FUNJI

Fungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They are non-
photosynthetic, heterotrophic organisms that obtain nutrients from organic matter. Fungi play crucial
roles in decomposition, symbiosis, and disease causation in plants and animals.

Types of Fungi

Fungi are classified into different types based on their structure and reproduction methods:

1. Yeasts: These are single-celled fungi that reproduce by budding (e.g., Saccharomyces
cerevisiae).
2. Molds: Multicellular, filamentous fungi that reproduce through spores (e.g., Aspergillus,
Penicillium).
3. Mushrooms: They are large, fruiting body-producing fungi (e.g., Agaricus bisporus).
4. Dimorphic Fungi: These can exist as yeast or mold depending on environmental conditions
(e.g., Histoplasma capsulatum).

Structure of Fungi

The structure of fungi varies depending on the type but generally consists of the following
components:

1. Cell Wall are made of chitin (unlike plants, which have cellulose).
2. Hyphae are thread-like filaments that form the body of the fungus.
3. Mycelium are a network of hyphae that makes up the vegetative part of the fungus.
4. Spores are the reproductive units that allow fungi to reproduce and spread.
5. Septum is the dividing wall between fungal cells in some species.
6. Fruiting Body is the reproductive structure in some fungi, like mushrooms.
Morphology of Fungi

Fungi exist in different morphological forms:

1. Yeasts: Unicellular, round or oval-shaped.

2. Molds: Multicellular, filamentous structures with hyphae.
3. Dimorphic Fungi: Can switch between yeast and mold forms based on environmental
conditions.
4. Mushrooms: Umbrella-like cap and stem structure with large fruiting bodies.

General Characteristics of Fungi

1. They are eukaryotic, have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

2. They are heterotrophic meaning they obtain their nutrients by absorption (saprophytic,
parasitic, or symbiotic).
3. Their cell wall is made of chitin, providing structural support.
4. They can reproduce sexually and asexually using spores.
5. Fungi are non-motile i.e they do not have flagella or cilia for movement.
6. They are decomposers playing a key role in breaking down organic matter.
 7. They possess symbiotic Associations making some fungi form mutualistic relationships (e.g.,
mycorrhizae with plant roots).
8. Some fungi are pathogenetic cause diseases in humans, plants, and animals (e.g., Candida
albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus).

Sizes of Fungi

1. Microscopic Fungi: Yeasts (3–40 µm) and mold spores (1–10 µm).

2. Macroscopic Fungi: Mushrooms, puffballs, and bracket fungi, which can range from a few
centimeters to several meters in diameter.

Shapes of Fungi

1. Yeasts are spherical or oval.

2. Molds are filamentous with branching hyphae.
3. Mushrooms have cap and stalk structure.
4. Other Forms include; Cup-shaped (Peziza), coral-like (Ramaria), bracket-shaped
(Ganoderma).

General Classification of Fungi

Fungi are classified into different phyla:

1. Phylum Chytridiomycota (Chytrids)

 Mostly aquatic, with flagellated spores (zoospores).

 Example: Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (affects amphibians).

2. Phylum Zygomycota (Zygomycetes)

 Form zygospores during sexual reproduction.

 Example: Rhizopus stolonifer (common bread mold).

3. Phylum Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)

 Produce spores in sac-like structures called asci.

 Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus, Penicillium.

4. Phylum Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)

 Produce spores on club-shaped basidia.

 Example: Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom), Puccinia (rust fungi).

5. Phylum Glomeromycota

 Form symbiotic relationships with plant roots (mycorrhizae).

 Example: Glomus species.

6. Deuteromycota (Fungi Imperfecti)

 Fungi without a known sexual reproductive stage.

 Example: Candida albicans (causes candidiasis).
Uses of Fungi
Fungi play significant roles in various industries, including medicine, agriculture, food production,
biotechnology, and environmental sustainability. Their diverse metabolic capabilities make them
valuable for human applications.

1. Medicinal Uses of Fungi

Fungi are extensively used in medicine for the production of antibiotics, immunosuppressants, and
other pharmaceuticals.

A. Antibiotic Production

Fungi produce antibiotics that inhibit bacterial growth.

 Penicillin (Penicillium notatum): The first antibiotic discovered, effective against Gram-positive
bacteria.
 Cephalosporins (Acremonium spp.):Used for treating bacterial infections.
 Griseofulvin (Penicillium griseofulvum): Used for treating fungal skin infections.

B. Immunosuppressive Drugs

 Cyclosporine (Tolypocladium inflatum): Prevents organ transplant rejection by suppressing the

immune system.

C. Cholesterol-Lowering Drugs

 Statins (Aspergillus terreus): Lovastatin and simvastatin reduce cholesterol levels in the blood.

D. Antifungal Agents

 Echinocandins (Aspergillus spp.): Used in antifungal therapy (e.g., caspofungin).

E. Cancer Treatment

 Lentinan (Lentinula edodes – Shiitake mushrooms): Has anti-tumor properties.

2. Role of Fungi in Agriculture

Fungi play beneficial and harmful roles in agriculture, including plant growth enhancement and pest
control.

A. Mycorrhizal Fungi (Symbiotic Relationship with Plants)

 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) (Glomus spp.): Improve plant nutrient uptake, particularly
phosphorus.
 Ectomycorrhizal Fungi (Pisolithus, Laccaria): Enhance tree growth in forestry.

B. Biocontrol Agents

Some fungi act as natural biopesticides to control pests and plant diseases.
  Trichoderma spp.: Used as a biocontrol agent against fungal pathogens.
 Beauveria bassiana: Used to control insect pests in crops.

C. Plant Pathogens

Some fungi cause plant diseases, leading to economic losses.

 Puccinia spp.: Cause rust diseases in wheat and other crops.

 Fusarium spp.: Cause wilt and root rot in plants.

3. Food and Beverage Industry

Fungi contribute to food fermentation, flavor enhancement, and production of alternative protein
sources.

A. Fermented Foods

Fungi play a key role in food processing and preservation.

 Bread-making: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) ferments sugars, producing carbon dioxide that helps
dough rise.
 Beer and Wine: Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments sugars into alcohol.
 Soy Sauce and Miso: Aspergillus oryzae breaks down soybeans during fermentation.

B. Edible Mushrooms

Many fungi are consumed as food due to their high protein and nutrient content.

 Agaricus bisporus: Common button mushroom.

 Lentinula edodes: Shiitake mushroom, rich in antioxidants.
 Pleurotus ostreatus: Oyster mushroom, cultivated for food.

C. Cheese Production

Fungi contribute to the flavor and texture of cheeses.

 Penicillium roqueforti: Used in blue cheese (Roquefort, Gorgonzola).

 Penicillium camemberti – Used in Camembert and Brie cheese.

4. Industrial and Biotechnological Uses

Fungi are used in biotechnology for enzyme production, biofuel generation, and waste treatment.

A. Enzyme Production

Fungal enzymes are used in various industries.

 Amylase (Aspergillus niger): Used in starch breakdown for the food industry.
 Lipase (Rhizopus spp.): Used in detergent and dairy industries.
 Cellulase (Trichoderma reesei): Used in biofuel production from plant biomass.

B. Biofuel Production

 Ethanol Production: Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments sugars into bioethanol.

 Biogas Generation: Some fungi contribute to methane production from waste.
C. Waste Decomposition and Bioremediation

Fungi break down organic and inorganic pollutants.

 White-rot Fungi (e.g., Phanerochaete chrysosporium): Degrade lignin and toxic pollutants.
 Oil Spill Cleanup: Aspergillus and Penicillium degrade hydrocarbons in crude oil.

5. Environmental and Ecological Significance

Fungi contribute to ecosystem stability and nutrient cycling.

A. Decomposers in Nature

 Fungi decompose dead organic matter, recycling nutrients into the soil.
 Basidiomycota (mushrooms) play a significant role in wood decomposition.

B. Symbiotic Relationships

 Lichens (Fungi + Algae/Cyanobacteria): Plays Important role as bioindicators of air pollution.

 Mycorrhizae: Enhance plant growth by increasing nutrient absorption.

6. Textile and Leather Industry

Fungal enzymes are used for processing raw materials.

 Tannase (Aspergillus spp.): Used in leather tanning.

 Pectinase: Helps in fiber processing for textile production.

7. Cosmetics and Skincare Industry

Fungi-derived products are used in skincare formulations.

 Hyaluronic Acid (from yeast fermentation): Used in anti-aging creams.

 Glutathione (produced by Saccharomyces spp.): Used for skin brightening.

8. Role of Fungi in Space Exploration

Fungi are being studied for space missions.

 Bioremediation in Space – Fungi like Aspergillus can degrade waste on space stations.
 Radiation Protection – Some fungi (Cladosporium sphaerospermum) can absorb cosmic radiation.

Reproduction in Fungi
Fungi reproduce through both asexual and sexual means, with each mode ensuring their survival,
dispersal, and genetic diversity. Their reproduction involves spores, specialized reproductive
structures, and complex life cycles.

1. Asexual Reproduction in Fungi

Asexual reproduction occurs without genetic recombination, producing genetically identical
offspring.

A. Asexual Spores

Fungi produce spores that can disperse and germinate into new organisms. Types of asexual spores
include:

1. Sporangiospores
o Formed inside a sac-like sporangium.
o Example: Rhizopus (bread mold).

2. Conidiospores (Conidia)
o Formed externally on specialized structures called conidiophores.
o Example: Aspergillus, Penicillium.

3. Chlamydospores
o Thick-walled spores that help fungi survive unfavorable conditions.
o Example: Candida albicans.

4. Blastospores (Budding Spores)

o Formed by budding in yeasts.
o Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

B. Vegetative Reproduction

Some fungi reproduce by fragmentation, fission, or budding.

1. Fragmentation
o The fungal mycelium breaks into fragments, and each piece grows into a new fungus.
o Example: Trichoderma.

2. Budding
o A small outgrowth (bud) forms on the parent cell and detaches to form a new organism.
o Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast).

3. Fission
o The parent cell divides into two equal daughter cells.
o Example: Schizosaccharomyces (fission yeast).

2. Sexual Reproduction in Fungi

Sexual reproduction involves genetic recombination, producing genetically diverse offspring. It

occurs through three main stages:

A. Stages of Sexual Reproduction

1. Plasmogamy – Fusion of cytoplasm from two compatible mating types (+ and -).
2. Karyogamy – Fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus.
3. Meiosis – The diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores.
B. Types of Sexual Spores

1. Zygospores
o Thick-walled spores formed from the fusion of two different mating types.
o Example: Rhizopus (black bread mold).

2. Ascospores
o Formed inside a sac-like structure called an ascus.
o Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast).

3. Basidiospores
o Produced on a club-shaped structure called a basidium.
o Example: Agaricus bisporus (mushroom).

4. Oospores
o Thick-walled spores formed by the fusion of gametes in Oomycetes (water molds).
o Example: Phytophthora (potato blight).

Reproductive Structures of Fungi

Fungi reproduce through specialized reproductive structures:

Fungal Group Sexual Spores Asexual Spores Examples

Zygomycota (Zygomycetes) Zygospores Sporangiospores Rhizopus, Mucor

Ascomycota (Sac Fungi) Ascospores (in Ascus) Conidiospores Saccharomyces, Aspergillus

Basidiomycota (Club Fungi) Basidiospores (on Basidium) Rare Agaricus, Cryptococcus

Deuteromycota (Imperfect Fungi) No sexual spores Conidiospores Penicillium, Candida

Special Reproductive Cycles

A. Fungal Alternation of Generations

Some fungi exhibit an alternation between haploid (n) and diploid (2n) phases, similar to plants.

 Example: Puccinia graminis (wheat rust fungus).

B. Parthenogenesis in Fungi

 Certain fungi can develop without fertilization.

 Example: Candida albicans (human pathogen).

Importance of Fungal Reproduction

 Spore Dispersal – Ensures fungal survival and colonization.

 Genetic Diversity – Sexual reproduction enhances adaptation to environments.
 Industrial Applications – Yeasts reproduce rapidly for fermentation.
 Pathogenicity – Some fungi cause diseases through rapid reproduction.
Biochemical Characterization of Fungi
Biochemical characterization of fungi involves the identification of their metabolic properties,
enzymatic activities, and physiological responses to different substrates. These tests are essential for
classifying fungi into different taxa, diagnosing fungal infections, and understanding their industrial
and ecological roles.

1. Biochemical Tests for Fungal Identification

A. Carbohydrate Utilization Tests

 Determines the ability of fungi to ferment or assimilate specific sugars.

 Example: Candida species show varied sugar fermentation profiles.
 Common Tests:
a. D-Glucose Fermentation Test: Determines acid and gas production.
b. Assimilation Tests: Ability to utilize specific carbon sources (e.g., D-galactose, D-
mannose).

B. Enzymatic Activity Tests

 Evaluates the production of extracellular enzymes important for fungal metabolism.

 Common Tests: a.
Catalase Test: Detects catalase enzyme activity in fungi like Aspergillus and Candida.
b. Urease Test: Identifies urease-producing fungi (e.g., Cryptococcus neoformans).

c. Amylase Production Test: Determines starch hydrolysis ability (e.g., Aspergillus niger).

d. Protease Production Test: Indicates protein degradation (e.g., dermatophytes like

Trichophyton).

e. Lipase Production Test: Evaluates lipid breakdown, relevant in pathogenic fungi.

C. Nitrogen Utilization Tests

 Determines the ability to metabolize nitrogen sources.

 Example: Aspergillus species use ammonium and nitrate efficiently.

D. pH and Temperature Tolerance

 Thermotolerance Test: Determines growth at varying temperatures (important for pathogenic

fungi like Candida albicans and Histoplasma capsulatum).
 Acid and Alkaline Tolerance: Fungi like Penicillium can tolerate acidic environments, while
Aspergillus prefers slightly alkaline conditions.

E. Osmotolerance and Salt Tolerance

 High salt concentrations can inhibit fungal growth, except for halotolerant species like
Wallemia sebi.
F. Antibiotic Sensitivity Tests

 Determines susceptibility to antifungal agents like amphotericin B and fluconazole.

2. Biochemical Identification Kits for Fungi

Several commercial kits are available for rapid biochemical characterization of fungi:

 API 20C AUX (bioMérieux): Used for identifying yeasts based on carbohydrate assimilation.
 VITEK 2 (bioMérieux): Automated system for fungal identification and antifungal
susceptibility testing.
 BD Phoenix System (BD Diagnostics): Used in clinical microbiology for yeast identification.

3. Importance of Biochemical Characterization of Fungi

 Clinical Diagnostics: Identification of fungal pathogens like Candida, Cryptococcus, and

Aspergillus.
 Industrial Applications: Selection of fungi for enzyme production (e.g., Aspergillus for
amylase).
 Environmental Studies: Understanding fungal roles in biodegradation and nutrient cycling.

ALGAE
Algae are a diverse group of eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms that can be found in aquatic and
moist terrestrial environments. They range from microscopic single-celled forms (e.g., Chlorella) to
large multicellular seaweeds (e.g., Macrocystis).

Types of Algae

Algae can be broadly categorized based on their pigmentation, storage products, and cellular
organization. The major types include:

A. Green Algae (Chlorophyta)

 Contain chlorophyll a and b.

 Store starch as a reserve food material.
 Examples: Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Volvox.

B. Brown Algae (Phaeophyta)

 Contain chlorophyll a, c, and fucoxanthin (brown pigment).

 Store laminarin and mannitol.
 Examples: Fucus, Laminaria, Sargassum.

C. Red Algae (Rhodophyta)

 Contain chlorophyll a, d, and phycoerythrin (red pigment).

 Store floridean starch.
 Examples: Polysiphonia, Gracilaria, Gelidium.

D. Diatoms (Bacillariophyta)
  Contain chlorophyll a, c, and fucoxanthin.
 Have a silica-based cell wall (frustules).
 Examples: Navicula, Cyclotella.

E. Dinoflagellates (Dinophyta or Pyrrophyta)

 Contain chlorophyll a, c, and peridinin.

 Some are bioluminescent and responsible for red tides.
 Examples: Noctiluca, Ceratium.

F. Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria)

 Photosynthetic prokaryotes containing chlorophyll a and phycocyanin.

 Capable of nitrogen fixation.
 Examples: Anabaena, Nostoc.

Taxonomy and Classification of Algae

Algae are classified into various groups based on their pigmentation, cell wall composition, storage
products, and flagella type.

Kingdom: Protista (or Plantae in some classifications)

 Division (Phylum) Classification:

1. Chlorophyta (Green algae)
2. Phaeophyta (Brown algae)
3. Rhodophyta (Red algae)
4. Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)
5. Pyrrophyta (Dinoflagellates)
6. Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae, sometimes classified under Bacteria)

Structural Organization of Algae

Algae exhibit diverse structural forms:

A. Unicellular Algae

 Single-celled, microscopic forms.

 Examples: Chlamydomonas, Chlorella.

B. Colonial Algae

 Cells form colonies but function independently.

 Examples: Volvox, Hydrodictyon.

C. Filamentous Algae

 Cells arranged in chains or filaments.

 Examples: Spirogyra, Oscillatoria.

D. Thalloid (Multicellular) Algae

 Large, complex body without true roots, stems, or leaves.

  Examples: Laminaria, Sargassum.

Morphology of Algae

 Cell Wall Composition:

o Cellulose in green algae.
o Silica in diatoms.
o Alginates and fucoidins in brown algae.
o Agar and carrageenan in red algae.
 Chloroplasts: Contain different pigments based on the type of algae.
 Flagella: Some algae are motile (e.g., Chlamydomonas), while others are non-motile (e.g.,
Porphyra).
 Storage Products: Starch, laminarin, floridean starch, oils, or lipids.

General Characteristics of Algae

1. Photosynthetic: Contain chlorophyll and other pigments for photosynthesis.

2. Aquatic or Moist Habitats: Found in freshwater, marine, or moist environments.
3. Single-celled to Multicellular: Range from microscopic to large seaweeds.
4. Reproduce Asexually and Sexually.
5. Ecological Importance: Oxygen production, carbon sequestration, and forming the base of
aquatic food chains.
6. Economic Importance: Used in food (e.g., nori from Porphyra), pharmaceuticals, biofuels,
and industrial products (e.g., agar, alginates).

Reproduction in Algae

Algae reproduce both asexually and sexually, depending on environmental conditions.

A. Asexual Reproduction (No genetic recombination)

1. Binary Fission – Cell divides into two identical daughter cells (Chlamydomonas).
2. Fragmentation – The thallus breaks into fragments, each growing into a new organism
(Spirogyra).
3. Spore Formation – Production of spores such as zoospores, akinetes, or endospores.

B. Sexual Reproduction (Involves fusion of gametes)

Sexual reproduction occurs through three major methods:

1. Isogamy – Fusion of two identical gametes (Chlamydomonas).

2. Anisogamy – Fusion of unequal-sized gametes (Eudorina).
3. Oogamy – Large, non-motile egg fuses with a smaller, motile sperm (Fucus).

C. Alternation of Generations

 Some algae exhibit haplo-diplontic life cycles where they alternate between haploid and
diploid phases (Laminaria).

Uses of Algae

Algae have a wide range of uses across various industries, including environmental management,
biotechnology, food production, and medicine. Here are some key applications:

1. Environmental Applications

 Water Treatment: Algae help remove heavy metals, toxins, and excess nutrients (e.g.,
nitrogen and phosphorus) from wastewater.
 Carbon Sequestration: Algae absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere, reducing greenhouse gas
levels.
 Bioremediation: Certain algae species can detoxify polluted water bodies and soils.

2. Food and Nutrition

 Superfoods: Edible algae like spirulina and chlorella are rich in proteins, vitamins, and
antioxidants.
 Food Additives: Algae-derived substances such as agar, carrageenan, and alginate are used
as stabilizers and thickeners in foods like ice cream, yogurt, and soups.
 Livestock and Aquaculture Feed: Algae serve as a nutritious supplement in fish and animal
feeds.

3. Biofuel Production

 Biodiesel & Bioethanol: Algae contain lipids that can be processed into renewable biofuels.
 Biogas Production: Certain algae species can be fermented to produce methane.

4. Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Uses

 Antimicrobial & Antiviral Properties: Algae produce compounds that can fight bacteria,
viruses, and fungi.
 Anti-inflammatory & Antioxidant Agents: Used in supplements and cosmetics.
 Drug Development: Algae-derived compounds are being studied for cancer treatment, wound
healing, and neurological disorders.

5. Cosmetic and Personal Care Industry

  Skin Care: Algae extracts are used in creams and serums for hydration, anti-aging, and UV
protection.
 Hair Care: Found in shampoos and conditioners for strengthening hair and scalp health.

6. Fertilizers and Soil Conditioners

 Organic Fertilizer: Algae-based fertilizers enrich soil with essential nutrients and improve
moisture retention.
 Bio-Stimulants: Promote plant growth and enhance crop yields.

7. Industrial Applications

 Bioplastics: Algae are being explored as an eco-friendly alternative to petroleum-based

plastics.
 Textile Industry: Algae fibers and pigments are used for sustainable fabric production.
 Dye Production: Algae-based pigments are used as natural colorants in food, textiles, and
cosmetics.

8. Renewable Energy and Electricity Generation

 Microbial Fuel Cells: Some algae species can be used in bioelectricity generation.

9. Space Exploration

 Oxygen Production: Algae can generate oxygen and be used in life support systems for space
missions.
 Food Source: Algae could serve as a sustainable food option for astronauts.

Differences and Similarities Between Fungi and Algae

Fungi and algae are two distinct groups of organisms with unique characteristics, but they also share
some similarities, especially in ecological roles and structural features.

Similarities Between Fungi and Algae

1. Eukaryotic Cells
o Both fungi and algae have eukaryotic cells, meaning they have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
2. Cell Wall Presence
o Both have cell walls, though their composition differs:
 Fungi: Chitin (or glucans)
 Algae: Cellulose, silica, or polysaccharides
3. Reproduction
o Both can reproduce asexually (through spores or fragmentation) and sexually (through
gametes or specialized structures).
4. Habitat
o Both are found in moist environments like soil, water, and damp surfaces.
5. Symbiotic Relationships
o Some fungi and algae form symbiotic relationships, the most notable being lichens,
which consist of a fungus and an alga living together for mutual benefit.

Differences Between Fungi and Algae

 Feature Fungi Algae
Unicellular (yeasts) or Multicellular
Cell Type Mostly unicellular or simple multicellular
(molds, mushrooms)
Heterotrophic (absorbs nutrients Autotrophic (produces food via
Mode of Nutrition
from organic matter) photosynthesis)
Chlorophyll Present (contains chlorophyll and other
Absent (cannot photosynthesize)
Presence pigments for photosynthesis)
Energy Storage Stores glycogen Stores starch
Some are motile (e.g., Chlamydomonas
Motility Non-motile
with flagella)
Reproduction Mainly by spores By spores, fragmentation, or cell division
Cell Wall Made of cellulose, silica, or
Made of chitin
Composition polysaccharides
Decomposers, parasites, or
Ecological Role Primary producers in aquatic ecosystems
mutualists

Conclusion

 Fungi are decomposers that rely on organic material for food, while algae are autotrophic
organisms that photosynthesize.
 They share structural similarities but differ significantly in nutrition, reproduction, and
ecological roles.
 Despite their differences, fungi and algae can form mutualistic partnerships, such as in
lichens, where the fungus provides protection while the alga provides food.