SUBJECT: INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LINGUISTICS

Teacher: Nguyen Ai Hoang Chau

Chapter 2: Phonetics

1. The Phonetic Alphabet

1.1 Sound Segments
Sound segments refer to the individual units of sound that make up speech. These can be broken down into two main
categories:
 Consonants: Sounds made by obstructing the airflow in some way (e.g., /b/, /t/, /k/).
 Vowels: Sounds produced without significant obstruction of airflow (e.g., /a/, /i/, /u/).
In phonetics, each sound segment is represented by a symbol in the phonetic alphabet to show exactly how it is
articulated.

1.2 The IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)

The IPA is a standardized system that represents all
speech sounds across languages. It allows linguists to
transcribe sounds accurately, regardless of the
language. Each symbol in the IPA corresponds to a
single sound (phoneme).
Examples:
 The word "cat" is transcribed as /kæt/ in IPA.
Here, /k/ represents the "c" sound, /æ/
represents the "a" sound, and /t/ represents the
"t" sound.
 The word "she" is transcribed as /ʃiː/, where /ʃ/
represents the "sh" sound, and /iː/ represents
the "ee" sound.
The IPA is widely used in dictionaries, linguistic
research, and language teaching because it provides a consistent method for representing the sounds of any language.

2. Phonetics and Its Branches

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It is typically divided into three main branches:

2.1 Articulatory Phonetics

This branch studies how speech sounds are produced by the movement of speech organs (such as the tongue, lips, and
vocal cords). It examines the physiological processes involved in sound production.

2.2 Acoustic Phonetics

Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of sound waves. It looks at how speech sounds are transmitted
through the air, considering aspects such as frequency, amplitude, and duration. Acoustic phonetics is often studied using
specialized equipment to analyze sound waves.
2.3 Auditory Phonetics
This branch focuses on how humans perceive speech sounds. It studies how the auditory system (the ear and brain)
processes and interprets sound signals as speech.

3. Articulatory Phonetics
Articulatory phonetics examines how speech sounds are produced within the vocal tract. The process involves the
manipulation of air as it passes through the mouth and throat, influenced by the movement of various articulatory organs.

3.1 The Vocal Tract

3.1.1. Lungs
- Function: The lungs provide the airflow necessary for speech.
They act as the power source by forcing air through the vocal
tract when we exhale.
3.1.2. Trachea (Windpipe)
- Function: The trachea is the tube that connects the lungs to the
larynx (voice box). It carries the air from the lungs to the upper
part of the vocal tract.
3.1.3. Larynx (Voice Box)
- Function: The larynx houses the vocal cords (or vocal folds),
which vibrate to produce sound.
3.1.4. Pharynx (Throat)
- Function: The pharynx is the cavity that connects the mouth
and the nose to the larynx. It is divided into three regions: the nasopharynx (upper part, near the nasal cavity), the
oropharynx (middle part, near the mouth), and the laryngopharynx (lower part, near the larynx).
3.1.5. Oral Cavity (Mouth)
- Function: The mouth is the primary resonating chamber and the location of articulation for most speech sounds. The size
and shape of the oral cavity can be altered by the movement of the tongue, lips, and jaw to produce different sounds.
3.1.6. Nasal Cavity
- Function: The nasal cavity is the space behind the nose that can be used for producing nasal sounds.
3.1.7. Soft Palate (Velum)
- Function: The velum is the soft, flexible part at the back of the roof of the mouth.
3.1.8. Hard Palate
- Function: The hard palate is the bony front part of the roof of the mouth.
3.1.9. Teeth
- Function: The teeth are part of the oral cavity and contribute to the production of speech sounds.
3.1.10. Tongue
- Function: The tongue is the most flexible and mobile articulator in the vocal tract. It has several parts: the tip (apex),
blade, body, and root.
3.1.11. Lips
- Function: The lips are part of the oral cavity and can open and close to shape sounds.

3.2 Classification of Consonants

Consonants are classified based on how airflow is obstructed in the vocal tract. There are several key features used to
classify consonants:
3.2.1. Place of Articulation
This refers to where in the vocal tract the airflow is constricted or blocked. Common places of articulation include:
 Bilabial: Both lips (e.g., /p/, /b/)
 Labiodental: Lower lip against upper teeth (e.g., /f/, /v/)
 Dental: Tongue against upper teeth (e.g., /θ/ as in "think", /ð/ as in "this")
 Alveolar: Tongue against the alveolar ridge (e.g., /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/)
 Palatal: Tongue against the hard palate (e.g., /ʃ/ as in "sh", /ʒ/ as in "measure")
 Velar: Back of the tongue against the soft palate (e.g., /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ as in "sing")
 Glottal: Using the glottis (e.g., /h/, glottal stop /ʔ/)
3.2.2. Manner of Articulation
This describes how the consonant sound is produced based on the type of constriction in the vocal tract. Some common
manners of articulation include:
 Stop (Plosive): Complete closure of the vocal tract, followed by a release (e.g., /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/)
 Fricative: Partial closure causing turbulent airflow (e.g., /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/)
 Affricate: A combination of a stop and a fricative, with a complete closure followed by a release into a fricative
(e.g., /ʧ/ as in "ch", /ʤ/ as in "judge")
 Nasal: Airflow is directed through the nose while the mouth is closed (e.g., /m/, /n/, /ŋ/)
 Liquid: Partial closure of the vocal tract, allowing air to flow around the sides of the tongue (e.g., /l/, /r/)
 Glide: A sound that involves a smooth transition from a consonant to a vowel (e.g., /j/ as in "yes", /w/ as in "we")
3.2.3. Voicing
Voicing refers to whether the vocal cords vibrate during the production of the sound:
 Voiced: Vocal cords vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/, /z/, /v/)
 Voiceless: No vocal cord vibration (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /f/

3.2.4. Nasality (Oral/Nasal)

This feature refers to whether the air passes through the nose during the production of the sound. Nasality is
particularly important for nasal consonants and vowels.
 Nasal sounds: Air passes through the nose.
Example: [m], [n], [ŋ] (as in man, sun, song)
 Oral sounds: Air is directed solely through the mouth.
Example: [p], [s], [t]g

3.3 Classification of Vowels

Vowels are sounds produced without any retriction or closure in the vocal tract.
Vowels are classified based on the position of the tongue and lips during articulation. Key features include:
3.3.1. The Tongue Height
This refers to how high or low the tongue is in the mouth during the articulation of a vowel.
  High vowels: The tongue is positioned towards the roof of the mouth.
Examples: [i] (as in see), [u] (as in food).
 Mid vowels: The tongue is positioned in the middle of the mouth, neither too high nor too low.
Examples: [e] (as in bed), [o] (as in go).
 Low vowels: The tongue is positioned as low as possible in the mouth.
Examples: [æ] (as in cat), [a] (as in father).
3.3.2. The Tongue Part
This refers to how far forward or back the tongue is in the mouth when producing a vowel.
 Front vowels: The tongue is positioned towards the front of the mouth.
Examples: [i] (as in see), [e] (as in bed).
 Central vowels: The tongue is positioned in the center of the mouth.
Examples: [ə] (the schwa sound, as in sofa), [ʌ] (as in strut).
 Back vowels: The tongue is positioned towards the back of the mouth.
Examples: [u] (as in food), [o] (as in go).
3.3.3. Lip Position
This refers to whether the lips are rounded or unrounded during the articulation of the vowel.
 Rounded vowels: The lips are rounded during articulation.
Examples: [u] (as in food), [o] (as in go).
 Unrounded vowels: The lips are spread or relaxed.
Examples: [i] (as in see), [æ] (as in cat).
3.3.4. Vowel Length
Vowels can be classified based on the tension or laxness of the tongue muscles.
 Long/Tense vowels: These vowels are produced with more tension in the tongue muscles and typically have a
higher tongue position. Tense vowels are usually longer in duration.
Examples: [i] (as in see), [e] (as in bed), [u] (as in food).
 Short/Lax vowels: These vowels are produced with less tension in the tongue and are usually shorter in duration.
Examples: [ɪ] (as in bit), [ɛ] (as in bet), [ʊ] (as in book)

4. Phonetic Features
Phonetic features are the specific articulatory properties that characterize speech sounds (phonemes). These
features allow us to describe and differentiate between the various sounds in human language. They can be
thought of as the building blocks of phonetic analysis, as each sound can be broken down into a set of binary
features (either present or absent).
In phonetics, binary values are often used to indicate the presence or absence of particular articulatory
properties:

A positive value (+) indicates the presence of a specific feature.

A negative value (-) indicates the absence of that feature.

* Feature Matrix:

A feature matrix is a way of organizing these binary phonetic features to describe a particular sound or a class
of sounds. Each row in the matrix corresponds to a specific feature, and each column represents a phonetic
segment (sound).

A class of sounds can also be represented by a feature matrix that highlights the features common to those
sounds.

For example, a feature matrix for the sound [p] might look like this:
/p/
+Consonantal
+Bilabial
+Stop
-Voiced

/i:/
-Consonantal
+High
+Front
-Rounded

Similarly, the matrix for the sound [i:] would look like this:

Thus, a feature matrix allows us to compare and contrast sounds in a structured way, helping to identify not
only individual sounds but also groups of sounds that share common features.

5. Major Phonetic Classes

Major phonetic classes are broad categories of speech sounds that group them based on shared phonetic features, such as
their production in the vocal tract. Below are the major classes and their characteristics with examples:
1. Non-continuants: Sounds that block airflow completely at some point in their production.
Examples:
  Stops (Plosives): /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/.
 Affricates: /tʃ/, /dʒ/.
2. Continuants: Sounds that allow continuous airflow through the vocal tract.
Examples:
 Fricatives: /f/, /s/, /v/, /ʃ/.
 Liquids and Glides: /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/.
 Vowels: /i/, /e/, /o/.
3. Obstruents: Sounds produced with significant obstruction in the vocal tract.
Examples:
 Stops (Plosives): Complete closure followed by a release; /p/ (pat), /t/ (top), /k/ (cat), /b/ (bat), /d/ (dog), /g/ (go).
 Fricatives: Narrow constriction causing turbulent airflow; /f/ (fish), /s/ (sun), /ʃ/ (she), /h/ (hat), /v/ (van), /z/ (zoo).
 Affricates: Combination of a stop and a fricative; /tʃ/ (chair), /dʒ/ (judge).
4. Sonorants: Sounds produced with a relatively open vocal tract, allowing airflow to pass freely.
Examples:
 Nasals: Air flows through the nose; /m/ (man), /n/ (nice), /ŋ/ (sing).
 Approximants: Articulators come close but don't obstruct airflow.
 Liquids: /l/ (light), /r/ (red).
 Glides: /j/ (yes), /w/ (win).
 Vowels: Open vocal tract with varying tongue and lip positions; /i/ (see), /æ/ (cat), /u/ (blue).
5. Consonants vs. Vowels
 Consonants: Produced with some degree of constriction in the vocal tract.
Examples: /p/, /s/, /m/.
 Vowels: Produced with no significant constriction, and the sound depends on tongue and lip positions.
Examples: /i/, /a/, /u/.
6. Sibilants: A subset of fricatives and affricates with high-pitched, hissing sounds due to airflow over the teeth.
Examples: /s/ (sun), /z/ (zoo), /ʃ/ (she), /ʒ/ (measure), /tʃ/ (chip), /dʒ/ (jump).