Contents

Preface vii

1 Algebra 1

2 Number Theory and Combinatorics 11

a. Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
b. Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Geometry and Trigonometry 23

4 Solutions to Algebra Problems 33

5 Solutions to Number Theory and Combinatorics Problems 169

a. Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
b. Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

6 Solutions to Geometry and Trigonometry Problems 265

Other Books from XYZ Press 399

Preface

The problems in this book were selected from the Romanian Team Selection
Tests from 1975 to 1986. They are presented chronologically within each
chapter.
1975 was the first author’s last year to take team selection tests, as he was
a high school senior. The second author, much younger, took these tests at
the end of the period covered in the book.
We learned a lot of mathematics from the problems encountered in various
Romanian national contests (some of which are included) and this is some-
thing that stayed with us for our entire careers. The problems are old, some
of them more than forty years, but still of use to today’s students, especially
if they are involved in mathematical competitions. We felt that we had to
do a lot more than just present a list of problems accompanied by their so-
lutions. Thus we gave more than one solution when possible, commented on
the solutions in order to make them clearer or to get a connection to other
problems, and even digressed to other relevant results. We trust that all of this
made the exposition more interesting, at least for the beginners in Olympiad
mathematics. Here and there we left unanswered questions related to some of
the problems presented; we hope the reader will accept and even enjoy these
challenges. Of course, nowadays,“all answers are on the internet”, but we feel
the urge to repeat the good old advice: try first to solve the problem on your
own, and only after that seek the answers.
You will definitely see the different proportion between algebra and geom-
etry on one side, and combinatorics and number theory on the other, if one
compares to the problems from present days contests. This was not our choice,
viii Preface

but rather the reality of those times. And you will find that the two authors
of this book kindly invite you to read and learn something from it, so that you
will do well in mathematical contests, and, more importantly, in your future
STEM journeys. Suggestions, comments, and remarks are highly welcomed.
We cannot end without thanking the authors of these problems (and apol-
ogize for not knowing all their names). Many thanks to Richard Stong for
significant improvements of the text.
A booklet containing Romanian Team Selection Test problems from 1975 to
1983 along with sketches of their solutions was distributed at the final round of
the 1984 competition. We used parts of this booklet (and some other materials,
mentioned in the text) in developing the present book, and are grateful to all
of those who contributed to these materials.

Titu Andreescu, Marian Tetiva

January 1, 2020
Chapter 1

Algebra

1. Find the maximum value of

n
X
Sn (a1 , . . . , an ) = ak (1 − ak+1 ),
k=1
1
where a1 , . . . , an are real numbers such that ak ≥ for k = 1, . . . , n,
2
and an+1 = a1 .
2. Consider the sets of real numbers
A = {a1 , a2 , . . .} and B = {b1 , b2 , . . .}
such that a1 = b1 and bn+1 = bn (1−an+1 )+(1−bn )an+1 , for any positive
1 1
integer n. Prove that ∈ A if and only if ∈ B.
2 2
3. Determine all functions f : Q → Q which satisfy the equation
f (x + y) + f (x − y) = 2(f (x) + f (y) + 1) for every x, y ∈ Q.

4. Solve in complex numbers the system of equations

(x1 + x2 + x3 )x4 = (x1 + x2 + x4 )x3 = (x1 + x3 + x4 )x2
= (x2 + x3 + x4 )x1 = a,
where a is a given complex number.
2 Chapter 1

5. Determine the real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 for which

max{x1 , x2 +x3 +x4 } = max{x2 , x1 + x3 + x4 } = max{x3 , x1 + x2 + x4 }

= max{x4 , x1 + x2 + x3 } = 1,

and then formulate and solve the analogous problem for n numbers.

6. If a, b, c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle with perimeter 6 and

A, B, C the measures, in radians, of its angles, then prove that

2π ≤ aA + bB + cC < 3π.

7. Let n be an integer greater than 1 and let a > 1 be an irrational number.

Prove that » »
n p n p
a+ a2 − 1 + a− a2 − 1

is also irrational.

8. Let a, b, c, d be non-negative numbers such that

a ≤ 1, a + b ≤ 5, a + b + c ≤ 14, and a + b + c + d ≤ 30.

Prove that
√ √ √ √
a+ b+ c+ d ≤ 10.

9. Prove that any polynomial function with real coefficients can be written
as the difference of two increasing polynomial (real) functions.

10. Consider a polynomial P with integer coefficients and some distinct in-
tegers a1 , . . . , an . Prove that if there exists a permutation σ of the set
{1, . . . , n} such that P (ak ) = aσ(k) , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, then σ ◦ σ is the
identity.

11. Given that the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are integers and
a > 0 has two distinct zeros in (0, 1), prove that a ≥ 5.
Algebra 3

12. Prove that for any xk ∈ [1, 2], k = 1, . . . , n,

n
! n
!2
X X 1
xk ≤ n3 .
k=1
x
k=1 k

13. Consider three cubic real polynomials P, Q, R such that

P (x) ≤ Q(x) ≤ R(x) for every real x, and

P (a) = Q(a) = R(a) for some real a.

Show that there exists λ ∈ [0, 1] such that

Q = (1 − λ)P + λR.

Prove that the same result does not hold for quartic polynomials.

14. Show that there exists a function f : N∗ → N∗ such that f (f (n)) = n2

for any n ∈ N∗ .

15. Find a second degree polynomial P ∈ R[X] such that

1
P (x) + ≤ 0.01
x−4
for any x ∈ [−1, 1].
Are there first degree polynomials with this property?

16. Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. Compute

Ç å Ç å
n1 nk
max max ··· .
1≤k≤n n1 +···+nk =n 2 2

17. Let n be a positive integer. Find all polynomials P ∈ R[X] such that
1 1
Å ã Å ã
P x+ +P x− = 2P (x)
n n
for all x ∈ R.
4 Chapter 1

18. For a real number x let (x) (this is an ad hoc notation) denote the nearest
integer to x, that is, we have (x) = p if and only if p is the only integer
satisfying
1 1
p− ≤x<p+ .
2 2
For instance, (k) = k for any integer k, (2.3) = 2, and (−2.5) = −2.
Find a polynomial P such that for all n ∈ N∗ ,
2
n Ä√ ä
X
k = P (n).
k=1

19. Let a, b, c and λ be real numbers with a2 + b2 + c2 = 1 and λ > 0, λ 6= 1.

Show that if x, y, z ∈ R and x − λy = a, y − λz = b, z − λx = c then

1
x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ .
(λ − 1)2

20. Let M be the set of all bijections φ : N → N. Show that there is no

bijection F : N → M .

21. Consider the expansion

(n) (n) (n)
(1 + X + X 2 )n = a0 + a1 X + · · · + a2n X 2n .

Show that:
(n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n)
(a) a0 ≤ a1 ≤ · · · ≤ an and an ≥ an+1 ≥ · · · ≥ a2n .
(b) Three of the sums

(n) X (n)
Sj = a4k+j , j = 0, 1, 2, 3
k≥0

are equal, and the fourth differs from them by 1.

(Each sum is over all nonnegative indices k satisfying also 4k + j ≤ 2n.)
Algebra 5

22. Let n ≥ 2 be an integer, and let a be a positive real number. Find

n
X
max (a − a1 ) · · · (a − ak−1 )ak (a − ak+1 ) · · · (a − an ).
0≤a1 ,..., an ≤a
k=1

23. Let p be an odd prime, and let n be an even natural number. Denote
P (X) = X p−1 + X p−2 + · · · + X + 1.
Show that the polynomial
n−1
Y k
−1 + P (X p )
k=0

is divisible by X 2 + 1.
24. (a) Find all functions f : R → R satisfying the identity
f (x) + f (bxc)f ({x}) = x, ∀x ∈ R.
As usual, by bxc and {x} we denote the integer part and the fractional
part of the real number x respectively.
(b) For each function f found in part (a) find all k ∈ R for which the
equation f (x) + mx + k = 0 has a solution for any m ∈ R.
25. Show that any set of 16 consecutive integers can be partitioned into two
sets U and V of 8 elements each such that
X X
uk = vk
u∈U v∈V

for k = 1, 2, 3.
1
26. Consider the polynomial P = αX 3 − X, α ∈ R.
6
(a) Find all α for which n ∈ Z implies P (n) ∈ Z.
(b) Show that for irrational α, and for any 0 ≤ u < v ≤ 1 there exists
n ∈ N for which
u < {P (n)} < v.
6 Chapter 1

27. Let x1 , . . . , xn be nonnegative real numbers. Show that there exist

a1 , . . . , an ∈ {−1, 1} for which
a1 x21 + · · · + an x2n ≥ (a1 x1 + · · · + an xn )2 .

28. Find all triples of real numbers x, y, z from the interval [4, 40] that satisfy
x + y + z = 62, xyz = 2880.

29. Let A be a finite set of real numbers and let f : A → A be a function

for which |f (x) − f (y)| < |x − y| for all distinct x, y ∈ A. Show that f
is not onto and that f has precisely one fixed point.
30. Let f : R → R be a function for which
x9
f (f (x)) =
(x2 + 1)(x6 + x4 + 2x2 + 1)
for all x ∈ R. Show that f has exactly one fixed point.
31. Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle. If the real numbers
x, y, z satisfy ax + by + cz = 0, prove that xy + xz + yz ≤ 0.
32. Prove that among any 19 distinct integers from the set
{1, . . . , 1022} one can find three distinct numbers a, b, c for which
a < b + c < 4a. If 1022 is replaced by n find the smallest possible m to
replace 19, such that the result still holds true.
33. Let A be a non-empty set and let h : A × A → A be a function. Show
that the following statements are equivalent:
(i) There exists a bijection f : A → A such that h(x, y) = f (x) for any
x, y ∈ A or h(x, y) = f (y) for any x, y ∈ A.
(ii) For any two bijections s : A → A, t : A → A the function hs,t : A →
A defined by hs,t (a) = h(s(a), t(a)) is a bijection.
34. Let P be a real polynomial such that P (sin t) = P (cos t) for every real
number t. Prove that there exists a real polynomial T such that
P (X) = T (X 4 − X 2 ).
Algebra 7

n
π
ï ò X
35. If x1 , . . . , xn ∈ R, a ∈ 0, and sin xk ≥ n sin a, then prove that
2 k=1

n
X
sin(xk − a) ≥ 0.
k=1

36. Let p be an odd prime number, let f ∈ Q[X] be an irreducible poly-

nomial of degree p over the field of rational numbers, and let x1 , . . . , xp
be the complex roots of f . Prove that for any non-constant polyno-
mial g with rational coefficients, and of degree less than p, the numbers
g(x1 ), . . . , g(xp ) are pairwise distinct.

37. Let f1 , . . . , fn : R → R be n ≥ 2 functions. Show that there exist

numbers a1 , . . . , an ∈ [0, 1] such that
n
X 1
a1 . . . an − fi (ai ) ≥ .
i=1
2n

38. Find all pairs (p, q) ∈ R × R for which the inequality

√
p 2−1
1− x2 − px − q ≤
2
holds for all x ∈ [0, 1].

39. Find all positive integers n ≥ 2 for which the equation

»
an x2 − 2 a21 + · · · + a2n x + a1 + · · · + an−1 = 0

has real roots now matter how the reals a1 , . . . , an (with an 6= 0) are
chosen.

40. Let f be a real polynomial such that f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R. Show
that there exists a polynomial g such that f g is a polynomial with all
coefficients positive.
8 Chapter 1

41. Let a and b be two integers. Find all the polynomials f from Z[X] for
which
xf (x − b) = (x − a)f (x)

for all x ∈ N.

42. For integer n ≥ 2 let Pn (X) = 2n−1 (X n + 1) − (X + 1)n . Show that

(a) All the roots of Pn (X) have the same absolute value.
(b) For any n ≥ 1 we have

P2n (X) 1
Å ã
= Qn X +
Xn X

where Qn is a polynomial of degree n whose roots are all real and belong
to the interval [−2, 2].

43. Find all pairs of real functions f, g : R → R such that

f (x) − f (y) = (x − y)(g(x) + g(y))

for all x, y ∈ R.

44. Show that there exist no sequences (an )n≥1 of positive integers such that

an−1 ≤ (an+1 − an )2 ≤ an

for all n ≥ 2.

45. Let f : N∗ → N∗ be a surjection and let g : N∗ → N∗ be an injection,

such that f (n) ≥ g(n) holds for all n ∈ N∗ . Prove that f = g.

46. Let a, b, x, y, z be positive real numbers. Show that

x y z 3
+ + ≥ .
ay + bz az + bx ax + by a+b
Algebra 9

47. Let n ≥ 2 be a positive integer. Find all possible values for the positive
integer p ≥ n such that the system
n
X
xkj = n, k = 1, . . . , n − 1, p
j=1

has the unique (and obvious) solution (in Cn ) x1 = · · · = xn = 1.

48. Show that if n is an even positive integer and a0 , a1 , . . . , an are positive

real numbers that form an arithmetic progression with common differ-
ence d ∈ [−2an , a0 ], then

a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn > 0

for all x ∈ R.

49. The sequence (xn )n≥0 satisfies the relations

p
xn+2 + 2 ≤ xn ≤ 2

for all n ∈ N. What are the values that x1986 can assume?

50. Determine all bijective and monotonic functions f : R → R such that

f (x) + f −1 (x) = 2x

for all x ∈ R. (Of course, f −1 denotes the inverse of the function f ).

Chapter 2

Number Theory and

Combinatorics

a. Number Theory
1. Find a polynomial P with integer coefficients, such that P (n) + 4n is
divisible by 27 for any positive integer n.

2. Prove that the equation

(x1 + · · · + xn )2
x21 + · · · + x2n − =1
n
admits solutions in integers if and only if n = 4.
Ç å
n
3. Let n ≥ k be positive integers, and let p be a prime. Prove that if
k
is divisible by ps (for some natural number s), then n ≥ ps .

4. Prove that every infinite arithmetic progression of positive integers con-

tains an infinite geometric progression.

5. Solve in non-negative integers the equation

3x + 4y = 5z .
12 Chapter 2

6. Let p > 2 be a prime number. Show that

√ p−1
pπ
(−1)b pc
Y
sin > 0.
j=2
j

7. If n is an odd positive integer, show that

2 · (3n)!
n!(2n)!
is divisible by 3(3n − 1)(3n − 2).
n
X
8. Let bn be the last digit of the sum k k . Show that bn+100 = bn for any
k=1
n ∈ N.
9. Let n be a positive integer. An n × n matrix Mn is filled with zeros and
ones in the following way: for each 1 ≤ i ≤ n and 1 ≤ j ≤ n, the entry
at the intersection of the ith row with the jth column is 1 if i divides j
and 0 otherwise. For a given positive integer p, find the greatest possible
integer n for which there are in Mn precisely p columns such that the
sum of entries in each of them is odd.
10. Let m be an integer not divisible by 3. Show that there are infinitely
many positive integers N such that both N and N + 1 have the sums of
digits divisible by m.
11. Consider all numbers k ∈ Z such that
1981 | 7n + k · 290n
for all positive integers n. Find the least possible value of |k| for the
numbers k with this property.
12. For each positive integer x let f (x) be the largest positive integer k for
which there exist k integers 1 ≤ a1 < · · · < ak ≤ x such that ai + aj does
not divide ai aj whenever 1 ≤ i < j ≤ k. Show that
f (2n ) ≥ 2n−1 + n.
Number Theory and Combinatorics 13

13. For an integer m = m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m6 m7 (0 ≤ mi ≤ 9, m1 6= 0), define

m
f (m) = .
m1 m2 m3 + m4 m5 m6 + m7
Find the least possible value of f (m) for m running over all 7-digits
natural numbers. (All numbers are written in base 10. We denote by
ab . . . l the number with digits a, b, . . . , l.)
14. Let p be a prime number, and let n, a be two positive integers.
(a) If a = a0 + a1 p + a2 p2 + · · · , n = n0 + n1 p + n2 pÇ2 +å· · · are the
n
expansions of a and n respectively in base p, show that is divisible
a
by p if and only if ni < ai for at least one i ∈ N.
b) If t ∈ N and pt ≤ a < pt+1 then show that
n + pt+1
Ç å Ç å
n
≡ (mod p) for any n ∈ N.
a a

15. Let us denote by P (n) the following statement: There exist numbers of
n digits in decimal expansion with the sum of digits equal to the product
of digits. Show that P (n) is true for infinitely many n ∈ N∗ , and false
for infinitely many n ∈ N∗ .
16. Let p be an odd prime, let m1 , . . . , mp be p consecutive integers, and let
σ be a permutation of {1, . . . , p}. Show that there exist k, l ∈ {1, . . . , p},
k 6= l, such that
mk mσ(k) ≡ ml mσ(l) (mod p).

17. Find all triples (x, y, z) of non-negative integers that satisfy

3x · 2y + 1 = z 2 .

18. For a positive integer n ≥ 2 let h(n) denote the largest prime divisor of
n. (For instance, h(7) = h(21) = 7, or h(32) = 2.) Show that there are
infinitely many n for which we have
h(n) < h(n + 1) < h(n + 2).
14 Chapter 2

19. Find all triples (x, y, z) of non-negative integers satisfying the relation

(x + y)2 + 3x + y + 1 = z 2 .

20. (a) Find all primes p, q and non-negative integers k that satisfy the
equation
p2 − q 2 = 2k .

(b) If n ≥ 3 is an integer, and k is a non-negative integer, show that no

primes p, q satisfy the equation

pn − q n = 2k .

21. Let m, n be positive integers. Consider the set A of all m-tuples

(k1 , . . . , km ) of non-negative integers such that
n!
k1 + · · · + km = n and is odd.
k1 ! · · · km !
Show that the cardinality of A is a power of m.

22. Find all non-negative integer solutions to the equation

x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x − 3xyz = 1.

23. Let k be a natural number. The sequence (xn )n≥0 is defined by

x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn+2 = kxn+1 + xn for each n ≥ 0.

Show that among the numbers x1 , . . . , x1986 there are two whose product
is divisible by 19 · 86.

24. Let the positive integers s, p, q be such that q divides s, p divides s − 1,

q > p, and s ≤ pq. Show that
q(p − 1)
s ≤ pq − .
q−p
For given p, provide an example of s, q for which the equality is achieved.
Number Theory and Combinatorics 15

25. Find all pairs (a, b) of integers for which the equation

(ax − by)2 + (bx − ay)2 = xy

has a solution in non-zero integers.