed r v is d and n la rg d V ol I I I 3 r d I mp
ee
. . , . .

r v is d ) .

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YS I A S M a mb ( 2n d I mp ) . L
ad de
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MA NETE O
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. TE A I L S F E
. . W l TO M TR B B O . . .

Ro b bins ( 2n d I mp )
e ee
. .

R A
M A CU S UR E LI U S a in s ( 3 r d I mp r v is d ) . C R H . . . . .

7
 THE L O EB C LASS I C A L L I B R A R Y
M ENAN D E R F G A ll inson ( 2n d I mp r e . v is e
d) . . . . .

M N O R A TT I C O R A T OR S 2 V o ls V o l I ( A nt iph o n Ando
I

cide K J M a id me
. . .
,

s) nt
W H D Ro u se 3 V o ls ( V ol
. . . .

NONNOS D ONY SI A C : I A . . . . . . .

I I I 2n d I mp ) .

e
O PP I AN , CO L L UT H U S, TB Y A W M air P H I OD OB U S. . .

PAPY R NON-L T E R A R Y S E ECT O N S A S H n t nd C C

.

I. I L I . . . u a . .

2 V o ls ( V o l I 2 d I mp ) L T E R A R Y S E EC T O N S
53? P oetry ) D L P g e 3 r d I mp )
1 . . n . I L I .

. . . a .

P A R TH EN U S Cf LO N U S I G

PA U S AN A S D E S C R PT O N O P G R EECE W H S J o ne 5
. . .

I : I I s.
V o l nd Co m a n io n V o l rrang e d b y R E W y che
. .

rl e
. .

( V o l I nd I I I 2n d I m
a ) a
.
y . . . .

PH O l l V o l V l I R
s. a
IL A F H Co l o n n d Re G H s. o s. s a v
W h it k e
. . . . . .

r : Vols V I I X F H C ol on ( Vol I I I V
a s s.
V o l I V 3 d I mp ei e
. . . . .
, , ,

V I nd V I I 2n d I m
a d ) .
, . r . r v s .

P R LO R I ST TH E A TUS o A PO O N U S O P TY ANA F C IPE r LL I

Co n y b e e 2 V o l
. . .

( 3 d I mp )
ar . s. r .

PR O R IL ST I M A NE S ; C A
A TUS : S T R A T U S : D E S C R PT O N S GI LL I I I .

A F a i rb n k
. a s.
PH O IL S AN D E U N
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W il me r C a eW i
.

( 2n d I mp )
P N D A R S i J E S nd y ( 7 t h I mp ei e
v r .

I . r d)
. . a s. . r v s .

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L UT Y P P L Y IT AE

H N Fo w le
, , , , .

r ( 9 t h I mp )
H N F o w le
. . . .

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L S AN D S O R T
: II EA ETET U r (4t h P IS . . . .

I mp
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L : H N Fo w le r : I ON , I LE B U S . . . .

W R M L m b ( 4 t h I mp )
. . . a . .

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L : G T Y E S.
W R M L m b ( 3 d I mp ei e
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d ) a . r . r v s .

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( 4 t h I mp ei e
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d . r v s .

P A TO
L l CR
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: A T Y LU S, I I I
H N Fo w l e
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L ESS E R H r ( 3 d I mp )
I P P I A s. . . . r .

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II I A S.
'
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Re R G B r y
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ST U L A E . ( 3 d I mp ) v . . . u . r .

P A T O V I I I CH R M D
L A R D : H PPA R CH U S T E A I ES , LC I IA E S, I , II

L O VE R S TH M N O S AN D E O M W R M L mb
EA G E S , I PI N I S. . . . a
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L y 2 V Ol
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V ol I I 3 r d I mp
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 THE L OE B C LASS I C A L L I B R A R Y
A RI S T O T LE M ET E ORO O CA
: L GI . H D P. . .

P LOT NU S A H A rmst r o ng
I . . . .

LA T I N A U T H O RS
ST A U G U S T NE C TY o GOD
. I : I r .

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I AD H R N M H C pl n E EN IU . . a a .

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I : I A TI IU I B
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CI I S R S U LA I B US, L a
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A N D O TH E R FA B U S T S B E Pe
.

PIIA EDR US r ry LI . . . .

DES CRI P TI VB P RO S E T US ON A P C PP LI CA TI O N

ND O NLO C A M B R I D GE MA SS , .

WI LLI A M H E I N E M ANN LT D H A R V A RD U NI V P R E SS .

C l oth 1 5 5. Clo th