Download the full version and explore a variety of ebooks

or textbooks at https://ebookultra.com

A Short History of Mozambique 1995 upd ed 2017

Malyn Newitt

_____ Follow the link below to get your download now _____

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-short-history-of-
mozambique-1995-upd-ed-2017-malyn-newitt/

Access ebookultra.com now to download high-quality

ebooks or textbooks
We have selected some products that you may be interested in
Click the link to download now or visit ebookultra.com
for more options!.

A History of Portugese Overseas Expansion 1400 1668 2004

1st ed Edition Malyn Newitt

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-history-of-portugese-overseas-
expansion-1400-1668-2004-1st-ed-edition-malyn-newitt/

A History of the Sudan 6th rev upd ed 2011 6th rev.upd.

ed. 2011 Edition Peter Malcolm Holt

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-history-of-the-sudan-6th-rev-upd-
ed-2011-6th-rev-upd-ed-2011-edition-peter-malcolm-holt/

A Short History of Quebec 4th Edition John A. Dickinson

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-short-history-of-quebec-4th-edition-
john-a-dickinson/

Egypt A Short History Robert L. Tignor

https://ebookultra.com/download/egypt-a-short-history-robert-l-tignor/
A Short History of Economic Thought 3rd Edition Bo
Sandelin

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-short-history-of-economic-
thought-3rd-edition-bo-sandelin/

A Complicated War The Harrowing of Mozambique William

Finnegan

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-complicated-war-the-harrowing-of-
mozambique-william-finnegan/

History of Medicine A Scandalously Short Introduction

Third Edition Jacalyn Duffin

https://ebookultra.com/download/history-of-medicine-a-scandalously-
short-introduction-third-edition-jacalyn-duffin/

A Short History of Medical Genetics 1st Edition Peter S.

Harper

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-short-history-of-medical-
genetics-1st-edition-peter-s-harper/

A Short History of Bali Indonesia s Hindu Realm Robert

Pringle

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-short-history-of-bali-indonesia-s-
hindu-realm-robert-pringle/
A Short History of Mozambique 1995 upd ed 2017 Malyn
Newitt Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Malyn Newitt
ISBN(s): 9780190847425, 0190847425
Edition: upd. ed. 2017
File Details: PDF, 7.22 MB
Year: 1995
Language: english
A SHORT HISTORY OF MOZAMBIQUE
 MALYN NEWITT

A Short History
of Mozambique

A
 A
Oxford University Press is a department of the
University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective
of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide.
Oxford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto
With offices in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by
Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Copyright © Malyn Newitt 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with
the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning
reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the
Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available
Malyn Newitt.
A Short History of Mozambique.
ISBN: 9780190847425

Printed in India on acid-free paper

 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments vii
Abbreviations ix
Glossary xi
List of Maps and Illustrations xv

1. T he Mozambican Environment and Ethnography 1

2. The Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries 23
3. The Nineteenth Century: African Agency in the
Creation of Mozambique 49
4. The Intervention of Europeans and the Scramble
for Africa 73
5. Portuguese Colonial Rule to 1919 95
6. Colonial Mozambique 1919 to 1975 119
7. Independence and Civil War 147
8. Mozambique After the Civil War 173
9. Economy and Society Since 1994 201
Further Reading 227

Notes 231
Index 241

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am very grateful to Dr Abdulcarimo Ismail, Dr Joel das Neves

Tembe, Dr Gerhard Liesegang and Dr Liazzat Bonate for their
help during a recent visit to Mozambique. Dr Corrado Tornimbeni
read and commented on two of the chapters and I greatly appre-
ciate his advice and his collaboration for over more than a decade.
I would also like to thank the two anonymous reviewers whose
comments on the MS I found of great value. The two maps were
drawn by Sebastian Ballard.

vii
 ABBREVIATIONS

ANC African National Congress

CAIL Complexo Agro-industrial do Vale do Limpopo
COREMO Comité Revolucionária de Moçambique
EIU Economist Intelligence Unit
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
GDs Grupos Dinamizadores
GEs Grupos Especiais
GEPs Grupos Especiais Paraquedistas
HDI Human Development Index
IMF International Monetary Fund
MDM Movimento Democrático de Moçambique
MFA Movimento das Forças Armadas
MNR Mozambique National Resistance (later known as
Renamo)
MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola.
The ruling party in Angola since independence
MUD Movimento Unido Democrático
NGO Non-Governmental Organisations
ONUMOZ United Nations Operation in Mozambique
PARP Poverty Reduction Action Plan
PCP Partido Comunista Português
PIDE Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado

ix
 ABBREVIATIONS

RGS Royal Geographical Society

SADC Southern African Development Community
SME Small and medium enterprises
SWAPO South West Africa People’s Organisation
UMCA Universities Mission to Central Africa
UNITA União Nacional para a Independência Total de
Angola. The principal opposition party in
Angola founded by Jonas Savimbi
WNLA Witwatersrand Native Labour Association
ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union

x
 GLOSSARY

aldeamentos protected villages created as part of a

counterinsurgency strategy by the Portu­
guese
amendoim groundnuts
aringa large fortified stockade in Zambesia
assimilados Africans who had acquired full Portu­
guese citizenship
bairros shanty towns
barracas street markets
cadernetes passes
cantinas/cantineiros rural stores/storekeepers
carreira da India the voyage from Portugal to India
cartaz pass purchased from the Portuguese
allow­ing merchants to trade in the Indian
Ocean
chefe de posto the lowest ranking official in the colonial
administration
chibalo forced labour for the state
chicunda clients or slaves of Portuguese prazo
senhors
cipais police
colonatos planned agricultural settlements

xi
 GLOSSARY

colonos African peasants – especially those on the

prazos
concelhos urban administrative areas
cooperantes foreign aid workers, mostly from the
Eastern bloc countries
curador An official appointed to supervise
migrant workers on the Rand
curandeiro traditional doctors
curva payment made by the Portuguese to be
allowed free access to the Karanga fairs
dona lady. Particularly referring to female
holders of prazo leases
engagé labour labour recruited under contract for the
French Indian Ocean islands
fazendas plantations in Brazil
feira fair. Particuarly used for gold fairs
gergelim sesame
guias da marcha passes issued in post-civil war Mozam­
bique, especially in Manica
indígenas persons classified as ‘natives’ without full
citizenship rights
indigenato regulations defining the rights and obli-
gations of natives (indígenas)
luane rural estate in Zambesia
macuti town the part of Mozambique Island inhabited
by Africans
mapa cor-de-rosa Rose-coloured map
modus vivendi agreement signed in 1901 between
Britain and Portugal to supply labour to
the Rand
mussoco head tax levied in Zambesia
não-indígena anyone not categorised as indígena
palmatoria a wooden paddle with holes. Used to beat

xii
 GLOSSARY

the hands as a punishment. Used in

Brazil and Africa.
planos de fomento development plans
povo the common people
postos militares military posts. The smallest subdivision
of local government
prazos land grants in Zambesia
régulos traditional authorities in colonial and
post-colonial Mozambique
roças plantations producing cocoa and coffee in
São Tomé and Príncipe
sertanejos backwoodsmen
toucas embroidered caps worn by Muslim men
Washington Consensus a term which came into use after1989 to
describe the prevailing policies of the
World Bank and IMF

xiii
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
certain times of the year, as well as all food produced by generation.
Their relationship of the sexes was ultra-strict. Their word was their
bond, and their religion forbade them to mar it with an oath. They
possessed no money, and were supported by the community. Their
simplicity and modesty in dress, their frugality, their industry, their
honesty, kindled the respect, even the reverence, of the masses.[21]
No hardships or dangers daunted their missionary ardour. When the
Church attacked the heretics by means other than by fire and sword,
she failed until the Dominicans copied their methods and the
Franciscans their manners.

[13] Οἱ ἐν Βιέννῃ καὶ Λουγδούνῳ τῆς Γαλλίας παροικοῦντες δοῦλοι Χριστοῦ,

τοῖς κατὰ τὴν Ἀσίαν καὶ Φρυγίαν τὴν αὐτὴν τῆς ἀπολυτρώσεως ἡμῖν πίστιν
καὶ ἐλπίδα ἔχουσιν ἀδελφοῖς. (Euseb., H.E., v. 1.)

[14] Reinéri Saccho says he knew an ignorant rustic who could recite the
book of Job word for word.

[15] In sanctorum vigiliis in ecclesiis historicae (= histrionicae) saltationes,

obsceni motus seu choreae fiunt ... dicuntur amatoria carmina vel cantilenae
ibidem (Council of Avignon, Canon xvii, A.D. 1209).

[16] Prohibemus—ne libros Veteris Testamenti aut Novi laici permittantur

habere: nisi forte psalterium vel breviarium pro divinis officiis, aut horas
beatae Mariae aliquis ex devotione habere velit. Sed ne praemissos libros
habeant in vulgari translatos arctissime inhibemus (Council of Toulouse,
Canon XIV, A.D. 1229).

[17] Hegel's "Philosophy of History," Pt. IV, Sect. II.

[18] Paracelsus, "Works," Vol. IV, p. 141.

[19] Prob. in A.D. 1212, when the inhabitants fled to Cordes (then a mere
hunting-box of the Counts of Toulouse) from St. Marcel, which was
destroyed by Simon de Montfort. The date usually assigned to the founding
of Cordes, viz. 1222, is wrong. See "Records of the Académie imperiale des
Sciences, Toulouse," Series 6, Vol. V. For this reference I am indebted to my
friend, Col. de Cordes.

[20] Nearly a century before this (v. infra) Henry, the successor of Peter de
Bruis, wrote a book which Peter Venerabilis had seen himself, setting forth
the several heads of the heresy.
[21] Reinéri Saccho, a former Catharist (but not, as he is careful to point
out, a Waldensian) and afterward an Inquisitor, says the heretics were
distinguished by their conduct and conversation: they were sedate, modest,
had no pride in clothes, did not carry on business dishonestly, did not
multiply riches, did not go to taverns, dances, etc.; were chaste, especially
the Leonists, temperate in meat and drink, not given to anger, always at
work, teaching and learning, and therefore prayed little, went to Church, but
only to catch the preacher in his discourse; precise and moderate in
language. A man swam the River Ibis every night in winter to make one
convert.
 CHAPTER III
THE SEED

W E are now in a position to study more closely the documents

from which an estimate may be formed of the beliefs and
practices of those whom the Church exerted its full strength to
destroy. Our task is not a simple one, because, as already stated,
there was not one heresy, but many, and we are dependent for our
knowledge of their tenets almost entirely upon their enemies whose
odium theologicum discounts their trustworthiness.

§ 1. EYMERIC
It may simplify our task if we set down the fourteen heads under
which the Inquisitor Eymeric in his "Directorium Inquisitorum"[22]
classifies what he calls "recentiorum Manicheorum errores."

(1) They assert and confess that there are two Gods or two Lords,
viz. a good God, and an evil Creator of all things visible and
material; declaring that these things were not made by God our
heavenly Father ... but by a wicked devil, even Satan ... and so they
assume two Creators, viz. God and the Devil; and two Creations, viz.
one of immaterial and invisible things, the other of visible and
material.

(2) They imagine that there are two Churches, one good, which
they say is their own sect, and declare to be the Church of Jesus
Christ; the other, however, they call an evil Church, which they say is
the Church of Rome.
 (3) All grades, orders, ordinances and statutes of the Church they
despise and ignore, and all who hold the Faith they call heretics and
deluded, and positively assert (dogmatizant) that nobody can be
saved by the faith (in fide) of the Roman Church.

(4) All the Sacraments of the Roman Church of our Lord Jesus
Christ, viz. the Eucharist, and Baptism performed with material
water, also Confirmation and Orders and Extreme Unction and
Penance (poenitentia) and Matrimony, all and singular, they assert to
be vain and useless.

(5) They invent, instead of holy Baptism in water, another spiritual

Baptism, which they call the Consolation (consolamentum)[23] of the
Holy Spirit.

(6) They invent, instead of the consecrated bread of the Eucharist

of the Body of Christ, a certain bread, which they call "blessed
bread," or "bread of holy prayer," which, holding in their hands, they
bless according to their rite, and break and distribute to their fellow-
believers seated.

(7) Instead of the Sacrament of Penance they say that their sect
receives and holds a true Penance (poenitentia), and to those
holding the said sect and order, whether they be in health or
sickness, all sins are forgiven (dimissa), and that such persons are
absolved from all their sins without any other satisfaction, asserting
that they themselves have over these the same and as great power
as had Peter and Paul and the other Apostles ... saying that the
confession of sins which is made to the priests of the Roman Church
is of no avail whatever for salvation, and that neither the Pope nor
any other person of the Roman Church has power to absolve anyone
from his sins.

(8) Instead of the Sacrament of carnal Matrimony between man

and woman, they invent a spiritual Matrimony between the soul and
God, viz. when the heretics themselves, the perfect or consoled
(perfecti seu consolati), receive anyone into their sect and order.

(9) They deny the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ from Mary
ever virgin, asserting that He had not a true human body, etc., but
that all things were done figuratively (in similitudinem).

(10) They deny that the Blessed Virgin Mary was the true mother
of our Lord Jesus Christ; they deny also that she was a woman of
flesh (carnalem). But they say their sect and order is the Virgin Mary,
and that true penance (poenitentia) is a chaste virgin who bears
sons of God when they are received into their sect and order.

(11) They deny the future resurrection of human bodies,

imagining, instead, certain spiritual bodies.

(12) They say that a man ought to eat or touch neither meat nor
cheese nor eggs, nor anything which is born of the flesh by way of
generation or intercourse.

(13) They say and believe that in brutes and even in birds there
are those spirits which go forth from the bodies of men when they
have not been received into their sect and order by imposition of
hands, according to their rite, and that they pass from one body into
another; wherefore they themselves do not eat or kill any animal or
anything that flies.

(14) They say that a man ought never to touch a woman.

§ 2. ADEMAR
The earliest mention of the heterodox as Manichees is found in
Ademar, a noble of Aquitaine, who says: "Shortly afterwards (A.D.
1018) there arose throughout Aquitaine Manichees, seducing the
people. They denied Baptism and the Cross, and whatever is of
sound doctrine. Abstaining from food, they appeared like monks and
feigned chastity, but amongst themselves they indulged in every
luxury and were the messengers of Anti-Christ, and have caused
many to err from the faith."[24]

§ 3. COUNCIL OF ORLEANS
These "Manichees" may have fled from the theological school at
Orleans where heresy had been detected and punished only the year
before, although neither Glaber Radulf[25] nor Agono, of the
monastery of St. Peter's, Chartres,[26] both contemporaries,
denominates them Manichees. The proceedings of the Council of
Orleans, though beyond our area, is of interest to us, because of the
eminence and influence of its theological school, and also because
the Queen, Constance, was daughter of Raymond of Toulouse, she
having married Robert after he had been compelled to divorce his
first wife, Bertha. The heresy, by whatever name it reached or left
Orleans, probably affected Southern France, for it is stated that the
heresy was brought into Gaul by an Italian woman "by whom many
in many parts were corrupted." The "depravity" of the heretics was
spread secretly, and was only disclosed to the King by a nobleman of
Normandy, named Arefast, who became acquainted with the
existence of the heresy through a young ecclesiastic, Heribert. At the
Council (A.D. 1022) which the King summoned, and which consisted
of many Bishops, Abbots and laymen,[27] the three ringleaders,
Stephen, the Queen's Confessor, Heribert, who had filled the post of
ambassador to the King of France, and Lisois, all famous for their
learning, holiness and generosity, declared that everything in the Old
and New Testaments about the Blessed Trinity, although authority
supported it by signs and wonders and ancient witnesses, was
nonsense; that heaven and earth never had an author, and are
eternal; that Jesus Christ was not born of the Virgin Mary, did not
suffer for men, was not placed in the sepulchre, and did not rise
again from the dead; that there is no washing away of sins in
Baptism; that there is no sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ
at the consecration by a priest; intercessions of saints, martyrs and
confessors are valueless. Arefast, the informer, said he asked
wherein then he could rest his hope of salvation; he was invited to
submit to their imposition of hands, then he would be pure from all
sin, and be filled with the Holy Spirit Who would teach him the
depths and true meaning (profunditatem et veram dignitatem) of all
the Scriptures without any reserve. He would see visions of Angels
who would always help him, and God his Friend (comes) would
never let him want for anything.[28] They were like the Epicureans,
and did not believe that flagitious pleasures would be punished, or
that piety and righteousness—the wealth of Christians—would
receive everlasting reward. Arefast also brings against them the
odious charges of extinguished lights and promiscuous intercourse;
the children thus begotten were solemnly burnt the day after their
birth, their ashes preserved and given to the dying as a Viaticum.
Threatened with death by fire, they boasted that they would escape
from the flames. Sentenced to death, the King feared lest they
should be killed in the Church and commanded Queen Constance to
stand on guard at the door. But the Queen herself got out of hand,
for as the condemned heretics came forth she gouged out (eruit)
with a staff the eye of Stephen, her late confessor. As soon as they
felt the fire, they cried out that they had been deceived by the Devil,
and that the God and Lord of the universe, Whom they had
blasphemed, was punishing them with torture temporal and eternal.
Some of the bystanders were deeply moved and endeavoured to
rescue them, but in vain. The number who perished varies between
fourteen and ten. "A like fate met others who held a like faith," says
Glaber, "and thus the Catholic faith was vindicated and everywhere
shone more brightly."

The Council's investigations also brought to light the fact that a

Canon of Orleans, and Precentor, called Theodotus (Dieudonné), had
three years before died in heresy, although he pretended to live and
die in the communion of the Church. On this deception being
discovered, his body was exhumed by order of Bishop Odalric and
thrown away. It will be noted that the Council does not call them
Manichees or any other name. In fact, with the exception of Ademar,
no one for nearly a century identifies the heretics with Manicheism.
They are not labelled at the Council of Charroux in A.D. 1028 (or
1031). At the Council of Rheims in A.D. 1049 they are vaguely spoken
of as "new heretics who have arisen in France." The Council of
Toulouse in A.D. 1056 condemned in its thirteenth Canon certain
heretics, but does not specify their errors. In A.D. 1110 in the Diocese
of Albi, Bishop Sicard and Godfrey of Muret, Abbot of Castres,
attempted to seize some heretics already excommunicated, but were
prevented by nobles and people; but they are only colourlessly
described as:

Astricti Satanae qui sunt anathemate diro,

Noluntque absolvi restituique Deo.[29]

§ 4. COUNCIL OF TOULOUSE
Another Council held at Toulouse in A.D. 1119, presided over by the
Pope, Callistus III, is more precise, but does not denominate them.
By its third Canon it enacted: "Moreover, those who, pretending to a
sort of religion, condemn the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of
the Lord, the Baptism of children, the priesthood and other
ecclesiastical orders and the compacts of lawful marriage, we expel
from the Church of God as heretics and condemn them, and enjoin
upon the secular powers (exteras potestates) to restrain them. In
the bonds of this same sentence we include their defenders until
they recant."

§ 5. PETER DE BRUIS
A new heresiarch now comes upon the scene in the person of
Peter de Bruis, of whom nothing previous is known, except that
according to Alfonso à Castro he was a Gaul of Narbonne. We first
hear of him from Maurice de Montboissier, better known as Petrus
Venerabilis, Abbot of Cluny, who addressed an open letter "to the
lords, fathers and masters of the Church of God, the Archbishops of
Arles and Embrun" and certain Bishops. As the Abbot died in A.D.
1126(7), and the heresiarch laboured for twenty years in
promulgating his teaching, he was contemporary with the Council of
Toulouse of A.D. 1119,[30] and its condemnation may have been
directed in part against his followers, who were called Petrobrusians.
The letter of the Abbot has a preface which is not his, but which was
written after his death. This preface sums up the tenets of the
Petrobrusians under five heads:

(1) They deny that little children under years of discretion

(intelligibilem aetatem) can be saved by the baptism of Christ, and
another's faith cannot benefit those who cannot use their own ... for
the Lord said, "Whosoever believed and was baptized was saved."

(2) Temples and Churches ought not to be built, and those already
built ought to be pulled down, and sacred places for praying were
not necessary to Christians, since equally in tavern or church, in
market or temple, before altar or stall, God, when called upon, hears
and hearkens to those who deserve.

(3) All holy crosses should be broken up and burnt, since that
instrument by which Christ was so fearfully tortured and so cruelly
put to death was not worthy of adoration, veneration or any other
worship, but in revenge for His torments and death should be
dishonoured with every kind of infamy, struck with swords and
burnt.

(4) Not only do they deny the truth of the Body and Blood of the
Lord in the Sacrament daily and continually offered up in the Church,
but declare that it is absolutely nothing and ought not to be offered
to God.

(5) They deride sacrifices, prayers, alms and other good things
done by the faithful living for the faithful departed, and affirm that
these things cannot help any of the dead in the smallest degree.[31]
Also "they say God is mocked by Church hymns, because He delights
in pious desires, and cannot be summoned by loud voices or
appeased by musical notes."[32]

In the letter itself Peter Venerabilis points out to the prelates that
in their parts the people were re-baptized, churches profaned, altars
thrown down, crosses burnt. Meat was publicly eaten on the very
day of the Lord's Passion, priests were scourged, monks imprisoned
and compelled by terrors and tortures to marry. "The heads, indeed,
of these pests by God's help as well as by the aid of Catholic princes
you have driven out of your territories. But the slippery serpent,
gliding out of your territories, or rather driven out by your
prosecution, has betaken itself to the Province of Narbonne, and
whereas with you it used to whisper in deserts and hamlets in fear, it
now preaches boldly in great meetings and crowded cities. But let
the most distant shores of the swift Rhone and the champaign
adjacent to Toulouse, and the city itself, more populous than its
neighbours, drive out this opinion; for the better informed the city is,
the more cautious it ought to be against false dogma." Peter de
Bruis was burnt by the faithful in revenge for the crosses which he
had burnt.

§ 6. HENRY OF CLUNY
But "the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church," whether
that Church be true or false, and the mantle of Peter de Bruis fell
strangely upon Henry, a fellow monk at Cluny of Peter Venerabilis.
Henry, "haeres nequitiae ejus," with many others "doctrinam
diabolicam non quidem emendavit sed immutavit," and wrote it
down in a volume which Peter himself had seen, and that not under
five heads, but several. "Haeres," however, must be loosely
interpreted with regard to both time and teaching. For Henry had
already been wonderfully successful as a revivalist elsewhere, and
his teaching did not entirely coincide with that of Peter de Bruis. For
instance, whereas the latter burnt the cross, Henry had one carried
before him and his followers when he entered towns and villages,
and made it the emblem and inspiration of a life of self-denial, to
which his own monastic training would predispose him. So far from
calling for the destruction of sacred buildings, he used them, when
he obtained permission—as he did from Bishop Hildebert—for his
mission preaching. He insisted upon the celibacy of the clergy, but
regulated in minute detail the marriage of the laity. In fact, it is not
easy to see how his teaching could be called heretical, unless it were
his opposition to saint-worship, and doubtless he would have been
allowed to move about freely had he not denounced the luxurious
lives of the clergy and exposed them to the contempt and insults of
the people. Arrested in A.D. 1134 he was condemned for heresy at
the Council of Pisa, and imprisoned there; but he was released and
returned to France, where he laboured in and around Toulouse and
Albi, and met with remarkable success, not only amongst the laity,
but even amongst the clergy; so much so, indeed, that the Churches
were emptied of both, in order that priest and people might join the
sect, which, after its leader, was called Henricians. Not until A.D. 1148
was he finally suppressed. Brought before a Council at Rheims he
was sentenced to imprisonment for life, a punishment which goes to
shew that he was not regarded as a heretic, but as a firebrand
whose inflammatory activity must, for the peace of the Church, be
extinguished. Reform of life rather than reform of doctrine was the
aim of Henry's mission.

§ 7. RALPH ARDENS
But although that mission was successful, it did not absorb all the
anti-church movements. The Dualistic creed still obtained in many
parts of Southern France, as Radulf Ardens[33] ("Sermons," p. 325)
declared: "Such to-day, my brethren, are the Manichean heretics, for
they have defiled our fatherland of Agen. They falsely assert that
they keep to the Apostolic life, saying that they do not lie or swear
at all; on the pretence of abstinence and continence they condemn
flesh-food and marriage. They say that it is as great a sin to
approach a wife as it is a mother or daughter. They condemn the Old
Testament, and receive only some parts of the New. But what is
more serious is they preach that there are two authors of Nature
(rerum), God the author of things invisible, and the Devil the author
of things visible. Hence, they secretly worship the Devil, because
they believe him to be the creator of their body. They say that the
Sacrament of the Altar is plain (purum) bread. They deny Baptism.
They preach that no one can be saved except by their hands. They
deny also the resurrection of the body."

§ 8. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX
Bernard of Clairvaux (b. A.D. 1091), however, refuses to connect
the heretics with any human founder, Mani, Peter de Bruis, or Henry.
"These" (heretics), he exclaims,[34] "are sheep in appearance
(habitu), foxes in cunning, wolves in cruelty. They are rustics,
ignorant and utterly despicable, but you must not deal with them
carelessly.... They prohibit marriage, they abstain from food. The
Manicheans had Mani for chief and instructor, the Arians Arius, etc.
By what name or title do you think you can call these? By none, for
their heresy is not of man, and they did not receive it through man.
It is by the deceit of devils.... Still some differ from the rest, and
profess that marriage should be contracted only between bachelors
and virgins (inter solos virgines). They deny that the fire of
purgatory remains after death."

§ 9. COUNCIL OF TOURS
But something more official, more imposing than separate and
isolated denunciations and condemnations of individuals was
demanded by reason of the rapid and extensive growth of these
heresies. Accordingly a Council met at Tours in A.D. 1163, the title of
the fourth Canon of which is: "That all should avoid the company
(consortium) of the Albigensian heretics." Here, for the first time, I
believe, we meet with the name Albigenses as a distinct religious
sect. The heresy is, if the title is authentic, directly and officially
connected with these people, although Toulouse, and not Albi, is
specifically mentioned in the Canon itself. The fourth Canon says: "In
the parts of Toulouse a damnable heresy has lately arisen, and like a
canker is slowly diffusing itself into the neighbouring localities, and
has already infected Gascony[35] and many other provinces. The
Bishops and Priests of the Lord in those parts we enjoin to be on
their guard and under threat of anathema forbid anyone to receive
any known to be followers of that heresy." They were to boycott
them. Catholic princes were to arrest them and confiscate their
goods. Their conventicles were to be carefully sought for, and, when
discovered, forbidden. But it is remarkable that what this "damnable
heresy" consisted of is not defined, and, however damnable, the
penalties are comparatively mild—neither prison nor death.

§ 10. COUNCIL OF LOMBERS

Whether the Tolosan authorities resented being dictated to by a
Council of Tours, or whether they connived at the heresy they were
directed to suppress, we cannot say. But, at any rate, the Canon
proved ineffective, and it was found necessary to call another
Council, and that in the infected area itself. But it was deemed
inadvisable to summon it to meet in any of the large towns, either,
because in the quietness of a small town the business could be
transacted with greater thoroughness (cf. Nicea in preference to
Byzantium) or because the feeling against the Church in the large
centres of population made it unsafe. Accordingly Lombers, a small
town in the Diocese of Albi, was decided upon, and here the most
important Council which had so far met, to deal with this "damnable
heresy," assembled, either in A.D. 1165 or A.D. 1176,[36] but the earlier
date is probably correct. Amongst those who were present were the
Archbishop of Narbonne, the Bishops of Nimes, Agde, Toulouse and
Lodève, eight Abbots, four of whom were of the Diocese of Albi, as
well as Trenveçal, Viscount of Albi, Béziers and Carcassonne. Other
princes were conspicuous by their absence. Binius honours it with
the title of "the Gallican Council against the Albigenses," as if all
Southern France were represented; while the official account says
that its sentence was directed against those who called themselves
"Boni homines."[37] Now, for the first time apparently, an official
inquiry was held. The matter was not left to hearsay, but the
heretics were given an opportunity to speak for themselves. Certain
of their leaders, of whom Olivier was the chief, were cited to appear
before the Council, and the examination was conducted by Gaucelin,
Bishop of Lodève, at the instance of Gerald, Bishop of Albi. (1) They
answered that they rejected the whole of the Old Testament, but
accepted "the Gospels, the Epistles of Paul, the seven canonical
(Catholic?) Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles and the
Apocalypse." (2) They would say nothing about their Creed unless
they were forced. (3) As for the Baptism of little children, and
whether they were saved, they would say nothing, but would quote
from the Gospels and Epistles. (4) Questioned on the Sacrament of
the Body and Blood of the Lord as to where it was consecrated,
through whom they received it, and who received it, and whether
the consecration was affected by the good or evil character of him
who consecrated, they replied that those who received it worthily
were saved, and those who received it unworthily acquired to
themselves damnation, and added that it was consecrated by every
good man, whether clerical or lay. Further than this they would not
answer, maintaining that they ought not to be compelled to answer
concerning their Creed. (5) About Matrimony they answered
evasively, sheltering themselves behind a quotation from St. Paul's
Epistle. (6) With regard to Penance, whether it is efficacious for
salvation at the end of life, whether soldiers, mortally wounded,
would be saved if they repented at the end, whether each one ought
to confess his sins to the priests and ministers of the Church, or to
any layman whatever, or of whom St. James spake: "Confess ye your
sins one to another," they said it sufficed for the weak to confess to
whomsoever they would; and as for soldiers they would say nothing,
because St. James says nothing, but only about the sick. Gaucelin
inquired whether, in their opinion, contrition of heart and oral
confession were alone sufficient, or whether it was necessary that
reparation be made after penance by fasts, scourgings, alms and
lamentation for their sins, if opportunity for such presented itself.
Their reply was that James said only this—that they should confess
and be saved, and they did not wish to be better than the Apostle.
Many things they volunteered, as that we should swear not at all, as
Jesus said in the Gospel and James in his Epistle; that Paul said in
his Epistle what sort of men were to be ordained Bishops and
Presbyters, and if men of other character were ordained, they were
not Bishops and Presbyters, but ravening wolves and hypocrites and
seducers ... wearing white robes and gemmed rings of gold; and
therefore obedience should not be given them, since they were bad
men, not good teachers, but mercenaries. The Council pronounced
them guilty, and drew up a Refutation of their errors taken from the
New Testament only. They retorted that the Bishop who pronounced
the Sentence was himself a heretic, and turning to the people they
said: "We believe"—and here they rehearsed the Articles of the
Apostles' Creed, but omitting "the Holy Catholic Church." "We believe
in confession of heart and mouth. We believe that he who does not
eat the Body of Christ is not saved, and that it is not consecrated
except in the Church, and by a priest, good or evil, and that it is not
better done by a good priest than by an evil. We believe that no one
is saved except by baptism, and that little children are saved by
baptism. We believe that married people are saved." They further
declared that they would believe anything that could be proved from
the Gospels and Epistles, but that they would swear to nothing.

The result, or rather lack of results, of this Council is perplexing.

Either Gaucelin was a poor examiner, or was afraid to press his
examination too far. Had he been a better or a bolder examiner, he
must have quickly discovered that the differentiation between the
Old and the New Testaments was due to strong Dualistic tendencies.
Also, this Council was the most formidable array of the powers that
be which the heretics had had to face. Yet no penalties are imposed,
much less inflicted upon the guilty. The Council contents itself with a
mere Refutation. The most probable explanation is that the people
were not overawed by the move of the Church authorities from
Tours to Lombers, and the latter were not ready for an explosion.
The heretics candidly avowed that their answers were ad captandum
vulgus, "propter dilectionem et gratiam vestri," and the Council did
not venture further than the mild objection: "Vos non dicitis, quod
propter gratiam Domini dicatis."

§ 11. A PREACHING EXPERIMENT

No help was to be expected at this time from the Pope in the
suppression of heresy either in the South of France or the North of
Italy, for he had more than he could manage in his struggle with
Barbarossa and his Anti-pope. The Council had done little more than
advertise its own weakness and the strength of the heretics. The
Church therefore determined upon new methods, meeting preaching
by preaching. Persuasion is better than force, but persuasion is more
effective when coupled with force—or hints of severe penalties for
contumacy. The Kings of France and England sent out the Cistercian
monk, Peter Chrysogonus, Cardinal and Legate, with certain
Archbishops and Bishops "ut praedicatione sua haereticos illos ad
fidem Christianam converterent," Raymond, Count of Toulouse and
Raymond, Count of Castranuovo, and others lending them secular
support. This move proved more successful than the Council, and
many yielded. Sometimes the Commission would summon or invite
the heretics to be more explicit as to their creed, granting them a
safe conduct eundi et redeundi. Under these conditions two
heresiarchs came forward, called Raymond and Bernard, and
produced a certain paper in which they had drawn up the articles of
their faith. But they could scarcely speak a word of Latin, and the
Court "condescended" to hold the discussion in the vulgar tongue.
They answered, "sane et circumspecte, ac si Christiani essent;" so
much so indeed, that they were charged with deliberate lying, and
accused of holding the usual erroneous opinions with which previous
investigations have made us familiar. This they strenuously denied.
They even asserted their belief that "panis et vinum in corpus et
sanguinem Christi vere transubstantiabantur." But to this creed they
would not swear, deeming oaths unlawful. The Court regarded this
avowal as a mere cloke of duplicity and condemned and
excommunicated them. This sentence Peter Chrysogonus justified in
an open letter, and Henry of Clairvaux, who accompanied him, in a
similar letter declared that if they had deferred their visit for three
years scarcely anyone would have remained orthodox.

§ 12. THIRD LATERAN COUNCIL

Alexander III, having composed his differences with Frederick
Barbarossa and the Anti-pope, summoned, in A.D. 1179, the third
Lateran Council. It was described as "A magnificent Diet of the
Christian world." Over one thousand Bishops and Abbots (amongst
them English[38], Irish[39] and Scotch), were present, besides many of
the inferior clergy and representatives of Emperor and Kings. By its
twenty-seventh Canon it condemned the heretics of Gascony, Albi
and the parts about Toulouse, going under several names. If they
died in sin no masses were to be said for their souls, nor were they
to receive Christian burial.[40] One incident, however, at this Council,
which received but scant notice at the time, has an important
bearing upon our subject. This was a deputation of two Waldenses
who begged official recognition of their movement from the Pope.
We are concerned here only with their doctrines, which they
professed to draw entirely from the Bible and the authoritative
utterances of the Saints (auctoritates sanctorum). Had Alexander III
been a Pope of statesmanlike prescience, the Preaching Orders
which eventually saved the Church might have been anticipated by
some thirty years. These Waldenses had no certain dwelling-place,
travelled barefoot, wore woollen clothes only, had no private
property, but "had all things in common," they followed naked the
naked Christ. The Pope, to whom they gave a book containing the
text of the Psalter with notes and several other books of "either
Law," approved of their vow of voluntary poverty, but refused them
permission to preach, unless the clergy (sacerdotes) asked them.
Walter Mapes, an Englishman, afterwards a Franciscan, tells us ("De
Nugis" i. 31) that he met the Waldenses in Rome. He calls them
ignorant and unlearned, and by command of the Pope entered into
conversation with them, asking them at first the easiest questions,
e.g. "Did they believe in God the Father? and in the Son? and in the
Holy Ghost?" To each they answered, "We believe." "And in the
Mother of Christ?" But when they answered again, "We believe,"
they were greeted with a general shout of laughter, and retired in
confusion, "et merito, quia a nullo regebantur et rectores appetebant
fieri, Phaetonis instar, qui nec nomina novit equorum." The Abbot of
Urspegensis, in his Chronicle (A.D. 1212), also mentions this petition
of the Waldenses for Papal recognition, adding that they wore capes,
like the "religious," and had long hair, unless they were "laymen."
Men and women travelled together, which caused considerable
scandal. Yet they asserted all these things came down from the
Apostles.

§ 13. A PAPAL DECREE

Two years later Lucius III, on becoming Pope, issued a decree
against the heretics under various names, including "Cathari, Patarini
et ii qui se Humiliati vel Pauperes de Lugduno falso nomine
mentiuntur." They were banned with a perpetual anathema, and
were to be destroyed by the secular arm; but no errors are specified.

§ 14. ALAN DE INSULIS

At the third Lateran Council was present Alan, Bishop of
Antissiodorensis, otherwise known as Alan de Insulis, Alan the Great,
Alan the Universal Doctor. He was born A.D. 1114 at Lille in Flanders,
although others, e.g. Demster, identify De Insulis with Mona (Man or
Anglesea). As a boy he entered Clairvaux under Bernard, and in A.D.
1151 was made a Bishop. In A.D. 1183, by command, he wrote a
work in four books, dedicated to "his most beloved lord, William, by
the grace of God Count of Montpelier." The title of the work is, "De
Fide Catholica contra haereticos sui temporis praesertim Albigenses."
The Albigenses, however, are not mentioned by name throughout
the work. The second book is entitled, "Contra Waldenses," in which
he says: "The Waldenses are so called from their heresiarch, Waldus,
who, of his own will (suo spiritu ductus), not sent by God, started a
new sect, presuming forsooth to preach without the authority of a
Bishop, without the inspiration of God, without learning. They assert
that no one should be obeyed but God only (which is explained by
what he states later—that it was their opinion that obedience should
be given to good prelates only and to the imitators of the Apostles).
Neither office nor Order avails anything for consecrating or blessing,
for binding or loosing. Where a priest is not available, confession
may be made to a layman. On no account must one take an oath.
On no account must a man be killed." Alan charged them with
holding Docetic views of our Lord, and with declaring that the Virgin
Mary was created in heaven and had no father or mother.

Bernard, the Praemonstratensian, Abbot of Fontcaud, wrote in A.D.

1190 a book "against the sect of the Waldenses," but adds nothing
to our knowledge. Nor does Bonacursus, writing later in the same
year, except some gross and preposterous distortion of their belief
on the monthly motions of the moon, and the statement that they
held that Christ was not equal to the Father.

Ten years later Ermengard wrote a tract,[41] also entitled "Against

the sect of the Waldenses," but they are not named in it, and those
whom he attacks are not the original or genuine Waldenses, for he
charges them with (1) Dualistic opinions; (2) teaching that the law
of Moses was given by the Prince of evil spirits; (3) Docetic views;
(4) stating that in "Hoc est corpus meum," "hoc does not refer to the
bread which He (our Lord) held in His hands and blessed and brake
and distributed to His disciples, but to His Body which was
performing all these things.... And there are some heretics who
believe that by hearing the word of God they eat the flesh of the
Son of Man and drink His blood." He gives an interesting account of
the Consolamentum, but this will be described later.
 § 15. PETER DE VAUX-SARNAI
In the "Historia Albigensium" of the Cistercian Peter de Vaux-
Sarnai we pass from scattered references to a work devoted
specifically to their doctrines and doings. It is dedicated to Innocent
III, the Pope who passed from words to deeds, working out a
definite policy for their absolute extinction. The monk claims to set
down "the simple truth in a simple way," and we may add "for
simple readers," if the following description of Raymond, Count of
Toulouse, is a sample of his claim: "A limb of the devil, a son of
perdition, the first-born of Satan, an enemy of the Cross and
persecutor of the Church, defender of heretics, suppressor of
Catholics, servant of perdition, abjurer of the Faith, full of crime, a
store-house of all sins." Several of his statements about their
doctrines and practices lack confirmation from any other source,
especially some too blasphemous to be repeated here. After the
usual charge of the two Gods, good and evil,[42] he says that they
accepted only those parts of the Old Testament which are quoted in
the New. John the Baptist was one of the greater demons. There
were two Christs—the bad one was born in Bethlehem and crucified
in Jerusalem. The good Christ never assumed real (veram) flesh, and
never was in this world, except spiritually in the body of Paul. The
heretics imagined a new and invisible earth, and there, according to
some, the good Christ was born and crucified. The good God had
two wives, Colla and Coliba, and had sons and daughters. Others
say there is one Creator who had as sons Christ and the Devil. They
say, too, that all the Creators were good, but that all things were
corrupted by the daughters spoken of in the Apocalypse. Almost the
whole of the Roman Church is a den of thieves, and is "illa meretrix"
mentioned in the Apocalypse. On the Sacraments they held views
already ascribed by Eymeric to the Manichees, and mentioned by
others, "instilling into the ears of the simple this blasphemy, that,
had the body of Christ been as large as the Alps, it would long ago
have been consumed by the partakers thereof."[43] "Some, denying
the resurrection of the flesh, said that our souls were those angelic
spirits which, after being thrust out of heaven through the pride of
apostasy, left their glorified bodies in the air, and after a seven-times
succession in certain terrestrial bodies as a sort of penance returned
to their own bodies that had been left." Some are called "perfecti" or
"boni homines," others "credentes." The "perfecti" wear black and
profess (though they lie) chastity. The "credentes" live a secular life
and do not attain to the life of the "perfecti," though one with them
in faith and unfaith (fide et infidelitate). However wickedly they have
lived, yet they believe that if, "in supremo mortis articulo," they say
a Pater noster and receive imposition of hands from their "masters,"
they will be saved; no credent about to die can be saved without this
imposition of hands. They call their masters deacons and bishops. If
any "perfect" sin a mortal sin, e.g. by eating the very smallest
portion of meat, egg or cheese, all who have been "consoled" by
him lose the Holy Spirit and ought to be "consoled" again. The
Waldenses also are evil, but much less so than the other heretics.
"In many things they agree with us: in some disagree." They omit
many of the others' infidelities. They carry sandals, and say that so
long as a man carries these, if need arise, he can without episcopal
ordination make (conficere) the Body of Christ.

§ 16. REINÉRI SACCHO

Peculiar interest attaches to the statements of Reinéri Saccho[44]
because he had once been a Catharist (but not a Waldensian), and
wrote as an Inquisitor (A.D. 1254). He distinguishes between
Catharist and Waldensian, but his remarks refer primarily to the
heretics of Lombardy, although he is careful to point out that their
opinions differ little from Catharists in Provençe and other places. He
charges the Waldensians with thirty-three errors, amongst which
are:

(2) Belief in Traducianism. "The soul of the first man was made
materially from the Holy Spirit, and the rest through it by
traduction."
 (6) Any good man may be a son of God in the same way as Christ
was, having a soul instead of a Godhead.

(8) To adore or worship the body of Christ, or any created thing,

or images or crosses, is idolatry.

(9) Final penance (poenitentia) avails nothing.

(11) The souls of good men enter and leave their bodies without
sin.

(12) The punishment of Purgatory is nothing else than present

trouble.

(14) Prayers for the dead avail nothing.

(15) Tenths and other benefactions should be given to the poor,

not to the priests.

(18) They derided Church music and the Canonical Hours.

(19) Prayers in Latin profit nothing, because they are not

understood.

(23) The Roman Church is not the head of the Church. It is a

Church of malignants.

(31) Any man may divorce his wife and follow them, even if his
wife is unwilling to be divorced, and e converso.

(33) No one can be saved outside their sect.

In addition to these he mentions other of their errors: Infant

Baptism profits nothing—priests in mortal sin cannot consecrate—
transubstantiation takes place in the hand, not of him who
consecrates, but of him who worthily receives: consecration may be
made at an ordinary table (quoting Mal. i. 11)—Mass is nothing,
because the Apostles had it not—no one can be absolved by a bad
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com