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On the Assessment of Wind Microclimate in a Complex Urban Environment

Utilising Computational Fluid Dynamics

Article in WSEAS TRANSACTIONS ON FLUID MECHANICS · October 2024

DOI: 10.37394/232013.2024.19.26

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 WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on FLUID MECHANICS
DOI: 10.37394/232013.2024.19.26 Neihad Hussen Al-Khalidy

On the Assessment of Wind Microclimate in a Complex Urban

Environment Utilising Computational Fluid Dynamics

NEIHAD HUSSEN AL-KHALIDY

CFD, Wind, and Energy,
SLR Consulting,
Tenancy 202 Submarine School, Sub Base Platypus,
120 High Street, North Sydney 2060,
AUSTRALIA

Abstract: - This paper presents an insight and key considerations for using Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
to simulate the Wind Microclimate in a Complex Urban Environment. The current study involved developing a
local 10m height “reference” wind rose for the project site and then combining statistical meteorological data
with aerodynamic information and wind comfort and wind safety criteria. Where wind speeds were found to be
at undesirable wind levels at areas of interest (ground level, podium level, terraces, balconies, etc.),
recommendations were made to reduce detrimental wind effects, e.g. using landscaping, porous windbreaks,
canopies, etc. The criteria used in the evaluation of pedestrian-level winds surrounding the proposed
development were based on the well-established “Lawson” criteria which couple the probability of exceeding
winds at given statistical levels with wind speed magnitudes originally related to the Beaufort Land Scale. To
take into account the influence of the immediate surrounding environment, all neighboring buildings and local
topography within a diameter of almost 1,000 m around the site were included in the developed CFD model.
Furthermore, all small canopies, balconies, and semi-open spaces were modeled in detail as per the provided
architectural drawings. Based on a mesh sensitivity assessment, polyhedral elements were used for the entire
computational domain. CFD analysis offers a comprehensive range of output including the velocity
distribution in three directions and turbulence levels, allowing the identification of hot spot areas that have
potentially unacceptable wind conditions for further assessment and mitigation treatments to reduce wind speed
to acceptable levels. The baseline (no mitigation) scenario simulation results contributed to a better
understanding of the environmental wind impact for the project at the site, enabling a targeted approach to the
development of effective windbreak options This paper provides a comprehensive approach toward the
establishment of a robust CFD assessment of human comfort to ensure that proposed building developments
and their streetscapes create a comfortable wind environment to live and visit.

Key-Words: - Pedestrian Wind Comfort, Balcony Wind Comfort, Wind Mitigation Treatment, CFD, Complex
Urban Environment, Lawson Criteria.

Received: January 14, 2024. Revised: July 13, 2024. Accepted: August 11, 2024. Published: October 1, 2024.

1 Introduction Wind impact assessments are routinely carried

The construction of a new building inevitably out using wind tunnel testing or Computational
changes the microclimate in its vicinity. Medium Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
and high-rise buildings can create wind conditions In the Netherlands, a standard for the
that cause discomfort for pedestrians at ground level assessment of wind comfort and wind danger was
making public and private outdoor spaces published in 2006, [1]. The City of London has
potentially unusable. This includes footpaths, provided a guideline for wind microclimate studies
entrances, communal open spaces, terraces, required as part of the planning applications of new
balconies, and public-access rooftops. development proposals. The guideline provides the
Environmental wind impact studies are specification of quality assurance requirements, both
therefore mandated by urban authorities to ensure for CFD and for wind-tunnel testing, [2].
that publicly or privately accessible outdoor space Several best practice guidelines have been
within a new development or on surrounding streets established for wind engineering applications
will not have uncomfortable or potentially unsafe including the assessment of pedestrian-level wind
wind impacts. environments, [3], [4], [5].

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A review of wind tunnel and CFD techniques to 2 Problem Formulation

determine pedestrian ground-level wind was The CFD model solves the continuity and
presented in [6]. This study concluded that the use momentum, equations. The equations for a steady-
of low-cost wind tunnel techniques (e.g. Irwin state case can be written as follows:
sensors or sand erosion) and steady-state Reynolds-
Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations not 
necessarily compromise the accuracy of pedestrian- (  ui )  0
level wind comfort assessments due to their ability xi
to provide accurate results (∼10%) at high
amplification factors (>1), even though their  p  ij
accuracy can deteriorate at lower amplification (  ui u j )    )   g i  Fi
x j xi x j
factors (<1). Amplification factors are defined as the
ratio of local mean wind speed to mean wind speed
at the same position without the building present. In the above, ρ is the density, u is the velocity, p
Higher amplification factors provide the largest is the static pressure, ρg, and F are the gravitational
contribution to the discomfort exceedance body and external body forces, ij is the stress tensor.
probability of the comfort criterion. Turbulence is predicted using one of the
CFD predictions of wind flow around bluff following methods:
bodies have been compared and validated against  Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
wind tunnel and full-scale measurements in the open o Currently, DNS is available for low
literature, [7], [8], [9]. Reynolds Number (Re) flows and is usually
Through advances in processing power and performed on simple geometries.
numerical turbulence models, CFD analysis can be  Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
considered a promising numerical tool to help urban o LES is recommended for certain classes of
designers and environmental planners evaluate high Re flows with massive flow separation.
strategies of urban planning [10] and the design of Computationally, LES is still prohibitively
better buildings, [11]. expensive when used for solving external
This paper presents insights and key high Re numbers flows in a complex built
considerations for using Computation Fluid environment, even with recently available
Dynamics (CFD) to simulate the Wind computational power [11].
Microclimate (pedestrian-level wind and balcony  Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
wind conditions) in a Complex Urban Environment. Equations
o For most real-world building problems
1.1 Objectives of the Current Study turbulence is, in principle, described by the
In contributing to existing literature, the current Navier-Stokes equations [12], [13].
study The RANS turbulence modeling is adopted in
 Develop a 3D CFD model for a complex built the current study to estimate wind velocity in terms
environment including topography and detailed of three directions, pressure profile, and turbulence
design features (canopies, façade articulation, parameters.
vertical screens, etc.).
 Develop localized weather data for the project
site and relate the CFD output to the local wind 3 Methodology
climate probability distribution to yield the Studies of wind comfort and wind safety involve
frequency of occurrence of different wind combining statistical meteorological data with
events – ie scouring events - at appropriate aerodynamic information and wind comfort and
probability levels, eg once per month, once per wind safety criteria. In this study, the criteria used in
year, etc. the evaluation of pedestrian-level winds surrounding
 Provide an integrated approach toward the the proposed development were based on the well-
establishment of a robust CFD assessment of established “Lawson” criteria [14], [15] which
human comfort in public and private open couple the probability of exceeding winds at given
spaces. statistical levels with wind speed magnitudes
originally related to the Beaufort Land Scale, [16].
The proposed methodology for the quantitative
wind modeling impact assessment is outlined below:

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Step 1: Develop a localized weather database for 4.1 London Wind Climate
the site: The data of interest in this London-based study are
 Surface wind data should be obtained from the the annual return period mean hourly wind speeds
nearest weather station which has a generally and largest gusts experienced throughout the year,
open exposure in all directions and hence is how these vary with azimuth, and the seasonal
representative of all such areas in the region; break-up of winds into the primary wind seasons.
and  The Greater London Region experiences wind
 A local 10m height “reference” wind rose is conditions typical of southeast England in
then developed for the project site, by applying general. It is affected by both Atlantic
surface corrections to the representative regional depressions and continental weather patterns,
wind data to take into account local terrain the latter occurring mainly in spring.
exposure factors by wind direction.  When Atlantic depressions pass by the UK, the
Step 2: Construct a discrete model for the site: wind appears initially to come from the
 An accurate 3D model for the proposed southwest quadrant and then the west to
development is then created directly from northwest as they move away. By the time
computer CAD files. northwest winds are occurring, such depressions
 CFD simulations are then carried out within a have typically weakened.
domain that includes the buildings, terrain, and  Moreover, northwest winds must also pass over
topography surrounding the project site. more land and hence experience greater surface
Step 3: Predict wind speeds at areas of interest: friction (and hence wind speed reduction).
 The CFD model is used to predict the local wind  As a result, the southwest quadrant winds
conditions at all areas of interest, identifying accompanying low-pressure weather systems
locations of potential exceedance of the are generally stronger than the associated
nominated wind criteria. northwest quadrant winds. Atlantic depressions
 The CFD simulations should cover all are also often accompanied by clouds and rain.
prevailing wind directions at the site.  Continental weather patterns can produce cold
 The assessment should consider seasonal spells in winter as well as hot, humid weather in
variations in wind conditions (if relevant to the summer. High-pressure systems that strengthen
year-round usage of a specific area) and the type over Scandinavia produce a secondary,
of pedestrian activity (sitting, standing, and occasionally strong, prevailing wind in the
walking). Greater London area from the northeast.
Step 4: Determine wind probability incidence  Finally, coastal areas in southern England
 The CFD results are then combined with the experience onshore sea breezes from late spring
statistics developed from the local wind rose to through summer, which can reach London,
develop assessment predictions in terms of originating from easterly quadrants.
comfort and safety using the Lawson Criteria. Figure 1 shows annual wind roses at the nearest
Step 5: Provide and test mitigations to satisfy the meteorological station (RAF Northolt) to the project
criteria site.
 Where wind speeds are found to be at
undesirable wind levels, recommendations
should then be made to reduce adverse wind
impacts, e.g. using landscaping, porous
windbreaks, canopies, etc.
The proposed methodology will ensure that
the assessed site including streetscapes and the
proposed development will create a comfortable
wind environment to live, work, and visit.

4 Case Study
The topic of the case study is pedestrian and
balcony wind comfort and safety for a proposed
development in London. Fig. 1: RAF Northolt Meteorological Station Wind
Rose

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4.1.1 Wind Speed and Direction Statistical In the CFD Analysis, the local Project Site wind
Model at the Project Site speed is used to normalize all predicted local wind
The wind speed and direction probability speeds. As noted in Section 3, this is measured at a
distribution developed for the Project Site was height of 10 m above ground level.
determined as follows: Mean winds with a once-per-year exceedance
Step 1: Selection of Representative Regional probability are shown in Figure 4 based on the
Weather Station Site adopted local Project Site wind model.
 Surface Wind Data was obtained from the Stronger winds occurring on a once-per-year
nearby RAF Northolt weather station. basis occur from the south to the west with a
 RAF Northolt has a generally open exposure in maximum from the west.
the immediate surrounds of the airport’s
anemometer and typical “semi-rural” or
“suburban” type terrain further afield (houses,
trees, woodlands, etc). It is, therefore, broadly
representative of all such areas in the region and
relevant to the proposed project site.
Step 2: “Reference” Regional” Wind Climate
Model
 A local 10 m height, “Reference Regional” wind
climate model was then developed by applying
surface corrections to RAF Northolt weather
data, using the locally assessed values for
terrain category by wind direction.
Step 3: Local Project Site Wind Climate Model
 The final step was to adjust the Reference
Fig. 4: Reference Height (10 m) Annual Recurrence
Regional wind climate model to the Project Site
Mean Wind Speed at Project Site
by applying surface correction factors reflective
of the site’s upstream terrain variations.
The Project Site local wind distribution derived 4.2 Criteria for Comfort and Safety
as indicated above is shown in Figure 2 and Figure The criteria used in the evaluation of pedestrian-
3. level winds surrounding the proposed development
0
are based on the so-called Lawson criteria which
Annual
330
20%
30
Cumulative couple the probability of exceeding winds at given
15% statistical levels with wind speed magnitudes and
300 10% 60
Series6
associated impacts originally related to the Beaufort
Series7 Wind Speed Land Scale, [16], refer to Table 1.
5%
Series8 The Lawson criteria used in this study make use
270 0% 90
Series1 of the same wind speed ranges to address issues of
Series2 interest in terms of both pedestrian comfort and
Series3
240 120 safety.
Series4
Series5
These criteria, or rather guidelines, have been
210 150 previously adopted by the London Docklands
180 Development Commission (LDDC) and used for
Fig. 2: Project Site Annual Cumulative Frequency example on numerous building developments,
eg within the Canary Wharf precinct. Indeed, they
20%
have been widely used for many years for ground-
Annual Probability of Occurrence
level wind assessments surrounding high-rise
14-16 m/s
15% 12-14 m/s building developments right across the United
10-12 m/s
10% 8-10 m/s Kingdom.
6-8 m/s
4-6 m/s
5% 2-4 m/s
0-2 m/s

0%
0 90
Wind Direction ( 0 deg = North180
, 90 deg = East , etc270
) 360

Fig. 3: Project Site Annual Probability of

Occurrence

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Table 1. Beaufort Wind Speed – Land Scale Table 2. Lawson Wind Acceptability Criteria –
Beaufort Hourly Description Noticeable Wind Comfort Guidelines
Force Average of Wind Effect Comfort Beaufort “GEM” Description (see
Wind Level Equivalent Wind Speed also Notes)
Speed 5% Annual
(m/s) Exceedance
0 < 0.45 Calm Smoke rises C5 1 2.5 m/sec Dining
vertically
C4 2 4 m/sec Sitting
1 0.45 to Light air Direction shown
1.55 by smoke drift C3 3 6 m/sec Standing
2 1.55 to Light breeze Wind felt on face; C2 4 8 m/sec Leisure Walking
3.35 leaves rustle; (Strolling)
wind vanes begin
C1 5 10 m/sec Business Purpose
to move
Walking
3 3.35 to Gentle breeze Leaves, small
CX 5  10 m/sec Exceeds Comfort
5.0 twigs in constant
Criteria
motion; Light
flags extended - C4 is suitable for promenades, popular recreation areas with
seating, reading newspapers, etc
4 5.6 to Moderate Raises dust and
-C3 is suitable for locations where pedestrians will likely be
8.25 breeze loose paper; small
waiting for relatively short periods, eg at building entrances,
branches move
pedestrian crossings, bus stops, etc
5 8.25 to Fresh breeze Small trees, in -C2 is suitable for activities such as window shopping
10.95 leaf, sway -C1 is suitable for footpaths used for purposeful pedestrian
6 10.95 to Strong breeze Large branches traffic only (eg not where shops might induce slower activities
14.10 begin to move; like window-shopping)
telephone wires -CX suggests winds whose force can be felt by the body
whistle (branches on trees would be visibly swaying) and where
Umbrellas used walking will start to become inconvenient or challenging for
with difficulty certain classes of pedestrians, eg the frail, pedestrians holding
parcels, parents holding children, etc.
7 14.1 to Moderate Gale Whole trees in
17.2 motion
Inconvenience felt 2) “Safety” criteria cover instances when
when walking pedestrians might encounter difficulty in
against the wind.
walking. They are defined by the incidence of
8 17.2 to Gale Twigs break off “GEM” wind speeds occurring once or twice
20.8 trees; personal
progress impeded
per year (probability exceedance level of
0.02%), ie during the most intense windstorm of
9 20.8 to Strong/Severe Slight structural
24.35 Gale damage (chimney the year, refer to Table 3.
pots, slates
removed) Table 3. Lawson Wind Acceptability Criteria –
10 24.35 to Storm Trees uprooted; Safety Guidelines
28.4 considerable Safety Beaufort “GEM” Description
structural damage Level Equivalent Wind Speed (see also Notes)
11 28.4 to Violent Storm Widespread 0.2% Annual
32.4 damage – unusual Exceedance
event (in the UK) S2 6 15 m/sec Non-Sensitive Usage
12 > 32.4 Hurricane Devastation – S1 7 20 m/sec All-Weather /
only occurs in the Sensitive Usage
tropics
SX 7  20 m/sec Exceeds Safety
Criteria
There are two distinct sets of wind criteria: -S2 should be used to assess areas in constant usage, eg building
1) “Comfort” criteria relate a range of typical entry points.
pedestrian activities such as purpose-walking, -S1 may be suitable for less frequently trafficked areas or areas
strolling, sitting, etc., to the local “Gust that can be closed off in high wind conditions.
-SX suggests conditions where winds pose an actual hazard to
Equivalent Mean (GEM)” wind speed pedestrians regardless of the activity.
exceeding 5% of the time, on an annual return
period basis, refer to Table 2.

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In Table 2 and Table 3, the GEM wind speed is Table 4. Significance Criteria Related to Lawson
taken as the maximum of the mean speed, and the Acceptability Criteria
gust speed is divided by 1.85. Impact Expected Wind Microclimate
In many urban locations, either because of
exposure to open upstream conditions or because of Beneficial – Wind Conditions are 3-levels calmer than
street “canyon” effects, etc, the target Comfort and Major those desired.
Safety criteria may already be currently exceeded. Beneficial – Wind Conditions are 2-levels calmer than
In such instances, a new development should ideally Moderate those desired.
not exacerbate existing adverse wind conditions Beneficial – Wind Conditions are 1-level calmer than those
and, wherever feasible and reasonable, ameliorate Minor desired.
such conditions. Negligible Wind Conditions are similar to those desired.
Some latitude can be applied to the Comfort Unfavorable Wind Conditions are 1-level windier than
Criteria in particular, as the recommended limiting – Minor those desired.
values were generally derived from subjective Unfavorable Wind Conditions are 2-level windier than
assessments of wind acceptability. Such – Moderate those desired.
assessments have been found to vary considerably Unfavorable Wind Conditions are 3-level windier than
with the height, strength, age, etc, of the pedestrian – Major those desired or
concerned. Wind Conditions are in the Lawson “CX” or
“SX” category.

4.3 Significance Criteria

The significance criteria used in the assessment of 4.4 Modeling Configuration
wind effects at measurement locations surrounding To take into account the influence of the immediate
the site are based on comparing the predicted surrounding environment, all neighboring buildings
conditions at any particular location with the target and local topography within a diameter of almost
usage at the same location (eg sitting, strolling, 1,000 m around the site were included in the
leisure walking, etc.) as defined by the Lawson developed CFD model. The model details are shown
Comfort Criteria. in Figure 5.
 The proposed development is deemed to have a
“Beneficial” impact at a particular location if
wind conditions are calmer than the levels
associated with the target usage at that location.
 The proposed development is deemed to have
an “Unfavorable” impact at a particular location
if wind conditions are higher than the levels
associated with the target usage at that location.
 When wind conditions at a particular location,
with the addition of the proposed development,
are close to the levels associated with the target
usage at that location, the impact is termed
“Negligible”
The chosen significance criteria are shown in Proposed Development
Table 4.
All “Unfavourable” impacts (whether minor,
moderate, or major) are considered to be
“significant”, requiring mitigation for local
conditions to become suitable for the intended use
of the area.
Fig. 5: 3D Model of the Proposed Development and
Surrounds for CFD Model

4.4.1 Boundary Conditions

4.4.1.1 Wind Conditions

The wind speed probability distribution developed
for the site was determined as follows:

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 A local 10 m height “Reference” wind rose was  A second-order numerical scheme was used for
developed based on a local climate model for the discretization of pressure and momentum to
the project site. obtain more accurate results.
 Modeling was undertaken for twelve compass  An iterative procedure was used to estimate the
wind directions and public locations and air velocity in terms of three directions, pressure
communal roof terraces then checked for any profile, and turbulence parameters.
exacerbation of the current wind conditions
caused by the proposed development. 4.5 Area of Interest for CFD Modeling
 At the upwind free boundary inlet, velocity With the CFD simulation, wind flow can be post-
profiles were derived from Met Bureau data and processed at any level. Representative public areas
the UK EN 1991-1-4:2005+A12010 wind code. of interest, private terraces, and balconies are shown
 At the downwind and upper free boundaries in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8.
“constant pressure” boundary conditions were
applied.

4.4.1.2 Other Boundary Conditions

The following additional boundary conditions were
used:
 Turbulence quantities (kinetic energy and
dissipation rate) were calculated from empirical
relationships.
 A wall function data group was used to avoid
using a very fine mesh near the wall and
improve turbulent flow simulation.
Fig. 6: Areas of Interest for a Selected Building –
4.4.2 Discretisation Ground Level
The software package utilized in the current CFD
analysis is the commercially available code
ANSYS-FLUENT, [17]. The CFD model solves
continuity and momentum equations in the
computational domain to predict the steady-state
airflow inside and around the proposed
development.
 A total number of 29,751,590 mixed elements
was initially used to cover the computational
Fig. 7: Area of Interest for a Selected Building –
domain. Based on a mesh sensitivity
Podium Level
assessment, the mesh was then converted to
polyhedral elements within ANSYS software.
Polyhedral cells are especially beneficial for
handling recirculating flows and are used to
provide more accurate results than even
hexahedra mesh. For a hexahedral cell, there are
three optimal flow directions which lead to the
maximum accuracy while for a polyhedron with
12 faces, there are six optimal directions which,
together with the larger number of neighbors
lead to a more accurate solution with a lower
cell count, [11]. Fig. 8: Areas of Interest for a Selected Building –
 A Realizable k-epsilon (rke) turbulence model Upper-Level Terraces and Balconies
was used [18] for all analyzed cases due to its
ability to capture high gradient, airflow 4.6 CFD Results and Discussions
recirculation, and computational time
advantage. 4.6.1 Modeled Wind Directions
Twelve wind directions were modeled as part of the
study, namely:

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0 North Winds 180 South Winds conclusions can be reached from Figure 9.
 The CFD model captures the fluid flow
30 210
Northeast Winds Southwest Winds characteristics in significant detail. Wind
60 240 approaches the site from the west at 270o as per
90 East Winds 270 West Winds the given boundary condition. Wind is then
accelerated near the edges and stagnated and
120 300
Southeast Winds Northwest Winds recirculated behind the buildings.
150 330  There is a modest ground-level shielding from
the upstream buildings to the west.
4.6.2 Sample Results and Discussion  The maximum velocity ratio on the ground level
Figure 9 shows the wind speed ratios (Vlocal/V10m for this direction is 1.17.
reference) on a colour-coded scale between 0 and 1.30.
Dark blue represents still conditions at 0 m/s and red
represents the highest wind speed. The following

Fig. 9: Mean Velocities Ratios Coloured by Velocity Vector at 1.5 m above the Ground level

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Fig. 10: Mean Velocities Ratios Coloured by Velocity Vector at 1.5 m above the Podium Level

Fig. 11: Mean Velocities Ratios Coloured by Velocity Vector at the Balconies

Fig. 12: Mean Velocities Ratios Coloured by Velocity Vector (2D vertical Section)

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Table 5. Wind Speeds Ratios at the Region of Interest at Selected Locations – Future Scenario with
Proposed Building

Figure 10 and Figure 11 indicate the following: 4.6.4 Wind Assessment Results
 The development itself provides significant The CFD results (refer to Section 4.6.1 and Section
shielding to the podium area for westerly winds. 4.6.2) were then combined with the wind probability
 Corner balconies experience modest wind speed information from the local wind rose (refer to
acceleration from this direction. Section 4.1.1) to develop assessment predictions in
The downwash impact of the building is shown terms of Comfort and Safety using the Lawson
in Figure 12. One can see that the downwash effect Criteria (refer to Section 4.2).
commences at around the two-thirds height level of The results have been computed on a
the building and wind is deflected down toward the probabilistic basis, enabling the calculation of wind
ground. events that will occur at the probability levels
relevant to the Lawson Criteria, ie 5% and 0.02%
4.6.3 Wind Assessment Summary exceedance levels on an annual basis, using the
Once the CFD results were analyzed for all wind local site statistical wind data.
directions, a summary of the local wind speeds,
expressed as a ratio of the local ground level speed 4.6.4.1 Lawson Safety Criteria Levels
to the 10 m height reference wind speed, at each of Without any mitigation (eg landscaping) added to
the chosen representative locations, was prepared. the development. The following conclusions can be
Refer to Table 5. reached from an analysis of the CFD results:

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 No area will experience winds which may pose

an actual hazard to pedestrians regardless of the Table 6. Assessment of Impacts of the Proposed
activity. Development for Selected Locations
 There are two ground-level locations (Location Location Predicted Target Impact
6 and Location 19) predicted to experience wind Comfort Comfort
speeds above the Lawson Safety Sa-2 criterion, Level Level
refer to Figure 13. Wind mitigation is presented Beneficial –
1 C4
Moderate
in Section 5.0. Ground
Beneficial –
 Lawson Safety Levels at all other locations 2 C4 Footpath
Moderate
remain at the “Sa2” level (suitable for all- Ideal
Beneficial –
weather use). 3 C4 Target
Moderate
“C2”
Beneficial –
4 C4 Leisure
Moderate
Walking
Beneficial –
5 C3
Minor
29 C4 Podium, Negligible
30 C4 Balconies Negligible
72 C4 and Negligible
Terraces:
Ideal
target
“C4” Unbeneficial
73 C3
Sitting or – Minor
Fig. 13: Lawson Safety Criterion – Ground Floor “C5”
Dining
4.6.4.2 Lawson Comfort Criteria Levels
The Comfort Criteria assessment at selected
locations is shown in Table 6. Note that these results 5 Wind Mitigation
are without any ground or podium-level mitigation
(eg landscaping) added to the
5.1 Strategy to Mitigate Adverse Wind
Development. The following conclusions can be Conditions
reached from the analysis: Strategies for ameliorating adverse wind conditions
Ground Level at the early and concept design stage should
 All areas are suitable for footpaths used for consider the following key parameters:
purposeful pedestrian traffic.  Building orientation relative to prevailing wind
 The conditions at all locations range from C3 to directions.
C4, mainly due to the various low-level  The proximity and shielding afforded by the
shielding elements. adjacent buildings.
 Building height relative to adjacent buildings.
Podium Level  Downwash winds deflected by the building
 Some locations will experience a modest towards ground level, which can significantly
increase in wind speed, equivalent to one increase wind speed on the ground.
Lawson Comfort criterion level when compared  Descending air flows accelerating around
to the target level criteria. windward corners.
 All other areas are suitable for sitting.  Airflow through passageways, where the
windward and leeward sides of the building are
Balconies and Terraces connected via lower-level openings or naturally
 Some locations were shown to have the ventilated corridors.
potential to experience increased wind speeds  Potential for wind speed-up due to venturi effect
for selected wind angles above the “standing” and airflow through narrow gaps.
comfort criteria or above the sitting criterion.  Potential for wind amplification in exposed
For example, the condition at location 73 is C3. corner balconies.
 Other locations are suitable for standing and
sitting.

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The following general strategies are  Only 3 balconies were predicted to have
recommended for mitigating adverse wind effects: conditions in exceedance of the standing
 Consider building setbacks to assist with comfort conditions. For this assessment the
breaking up the wind flow and redirecting it balconies were modeled as open (i.e. no
before it reaches the ground level. screening), representing a worst-case scenario.
 Podium levels are recommended for taller  Following the initial assessment, a workshop
buildings to assist with deflecting downward was held with the design team to discuss
wind before reaching the ground level. potential mitigation options. Following the
 Provide canopies over the main building workshop, it was determined that an
entrances. impermeable balustrade up to a height of 1.1m
 Place landscaping around the building to with a maximum of 20% free area would be
minimize downdrafts from impacting incorporated in the design to mitigate wind
pedestrians. conditions to an acceptable comfort level for
 Place landscaping elements or architectural standing. Refer to Figure 15.
features near building corners to prevent
pedestrian access and reduce winds and improve
the wind environment for areas downstream of
the corner.
 Place landscaping around the podium, rooftop
terraces, and communal open spaces.
 Consider adding a canopy/awning or pergola
over any designated seating areas impacted by
downwash winds.
 Incorporate vertical windbreaks such as
balustrades or a combination of plantings and
screens or other practical wind shielding around Fig. 14: Wind Mitigation – Ground & Podium Level
the perimeter of exposed communal open space
and/or roof gardens. These would ideally be at
least 1.8m in height.
 Consider winter gardens or single-aspect
balconies for exposed corner areas at higher
building height where possible.

5.2 Site-specific Wind Mitigation

In light of the CFD simulation results, the wind
modeling study led to the incorporation of the
following wind mitigation treatments.

Ground Level
 Retention of the already planned ground-level
landscaping; additional planting near the NW
and SW corners (refer to Figure 14). Fig.15: Example of Wind Mitigation – Selected
Balcony
Podium Level
 Location of seating is positioned closer to
windbreaks, e.g. adjacent to and underneath 6 Significance of the Proposed
canopies of planting. Development Wind Impact
Following the adoption of the proposed mitigation
Balconies and Terraces options, the updated (“with mitigation”) CFD model
 CFD results at balconies were analyzed on both predicted Lawson Comfort and Safety levels were
an annual and seasonal return period basis. again compared to the target levels for the areas of
 The acceptable comfort conditions for balconies interest in Table 6.
are considered to be that of Lawson “seating” The results at all locations were “Beneficial –
(C4) or “standing” (C3) during summer months. Minor”.

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7 Conclusion ts/Services-Environment/wind-microclimate-
This paper presents insights and key considerations guidelines.pdf, 2019.
for using Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to [3] Franke, J., Hirsch, C., Jensen, A., Krüs. H.,
simulate the Wind Microclimate in a Complex Schatzmann, M., Westbury, P., Miles, S.,
Urban Environment. Wisse, J. Wright, N., Recommendations on
The current study involved developing a local the use of CFD in Wind Engineering,
10m height, site-specific wind rose and then International Conference on Urban Wind
combining the statistical meteorological data with Engineering and Building Aerodynamics (Ed.
aerodynamic information and wind comfort and van Beeck JPAJ), 2004.
wind safety criteria. Where wind speeds were found [4] Frank, J., Hellsten, A., Schlunzen, H., and
to be at undesirable wind levels at areas of interest Carissimo, B., Best Practice Guideline for the
(ground level, podium level, terraces, balconies, CFD Simulation of Flows in the Urban
etc), recommendations were made to reduce Environment, Cost Action 732, 2007.
detrimental wind effects, e.g. using landscaping, [5] Blocken, B.,Janssen, T. ,van Hoof, T., CFD
porous windbreaks, canopies, etc. simulation for Pedestrian Wind Comfort and
The criteria used in the evaluation of pedestrian- Wind Safety in Urban Areas - General
level winds surrounding the proposed development Decision Framework and Case Study for the
are the well-established Lawson criteria which Eindhoven University Campus, Environment
couple the probability of exceeding winds at given Modelling Software Vol. 30, 2012, pp. 15-34.
statistical levels with wind speed magnitudes [6] Blocken, B., Stathopoulos, T., & van Beeck,
originally related to the Beaufort Land Scale. J., Pedestrian-level wind conditions around
To take into account the influence of the buildings: review of wind-tunnel and CFD
immediate surrounding environment, all techniques and their accuracy for wind
neighboring buildings, terrain, and local topography comfort assessment. Building and
within a diameter of almost 1,000 m around the site Environment, Vol. 100, pp. 50-81, 2016
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Furthermore, small canopies, all balconies, and Comparison of CFD prediction with wind
semi-open spaces were modeled in detail are per the tunnel and Full-scale Measurements for
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