UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MINOR PROJECT OF
MATHEMATICS
DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY

Guided by: Dr. NVC

Shukla sir
Made by: Aditya
Kumar Singh
 Roll no:
2210014025103
B.Sc. (NEP) VI
semester
Introduction to Differential Geometry
Differential geometry is a branch of mathematics that uses the techniques of
calculus and linear algebra to study the geometric properties of curves, surfaces,
and higher-dimensional manifolds. It lies at the intersection of geometry, calculus,
and algebra, and plays a crucial role in a wide variety of fields, including physics,
engineering, and computer science.

At its core, differential geometry seeks to understand the geometry of objects

that may not be flat, using the concept of "curvature" and other geometric
properties that describe how a space bends or curves. The study of differential
geometry is crucial to many areas of science, especially in understanding the
shape and structure of objects in space, how they interact, and how they can be
modeled mathematically.

Key Concepts in Differential Geometry

1. Curves and Surfaces:

a. One of the central objects of study in differential geometry are
curves and surfaces. A curve can be described as a one-dimensional
object, like a line or a circle, embedded in a higher-dimensional
space. Similarly, surfaces are two-dimensional objects that can be
embedded in three-dimensional space, such as spheres or planes.
b. The geometry of these objects is studied using concepts like tangent
vectors, normal vectors, and curvature.
2. Curvature:
a. Curvature measures how much an object bends. For a curve, the
curvature can be thought of as how rapidly the curve is changing
direction at a given point. For surfaces, the curvature can be
described by more complicated quantities such as Gaussian
curvature and mean curvature.
b. For example, a straight line has zero curvature, a circle has constant
positive curvature, and a hyperbolic paraboloid has negative
curvature.

3. Differential Geometry of Manifolds:

a. A manifold is a space that, on small scales, resembles Euclidean
space. For example, a sphere is a 2-dimensional manifold because, at
any small enough region, it looks like a flat plane.
b. Manifolds can have any number of dimensions, and differential
geometry studies how geometric structures behave on these
manifolds. The most important objects in the study of manifolds
include tangent spaces (which capture directions in which you can
move within the manifold) and Riemannian metrics (which allow the
measurement of distances and angles on the manifold).
4. Geodesics:
a. A geodesic is the shortest path between two points on a curved
surface or manifold, similar to how a straight line is the shortest path
in flat Euclidean space.
b. In general relativity, geodesics describe the motion of objects under
the influence of gravity. They are important in physics for describing
the trajectory of particles and light in curved spacetime.
 5. Riemannian Geometry:
a. Riemannian geometry is a branch of differential geometry that
focuses on the study of curved spaces, known as Riemannian
manifolds, using a mathematical tool called the Riemannian metric.
b. The Riemannian metric allows us to measure distances, angles, and
curvature on manifolds, and provides a framework for understanding
the geometry of spaces that aren't flat.
6. The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem:
a. One of the key results in differential geometry is the Gauss-Bonnet
theorem which relates the curvature of a surface to its topological
properties, such as its number of holes (the Euler characteristic). This
theorem is significant in both mathematics and physics, providing
deep connections between geometry and topology.

History of Differential Geometry

Differential geometry is the branch of mathematics that uses
techniques from calculus and linear algebra to study the
geometry of curves, surfaces, and higher-dimensional manifolds.
The field is deeply tied to the development of calculus, but it also
involves the study of curvature, topology, and differential
equations. Its origins can be traced back to the work of several
key mathematicians over the centuries.
Early Roots: Ancient and Medieval Mathematics

Although the field as we know it today didn't exist in ancient

times, the study of geometry and motion has always been present
in mathematics:

1. Ancient Greek Geometry:

a. Euclid (c. 300 BCE) and Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE)
are among the earliest mathematicians to lay the
foundation of geometric reasoning. Archimedes studied
the curvature of circles and spheres, which would later
become essential in differential geometry.
b. The idea of measuring curvature, particularly in the
context of spherical surfaces, can be seen in the works
of Ptolemy and later Islamic mathematicians.
2. Medieval Islamic Mathematics:
a. Alhazen (965–1040) and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–
1274) advanced the study of geometry in the medieval
period. They contributed to the understanding of
spherical geometry and optics, laying the groundwork
for understanding curved spaces.

The Renaissance and Early Modern Developments (16th–

17th Century)

During the Renaissance, the study of curves and surfaces took off,
and ideas related to differential geometry began to take shape:

1. The Work of René Descartes:

a. René Descartes (1596–1650), known for Cartesian
coordinate geometry, helped revolutionize the study of
curves. By introducing coordinate systems, Descartes
made it easier to describe geometric objects and
analyze their properties.
 b. Descartes’ work in algebraic geometry paved the way
for later geometric developments, including the study
of curves and surfaces in more abstract terms.
2. Pierre de Fermat and the Tangent Problem:
a. Pierre de Fermat (1607–1665) worked on problems
related to tangents to curves. His approach to
determining tangents using infinitesimal changes was a
precursor to the ideas of differentiation in geometry.
b. Fermat’s work with tangents to curves laid the
foundation for differential calculus and eventually
contributed to differential geometry.

18th Century: The Birth of Differential Geometry

The 18th century marked the beginning of differential geometry

as a formalized branch of mathematics, with the study of curves,
surfaces, and their curvature becoming central.

1. Leonhard Euler (1707–1783):

a. Leonhard Euler made groundbreaking contributions to
the study of curves and surfaces. He introduced the
concept of the Euler characteristic (a topological
invariant) and helped lay the foundation for the study of
topology in relation to geometry.
b. Euler's formula for polyhedral and his work on surfaces
contributed to the development of differential
geometry, especially in the study of topological
properties.
2. Jean-Baptiste Meusnier (1754–1793):
a. Jean-Baptiste Meusnier made important
contributions to the study of surface curvature,
including the concept of principal curvatures. He
 worked on understanding the geometry of surfaces,
such as spheres and cylinders, and described how
curvature varies along different directions of a surface.
3. Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813):
a. Lagrange’s work on classical mechanics involved the
study of curves and surfaces, particularly in relation to
the dynamics of systems. His contributions were
essential for the understanding of variational principles
and the geometry of motion.

19th Century: The Formalization of Differential Geometry

The 19th century is considered the golden age of differential

geometry, with the foundational work of several key figures.

1. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855):

a. Gauss is one of the most influential figures in the
development of differential geometry. His work on the
Gaussian curvature of surfaces revolutionized the
study of surfaces.
b. In his landmark result, the Theorem Egregium (1827),
Gauss showed that curvature is an intrinsic property of
a surface and does not depend on how the surface is
embedded in space. This was a groundbreaking idea
that laid the foundation for the modern understanding
of curved spaces.
c. Gauss’ work on geodesics (the shortest paths between
points on a curved surface) furthered the
understanding of surfaces and their intrinsic properties.
2. Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866):
a. Bernhard Riemann is another giant in the history of
differential geometry. Riemann extended the ideas of
Gauss into higher dimensions and developed the
concept of a Riemannian manifold, which is a
 generalization of surfaces to higher-dimensional
spaces.
b. Riemann’s work on the Riemann curvature tensor
and the development of Riemannian geometry
provided the framework for understanding curved
spaces in any number of dimensions.
c. His famous work, Über die Hypothesen, welche der
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen (1854), proposed the idea
that space itself could be curved, paving the way for
later developments in physics, particularly Einstein’s
theory of general relativity.
3. Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789–1857):
a. Cauchy was a key figure in the formalization of limits
and continuity, which became essential for the
development of modern differential geometry. He
helped solidify the mathematical foundations of
calculus, which in turn helped solidify the tools needed
for differential geometry.
4. Elie Cartan (1869–1951):
a. Élie Cartan made significant contributions to the study
of differential forms, Lie groups, and differential
topology. His work provided deeper insights into the
geometry of manifolds, including the study of
symmetries in geometry.
b. Cartan’s development of the Cartan connection and
his work on the structure of manifolds influenced the
study of differential geometry in the 20th century.

20th Century and Beyond: Modern Developments

In the 20th century, differential geometry found applications in

many fields, especially in physics. The rise of general relativity
by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century brought differential
geometry to the forefront of physical theory.
 1. Albert Einstein (1879–1955):
a. Einstein's theory of general relativity in 1915
described gravitation not as a force, but as a curvature
of spacetime itself. The geometry of spacetime is
described by a Riemannian manifold, and Einstein
used the mathematics of differential geometry,
particularly the Riemann curvature tensor and
metric tensors, to describe gravitational effects.
b. This application of differential geometry to physics has
had profound implications in both mathematics and
science, especially in understanding black holes,
cosmology, and the behavior of objects in strong
gravitational fields.
2. Applications in Modern Mathematics:
a. In the 20th century, differential geometry became a
vital part of many mathematical fields, including
differential topology, mathematical physics, and
differential equations.
b. The study of Lie groups, fiber bundles, and
connections has continued to evolve, with applications
in areas like quantum field theory and string theory.
c. Geometric analysis and Kähler geometry have
become central topics in modern mathematics, further
developing the intersection of geometry and analysis.

Parametric representation of a space curves:

A parametric representation of a space curve is a way to describe the curve in
three-dimensional space using a set of equations, where each coordinate of a point
on the curve is expressed as a function of a parameter, typically denoted as t.

For a curve in 3D space, the parametric equations are given by:

 r(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t))

Where:

 r(t) is the position vector of a point on the curve.

 x(t), y(t), z(t) are the functions that describe the coordinates of the points on
the curve, and t is the parameter (often representing time or another
quantity).

Example:

Consider a helix, which is a common example of a space curve. Its parametric

representation can be written as:

x(t) = rcos(t)

y(t) = rsin (t)

z(t)= ct

Where:

 r is the radius of the helix.

 c is a constant that controls the vertical rise per unit of time.
 t is the parameter, which varies along the curve.

This describes a helix that spirals around axis with a constant pitch.

General Procedure:

To represent a space curve parametrically:

1. Identify the curve's geometry (whether it is a circle, ellipse, line, or

something more complex like a spiral).
2. Express each coordinate of the curve as a function of the parameter t.
3. Combine these functions into a vector form, r(t) to describe the position of
points on the curve.