Control Systems

(Code : 204192)

Semester IV - Electronics / Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

(Savitribai Phule Pune University)

Strictly as per the New Credit System Syllabus (2019 Course)

Savitribai Phule Pune University w.e.f. academic year 2020-2021

Asma Shaikh Dr. Supriya O. Rajankar

B.E. (E & TC), MBA M.E. (Electronics), Ph.D.( Electronics and
Pune. Telecommunication Engineering)
Professor in Electronics and Telecommunication
Department, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune
Maharashtra, India.
 Control Systems
ȱAbout Managing Director….
(Course Code : 204192)
- Mr. Sachin Shah
(SPPU - Sem 4 / ELEX. and E & TC - For Syll. 2020-2021)
Author : Asma Shaikh, Dr. Supriya O. Rajankar  1XGT[GCTUQHGZRGTKGPEGKP#ECFGOKE
2WDNKUJKPIŗ
First Edition for New Syllabus : February 2021 With over two and a half decades of experience
in bringing out more than 1200 titles in
Tech-Neo ID : P4-16 Engineering, Polytechnic, Pharmacy, Computer
Sciences and Information Technology,
Copyright © by Author. All rights reserved. 5CEJKP5JCJ is a name synonymous with
No part of this publication may be reproduced, quality and innovative content.
copied, or stored in a retrieval system, distributed or  #FTKXGP'FWECVKQPCNKUVŗ
transmitted in any form or by any means, including 1. A B.E. in Industrial Electronics
photocopy, recording, or other electronic or (1992 Batch) from Bharati Vidyapeeth’s
mechanical methods, without the prior written College of Engineering, affiliated to
permission of the Publisher. University of Pune.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall 2. An Alumnus of IIM Ahmedabad.
not, by the way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, 3. A Co-Author of a bestselling book on
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without limiting the rights under copyright reserved
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A publishing career that started with
ȱ ž‹•’œ‘Žȱ‹¢ȱ handwritten cyclostyled notes back in 1992,
›œǯȱŠ¢Š—Šȱ‘Š‘ȱȱ Sachin Shah has to his credit setting up and
›ǯȱŠŒ‘’—ȱǯȱ‘Š‘ȱ expansion of one of the leading companies in
higher education publishing.
Š—Š’—ȱ’›ŽŒ˜›ǰȱǯȱȱǻ —žœ›’Š•ȱ•ŽŒ›˜—’ŒœǼȱ
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›ǯȱŠ‘ž•ȱǯȱ‘Š‘ȱ An energetic, creative & resourceful
professional Sachin Shah's extensive experience
ȱ Ž›–Š—Ž—ȱ›Žœœȱ of closely working with the best & the most
eminent authors of Publishing Industry, ensures
ŽŒ‘ȬŽ˜ȱž‹•’ŒŠ’˜—œȱȱ ȱ
high standards of quality in contents. This
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ability has helped students to attain better
Š›’ȱ˜–™Š—¢ǰȱž—ŽȱȬȱŚŗŗŖŚŗǯȱŠ‘Š›Šœ‘›ŠȱŠŽǰȱ
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—’Šǯȱȱ subject.
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Ž‹œ’ŽȱDZȱ ǯŽŒ‘—Ž˜‹˜˜”œǯŒ˜–ȱ
A gregarious person, SACHIN SHAH is a
ȱ ›’—ŽȱŠȱDZȱ –ŠŽȱœŽȱǻ›ǯȱŠ‘ž•ȱ‘Š‘Ǽȱȱ
thought leader who has been simplifying the
methods of learning and bridging the gap between
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 Preface

Dear students,

We are extremely happy to present the book of “Control Systems” for you. We have

divided the subject into small chapters so that the topics can be arranged and understood

properly. The topics within the chapters have been arranged in a proper sequence to ensure

smooth flow of the subject.

We are thankful to Shri. Sachin Shah for the encouragement and support that he has

extended to us. We are also thankful to the staff members of Tech-Neo Publications and

others for their efforts to make this book as good as it is. We have jointly made every

possible efforts to eliminate all the errors in this book. However if you find any, please let

us know, because that will help us to improve further.

We are also thankful to our family members and friends for their patience and

encouragement.

- Authors


 University Prescribed Syllabus
Savitribai Phule Pune University
(Sem IV) (Electronics / E & TC Engineering)

Control Systems (204192)

Teaching Scheme Credit Examination Scheme
Theory : 03 hrs. / week 03 In-Sem (Theory) : 30 Marks
End Sem (Theory) : 70 Marks
Prerequisite Courses, if any : -
Companion Course, if any : 204195 - Signal and Control Systems Lab
Course Objectives :
x To Introduce elements of control system and their modeling using various Techniques.
x To get acquainted with the methods for analyzing the time response and Stability of System.
x To Introduce and analyze the frequency response and Stability of System.
x To Introduce concept of root locus, Bode plots, Nyquist plots.
x To Introduce State Variable Analysis method.
x To get acquainted with Concepts of PID controllers and IoT based Industrial Automation.
Course Outcomes : On completion of the course, learner will be able to -
CO1 : Determine and use models of physical systems in forms suitable for use in the analysis and design of control
systems.
CO2 : Determine the (absolute) stability of a closed-loop control system.
CO3 : Perform time domain analysis of control systems required for stability analysis.
CO4 : Perform frequency domain analysis of control systems required for stability analysis.
CO5 : Apply root-locus, Frequency Plots technique to analyze control systems.
CO6 : Express and solve system equations in state variable form.
CO7 : Differentiate between various digital controllers and understand the role of the controllers in Industrial automation.

In Semester Exam 30 Marks (Unit I, II)

I Introduction to Control Systems & its Modelling 06

Basic Elements of Control System, Open loop and Closed loop systems, Differential equations and
Transfer function, Modeling of Electric systems, Translational and rotational mechanical systems, Hrs
Block diagram reduction Techniques, Signal flow graph. (Refer Chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4)
Mapping of Course Outcomes for Unit I
CO1 : Determine and use models of physical systems in forms suitable for use in the analysis and
design of control systems.

II Time Domain Analysis 06

Time domain analysis : transient response and steady state response, standard test inputs for time Hrs
domain analysis, order and type of a system, transient analysis of first and second order systems,
time domain specifications of second order under damped system from its step response, Steady
state error and static error constants. (Refer Chapter 5)
Mapping of Course Outcomes for Unit II
CO2 : Determine the (absolute) stability of a closed-loop control system.
 End Semester Exam 70 Marks (Unit III, IV, V, VI)

III Stability Analysis 08

Characteristic equation of a system, concept of pole and zero, response of various pole locations in
s-plane, concept of stability, absolute stability, relative stability, stability of system from pole Hrs
locations, Routh Hurwitz stability criterion, Root locus : definition, magnitude and angle conditions,
construction of root locus, concept of dominant poles, effect of addition of pole and zero on root
locus. Application of root locus for stability analysis. (Refer Chapters 6 and 7)
Mapping of Course Outcomes for Unit III
CO3 : Perform time domain analysis of control systems required for stability analysis.

IV Frequency Domain Analysis 08

Frequency response and frequency domain specifications, correlation between time domain and
frequency domain specifications, polar plot, Nyquist stability criterion and construction of Nyquist Hrs
plot, Bode plot, determination of frequency domain specifications and stability analysis using
Nyquist plot and Bode plot. (Refer Chapters 8, 9 and 10)
Mapping of Course Outcomes for Unit IV
CO4 : Perform frequency domain analysis of control systems required for stability analysis.
CO5 : Apply root-locus, Frequency plots technique to analyze control systems.

V State Space Representation 06

State space advantages and representation, Transfer function from State space, physical variable
form, phase variable forms : controllable canonical form, observable canonical form, solution of Hrs
homogeneous state equations, state transition matrix and its properties, computation of state
transition matrix by Laplace transform method only. (Refer Chapter 11)
Mapping of Course Outcomes for Unit V
CO6 : Express and solve system equations in state variable form.

VI Controllers and Digital Control Systems 06

Concept of Controller, Basic ON-OFF Controller, Concept of Dead Zone, Introduction to P, I, D, PI,
PD and PID controller, OFFSET of Controller, Integral Reset, PID Characteristics. Concept of Hrs
Zeigler - Nicholas method.
Concept of Industrial Automation, Need of IoT based Industrial Automation. (Refer Chapter 12)
Mapping of Course Outcomes for Unit VI
CO7 : Differentiate between various digital controllers and understand the role of the controllers in
industrial automation.


 Index

 Chapter 1 : Introduction to Control Systems ................................................ 1-1 to 1-6

 Chapter 2 : Transfer Function and Mathematical Modeling ............................ 2-1 to 2-21

 Chapter 3 : Block Diagram Reduction Techniques ........................................ 3-1 to 3-35

 Chapter 4 : Signal Flow Graph .............................................. 4-1 to 4-20

 Chapter 5 : Time Domain Analysis .............................................. 5-1 to 5-36

 Chapter 6 : Stability Analysis .............................................. 6-1 to 6-21

 Chapter 7 : Root Locus .............................................. 7-1 to 7-34

 Chapter 8 : Frequency Domain Analysis .............................................. 8-1 to 8-10

 Chapter 9 : Bode Plots .............................................. 9-1 to 9-47

 Chapter 10 : Polar and Nyquist Plots .......................................... 10-1 to 10-22

 Chapter 11 : State Space Representation .......................................... 11-1 to 11-44

 Chapter 12 : Controllers and Digital Control Systems .................................. 12-1 to 12-19

 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


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Syllabus

Basic Elements of Control System, Open loop and Closed loop systems.

1.1 Introduction to Control Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 1-2

1.2 Important Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................... 1-2

1.3 Requirements of a Good Control System ....................................................................................................................... 1-2

1.4 Classification of Control System ..................................................................................................................................... 1-2

UQ. 1.4.1 Explain open loop and closed loop systems with suitable examples. (SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ......... 1-2

1.4.1 Open Loop Control System ........................................................................................................................... 1-3

UQ. 1.4.2 Explain open loop system with suitable examples. (SPPU - Dec. 16, 3 Marks) ..................................... 1-3

1.4.1(A) Examples of Open Loop Control System .................................................................................................... 1-3

1.4.1(B) Advantages of Open Loop System ............................................................................................................ 1-3

1.4.1(C) Disadvantages of Open Loop System ......................................................................................................... 1-3

1.4.2 Closed Loop Control System ........................................................................................................................ 1-3

UQ. 1.4.3 Explain closed loop system with suitable examples. (SPPU - Dec. 16, 3 Marks) ................................... 1-3

1.4.2(A) Examples of Closed Loop Control System .................................................................................................... 1-4

1.4.2(B) Advantages of Closed Loop Control System ................................................................................................ 1-5

1.4.2(C) Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System ............................................................................................ 1-5

1.5 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop System .................................................................................................... 1-6

UQ. 1.5.1 Differentiate open loop and closed loop systems with suitable examples.(SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) ... 1-6

Ì Chapter Ends ................................................................................................................................................................. 1-6

Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Introduction to Control Systems)….Page no. (1-2)

  +PVTQFWEVKQPVQ%QPVTQN5[UVGOU   4GSWKTGOGPVUQHC)QQF

  %QPVTQN5[UVGO
 Control system plays a very important role in our day to day
life. In this modern era our day to day life is fully filled with 1. Accuracy
automatic gadgets and machines which reduces human efforts  A good control system should have very high accuracy so that
and also saves our valuable time. it can correct any arising error.
 Control system is used from simple fan regulator to complex  Accuracy can be increased by using feedback. Error detector
power plant in our day to day life. Bread toaster, electric iron,
improves the accuracy of the system.
automatic washing machines, electric heater are some
examples of control system. 2. Sensitivity
 One of the best example of natural control system is our The ability of the control system to respond to smallest
human system. change in input determines the sensitivity of the control
 We know that brain controls all internal activities of human
system.
body like respiration, circulation, digestion, etc.
 It also co-ordinates external activities like walking, eating, 3. Noise immunity
sleeping, etc.  Noise is unwanted electrical signal. A good control system
 Human system is best example of complex control system. must have the ability to reject the noise signal.
Control system is applicable to both engineering and
 Hence noise immunity should be high.
non-engineering field.
 In this chapter we are going to study in detail regarding the 4. Stability
definitions, classification and various applications of control
system.  Stability means, for bounded input we should get bounded
output.

  +ORQTVCPV&GHKPKVKQPU  A good control system should be stable for all the variations.
5. Bandwidth

1. System  Bandwidth gives the range of frequency of any system.

 A good control system should have a large bandwidth.
 A system is an entity which performs operation on input to
convert it to required output. 6. Speed
 A system can be also defined as an arrangement of  Speed is time required by the system to produce output when
combination of different physical component which are input is given or applied.
connected in such a manner so as to make one entire unit to
attain certain objective.  A good control system should have high speed.
7. Reliability
 Ability of the system to work without failure is called
reliability.
(1A1)Fig. 1.2.1 : System
 A good control system should have reliability.
2. Input 8. Oscillation
An excitation signal applied to the system from external A good control system must have constant or sustained
natural or man-made source is known as input. oscillations.
3. Output 9. Repeatability
The response obtained from the system is called output.  Ability of system to produce same output when same input is
applied repeatedly.
4. Control
 A good control system must have a very high repeatability.
Control means to regulate, direct or command the system to
achieve the required objective.   %NCUUKHKECVKQPQH%QPVTQN5[UVGO
5. Control system
UQ. 1.4.1 Explain open loop and closed loop
The interconnection of various physical components to
systems with suitable examples.
regulate, direct or command itself to achieve the required
objective is called control system. (SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks)

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4. Bread toaster
 A bread toaster heats the bread for a predetermined time. The
time is determined for a hard/soft toast.
 The toaster does not check status of the toast. Hence
controlling action depends only on time and is independent of
output.
5. Electric cloth drier
(1A1A)Fig. 1.4.1  The input to cloth drier is wet cloth. We set a timer. The
controlling mechanism includes hot air which dries the cloth.
 1.4.1 Open Loop Control System  Here drier operates for fix time. It does not check whether
cloth is dry or wet. Hence controlling action is independent of
UQ. 1.4.2 Explain open loop system with suitable output.
examples. (SPPU - Dec. 16, 3 Marks)

A system in which control action depends on input signal and

is totally independent of output signal is called open loop control
system.
(1A3)Fig. 1.4.3 : Electric cloth drier

 1.4.1(B) Advantages of Open Loop

System
(1A2)Fig. 1.4.2 : Open loop control system
1. Simple in construction and easy to design.
r (t) = Reference input; 2. Less maintenance needed.
u (t) = Actuating signal; 3. They are convenient to use.
c (t) = Controlled output 4. They are stable for some time extent.
5. They are cheaper.
 1.4.1(A) Examples of Open Loop Control
System  1.4.1(C) Disadvantages of Open Loop
System
1. Hair dryer/Blower
1. Less bandwidth.
 For hair dryer, input is wet hair. The user adjusts the dryer at
2. No feedback hence cannot facilitate automation.
various levels to dry the hair.
3. Inaccurate and unreliable since accuracy is dependent on
 The hot air from the dryer is used as mechanism to produce
calibration.
required output, i.e. dry hair.
4. Recalibration of controller is needed.
 In this case dryer is not checking the output, i.e., whether the
5. Internal disturbances and parameter variation lead to
hair is dry or not.
inaccuracy.
 Hence controlling action depends only on input and is
independent of output.
 1.4.2 Closed Loop Control System
2. Automatic washing machine
 In case of automatic washing machine, the inputs are soiled UQ. 1.4.3 Explain closed loop system with
clothes, soap, water, etc.
suitable examples. (SPPU - Dec. 16, 3 Marks)
 The outputs are washed clean clothes. The control action is
determined by the timer which determines wash and wring  A closed loop control system is a system in which controlling
cycles. action depends on output of the system.
 The controlling action does not check the cleanliness of  Feedback is present in closed loop control system.
clothes hence controlling action does not depend on output. It
is independent of output.
3. Traffic light controller
 In case of traffic light controller the relay switches are used to
ON/OFF the particular red, orange and green light for fixed
time duration.
 Traffic light controller does not check the rush on the road. It
is ON/OFF for fixed time irrespective to the rush/traffic on
the road. (1A4)Fig. 1.4.4 : Closed loop control system

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r (t) o Reference input

u (t) o Actuating/manipulated signal
e (t) o Error signal
b (t) o Feedback signal
c (t) o Controlled output
 In closed loop control system, part of output is given back to
input and is compared with reference input to generate error
(1A6)Fig. 1.4.6 : Voltage stabilizer
signal.
e (t) = r (t) r b (t)  Whenever input is less than 230 V, the transformer becomes
 When feedback signal is positive, system is called positive step up transformer. Thus rising the voltage to 230 V.
feedback system.
e (t) = r (t) + b (t)
 When feedback signal is negative, system is called negative
feedback system.
e (t) = r (t) – b (t)
 This error signal is applied to controller to control the output
(1A7)Fig. 1.4.7 : Principle of voltage stabilizer
signal.

 1.4.2(A) Examples of Closed Loop

 From Fig. 1.4.7, it is clear that for step-up transformer switch
is connected to ‘B’ and for step-down transformer switch is
Control System
connected to ‘C’.
1. Automatic electric iron  In this case fixed tap are used. Instead of fix tap entire
 In automatic electric iron for each type of cloth a fix range of secondary can be tapped. In this method voltage is better
temperature is defined. regulated.

 Whenever temperature falls below the minimum range,

heating process starts and whenever temperature exceeds
maximum range, heating is stopped.
 Hence controlling action depends on output temperature.

(1A8)Fig. 1.4.8 : Servo voltage stabilizer

(1A5)Fig. 1.4.5 : Automatic electric iron  Such type of stabilizers are used in Xerox machines, CNC
machines, etc.
2. Voltage stabilizers
3. Room heater
 Single phase supply is expected to be 230 V, but it varies
from 200 to 250 V. Many devices cannot withstand such high
variations.
 Hence voltage stabilizers accept variable input voltages and
give fixed output voltage.
 Whenever input exceeds 230 V, the transformer becomes
step-down transformer reducing number of turns and thus
lowering the voltage.
(1A9)Fig. 1.4.9 : Room heater

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Introduction to Control Systems)….Page no. (1-5)

 A desired room temperature is fixed according to external

Note : There are many examples of open loop and closed loop
weather. Temperature sensor is used to sense the room
temperature. control systems.
 The room temperature is compared with desired temperature
and valve adjusts the heating process according to To checkout whether system is open loop or closed loop
requirement. check the controlling action.
 Hence control action depends on output, i.e., room
depends
temperature. If control action –––––o Input, then open loop control
on
4. Water level indicator
system.
 The present water level is compared with desired water level
depends
and the actuator turns on or off the inflow valve according to
Control action –––––o Input + Output, then closed loop
the requirement. on
 The controlling action depends on output water level.
control system.

 1.4.2(B) Advantages of Closed Loop

Control System

1. High accuracy.

2. Feedback is present, hence automation is possible.

(1A10)Fig. 1.4.10 : Water level indicator
3. High bandwidth.
5. Sun seeker solar system 4. Internal disturbances and parametric changes can be
 To get maximum sunlight the photocell array is always turned corrected.
facing towards the sun.
5. System can be made more stable by adjusting sensitivity.
 The position feedback element helps the controller to adjust
position of the panel.
 Thus controlling action depends on output, i.e., position of
 1.4.2(C) Disadvantages of Closed Loop
Control System
photocell array panel.
1. Costlier.

2. Complicated design.

3. Need more maintenance.

4. Overall gain is reduced due to feedback.

5. System may become unstable and hence more care to be

taken while designing closed loop system.

(1A11)Fig. 1.4.11 : Solar system

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  %QORCTKUQPQH1RGP.QQRCPF%NQUGF.QQR5[UVGO

UQ. 1.5.1 Differentiate open loop and closed loop systems with suitable examples. (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks)

Sr. Point of Open loop control system Closed loop control system
No. Comparison
1. Block diagram

(1A12)Fig. 1.5.1

r (t) = Reference input

u (t) = Actuating signal
c (t) = Controlled output (1A13)Fig. 1.5.2
r (t) = Reference input
u (t) = Actuating signal
e (t) = Error signal
b (t) = Feedback signal
c (t) = Controlled output
2. Feedback element Feedback is absent. Hence no feedback element. Feedback is present. Hence feedback element is
used.
3. Accuracy Less accurate Comparatively more accurate.
4. Bandwidth Small bandwidth Large bandwidth
5. Stability It is a stable system. It may become unstable.
6. Design and Easy to design and construct. Complicated to design and construct.
construction
7. Error detector Error detector element is absent. Error detector element is present.
8. Response to input Slow Fast
9. Cost Economical Costly
10. Maintenance Less maintenance needed. More maintenance needed.
11. Reliability It is unreliable. It is reliable.
12. Control action Control action depends only on input. Control action depends on comparison of input and
output.
13. Sensitivity to Highly sensitive to parameter changes. Less sensitive to parameter changes.
parameter changes.
14. Examples Coffee maker, toaster, hair dryer, etc. Automatic iron, missile launching system, air
conditioners.

Chapter Ends…


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Syllabus

Differential equations and Transfer function, Modeling of Electric systems, Translational and rotational mechanical
systems.

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2-2

2.2 Definition of Transfer Function ....................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.2.1 Properties of Transfer Function / Advantages of Transfer Function ............................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Disadvantages of Transfer Function ............................................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.3 Proper Transfer Function .............................................................................................................................. 2-2
2.3 Important Terms related to Transfer Function ................................................................................................................ 2-2
2.4 Laplace Transform of Electrical Network Elements ....................................................................................................... 2-3
2.4.1 Solved Examples on Transfer Function of Electrical Networks.................................................................... 2-4
UEx. 2.1 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) .............................................................................................................................. 2-4
UEx. 2.2 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) .............................................................................................................................. 2-8
UEx. 2.3 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 2-9
2.5 Mathematical Modelling ................................................................................................................................................ 2-10
2.6 Mechanics of Translational Motion ............................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.6.1 Mass ............................................................................................................................................................ 2-10
2.6.2 Spring .......................................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.6.3 Damper........................................................................................................................................................ 2-11
2.6.4 Translational Elements ................................................................................................................................ 2-11
2.7 Mechanics of Rotational Motion ................................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.7.1 Inertia (J) ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.7.2 Damper (B) .................................................................................................................................................. 2-12
2.7.3 Spring (K) .................................................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.7.4 Rotational Elements .................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.8 Electrical Systems ........................................................................................................................................................ 2-13
UQ. 2.8.1 Give the various terminology of electrical system. (SPPU - May 15, 3 Marks) ..................................... 2-13
2.8.1 Resistor ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.8.2 Inductor ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.8.3 Capacitor ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.9 Analogous Systems ...................................................................................................................................................... 2-14
UQ. 2.9.1 Derive the force to voltage and force to current analogy between mechanical
and electrical systems. (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................... 2-14
2.9.1 Force - Voltage Analogy .............................................................................................................................. 2-14
2.9.2 Force - Current Analogy .............................................................................................................................. 2-14
UQ. 2.9.2 Give analogous quantities based on force-current analogy. (SPPU - May 15, 3 Marks) ...................... 2-14
2.9.3 Representation of Nodal Method ................................................................................................................ 2-15
2.10 Solved Examples .......................................................................................................................................................... 2-15
UEx. 2.4 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 2-20
Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 2-21
Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) Transfer Function and Mathematical Modeling)….Page no. (2-2)

  +PVTQFWEVKQP  Taking C(s) common from LHS and R(s) common from
RHS,
n n–1
[s + an – 1 s + ... + a1 s + a0] C (s)
 A system is an entity which performs operation on input to m m–1
convert it to required output. = [bm s + bm – 1 s + ... + b1 s + b0] R (s)
m m–1
 Transfer function gives relation between input and output of C (s) bm s + bm – 1 s + ... + b1 s + b0
G (s) = R (s) =
linear time invariant system. n
s +a s
n–1
+ ... + a s + a
n–1 1 0
 Relation between input and output of the system helps us to
study behavior of the system and also helps in mathematical
analysis of the system.
 2.2.1 Properties of Transfer Function /
 Laplace transform is mathematical tool used in the analysis of
Advantages of Transfer Function
the system. 1. Transfer function provides complete solution to LTI system.
 Solution of integro-differential equation is easier using 2. Mathematical analysis of all components and entire system is
Laplace transform. possible.
3. We can determine poles, zeros, characteristic equation of the
  &GHKPKVKQPQH6TCPUHGT(WPEVKQP system.
4. Using transfer function we can determine stability of the
system.
 Transfer function is defined as ratio of Laplace transform of
output to Laplace transform of input considering all initial 5. Using mathematical tools like Laplace transform helps to
conditions “zero”. convert time domain equation to simple algebraic equation.
 Transfer function is defined as Laplace transform of impulse 6. All initial conditions of the system are considered “zero”.
response of the system considering all initial conditions 7. Transfer function is a continuous data which is expressed as a
“zero”. function of complex variable ‘s’.
8. Output response of any type of system can be calculated
using transfer function.

 2.2.2 Disadvantages of Transfer Function

(1B1)Fig. 2.2.1 : System
1. This technique is useful only for linear, time invariant system
r (t) o
Input of the system and cannot be used for non-linear and time variant systems.
c (t) o
Output of the system 2. Information regarding physical structure of system is not
g (t) o
Impulse response of the system provided.
R (s) o
Laplace transform of input r (t) 3. Initial conditions lose their importance as they are considered
C (s) o
Laplace transform of output c (t) zero.
G (s) o
Laplace transform of g (t), i.e., 4. Transfer function does not provide information about the
transfer function progress of output.
C (s)
G (s) = R (s) |
initial condition = 0
 2.2.3 Proper Transfer Function
 Even though transfer function of the system is defined using  In general the transfer function of LTI system can be
impulse response of the system, the input-output relation of expressed as,
m m–1
LTI system is a continuous data which can be represented C (s) bm s + bm – 1 s + ... + b1 s + b0
G (s) = R (s) = n n–1
using differential equation. s +a s
n–1 + ... + a s + a
1 0

 Hence we can easily derive transfer function from this  The transfer function is said to be proper if order/degree of
differential equation. denominator is greater than that of numerator.
i.e. n t m
 Consider a LTI system described by the following differential
equation having real constants.
n n–1
  +ORQTVCPV6GTOUTGNCVGFVQ
d c (t) d d
n + an – 1 n – 1 c (t) + ... + a1 dt c (t) + a0 c (t)  6TCPUHGT(WPEVKQP
dt dt
m m–1
d d d Transfer function of LTI system is expressed as,
= bm m r (t) + bm – 1 m – 1 r (t) + ...+ b1 dt r (t) + b0 r (t) ...(2.2.1) m m–1
dt dt C (s) bm s + bm – 1 s + ... + b1 s + b0
G (s) = R (s) = n n–1 ...(2.3.1)
 Taking Laplace transform of the above equation assuming all s +a s
n–1 + ... + a s + a
1 0
initial conditions “zero”,
n n–1
s C (s) + an – 1 s C (s) + ... + a1 s C (s) + a0 C (s)
m m–1
= bm s R (s) + bm – 1 s R (s) + ... + b1 s R (s) + b0 R (s)

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2 2
Factorizing the numerator and denominator, s (s + 4s + 3) (s + 9s + 20) = 0
4 3 2 3 2 2
k (s – z1) (s – z2) ... (s – zm) s [s + 9s + 20s + 4s + 36s + 80s + 3s + 27s + 60] = 0
G (s) = (s – p ) (s – p )... (s – p ) ...(2.3.2) 4 3 2
1 2 n s [s + 13s + 59s + 107s + 60] = 0
5 4 3 2
k = System gain s + 13s + 59s + 107s + 60s = 0 ...Ans.

1. Poles 2. Poles
2
 All the values of ‘s’ which make the transfer function infinite s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 9s + 20) = 0
are called poles. s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 4) (s + 5) = 0
 Poles are obtained by factorizing the denominator and ? 5 poles are located at s = 0, – 1, – 3, – 4, – 5
equating to zero.
 From Equation (2.3.2) we can say that p1, p2… pn are poles of 3. Zeros
the transfer function. 8 (s + 2) = 0
? Zero is located at s = – 2
2. Zeros
 All values of ‘s’ which make the transfer function ‘zero’ are 4. Pole-zero plot
called zeros.
 Zeros are obtained by factorizing the numerator and equating
to zero.
 Form Equation (2.3.2) we can say that z1, z2… zm are zeros of
transfer function.

3. Characteristic equation
 The equation obtained by equating denominator of transfer
function to zero is called characteristic equation of the
system.
 From Equation (2.3.1) we can say that,
n n–1
s + an – 1 s + ... + a1 s + a0 = 0
is the characteristic equation of LTI system. (1B2)Fig. Ex. 2.3.1

4. Pole-zero plot   .CRNCEG6TCPUHQTOQH'NGEVTKECN

Locating all poles and zeros in ‘s’ plane represents pole-zero  0GVYQTM'NGOGPVU
plot.
Pole is marked by ‘u’. Sr. Element Voltage in Voltage in
Zero is marked by ‘o’. No. time domain Laplace
domain
5. Order of the system 1. Resistor V = R i (t) V = R I (s)
Highest power of ‘s’ in the characteristic equation represents
order of the system. Fig. 2.4.1
2. Inductor d i (t) V = Ls I
Ex. 2.3.1 V = L dt
(s)
The transfer function of the system is represented by
8 (s + 2)
G (s) = 2 Fig. 2.4.2
s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 9s + 20)
∫ i (t)
3. Capacitor 1 1
Determine V=C V = sC I
1. Characteristic equation
dt (s)
2. Poles
3. Zeros
4. Pole-zero plot Fig. 2.4.3

 Soln. : Note : All initial conditions are considered zero.

1. Characteristic equation
2
s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 9s + 20) = 0

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 2.4.1 Solved Examples on Transfer Ex. 2.4.2

Function of Electrical Networks Obtain transfer function of the given circuit.

Ex. 2.4.1
Obtain transfer function of the given circuit

(1B5)Fig. Ex. 2.4.2

 Soln. :
Step I : Applying KVL to the input side
(1B3)Fig. Ex. 2.4.1

 Soln. :
Step I : Applying KVL to the input side.

(1B6)Fig.Ex. 2.4.2(a)
d i (t)
vi (t) = R i (t) + L dt ...(1)
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1)
(1B4)Fig.
Ex. 2.4.1(a) Vi (s) = R I (s) + s L I (s)
Vi (s) = (R + sL) I (s) ...(2)
∫
1
vi (t) = R i (t) + C i (t) dt ...(1)
Step II : Applying KVL to output side
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1) d i (t)
vo (t) = L dt ...(3)
1
Vi (s) = R I (s) + sC I (s)
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3)
1 Vo (s) = s L I (s) ...(4)
(
Vi (s) = R + sC I (s) ) ...(2)
Step III : To obtain transfer function
Step II : Applying KVL to output loop/side Divide Equation (4) by Equation (2)
਋
∫
1 Vo (s) sL I(s)
vo (t) = C i (t) dt ...(3)
Vi (s) = (R + sL) I(s)਋
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3)
Hence the required transfer function is
1
Vo (s) = sC I (s) ...(4) Vo (s) sL
G (s) = V (s) = R + sL ...Ans.
Step III : To obtain transfer function i

Divide Equation (4) by Equation (2)

1 UEx. 2.1 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks)
Vo (s) ਋
sC ˜ I(s) Determine the transfer function Vo (s) / Vin (s) for the system
Vi (s) =
1 shown in the Fig. Ex. 2.1.
( )
R + sC I(s) ਋

1
Vo (s) ਋
sC
Vi (s) = sRC + 1
਋
sC
Vo (s) 1
Vi (s) = 1 + sRC (5B6)Fig. Ex. 2.1
The required transfer function is
Vo (s) 1
 Soln. :
G (s) = V (s) = 1 + sRC ...Ans. Step I : Applying KVL to the input side,
i
di (t) 1
∫
vin (t) – Ri (t) – L dt – C i (t) dt = 0

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di (t) 1
∫
vin (t) = Ri (t) + L dt + C i (t) dt Step III : To obtain transfer function
1
1 ਋
Taking Laplace transform on both sides, Vo(s) sC I(s) s਋
C
1
Vin (s) = RI (s) + s LI (s) + sC I (s) ...(1) Vi (s) = = 2
I਋
1
Step II : Applying KVL to output side,
( R + sL + sC ) (s)
sRC + s LC + 1
s਋
C
1
∫
vo (t) = C i (t) dt V (s)
? Transfer function V o(s) =
i
2
1
s LC + s RC + 1
Taking Laplace transform on both sides
1 Step IV : Roots of the denominator
Vo (s) = sC I (s) ...(2) 2
s LC + s RC + 1 = 0
Step III : To obtain transfer function
1 ਋ Comparing with
Vo (s) sC I(s) 2
ax + bx + c = 0
Vin (s) =
R + sL + sC I਋
1
( (s) ) We get a = LC, b = RC, c = 1
–br 2
V (s) 1 b – 4a c
Transfer function V o (s) = s 1, s 2 =
in s2 LC + sRC + 1 2a
If R = 10 : L=1H C=1F – RC r 2 2
R C – 4LC
V (s) 1 s 1, s 2 = 2LC
? Transfer function, V o (s) = 2
in s + 10 s + 1 2 2
–R R C – 4LC
s 1, s 2 = 2L r 2 2
4L C
Ex. 2.4.3
2
Consider the R-L-C network shown in the Fig. Ex. 2.4.3. –R R 1
(i) Obtain transfer function if vi and vo are input and output
= 2L r 2–
4L LC
voltage respectively. 2
–R R 1
(ii) Find the location of poles in terms of R, L and C. s1 = 2L + 4L
2 – LC
(iii) If R = 1 M:, C = 1 PF and L = 1 mH. Are the location of
poles of transfer function given in (i) real ? 2
–R R 1
If yes, find the location. s2 = 2L – 2–
4L LC
Step V : If R = 1 M: , C = 1 PF and L = 1 mH
6 12
– 1 u 10 10 1
s1 = –3 + –6 – –3 –6
2 u 10 4 u 10 10 u 10
s1 = – 1
6 12
– 1 u 10 10 1
(5B1)Fig. Ex. 2.4.3 s2 = –3 – –6 – –3 –6
2 u 10 4 u 10 10 u 10
 Soln. : s2 = – 999999999 = – 999.99999 u 10
6

Step I : Applying KVL to the input side,

Both the roots are real. Hence system is stable.
di (t) 1
∫
vi (t) – R i (t) – L dt – C i (t) dt = 0
Ex. 2.4.4
di (t) 1
vi (t) = R i (t) + L dt + C i(t) dt∫ Obtain transfer function of the given circuit.

Taking Laplace transform on both sides,

1
Vi (s) = R I (s) + s L I (s) + sC I (s) ...(1)
Step II : Applying KVL to output side,
1
∫
vo (t) = C i (t) dt
Taking Laplace transform on both sides,
1 (1B9)Fig. Ex. 2.4.4
Vo (s) = sC I (s) ...(2)

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 Soln. :  Soln. :
Step I : Applying KVL to the input side Step I : Applying KVL to the input side

∫
1
vi (t) = R1 i (t) + C i (t) dt + R2 i (t) ...(1)
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1)
1
Vi (s) = R1 I (s) + sC I (s) + R2 I (s)
1
Vi (s) = [R1 + sC + R2 I (s) ] ...(2)

Step II : Applying KVL to the output side

(1B10)Fig. Ex. 2.4.4(a)
∫
1
vo (t) = C i (t) dt + R2 i (t) ...(3)

∫
d i (t) 1
vi (t) = R i (t) + L dt + C i (t) dt ...(1) Taking Laplace transform of equation
1
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1) Vo (s) = sC I (s) + R2 I (s)
1
Vi (s) = R I (s) + s L I (s) + sC I (s) 1
1
Vo (s) = [ ]
sC + R2 I (s) ...(4)

[
Vi (s) = R + sL + sC I (s) ] ...(2) Step III : To obtain transfer function
Divide Equation (4) by Equation (2)
Step II : Applying KVL to the output side
1
d i (t) 1
vo (t) = L dt + C i (t) dt∫ ...(3) Vo (s)
=
[ ਋
sC + R2 I(s) ]
Vi (s) 1
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3)
1
[
R1 + sC + R2 I(s)਋ ]
Vo (s) = sL I (s) + sC I (s) Vo (s) /
(1 + sCR2) /sC
G (s) = V (s) = (sCR + 1 + sCR ) / sC
/
1
[
Vo (s) = sL + sC I (s) ] ...(4) i 1 2
Hence the required transfer function is
Step III : To obtain transfer function Vo (s) 1 + sCR2
Divide Equation (4) by Equation (2) G (s) = V (s) = ...Ans.
i 1 + sCR + sCR 1 2
1
Vo (s)
=
[
sL + sC I(s)]
਋
Ex. 2.4.6
Vi (s) 1
[R + sL + sC I(s) ਋ ] Obtain transfer function of the given circuit.
2
s LC + 1
Vo (s) sC
G (s) = V (s) = 2
i sRC + s LC + 1
sC
Hence the required transfer function is
Vo (s) 2
s LC + 1
G (s) = V (s) = 2 ...Ans.
i s LC + sRC + 1
(1B12)Fig. Ex. 2.4.6

Ex. 2.4.5  Soln. :

Obtain transfer function of the following network
Step I : Applying KVL to loop I and loop II

(1B11)Fig. Ex. 2.4.5 (1B13)Fig. Ex. 2.4.6(a)

Current flowing through capacitor : i1 (t) – i2 (t)

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Applying KVL to loop I 1
R2 ˜ sC ˜ Ei (s)
∫
1
ei (t) = R1 i1 (t) + C (i1 (t) – i2 (t)) dt Eo (s) =

Taking Laplace transform of above equation ( R + sC1 ) ( R + sL + sC1 ) – s 1C

1 2 1 2 2

1 R2
Ei (s) = R1 I1 (s) + sC [I1 (s) – I2 (s)]
Eo (s) sC
1 1
Ei (s) =
Ei (s) = R1 I1 (s) + sC I1 (s) – sC I2 (s)
1 1
( R + sC1 ) ( R + sL + sC1 ) – s 1C
1 2 1 2 2

Ei (s) = [ ]
R1 + sC I1 (s) – sC I2 (s) ...(1)
Multiply numerator and denominator by s C
2 2

Applying KVL to loop II Eo (s) sCR2

d ˜ i2 (t) G (s) = E (s) = 2
∫
1 i (sCR1 + 1) (sCR2 + s L1 C + 1) – 1
– L1 dt – R2 i2 (t) + C [i1 (t) – i2 (t)] dt = 0
d ˜ i2 (t) ? The required transfer function is
∫
1
i.e., 0 = L1 + R2 i2 (t) – C [i1 (t) – i2 (t)] dt Eo (s) sCR2
dt G (s) = E (s) = 2
Taking Laplace transform on both sides i (sCR + 1) (sCR + s L C + 1) – 1
1 2
1
0 = s L1 I2 (s) + R2 I2 (s) – sC [I1 (s) – I2 (s)] Note : In this problem output equation contains current I2.
1 1 Hence we have to find I2 in terms of input voltage Ei to
0 = s L1 I2 (s) + R2 I2 (s) – sC I1 (s) + sC I2 (s)
get Eo/Ei.
1 1
[
0 = – sC I1 (s) + R2 + sL1 + sC I2 (s) ] ...(2)
Ex. 2.4.7
Step II : Solving Equations (1) and (2) by Cramer’s rule to Obtain Laplace transform of the circuit shown in Fig. Ex. 2.4.7.
obtain value of I2 (s).

⎡ ⎤
1 1
R1 + sC – sC
⎡ Ei (s)
⎤ = ⎡ I1(s) ⎤
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ I2 (s) ⎦
⎣ ⎦
1 1
– sC R2 + sL1 + sC

⎪ ⎪
1 1
R1 + sC – sC
D = ⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪ R + sL + sC ⎪
1
– sC 2 1 (1B14)Fig. Ex. 2.4.7

D = (R + sC1 ) (R + sL + sC1 ) – (– sC1 )(– sC1 )

1 2 1  Soln. :
Step I : Using node analysis express the current in terms of
⎡ ⎤
1
R1 + sC Ei (s) voltages.
DI2 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1
– sC 0

DI2 = 0 – (– sC1 ) E (s) i

1
DI2 = sC Ei (s)
1
DI2 sC ˜ Ei (s)
I2(s) = D = (1B15)Fig. Ex. 2.4.7(a)
( R + sC1 ) ( R + sL + sC1 ) – s 1C
1 2 1 2 2
vi (t) – vo (t)
...(3) I1 = R ...(1)
Step III : Applying KVL to output side vi (t) – vo (t)
eo (t) = R2 i2 (t) I2 = C ...(2)
Taking Laplace transform of the above equation vo (t)
Eo (s) = R2 I2 (s) ...(4) I = L ...(3)
Substituting value of I2 (s) from Equation (3) in Equation (4)

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Step II : Using KCL we can write Step III : To obtain transfer function
I 1 + I2 = I ...(4) Divide Equation (4) by Equation (2)
Substituting value of I1, I2 and I in Equation (4) Eo (s) ਋
R I(s)
Ei (s) = 1
vi (t) – vo (t) vi (t) – vo (t)
R + C =
vo (t)
L ...(5) [ ਋
sL + sC + R I(s) ]
Eo (s) R
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (5)
Ei (s) = 2
s LC + 1 + sRC
Vi (s) – Vo (s) Vi (s) – Vo (s) Vo (s)
+ = sC
R 1 sL
sC Hence the required transfer function is
Eo (s) sRC
1 1 1 G (s) = E (s) = 2 ...Ans.
R Vi (s) – R Vo (s) + sC Vi (s) – sC Vo (s) = sL Vo (s) i s LC + sRC + 1
1 1 1
R Vi (s) + sC Vi (s) = sL Vo (s) + R Vo (s) + sC Vo (s) UEx. 2.2 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks)
1 1 1
( ) R + sC Vi (s) =( )
sL + R + sC Vo (s)
2
V (s)
Determine the transfer function V o (s) for the system shown in the
in

( 1 +RsCR ) V (s) = ⎛⎝ R + sLsLR

i
+ s LRC ⎞
⎠ V (s) o
Fig. Ex. 2.2.

Vo (s) (1 + sCR)/ R
Vi (s) = 2
(R + sL + s LRC) / sLR
Vo (s) 1 + sCR /
sL R
Vi (s) = R/ u R + sL + s2 LRC
Vo (s) 2
sL + s LCR
T. F. = G (s) = V (s) = 2 ...Ans. (5B7)Fig. Ex. 2.2
i R + sL + s LRC

Ex. 2.4.8
 Soln. :
Find the transfer function of given network. Step I : Applying KVL to loop I
1
– R1 i1 (t) – C [i1 (t) – i2 (t)] + vin (t) = 0
1
1
vin (t) = R1 i1 (t) + C [i1 (t) – i2 (t)]
1

Taking Laplace transform,

1
Vin (s) = R1 I1 (s) + sC [I1 (s) – I2 (s)]
(1B16)Fig. Ex. 2.4.8 1

 Soln. : Vin (s) = ⎡R1 + sC1 ⎤ I1 (s) – sC1 I2 (s) ...(1)

⎣ 1⎦ 1

Step I : Applying KVL to the input side Step II : Applying KVL to loop II

∫
d i (t) 1 1 1
ei (t) = L dt + C i (t) dt + R i (t) ...(1) – R2 i2 (t) – C i2 (t) + C [i1 (t) – i2 (t)] = 0
2 1

Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1) 1 1

R2 i2 (t) + C i2 (t) – C [i1 (t) – i2 (t)] = 0
1 2 1
Ei (s) = sL I (s) + sC I (s) + R I (s)
Taking Laplace transform,
1 1 1
[
Ei (s) = sL + sC + R I (s) ] ...(2) R2 I2 (s) + sC I2 (s) – sC [I1 (s) – I2 (s)]
2 1
= 0
1 1 1
Step II : Applying KVL to output side R2 I2 (s) + sC I2 (s) – sC I1 (s) + sC I2 (s) = 0
2 1 1
eo (t) = R i (t) ...(3) –1
⎡ 1 1
⎤
sC1 I1(s) + ⎣R2 + sC2 + sC1 ⎦ I2 (s) = 0 ...(2)
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3)
Eo (s) = R I (s) ...(4) Using Cramer’s rule to solve Equations (1) and (2) for I2 (s),

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⎪ R + sC1
1
Vin (s)
⎪  Soln. :
⎪ –1 ⎪
1
Step I :

I2 (s) =
⎪ sC 1
0 ⎪ Current flowing through C o i1 – i2
Applying KVL to loop I,

⎪ ⎪
1 –1 1
R1 + sC sC1 – R1 i1 (t) – C (i1 (t) – i2 (t) ) + vin (t) = 0
⎪ ⎪
1

1
⎪ ⎪
–1 1 1
R2 + sC + sC Vin (t) = R1 i1 (t) + C [i1 (t) – i2 (t) ] ...(1)
sC1 2 1
Taking Laplace transform,
0 – ⎡sC Vin (s) ⎤
–1 1
⎣ 1 ⎦ Vin (s) = R1 I1 (s) + sC [ I1 (s) – I2 (s) ]
I2 (s) =
⎛R1 + sC1 ⎞ ⎛R2 + sC1 + sC1 ⎞ – ⎛ sC
–1 –1
⎞ 1 1
⎝ 1⎠⎝ 2 1⎠ ⎝ 1 u sC1 ⎠ Vin (s) = R1 I1 (s) + sC I1 (s) – sC I2 (s)
1 1 1
I2 (s) = R1 R1 R2
sC1 Vin (s)
1
Vin (s) = (
R1 + sC )
I1 (s) – sC I2 (s) ...(2)
1 1 Step II : Applying KVL to loop 2,
R1 R2 + sC + sC + sC + 2 + 2 2 – 2 2
1
∫
2 1 2 sCC 1 2 s C1 s C1 – R2 i2 (t) – R3 i2 (t) + C i1 (t) – i2 (t) = 0
1
Taking Laplace transform,
sC1 u Vin (s)
I2 (s) = 1
R1 R2( s2 C1C2) + R1 (sC1) + R1 (sC2) + R2 sC1 + 1 – R2 I2 (s) – R3 I2 (s) + sC [I1(s) – I2(s) ] = 0
2
s C1C2 1
R2 I2 (s) + R3 I2 (s) – sC [I1(s) – I2(s) ] = 0
1 s਋2 ਋
C1 C2
I2(s) = u Vin (s) u 1 1
਋
s ਋C1 – sC I1 (s) + sC I2 (s) + R2 I2 (s) + R3 I2 (s) = 0
R1 R2 (s2 C1 C2) + (R1 + R2) sC1 + R1 sC2 + 1
1 1
s C2 Vin (s)
[
– sC I1 (s) + sC + R2 + R3 I2 (s) = 0 ] ...(3)
I2 (s) = 2
...(3) Solving Equations (2) and (3) for I2 (s) using Cramer’s rule,
R1 R2C1C2 s + (R1 C1 + R2 C1 + R1 C2) s + 1

⎪ R + sC ⎪
1
1 Vin(s)
Step III : Applying KVL to output side,
⎪ 1 ⎪
1
vo (t) = C i2 (t)
2 I2 (s) =
⎪ – sC 0 ⎪
⎪ R + sC ⎪
1 1
Taking Laplace transform, 1 – sC
1
Vo (s) = C I2 (s) ⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪ – sC ⎪
2 1
Substitute value of I2 (s) from Equation (3) sC + R2 + R3
s਋ –1
Vo (s) =
1
਋
u 2
C 2 Vin(s)
C2 (R1 R2 C1 C2) s + (R1 C1 + R2 C1 + R1C2) s + 1 I2 (s) =
( sC ) V (s)
0– in

Vo (s) s (R + sC1 ) ( sC1 + R + R ) – (–sC1) (–sC1)

1 2 3

Vin (s) = (R R C C ) s2 + (R C + R C + R C ) s + 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
sC Vin (s)
UEx. 2.3 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) I2 (s) =
V (s) ⎡ R1 + R R + R R + 1
+ sC + sC ⎤ – 2 2
R2 R3 1
Obtain the transfer function V o (s) for the system shown in the
in
⎣ sC 1 2 1 3 2 2
sC ⎦ s C
Fig. Ex. 2.3. 1
sC Vin (s)
I2 (s) = R1 R2 R3
sC + R1 R2 + R 1 R3 + sC + sC
1
sC u Vin (s)
I2 (s) = R1 + R1 R2 sC + R1 R3 sC + R2 + R3
sC
(5B8)Fig. Ex. 2.3

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s਋
C
I2 (s) =
1
s਋
C
u Vin (s) u R + R + R + (R R + R R ) sC
1 2 3 1 2 1 3
 2.6.1 Mass
Vin (s)  According to physical model of mass element it is assumed
I2 (s) = R1 + R2 + R3 + (R1 R2 + R1 R3) sC that entire mass of the body is concentrated at the center of
Step II : Applying KVL to output side, the body. Whenever a block of mass moves all particles of the
vo (t) = R3 i2 (t) block undergo equal displacement as shown in the Fig. 2.6.1.
Taking Laplace transform,
Vo (s) = R3 I2 (s)
Substituting value of I2 (s),
Vo (s) = R3
⎡ Vin (s)
⎤ (1B20)Fig. 2.6.1 : Motion of block
⎣R1 + R2 + R3 + (R1 R3 + R1 R2) sC ⎦
Vo (s) R3  Hence we can say that mass ‘M’ has only one displacement.
Vin (s) = R1 + R2 + R3 + (R1 R3 + R1 R2) sC  In the Fig. 2.6.2, o x represents the displacement of the
R3 mass.
T.F. = R + R + R + (R R + R R ) sC
1 2 3 1 3 1 2

  /CVJGOCVKECN/QFGNNKPI
 System is an entity which performs operation on input to
convert it to required output. System can be either Single
Input Single Output [SISO] or Multiple Input Multiple
(1B21)Fig. 2.6.2 : Displacement of mass
Output [MIMO].
 Input signals can be of any type i.e., electrical, mechanical, The relation between force and mass is given as
hydraulic, pneumatic, etc. Input signal can be function of any F = Ma
physical variable like temperature, pressure, etc. Systems dv (t)
a = dt , v = velocity
produce output for the given input. Analysis of mechanical
dv (t)
system becomes easier if they are expressed in their ? F = M dt
equivalent form. dx (t)
But v = dt , x = displacement
 The equivalent representation of system can be done by using
mathematical equations. Newton’s second law of motion, d dx (t)
Kirchoff’s laws, D-Alemberts principle etc. are used to get
? F = M dt dt
2
[ ]
equivalent differential equations of the system. d x (t)
F = M 2
 These mathematical differential equation tell us the behavior dt
of the system. From mechanical point of view, description of
mechanical and electrical elements are analogous. Expressing  2.6.2 Spring
mechanical elements in electrical form helps us to analyze the
 The body subjected to force undergoes elastic deformation. A
system more efficiently and easily as we know the rules of
spring has the property to expand and contract on application
electrical system analysis.
of force.
  /GEJCPKEUQH6TCPUNCVKQPCN  Spring stores potential energy. Even though springs are
 /QVKQP considered to be non-linear devices, their deformation can be
considered linear for short distances.
 &GHKPKVKQPQHVTCPUNCVKQPCNOQVKQP
6JG OQVKQP QH VJG DQF[ CNQPI C UVTCKIJV NKPG QT EWTXGF
RCVJKUECNNGFVTCPUNCVKQPCNOQVKQP
It mainly consists of three elements :
(1B22)Fig. 2.6.3 : Spring
(I) Mass (II) Spring (III) Damper

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Consider the above spring force is applied for deformation.

Force applied is proportional to displacement.
(a) If force is applied to end ‘A’, then the displacement is x1 – x2
? F v x1 – x2
F = K (x1 – x2) = K [ x1 (t) – x2 (t)]
where K is spring constant.
(b) If force is applied to end ‘B’, then the displacement is x2 – x1 (1B23)Fig. 2.6.4 : A dashpot
? F v x2 – x1
 Friction can exist between moving body and fixed surface or
F = K (x2 – x1) = K [ x2 (t) – x1 (t)]
between two moving surfaces. Friction has tendency to
where K is spring constant.
oppose motion but friction is not always undesirable. Some
 2.6.3 Damper frictions are introduced intentionally. Viscous friction shown
in dashpot is intentional friction.
 Friction is always associated with motion. Whenever motion
 Force is applied to the piston as shown in the Fig. 2.6.4 and is
occurs there is friction. Consider a small wooden block
proportional to velocity
placed on the floor.
F v Velocity
 When it is pushed from one place to another place, force is
dx (t)
applied and there is friction between the block and floor. The F = B dt

force applied to move the block will have to overcome the d

F = B dt [ x1 (t) – x2 (t) ]
friction.
where B is frictional constant. x1(t) and x2(t) are
displacements.
 2.6.4 Translational Elements
Table 2.6.1

Sr. Element Relation Laplace domain

No. representation
2 2
1. d x (t) F (s) = Ms X (s)
F=M 2
dt

(1B24A)Fig. 2.6.5
2. F = K [ x1 (t) – x2 (t) ] F (s) = K [ X1 (s) – X2 (s) ]

(1B24B)Fig. 2.6.6
3. d F (s) = Bs [ X1 (s) – X2 (s) ]
F = B dt [ x1 (t) – x2 (t) ]

(1B24C)Fig. 2.6.7

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 From the above study of translational elements we can

conclude that translational motion is a function of
displacement (spring), velocity (damper) and acceleration
(mass).
 This is based on Newton’s second law of motion which states
(1B25)Fig. 2.7.1 : Inertia
that sum of the forces applied to the system is equal to sum of
the forces needed to produce displacement, velocity and Relation
2 2
acceleration. J d T (t) J dZ (t)
T = 2 = dt
dt
  /GEJCPKEUQH4QVCVKQPCN/QVKQP Note : Inertia has only one displacement.

 &GHKPKVKQPQHTQVCVKQPCNOQVKQP  2.7.2 Damper (B)

4QVCVKQPCN OQVKQP KU FGHKPGF CU OQVKQP CNQPI KVU QYP
CZKU
 In case of modeling there is lot of similarity between
translational motion and rotational motion.
 Table shows list of the counterparts between translational (1B26)Fig. 2.7.2 : Damper
and rotational motion.
Relations
Table 2.7.1
(a) If ‘T’ is at T2 then
Sr. No. Translational motion Rotational motion dT (t) d
T = B dt = B dt [ T2 (t) – T1 (t) ]
1. Mass (M) Inertia (J)
(b) If T is at T1 then
2. Damper (B) Damper (B)
dT (t) d
T = B dt = B dt [ T1 (t) – T2 (t) ]
3. Spring (K) Spring (K)
4. Force (F) Torque (W)
 2.7.3 Spring (K)
5. Linear displacement ‘x’ Angular displacement ‘T’
6. Linear velocity, ‘v’ Angular velocity, ‘Z’
dx dT
v = dt Z = dt

(1B27)Fig. 2.7.3 : Spring

There are three basic elements in rotational motion :
1. Inertia (J) Relations
2. Damper (B) T = K T (t) = K ( T1 (t) – T2 (t) )

3. Spring (K)

 2.7.1 Inertia (J)

 &GHKPKVKQPQHOQOGPVQHKPGTVKC
6JG TQVCVKQPCN KPGTVKC QH CPIWNCT OCUU QT OQOGPV QH
KPGTVKC QH C TKIKF DQF[ KU FGHKPGF CU SWCPVKV[ VJCV
FGVGTOKPGU 6QTSWG PGGFGF HQT C FGUKTGF CPIWNCT
CEEGNGTCVKQPVQTQVCVGCDQWVKVUCZKU

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 2.7.4 Rotational Elements

Table 2.7.2

Sr. Element Relation Laplace domain representation

No.
2 2
1. d T (t) T (s) = s J T (s)
T=J 2
dt

(1B28A)Fig. 2.7.4

2. d T (s) = Bs [ T1 (s) – T2 (s) ]

T = B dt ( T1 (t) – T2 (t) )

(1B28B)Fig. 2.7.5

3. T = K ( T1 (t) – T2 (t) ) T (s) = K [ T1 (s) – T2 (s) ]

(1B28C)Fig. 2.7.6

Note : While considering Laplace domain representation initial

conditions are assumed to be zero.  2.8.2 Inductor

  'NGEVTKECN5[UVGOU

UQ. 2.8.1 Give the various terminology of

electrical system. (SPPU - May 15, 3 Marks) (IB30)Fig. 2.8.2 : Inductor
We have already seen mechanics of translational motion and di
V = L dt
rotational motion. In this section we will study electrical systems
which are governed by ohm’s law. t

∫ V ˜ dt
1
i =
 Dynamic model of R-L-C network L
0
The three basic elements of electrical systems are : i = current, V = voltage
1. Resistor
2. Inductor  2.8.3 Capacitor
3. Capacitor

 2.8.1 Resistor

(IB31)Fig. 2.8.3 : Capacitor

t

∫ i dt
1
(IB29)Fig. 2.8.1 : Resistor V = C
0
V = iR o Ohm’s law dV
i = C dt
V
i = R i = current, V = voltage
i = current and V = voltage

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  #PCNQIQWU5[UVGOU Applying KVL to R-L-C circuit

t

∫
di 1
UQ. 2.9.1 Derive the force to voltage and force v (t) = Ri + L dt + C i dt ...(2.9.1)
0
to current analogy between mechanical dq
and electrical systems. i = dt
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) Substituting in Equation (2.9.1)
2
dq dq 1
 There is similarity between mechanical systems and electrical v (t) = R ˜ dt + L 2 + C q ...(2.9.2)
systems. It is possible to draw electrical equivalent of dt
mechanical systems, based on their analogy. Taking Laplace transform of Equation (2.9.2)
 Let us consider a simple mechanical system having all three 2 1
V (s) = sR Q (s) + s LQ (s) + C Q (s)
basic elements mass, spring and damper as shown in the
Fig. 2.9.1. ...(2.9.3)
 From the above Fig. 2.9.1 we can say that due to applied
Comparing Equation (2.9.3) with Equation (2.9.4)
force mass ‘M’ will produce displacement x(t) in the 2
direction of the force. F (s) = s MX (s) + sBX (s) + KX (s)
...(2.9.4)
1
F o V, M o L, B o R, K = C , X o Q

Consider rotational system

2
dT dT
T = J 2 + B dt + KT ...(2.9.5)
dt
(IB32)Fig. 2.9.1 : Mechanical system
Taking Laplace transform
2
 According to Newton’s law the applied force f (t) is T (s) = s J T (s) + Bs T (s) + K T (s)
responsible to produce displacement x (t) in spring, ...(2.9.6)
acceleration to mass against the frictional force. Compare Equations (2.9.3) and (2.9.6)
2
d x (t) d x (t) 1
T o V, J o L, B o R, K o C , T o Q
f (t) = M 2 +B dt + K x (t)
dt
Table 2.9.1 shows force - voltage analogy.
 Applying Laplace transform to the equation considering all
Table 2.9.1
initial condition zero.
2
F (s) = M s X (s) + Bs X (s) + K X (s) Translational Electrical Rotational
 This equation is equilibrium equation of the above
Force (F) Voltage (V) Torque (T)
mechanical system.
Mass (M) Inductance (L) Inertia (J)
 There are two main types of electrical analogous system.
Damper (B) Resistance (R) Damper (B)
(I) Force - voltage analogy
1
Spring (K) Elasticity D = C Spring (K)
(II) Force - current analogy

Displacement (x) Charge (q) Displacement (T)

 2.9.1 Force - Voltage Analogy Velocity (v)
dq
Current i = dt Velocity (Z)
Consider a series R-L-C circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.9.2.
 2.9.2 Force - Current Analogy

UQ. 2.9.2 Give analogous quantities based on

force-current analogy.

(SPPU - May 15, 3 Marks)

Consider a parallel R-L-C circuit.

(IB33)Fig. 2.9.2 : Series R-L-C circuit

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Step II :
(i) Mass (or J) has one displacement x (or T). Connect it between
node ‘x’ and reference.
(ii) Spring and damper must have two displacements x1 and x2
[or x1 and references as case may be]. Analyse and connect
(IB34)Fig. 2.9.3 : Parallel R-L-C circuit these elements between x1 and x2 (where x1, x2 represent two
displacements at two ends of each element).
From the above circuit the equation for ‘i’ is given as
V 1 dv Step III : Draw nodes and connect elements.
i = R + L ∫ v dt + C dt ...(2.9.7)
Step IV : Write force voltage equation for each node (as in
d\ KCL).
Put v = dt where \ is flux linkage.
2 Note : F - I model represents node analysis whereas F - V model
1 d\ 1 d \
i = R dt + L \ + C 2 ...(2.9.8) represents mesh analysis.
dt
Taking Laplace transform of the above equation
1 1 2
I (s) = R s ˜ \ (s) + L \ (s) + s C \ (s) ...(2.9.9)
  5QNXGF'ZCORNGU

The force equation of mechanical system is given by Ex. 2.10.1

2
F (s) = s M X (s) + sB X (s) + K X (s) For the system shown in the Fig. Ex. 2.10.1
...(2.9.10) (a) Write system equations.
Comparing Equations (2.9.9) and (2.9.10) (b) Draw force - current analogy.
1 1 (c) Draw force - voltage analogy.
F o I, B o R, K o L , M o C, X = \

Torque equation of rotational motion is given by

2
T (s) = s J T (s) + sB T (s) + K T (s)
...(2.9.11)
Comparing Equations (2.9.9) and (2.9.11)
1 1
T o I, J o C, B o R, K o L, T o \

Table 2.9.2 shows force-current analogy.

Table 2.9.2
(IB35)Fig. Ex. 2.10.1
Translational Electrical Rotational  Soln. :
Force (F) Current (i) Torque (T)
Part (a)
Mass (M) Capacitance (C) Inertia (J)
Spring (K) Reciprocal of Spring (K) Step I :
1 (i) Since there is only 1 mass. Hence only one node and one
()
inductance L
displacement.
Damper (B) 1 Damper (B) Number of displacements = Number of nodes
Conductance (R)
= Number of masses
Displacement (x) Flux linkage (\) Displacement (T) (ii) One additional node, i.e., reference node.
dx d\ dT (iii) Let ‘x’ be displacement at ‘M’.
Velocity dt Voltage V = dt Velocity dt
Step II :

 2.9.3 Representation of Nodal Method

(i) Mass connected between node ‘x’ and reference.
(ii) Spring connected between ‘x’ and reference.
Step I : Total number of nodes = Total number of (iii) Damper B is connected between ‘M’ and reference, i.e. ‘x’
displacement/masses and reference.
Take one node as reference node in addition. (iv) Force F is applied to ‘M’, i.e., displacement ‘x’.

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Step III : Node diagram 1
? V (s) = sL I (s) + RI (s) + sC I (s)
This is force-voltage analogous equation.

(IB36)Fig. Ex. 2.10.1(a) : Node diagram

Step IV : Incoming force = F (IB38)Fig. Ex. 2.10.1(c) : F-V analogy

2
dx dx
Outgoing force = M 2 + B dt + Kx
dt Note :
Hence the required force equation 1. Same charge ‘q’ or I (s) gives all elements in series.
2
dx dx 2. q1 – q2 or I1 – I2 give elements common to loop I1 and I2.
F = M 2 + B dt + Kx
dt 3. Voltage source value equals to force value.
Taking Laplace transform
2
F (s) = s M X (s) + sB X (s) + K X (s) Ex. 2.10.2
2
F (s) = (s M + sB + K) X (s) For the mechanical system shown in the Fig. Ex. 2.10.2.

Part (b) : Force-current analogy

1 1
F o I, M o C, K o L, B o R , X = \

The force equation is

2
F (s) = s M X (s) + sB X (s) + K X (s) ...(1)
Its analogous equation is
2 1 1
I (s) = s C \ (s) + s ˜ R \ (s) + L \ (s) ...(2)

Substitute V (s) = s \ (s)

V (s) 1
? I (s) = sC V (s) + R + sL V (s) (IB39)Fig. Ex. 2.10.2
This is force-current analogous equation. To draw circuit (a) Draw the mechanical network and differential equation of
replace each element by its analogous value. performance.
(b) Draw F-V analogy.
(c) Draw F-I analogy.
 Soln. : Part (a)
Step I :
(i) Number of displacements = Number of nodes = 2
= Number of masses
(IB37)Fig. Ex. 2.10.1(b) : Force-current analogy circuit
(ii) Take any one node as additional reference node.
Part (c) : Force - voltage analogy circuit Step II :
(i) For mass
1 M1 connected to x1.
F o V, M o L, B o R, K o C, X o q
M2 connected to x2.
The force equation is given by (ii) For spring
2
F (s) = s M X (s) + sB X (s) + K X (s) ...(1) K1 connected between x1 and reference.
Analogous equation K2 connected between x1 and x2.
2 1 (iii) For damper
V (s) = s L q (s) + sR q (s) + C q (s) ...(2)
B1 is connected between x1 and reference.
Substitute
I (s) = s q (s)

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Step III : Node diagram

Force is applied to M1 i.e. x1.

(IB41)Fig. Ex. 2.10.2(b) : F-I analogy

Part (c) : Force-voltage analogy

1
Replace F o V, M o L, B o R, K o C, X o q
(IB40)Fig. Ex. 2.10.2(a)

Step IV : in Equations (1) and (2).

(a) For Equation (1)
At node x1 1 1
2
2
V (s) = s L1 q1 (s) + C q1 (s) + sR1 q1 (s) + C [ q1 (s) – q2 (s) ]
d x1 dx1 1 2
F = M1 + K1 x1 + B1 dt + K2 (x1 – x2)
2
dt Put I (s) = sq (s)
Taking Laplace transform 1 1
2
V (s) = s L1 I1 (s) + sC I1 (s) + R1 I1 (s) + sC [ I1 (s) – I2 (s) ]
F(s) = s M1 X1 (s) + K1 X1 (s) + B1s X1 (s) + K2 (X1 (s) – X2 (s)) 1 2

...(1) (b) Similarly for Equation (2)

1
At node x2 C2 [ I1 (s) – I2 (s) ] = sL2 I2 (s)
2
d x2 F - V circuit
K2 (x1 – x2 ) = M2 2
dt
2
K2 [ X1 (s) – X2 (s) ] = s M2 X2 (s) ...(2)

Part (b) : Force-current analogy

1 1
F o I, M o C, B o R, K o L , X = \
(IB42)Fig. Ex. 2.10.2(c) : F-V analogy
(a) Replace in Equation (1)
2 1 1 1 Since I1 and I2 flow in C2, C2 is common between I1 and I2.
I(s) = s C1 \1 (s) + L \1 (s) + s ˜ R \1 (s) + L (\1 (s) – \2 (s))
1 1 2

...(3) Ex. 2.10.3

Draw the equivalent mechanical network for given system as
Substitute V (s) = s \ (s)
shown in Fig. Ex. 2.10.3. Obtain differential equations describing
? Equation (3) becomes the system and draw electrical network using (F-V) analogy.
1 1 1
I(s) = s C1 V1 (s) + sL V1 (s) + R V1 (s) + sL ( V1 (s) – V2 (s) )
1 1 2

...(4)
(b) For Equation (2)
1 2
L2 [ \1 (s) – \2 (s) ] = s C2 \2 (s) ...(5)
(3B3)Fig. Ex. 2.10.3
Substitute V (s) = s \ (s)
1
sL2 ( V1 (s) – V2 (s) ) = s C2 V2 (s) ...(6)  Soln. :
Step I : (i) Number of nodes = Number of displacements.
Hence Number of Nodes = 3
(ii) One additional node as reference node

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Step II : (1) Mass M1 is connected between x2 and reference. F-V diagram

(2) Spring K1 is connected between x2 and x1.
(3) Damper B1 is connected between x3 and x2.
(4) Spring K2 is connected between x3 and x2.
(5) Damper B2 is connected between x3 and reference
(6) Spring K3 is connected between x3 and reference.
(7) Mass M2 is connected x3 and reference.
(3B5)Fig. Ex. 2.10.3(b) : F-V diagram
Step III : Node diagram
Ex. 2.10.4
Draw F-V and F-I analogous electrical network for mechanical
system shown in the Fig. Ex. 2.10.4.

(3B4)Fig. Ex. 2.10.3(a)

Step IV : To write the differential equation

(i) At x1
(3B6)Fig. Ex. 2.10.4
F = K1 (x1 – x2) ...(1)
(ii) At x2
2
 Soln. :
d x2 d
K1 (x1 – x2) = M1 2 + B1 dt ( x2 – x3 ) Step I : (i) Since there are two masses we consider two
dt
displacements x1 and x2.
+ K2 (x2 – x3) ...(2)
(ii) Since K3 and B1 are in series we need to take a
(iii) At x3
d x3 dx3
2 dummy displacement x3.
d
B1 dt (x2 – x3) + K2 (x2 – x3) = M2 2 + B2 + K3 x3 ...(3)
dt dt (iii) Spring K1 is connected between x1 and reference.

Step V : Force-voltage analogy (iv) Mass M1 is connected between x1 and reference.

1 (v) Spring K2 is connected between x1 and x2.

FoV MoL BoR KoC xoq
(vi) Spring K3 is connected between x1 and x3.
dx dq
= (vii) Damper B1 is connected between x3 and x2.
dt dt = i
Step II : Node diagram
Hence x = ∫ i dt
2
d x di
2 = dt
dt
Substituting values in Equations (1), (2) and (3)
1
V = C ( i1 – i2 ) dt
1
∫ ...(4)

1 di2 1
∫
C1 (i1 – i2) dt = L1 dt + R1 ( i2 – i3 ) + C2 ( i2 – i3 ) dt ∫
...(5)
1 di3 1
2
∫
R1 (i2 – i3) + C ( i2 – i3 ) dt = L2 dt + R2 i3 + C i3 dt
3
∫ ...(6)
(3B7)Fig. Ex. 2.10.4(a) : Node diagram

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Step III : Differential equation 1 1
I(s) = s C1 V1(s) + sL V1 (s) + sL ( V1(s) – V2 (s) )
(i) At x1 1 2
2
d x1 1
F = M1 + sL ( V1(s) – V3 (s) ) ...(7)
2 + K1 x1 + K2(x1 – x2) + K3(x1 – x3) ...(1) 3
dt
(ii) At x2 Similarly taking Laplace transform of Equation (2) and
2
d d x2 replacing
K2 (x1 – x2) + B1 dt ( x3 – x2 ) = M2 2 ...(2) 2
dt K2 ( \1(s) – \2(s) + B1s ( \3(s) – \2(s) ) = s M2 \2 (s)
(iii) At x3 1 1
d sL2 (V1(s) – V2 (s)) + R1 (V3(s) – V2 (s)) = s C2 V2 (s) ...(8)
K3 (x1 – x3) = B1 dt ( x3 – x2 ) ...(3)
Similarly for Equation (3)
Step IV : F-V analogous circuit 1 1
1 sL3 ( V1(s) – V3 (s)) + R1 ( V3 (s) – V2 (s) ) ...(9)
FoV MoL BoR Ko C
dq Hence F-I model is
dx
xoq dt = dt = i
Hence x = ∫ i dt
2
d x di
2 =
dt dt
Substituting in Equation (1)
di1 1 1 1
V = L1 +
dt C1 1 ∫
i dt + C
2
∫ ∫
( i1 – i2 ) dt + C ( i1 – i3 ) dt
3
...(3)
(3B9)Fig. Ex. 2.10.4(c) : F-I model
Substituting in Equation (2)
1 di2
C2 ∫ (i 1 – i2 ) dt + R1 ( i3 – i2 ) = L2 dt ...(4) Ex. 2.10.5
Obtain the transfer function of the following using mathematical
Substituting in Equation (3)
modelling.
1
∫
C3 ( i1 – i3 ) dt = R1 ( i3 – i2 ) ...(5)

(3B8)Fig. Ex. 2.10.4(b) : F-V model

(IB49)Fig. Ex. 2.10.5
Step V :F-I analogous circuit
1 1  Soln. :
FoI BoR K= L MoC xo\ Step I : Number of nodes = Number of displacements
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1) and replacing There are two displacements. Hence two nodes.
2 One additional node, i.e., reference node.
F(s) = s M1 X1 (s) + K1 X1 (s)
Step II :
+ K2 ( X1 (s) – X2 (s) ) + K3 ( X1(s) – X3(s) )
Substituting 1. Mass M
2 1 1
I(s) = s C1 \1(s) + L \1 (s) + L ( \1(s) – \2 (s) ) ‘M’ is connected between x2 and reference.
1 2
1 2. Spring
+ L ( \1(s) – \3 (s) ) ...(6)
3
K2 is placed x2 and x1.
Substitute V(s) = s \(s) in Equation (6)
K1 is placed between x1 and reference.

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Step III : Node diagram  Soln. :
Step I :
(i) There are two displacements, y1 and y2 and two masses,
m1 and m2.
Number of displacements = Number of nodes = Number of
masses
(ii) One additional node for reference

(IB50)Fig. Ex. 2.10.5(a) Step II :

Step IV : (i) Mass M1 is connected between y1 and reference.
1. At node x2 (ii) Sprig K1 is connected between y1 and reference.
2
d x2
F = M + K2 (x2 – x1) ...(1) (iii) Damper b1 is connected between y1 and reference.
2
dt (iv) Spring K3 is connected between y1 and y2.
Taking Laplace transform
2 (v) Spring K2 is connected between y2 and reference.
F (s) = s M X2 (s) + K2 [ X2 (s) – X1(s) ]
2
F (s) = s M X2 (s) + K2 X2 (s) – K2 X1 (s) ...(2) (vi) Damper b2 is connected between y2 and reference.
(vii) Mass m2 is connected between y2 and reference.
2. At node x1
Step III : Node diagram
K2 (x2 – x1) = K1 x1 ...(3)
Taking Laplace transform
K2 [ X2 (s) – X1 (s) ] = K1 X1 (s) ...(4)
K2 X2 (s) – K2 X1 (s) = K1 X1 (s)
K2 X2 (s) = K1 X1 (s) + K2 X1 (s)
K2 X2 (s) = (K1 + K2) X1 (s)
K2
X1 (s) = K + K X2 (s) ...(5)
1 2
Step V : To calculate transfer function
(3B14)Fig. Ex. 2.10.6(a)
Substitute value from Equation (5) in Equation (2)

F (s) = s M X2 (s) + K2 X2 (s) – K2 ˜ ⎡ K + K ⎤ X2 (s)

2
K2 Step IV : To write differential equation
⎣ 1 2⎦ (i) At y1
2 2

F (s) =
⎡ s M (K1 + K2) + K2 (K1 + K2) – K2 ⎤ X (s) 2
d y1 dy1
⎣ K 1 + K2 ⎦ 2 F = M1
dt
+ b1 dt + K1 y1 + K3 ( y1 – y2 )
2

⎡ s2 M (K1 + K2) + K1 K2 + ਋ K2 ⎤
K2 – ਋
2 2
(ii) At y2
F (s) = ⎢ ⎥ X2 (s)
⎣ K 1 + K 2 ⎦ 2
d y2 dy2
K 3 ( y1 – y 2 ) = M2 + b2 dt + K2 y2
2
X2 (s) K1 + K2 dt
F (s) = 2
s M (K1 + K2) + K1 K2
UEx. 2.4 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks)
Ex. 2.10.6 Write the differential equations of the system shown in Fig. Ex. 2.4
X1 (s)
A coupled spring-mass system is shown in the Fig. Ex. 2.10.6. Also find F(s) .
Obtain differential equations describing the system.

(3B13)Fig. Ex. 2.10.6

(5B2)Fig. Ex. 2.4

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 Soln. : At node x2
Step I : d d
(i) Since there are two masses and two displacements. Hence, K1 (x1 – x2) + B1 dt (x1 – x2) = B2 dt x2 + K2 x2 ...(3)
two nodes.
Taking Laplace transform,
Number of displacements = Number of masses
= Number of nodes K1 [X1 (s) – X2 (s)] + B1 s [X1(s) – X2(s)] = B2 s X2(s) + K2 X2 (s)
(ii) One additional node as reference node
(iii) x2 is displacement at M2 and x1 at M1 K1 X1(s) – K1 X2(s) + B1 s X1(s) – B1 s X2(s) = B2 s X2(s) + K2 X2(s)

Step II : K1 X1 (s) + B1 s X1 (s) = K1 X2 (s) + B1 s X2 (s)

(i) Mass M1 is connected between node x1 and reference
+ B2 s X2 (s) + K2 X2 (s)
(ii) Spring K1 is connected between x1 and x2
(iii) Damper B1 is connected between x1 and x2 [K1 + B1 s] X1 (s) = [K1 + B1 s + B2 s + K2] X2 (s)
(iv) Damper B2 is connected between x2 and reference
? X2 (s) = ⎡ K1 + B1 s
⎤
(v) Spring K2 is connected between x2 and reference ⎣ K1 + B1 s + B2 s + K2 ⎦ X1 (s) ...(4)

Step III : Node Diagram Consider Equation (2)

2
F(s) = s M1 X1 (s) + K1 X1 (s) – Kl X2 (s)

+ B1 s X1(s) – B1 s X2(s)
2
F(s) = s M1 X1 (s) + K1 X1 (s) + B1 s X1 (s)

– K1 X2 (s) – B1 s X2(s)
2
F(s) = [s M1 + K1 + B1 s] X1(s) – (K1 + B1 s) X2 (s)

Substitute value of X2 (s)

2
F(s) = [s M1 + K1 + B1 s] X1(s)
(5B3)Fig. Ex. 2.4(a) (K + B1 s) X1(s)
– (K1 + B1 s) ˜ K + 1B s + B2 s + K2
1 1
Step IV : At node x1 2
2 ⎡ [s M1 + B1 s + K1] [B1 s + B2 s + K1 K2] – (K1 + B1 s)2 ⎤
d x1
F = M1
d
2 + k1 (x1 – x2) + B1 dt (x1 – x2) ...(1)
F(s) =
⎣ K1 + B1 s + B2 s + K2 ⎦ X1(s)
dt Hence
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (1), X1(s) K1 + B1 s + B2 s + K2
2 F(s) = 2 2
F(s) = s M1 X1 (s) + k1 [X1 (s) – X2 (s)] (s M1 + B1 s + K1) (B1 s + B2 s + K1 K2) – (K1 + B1 s)
+ B1 s [X1 (s) – X2 (s)] ...(2)

Chapter Ends...



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 70+6I $NQEM&KCITCO
4GFWEVKQP6GEJPKSWGU
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Syllabus

Block diagram reduction Techniques.

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-2

3.2 Block Diagram Fundamentals ........................................................................................................................................ 3-2
3.2.1 Important Definitions ........................................................................................................................................ 3-2
3.2.2 Advantages of Block Diagram .......................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.3 Disadvantages of Block Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.3 Derivation of Transfer Function of Simple Closed Loop System .................................................................................. 3-3
3.4 Rules for Block Diagram Reduction ............................................................................................................................. 3-3
UQ. 3.4.1 State any six rules of block diagram reduction. (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)................................................. 3-3
3.5 Summary of Block Diagram Rules .................................................................................................................................. 3-6
3.6 Procedure to Solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems ............................................................................................... 3-7
3.7 Examples based on Block Diagram Reduction Techniques .......................................................................................... 3-7
UEx. 3.7.2 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 3-8
UEx. 3.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 3-11
UEx. 3.2 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 3-17
UEx. 3.3 (SPPU - May 16, Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................. 3-18
UEx. 3.4 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 3-20
UEx. 3.5 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 3-24
UEx. 3.6 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 3-26
UEx. 3.7 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 3-32
UEx. 3.8 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 3-33

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 3-35

Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Block Diagram Reduction Techniques)….Page no. (3-2)

  +PVTQFWEVKQP Representation

 In practice it is very difficult to analyze complicated systems;

hence for the purpose of simplicity, systems are broken into
smaller parts.
 These parts of the systems can be represented in pictorial
form using functional blocks. (1C3)Fig. 3.2.4 : Take-off point
 Functional blocks are used to show relationship between
inputs and outputs. 4. Forward path
 These functional blocks also show inter-relationship among Whenever the direction of flow of signal is from input to
various components.
output, the path is called forward path.
 System variables are linked together using functional blocks.
 Every block is associated with arrows to indicate the flow of Representation
signals in the system.
 Block diagram helps to understand systems more precisely
and easily.

  $NQEM&KCITCO(WPFCOGPVCNU (1C4)Fig. 3.2.5 : Forward path

5. Feedback path
 3.2.1 Important Definitions
Whenever the direction of flow of signal is from output to
1. Block diagram input, the path is called feedback path.
Block diagram is a pictorial representation showing cause and Representation
effect relationship between input and output of the system.
Representation

(1C1)Fig. 3.2.1 : Block diagram

(1C5)Fig. 3.2.6 : Feedback path

 3.2.2 Advantages of Block Diagram

(1C1A)Fig. 3.2.2 : Block diagram
1. Block diagram provides information about performance of
2. Summing point the system.
A point where more than one signal can be added or 2. Simple to construct block diagrams for complicated systems.
subtracted is called summing point. 3. We can study functional operation of the system using block
Representation diagram.
4. We can calculate overall transfer function of the system using
block diagram reduction techniques.

 3.2.3 Disadvantages of Block Diagram

(1C2)Fig. 3.2.3 : Summing point 1. Block diagrams of the systems are not unique.
‘+’/ ‘–’ sign represents addition/subtraction of signal. If no 2. Energy source is not shown in the block diagram.
sign is given, by default it is considered ‘+’. 3. In block diagram representation of a system, some important
3. Take-off points functions are hidden/omitted.
The point from which signal is taken for feedback purpose is 4. Block diagram does not give information about physical
called take-off point. construction of the system.

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  &GTKXCVKQPQH6TCPUHGT(WPEVKQP   4WNGUHQT$NQEM&KCITCO

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 A block diagram which consists of only one forward path,

UQ. 3.4.1 State any six rules of block diagram
one summing point, one feedback path and one take-off point
is called simple or canonical form of feedback control system. reduction. (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)

Using block diagram reduction rules complicated system can

be converted to simple forms.

(1C6)Fig. 3.3.1 : Simple closed loop system

 The Fig. 3.3.1 represents simple closed loop system. The

notations used are as follows :
R (s) = Laplace transform of reference input r (t)
C (s) = Laplace transform of controlled output c (t)
E (s) = Laplace transform of error signal e (t)
B (s) = Laplace transform of feedback signal b (t)
G (s) = Forward transfer function
H (s) = Feedback transfer function
 From the Fig. 3.3.1,
E (s) = R (s) r B (s) ...(3.3.1)
B (s) = C (s) H (s) ...(3.3.2)
C (s) = E (s) G (s) ...(3.3.3)
 From Equation (3.3.3) we can write (1C8)Fig. 3.4.1
C (s)
G (s) = E (s) ...(3.3.4) Rule 1 : Blocks connected in series/cascade

 Substitute value of B (s) from Equation (3.3.2) and value of Whenever two or more blocks are connected in series they
E(s) from Equation (3.3.4) in Equation (3.3.1). Hence can be replaced by a single block representing multiplication of
Equation (3.3.1) becomes, blocks.
C (s)
G (s) = R (s) r C (s) H (s)
C (s) = R (s) G (s) r C (s) H (s) G (s)
C (s) ∓ C (s) H (s) G (s) = R (s) G (s)
C (s) [1 ∓ G (s) H (s)] = R (s) G (s) (1C9)Fig. 3.4.2
C (s) G (s)
R (s) = 1 ∓ G (s) H (s) In Fig. 3.4.2(a), C (s) = G1 G2 R (s)
In Fig. 3.4.2(b), C (s) = G1 G2 R (s)

Note : If there is a summing point or take-off point in between

the block, then they are not in series/cascade.
(1C7)Fig. 3.3.2 : Closed loop transfer function

‘+’ sign is used for negative feedback. Rule 2 : Blocks connected in parallel
‘–’ sign is used for positive feedback. Whenever two blocks are connected in parallel they are
added/subtracted according to the given sign.

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From Fig. 3.4.6(a), C (s) = R (s) – X – Y

From Fig. 3.4.6(b), C (s) = R (s) – Y – X

Hence output remains same.

Corollary
 One summing point can be split into two summing points in
any order.

(1C10)Fig. 3.4.3

From Fig. 3.4.3(a), C (s) = G1 R (s) + G2 R (s) – G3 R (s)

= R( s) [G1 + G2 – G3]
From Fig. 3.4.3(b), C (s) = R (s) [G1 + G2 – G3]
In both the cases output is same.
Note : 1. If there is any take-off point in between, then blocks
are not parallel. e.g. (1C14)Fig. 3.4.7

Note : This rule is not applicable if two summing points are not
connected directly, i.e., if a block is present between two
summing points.
Rule 5 : Shifting a summing point before a block
If a summing point is shifted before a block ‘G’, then one
(1C11)Fig.3.4.4 more block is added to summing point having value 1/G.
In Fig. 3.4.4 blocks G1 and G2 are not parallel.
2. In parallel blocks flow of the signal must be in one
direction only.
Rule 3 : Eliminate feedback loop

(1C15)Fig. 3.4.8

From Fig. 3.4.8(a), C (s) = G R (s) + X

1
(1C12)Fig. 3.4.5 From Fig. 3.4.8(b), C (s) = [R (s) + G X ]G
While eliminating feedback loops, signs in denominator are C (s) = G R (s) + X
changed. Hence output C (s) remains unchanged.
‘+’ o negative feedback
Rule 6 : Shifting summing point after the block
‘–’ o positive feedback
If a summing point is shifted after block ‘G’, then one more
Rule 4 : Associative law for summing point block is added to summing point having value ‘G’.
The order of the summing points can be changed if two
summing points are connected in series.

(1C16)Fig. 3.4.9
(1C13)Fig. 3.4.6

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From Fig. 3.4.9(a), C (s) = [R (s) + X] G Rule 9 : Shifting a take-off point after a summing point
From Fig. 3.4.9(b), C (s) = R (s) G + X G = [R (s) + X] G
Hence the output C (s) remains unchanged.

Rule 7 : Shifting take-off point before a block

Note : While applying any rule in block diagram reduction the

value of output or feedback signal must not change, i.e.,
remains unchanged.
(1C19)Fig. 3.4.12
If a take-off point is shifted before a block ‘G’, then another From Fig. 3.4.12(a), Z = R (s)
block of value ‘G’ is connected to the take-off point signal in From Fig. 3.4.12(b), Z = R (s) r Y ∓ Y Z = R (s)
series. Whenever we shift a take-off point after summing point we
add another summing point in series with take-off signal having
opposite signs.
Value of the take-off point ‘Z’ remains unchanged.
Rule 10 : Shifting take-off point before summing point

(1C17)Fig. 3.4.10

From Fig. 3.4.10(a),

value of take-off point X = R (s) G, i.e., C (s)
From Fig. 3.4.10(b), value of take-off point X = R (s) G
Hence value of take-off point remains unchanged.
(1C20)Fig. 3.4.13
Rule 8 : Shifting take-off point after the block From Fig. 3.4.13(a), Z = R (s) r Y

If a take-off point is shifted after a block ‘G’, then another From Fig. 3.4.13(b), Z = R (s) r Y

block of value ‘1/G’ is connected to the take-off point signal in Whenever we shift a take-off point before summing point we

series. add another summing point in series with take-off signal having
same sign.
Value of the take-off point ‘Z’ remains unchanged.
Note : We should avoid use of critical rules as it makes block
diagram more complex. Critical rules are used when we
are left with no option.
If there are multiple inputs, then we use superposition
theorem.
(1C18)Fig. 3.4.11

From Fig. 3.4.11(a), value of take-off point X = R (s)

From Fig. 3.4.11(b), value of take-off point (1C21)Fig. 3.4.14 : Block with multiple inputs
1
X = R(s) ˜ G ˜ G X = R(s) Calculate C1 (s) with R1 and all other inputs ‘0’
Calculate C2 (s) with R2 and all other inputs ‘0’
Hence value of take-off point remains unchanged.
       
Calculate Cn (s) with Rn and all other inputs ‘0’
C (s) = C1 (s) + C2 (s) + ...+ Cn (s)

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  5WOOCT[QH$NQEM&KCITCO4WNGU

(1C22) to (1C41)

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Applying Rule 2 to blocks
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Step 1 : Reduce all possible blocks connected in series.

Step 2 : Reduce all possible blocks connected in parallel. (1C44)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(b)
Step 3 : Eliminate the possible feedback loops. Hence block diagram reduces to
Step 4 : Try and shift summing points towards the left and take- Step II :

off point towards the right.

Step 5 : Repeat the procedure till you get simplest form.
Step 6 : Find overall transfer function.
C (s)
T. F. = R (s)

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(1C45)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(c)

Applying Rule 1 to the blocks

Ex. 3.7.1
C (s)
Find R (s) using block diagram reduction technique.

(1C46)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(d)

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step III :

(1C42)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1

 Soln. :
Step I : Refer Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(a).

(1C47)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(e)

Applying Rule 3 to solve minor feedback loop

(1C48)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(f)

(1C43)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(a)

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Hence the block diagram reduces to Hence the required transfer function
Step IV : C (s) G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 G4
R (s) = 1 + G1 H1 + G1 G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G4 H2 ...Ans.

UEx. 3.7.2 .SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks.

Determine transfer function of the system shown in Fig. Ex. 3.7.2.

(1C49)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(g)

Applying Rule 1
⎡ G1 ⎤ u G (G + G ) = G1 G2 (G3 + G4)
(5C45)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2
⎣ 1 + G1 H1 ⎦ 2 3 4 1 + G1 H1
G 1 G 2 G 3 + G1 G 2 G 4  Soln. :
= 1 + G1 H1 Step I :

(1C50)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(h)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step V :

(5C46)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(a)

Applying Rule 2
(i)

(1C51)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(i)

Applying Rule 3 we get

G 1 G 2 G 3 + G1 G 2 G 4
1 + G1 H1 (5C47)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(b)
⇒ G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 G4 (ii)
1+ 1 + G1 H1 u H2

G 1 G 2 G 3 + G1 G 2 G 4
1 + G1 H1
⇒ 1+ G H +G G G H +G G G H
1 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 4 2
1 + G1 H1
G 1 G 2 G 3 + G1 G 2 G 4 (5C48)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(c)
⇒ 1+G H +G G G H +G G G H
1 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 4 2
Hence block diagram reduces to

(1C52)Fig. Ex. 3.7.1(j)

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The block diagram reduces to Applying Rule 1
Step II :

(5C54)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(i)

⇒ (G1 G3 + G1 G4 + G2 G3 + G2 G4) ⎛1 + G H ⎞
(5C49)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(d) G5

Applying Rule 1
⎝ 5 ⎠
2
G1 G3 G5 + G1 G4 G5 + G2 G3 G5 + G2 G4 G5
⇒ 1 + G5 H2
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step V :
(5C50)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(e)

⇒ (G1 + G2) (G3 + G4)

⇒ G1 G3 + G1 G4 + G2 G3 + G2 G4
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step III :

(5C55)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(j)

Applying Rule 3

G1 G3 G5 + G1 G4 G5 + G2 G3 G5 + G2 G4 G5
1 + G5 H2
⇒ G1 G3 G5 + G1G4G5 + G2G3G5 + G2G4G5
(5C51)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(f) 1+ 1 + G5H2 u H1

Applying Rule 3
G1 G3 G5 + G1 G4 G5 + G2 G3 G5 + G2 G4 G5
–––––––––
1 + G5 H2
⇒ 1 + G5 H2 + G1 G3 G5 H1 + G1G4G5 H1 + G2G3G5H1 + G2G4G5H1
–––––––––
1 + G5H2

G1 G3 G5 + G1 G4 G5 + G2 G3 G5 + G2 G4 G5
⇒ 1+G H +G G G H +G G G H +G G G H +G G G H
(5C52)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(g) 5 2 1 3 5 1 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 1 2 4 5 1

Hence block diagram reduces to

Hence block diagram reduces to Step VI :
Step IV :

(5C56)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(k)

Hence required transfer function is
C(s) G1 G3 G5 + G1 G4 G5 + G2 G3 G5 + G2 G4 G5
R(s) = 1 + G5 H2 + G1G3G5H1 + G1G4G5H1 + G2G3G5 H1 + G2G4G5H1
(5C53)Fig. Ex. 3.7.2(h) ...Ans.

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Ex. 3.7.3 The block diagram reduces to

Step III :
Reduce the following block diagram and obtain transfer function.

(1C84)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(e)

(1C79)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3 : Block diagram
 Soln. : Applying Rule 4

(1C85)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(f)

Hence block diagram reduces to

(1C80)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(a) Step IV :

Applying Rule 5
Step I :

(1C81)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(b)

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step II : (1C86)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(g)
Applying Rule 2

(1C87)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(h)

Note : Since there is no block only direct connection hence we
consider gain of branch as 1.
Applying Rule 3
(1C82)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(c)

Applying Rule 1

(1C88)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(i)

(1C83)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(d)

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Hence block diagram reduces to Hence the required transfer function
Step V : C(s) G1 G2 + G2 G3
R(s) = 1 + G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2 + G2 G3 H2 ...Ans.

UEx. 3.1 .SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks.

C (s)
Find R (s) for the system shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1 using block

diagram rules.

(1C89)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(j)

Applying Rule 1

(1C90)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(k)

Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VI :
(5C1)Fig. Ex. 3.1

 Soln. :
Step I :

(1C91)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(l)

Applying Rule 3
G1 G2 + G2 G3
1 + G1 H1
⇒ G1 G2 + G2 G3
1+ 1+G H u H2
1 1 (5C2)Fig. Ex. 3.1(a)

Applying Rule 3
G1 G2 + G2 G3
1 + G1 H1
⇒ 1+G H +G G H +G G H
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2
1 + G1 H1

G1 G2 + G2 G3
⇒ 1+G H +G G H +G G H (5C3)Fig. Ex. 3.1(b)
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step II :

(1C92)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(m)

Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VII :

(1C93)Fig. Ex. 3.7.3(n) (5C4)Fig. Ex. 3.1(c)

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Applying Rule 8 (G2(s) + 1) G3(s)
= G2(s) (1 + G3(s) H3(s))
G2(s) G3(s) + G3(s)
= G2(s) + G2(s) G3(s) H3(s)
Applying Rule 3
(5C5)Fig. Ex. 3.1(d)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step III :

(5C10)Fig. Ex. 3.1(i)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step V :

(5C6)Fig. Ex. 3.1(e)

Applying Rule 2
(5C11)Fig. Ex. 3.1(j)

Applying Rule 1

(5C12)Fig. Ex. 3.1(k)

Hence block diagram reduces to

(5C7)Fig. Ex. 3.1(f)
Step VI :
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step IV :

(5C13)Fig. Ex. 3.1(l)

Applying Rule 3
(5C8)Fig. Ex. 3.1(g)

Applying Rule 1

(5C14)Fig. Ex. 3.1(m)

(5C9)Fig. Ex. 3.1(h)

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G1(s) G2(s)  Soln. :
1 + G2(s) H2(s)
⇒ Step I :
G1(s) G2(s)
1 + 1 + G (s) H (s) u H1(s)
2 2
G1(s) G2(s)
––––––––––––––
1 + G2(s) H2(s)
⇒ 1 + G (s) H (s) + G (s) G (s) H (s)
2 2 1 2 1
––––––––––––––
1 + G2(s) H2(s)
G1 (s) G2(s)
⇒ 1 + G (s) H (s) + G (s) G (s) H (s)
2 2 1 2 1
(3C15)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(a)
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VII : Applying Rule 8

(3C16)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(b)

(5C15)Fig. Ex. 3.1(n)
Hence the block diagram reduces to
Applying Rule 1
Step II :
(G1(s) G2(s)) (G2(s) G3(s) + G3(s))
⇒ (1 + G (s) H (s) + G (s) G (s) H (s)) (G (s) + G (s) G (s) H (s))
2 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 3

2
G1(s) G (s) G3(s) + G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
2
⇒ 2 2
G2(s) + G2(s) G3(s) H3(s) + G (s) H2(s) + G (s) G3(s) H3(s)
2 2
2 2
+ G1(s) G2(s) H1(s) + G1(s) G2 (s) G3(s) H1(s) H3(s)

Step VIII :
(3C17)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(c)
Hence the required transfer function is
Applying Rule 1

(3C18)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(d)

Hence the block diagram reduces to
Step III :
(5C16)Fig. Ex. 3.1(o)

Ex. 3.7.4
A linear feedback control system has block diagram shown in
Fig. Ex. 3.7.4. Using block diagram reduction rules, obtain overall
C(s)
transfer function R(s) .

(3C19)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(e)

Applying Rule 3

(3C14)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4

(3C20)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(f)

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Hence the block diagram reduces to Hence block diagram reduces to
Step IV : Step VI :

(3C21)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(g)

Applying Rule 8
(3C24)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(k)

Applying Rule 3

(3C22)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(h)

(3C25)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(l)
Solving
Solving
H1
⇒ G2G3G4
⎛ G3G4
⎞
⎝ 1 + G3G4H2 ⎠ 1 + G3G4H2
⇒
(1 + G3G4H2 ) H1 G2G3G4 H3
⇒ G3G4 1 + 1 + G G H u
3 4 2 4
G
H1 + G3G4H2 H1
⇒ G3G4 G2G3G4
Hence the block diagram reduces to ---------
1 + G3G4H2
⇒ 1 + G3G4H2 + G2G3H3
Step V :
---------
1 + G3G4H2

G2G3G4
⇒ 1 + G3G4H2 + G2G3H3

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step VII :

(3C23)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(i)

Applying Rule 1

(3C26)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(m)

(3C113)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(j)

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Applying Rule 1 Ex. 3.7.5
C (s)
Obtain R (s) using block diagram reduction techniques.

(3C27)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(n)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VIII :

(1C53)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5

 Soln. :
Step I :

(3C28)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(o)

Applying Rule 3

Solving
G1G2G3G4
1 + G3G4H2 + G2G3H3 (1C54)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(a)
⇒ Applying Rule 3
G1G2G3G4 H1 + G3G4 H2H1
1 + 1 + G G H + G G H u
3 4 2 2 3 3 G
3G4

G1G2G3G4
1----––---------
+ G3G4H2 + G2G3H3
⇒ 1 + G3G4H2 + G2G3H3 + G1G2H1 + G1G2 G3G4H2H1
(1C55)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(b)
1 ---------–––––
+ G3G4H2 + G2G3H3
Block diagram reduces to
G1G2 G3G4
⇒ Step II :
1 + G3G4H2 + G2G3H3 + G1G2H1 + G1G2G3G4H2H1

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step IX :

(3C29)Fig. Ex. 3.7.4(p)

Hence the required transfer function is (1C56)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(c)

C(s) G1G2G3G4
R(s) = 1 + G3G4H2 + G2G3H3+ G1G2H1 + G1G2G3G4H2H1

...Ans.

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Applying Rule 8 Hence block diagram reduces to
Step V :

(1C57)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(d)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step III :

(1C62)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(i)

Applying Rule 3
G1 G3
1 + G3 H2
⇒ G1 G3
1 + 1 + G H u H3
3 2
G1 G3
----–--
1 + G3 H2
⇒ 1 + G3 H2 + G1 G3 H3
----–--
1 + G3 H2
(1C58)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(e)
G1 G3
Applying Rule 1 ⇒ 1+G H +G G H
3 2 1 3 3
Hence block diagram reduces to

(1C59)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(f)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step IV :

(1C63)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(j)

Applying Rule 3
G1 G3
1 + G 3 H 2 + G1 G 3 H 3
⇒ G1 G/3 H1 + G3 H1 H2
1+1+G H +G G H u G/3
3 2 1 3 3
(1C60)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(g)
G1 G3
Applying Rule 1 1----––––-––––-
+ G 3 H 2 + G1 G 3 H 3
⇒ 1 + G H + G G H +G H + G G H H
3 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 2

1----–––––––––––-
+ G3 H2 + G1 G3 H3

(1C61)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(h)

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G1 G3 Hence block diagram reduces to
⇒ 1 + G H + G G H +G H + G G H H Step II :
3 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 2
Hence block diagram reduces to

(1C64)Fig. Ex. 3.7.5(k)

Hence the required transfer function

C (s) G1 G3
R (s) = 1 + G3 H2 + G1 G3 H3 + G1 H1 + G1 G3 H1 H2
...Ans.

UEx. 3.2 .SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks.

C(s) (5C35)Fig. Ex. 3.2(c)
Determine R(s) for the block diagram shown in Fig. Ex. 3.2 using
Applying Rule 1
block diagram reduction.

(5C36)Fig. Ex. 3.2(d)

Applying Rule 2

(5C37)Fig. Ex. 3.2(e)

(5C32)Fig. Ex. 3.2
G5
⇒
 Soln. : G 3 + G4
Step I : G5 + G4 G3
⇒ G3
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step III :

(5C33)Fig. Ex. 3.2(a)

Applying Rule 8
(5C38)Fig. Ex. 3.2(f)
Applying Rule 3

(5C34)Fig. Ex. 3.2(b)

(5C39)Fig. Ex. 3.2(g)

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Hence block diagram reduces to G1 G2 G5 + G1 G2 G3 G4
Step IV : 1 + G2 G3 H1
⇒ G1 G2 G5 + G1 G2 G3 G4
1+ 1 + G2 G3 H1 u H2

G1 G2 G5 + G1 G2 G3 G4
––––––––––––
1 + G2 G3 H1
⇒ 1 + G2 G3 H1 + G1 G2 G5 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2
––––––––––––
1 + G2 G3 H1

G1 G2 G5 + G1 G2 G3 G4
(5C40)Fig. Ex. 3.2(h) ⇒ 1+G G H +G G G H +G G G G H
2 3 1 1 2 5 2 1 2 3 4 2

Applying Rule 1 Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :

(5C44)Fig. Ex. 3.2(l)

Hence the required transfer function

(5C41)Fig. Ex. 3.2(i)
C(s) G1 G2 G5 + G1 G2 G3 G4
3 (G5 + G4 G3)
G1 G2 G R(s) = 1 + G2 G3 H1 + G1 G2 G5 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2 ...Ans.
⇒
3
(1 + G2 G3 H1) G
UEx. 3.3 .SPPU - May 16, Dec. 19, 6 Marks.
G 1 G 2 G 5 + G1 G 2 G 3 G 4 C(s)
⇒ Reduce the following block diagram to obtain R(s) .
(1 + G2 G3 H1)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step V :

(5C57)Fig. Ex. 3.3

 Soln. :
Step I :
(5C42)Fig. Ex. 3.2(j)
Applying Rule 3

(5C58)Fig. Ex. 3.3(a)

(5C43)Fig. Ex. 3.2(k)

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Applying Rule 8 Hence block diagram reduces to
Step IV :

(5C59)Fig. Ex. 3.3(b)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step II :

(5C64)Fig. Ex. 3.3(g)

Applying Rule 1

(5C65)Fig. Ex. 3.3(h)

Hence block diagram reduces to
(5C60)Fig. Ex. 3.3(c)
Step V :
Applying Rule 1

(5C61)Fig. Ex. 3.3(d)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step III :

(5C66)Fig. Ex. 3.3(i)

Applying Rule 3

(5C62)Fig. Ex. 3.3(e)

Applying Rule 3

(5C67)Fig. Ex. 3.3(j)

(5C63)Fig. Ex. 3.3(f)

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G2G3G4 Applying Rule 3
1 + G3G4H3
⇒
4
G2G3 G H2
1+1+G G H u
3 4 3 4
G

G2G3G4
–––––––––––
1 + G3G4H3
⇒ 1 + G3 G4 H3 + G2G3H2
–––––––––––
1 + G3G4H3

G2G3G4 (5C71)Fig. Ex. 3.3(n)

⇒ 1 + G3 G4 H3 + G2G3H2 G1 G2 G3 G4
Hence block diagram reduces to 1 + G3G4H3 + G2G3H2
Step VI : ⇒ G1G2G3G4
1 + 1 + G G H + G G H u H1
3 4 3 2 3 2

G1 G2 G3 G4
1–––––––––––––––––––
+ G3 G4 H3 + G2 G3 H2
⇒ 1 + G3 G4 H3 + G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1
1–––––––––––––––––––
+ G3 G4 H3 + G2 H3 H2

G1 G2 G3 G4
⇒ 1 + G3 G4 H3 + G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1
(5C68)Fig. Ex. 3.3(k)
Hence Block diagram reduces to
Applying Rule 1
Step VIII :

(5C72)Fig. Ex. 3.3(o)

Hence required transfer function.

(5C69)Fig. Ex. 3.3(l) C(s) G1 G2 G3 G4

R(s) = 1 + G3 G4 H3 + G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 ...Ans.
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VII : UEx. 3.4 .SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks.
Y(s)
Determine the overall transfer function R(s) for the block diagram

shown in Fig. Ex. 3.4 using block diagram reduction rule.

(5C70)Fig. Ex. 3.3(m)

(5C73)Fig. Ex. 3.4

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 Soln. : Block diagram reduces to

Step III :
Step I :

(5C78)Fig. Ex. 3.4(e)

(5C74)Fig. Ex. 3.4(a)
Applying Rule 7
Applying Rule 3

(5C75)Fig. Ex. 3.4(b) (5C79)Fig. Ex. 3.4(f)

Hence block diagram reduces to Hence block diagram reduces to
Step II : Step IV :

(5C80)Fig. Ex. 3.4(g)

Applying Rule 2
(5C76)Fig. Ex. 3.4(c)

Applying Rule 1

(5C77)Fig. Ex. 3.4(d) (5C81)Fig. Ex. 3.4(h)

G2G3G4
⇒ G5 + 1 + G H
3 1

G5 + G3 G5 H1 + G2 G3 G4
⇒ 1 + G3 H1

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Applying Rule 3 Ex. 3.7.6

C(s)
Determine R(s) from the given block diagram using block diagram
reduction techniques.

(5C82)Fig. Ex. 3.4(i)

G1
⇒ G2 G3 G4 H2
1 + G1 1 + G H
3 1

(1C94)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6

⇒
G1 (1 + G3H1)
1 + G3H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2
 Soln. :
Step I :
Hence block diagram reduces to

Step V :

(5C83)Fig. Ex. 3.4(j) (1C95)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(a)

Applying Rule 8
Applying Rule 1
G1 (1
–––––––––
+ G3 H1) G5 + G3 G5 H1 + G2 G3 G4
⇒ 1 + G3 H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2 u ––––––––––
(1 + G3 H1)

G1 G5 + G1 G3 G5 H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4 (1C96)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(b)

⇒ 1 + G3 H1 + G1G2G3G4 H2 Block diagram reduces to
Step II :
Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :

(5C84)Fig. Ex. 3.4(k)

Hence required transfer function is

Y(s) G1 G5 + G1 G3 G5 H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4 (1C97)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(c)

R(s) = 1 + G3 H1 + G1G2G3G4 H2 ...Ans.
Applying Rule 1

(1C98)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(d)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Block Diagram Reduction Techniques)….Page no. (3-23)
Hence block diagram reduces to Hence block diagram reduces to
Step III : Step V :

(1C103)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(i)

(1C99)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(e)
Applying Rule 1 in both cases
Applying Rule 2 (a)

(1C104)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(j)

(1C100)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(f)
(G2 + G3)
Since G2 u
G2
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step IV :
(b)

(1C105)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(k)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :

(1C101)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(g)

Applying Rule 8

(1C106)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(l)

(1C102)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(h)
Applying Rule 3
1 1 G2
⇒ G 3 = G 2 + G3 = G 2 + G3
1+ G G2
2

(1C107)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(m)

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Hence block diagram reduces to Hence required transfer function
Step VII : C(s) G1 G2 + G1 G3
R(s) = 1 + G2 + G3 + G1 G2 H1 ...Ans.

UEx. 3.5 .SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks.

C(s)
Determine R(s) for the block diagram shown in Fig. Ex. 3.5 using

block diagram reduction.

(1C108)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(n)

Applying Rule 1

(5C17)Fig. Ex. 3.5

(1C109)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(o)  Soln. :

Step I :
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VIII :

(5C18)Fig. Ex. 3.5(a)

(1C110)Fig, Ex. 3.7.6(p)
Applying Rule 2
G1 (G2 + G3)
1 + G 2 + G3
⇒ G1 ––––––––
(G2 + G3) G2 H1
1 + 1 + G + G u ––––––––
(G2 + G3)
2 3
G1(G2 + G3) (5C19)Fig. Ex. 3.5(b)
1 + G 2 + G3 Hence block diagram reduces to
⇒ G1 G2 H1 Step II :
1+1+G +G
2 3
G1 (G2 + G3)
1 + G 2 + G3
––––––––––
⇒ 1+G +G +G G H
2 3 1 2 1
1––––––––
+ G 2 + G3
G1 (G2 + G3)
⇒ 1+G +G +G G H
2 3 1 2 1
Hence block diagram reduces to
(5C20)Fig. Ex. 3.5(c)

(1C111)Fig. Ex. 3.7.6(q)

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Applying Rule 8 Hence block diagram reduces to
Step V :

(5C21)Fig. Ex. 3.5(d)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step III :
(5C27)Fig. Ex. 3.5(j)

(5C28)Fig. Ex. 3.5(k)

(5C22)Fig. Ex. 3.5(e) (G1G2 + G1G5) G3 G4
⇒ 1 + G3G4 H2
Applying Rule 1
G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G3 G4 G5
(i) ⇒ 1 + G3 G4 H2

(5C23)Fig. Ex. 3.5(f) Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :
(ii)

(5C24)Fig. Ex. 3.5(g)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step IV :

(5C29)Fig. Ex. 3.5(l)

Applying Rule 3

(5C25)Fig. Ex. 3.5(h)

Applying Rule 3

(5C26)Fig. Ex. 3.5(i) (5C30)Fig. Ex. 3.5(m)

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G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G3 G4 G5 Hence block diagram reduces to
––––––––––––
1 + G3 G4 H2 Step II :
⇒
1 + G3G4H2 + G1G2G3G4 H1 + G1G3G4G5 H1
––––––––––––
1 + G3 G4 H2

G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G3 G4 G5
⇒ 1+G G H +G G G G H +G G G G H
3 4 2 1 2 3 4 1 1 3 4 5 1

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :

(5C88)Fig. Ex. 3.6(c)

(5C31)Fig. Ex. 3.5(n) Applying Rule 2

Hence the required transfer function

C(s) G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G3 G4 G5
R(s) = 1 + G3 G4 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 + G1 G3 G4 G5 H1 ...Ans.
(5C89)Fig. Ex. 3.6(d)
UEx. 3.6 .SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks.
Obtain the transfer function of system represented by block Hence block diagram reduces to
diagram shown in Fig. Ex. 3.6. Step III :

(5C85)Fig. Ex. 3.6 (5C90)Fig. Ex. 3.6(e)

 Soln. : Applying Rule 4

Step I :

(5C91)Fig. Ex. 3.6(f)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step IV :

(5C86)Fig. Ex. 3.6(a)

Applying Rule 7

(5C87)Fig. Ex. 3.6(b) (5C92)Fig. Ex. 3.6(g)

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Applying Rule 3 Applying Rule 1

(5C93)Fig. Ex. 3.6(h)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step V :
(5C97)Fig. Ex. 3.6(l)
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VII :

(5C98)Fig. Ex. 3.6(m)

Hence required transfer function is
(5C94)Fig. Ex. 3.6(i) G1 G2 + G1 G3
Y(s)
Applying Rule 3 R(s) = 1 + G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2 ...Ans.

Ex. 3.7.7
A linear feedback control system has block diagram shown in the
Fig. Ex. 3.7.7. Using block diagram reduction rules obtain overall
C(s)
transfer function R(s) .

(5C95)Fig. Ex. 3.6(j)

G1
1 + G1H1
⇒ G1
1 + 1 + G H G2 H2
1 1
G1
––––––––
1 + G1H1
⇒ 1 + G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2
(3C77)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7
––––––––
1 + G1 H1
G1  Soln. :
⇒ 1 + G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2 Step I :

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :

(3C78)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(a)

(5C96)Fig. Ex. 3.6(k)

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This block diagram can be simplified and drawn as follows. Applying Rule 1

(3C84)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(g)

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step IV :

(3C79)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(b)

Applying Rule 3

(3C80)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(c) (3C85)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(h)

Hence the block diagram reduces to Applying Rule 3
Step II :

(3C85A)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(i)

Solving
G2G3
⇒ 1 + G2 H1
(3C81)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(d)
1 + G2G3
Applying Rule 8 1+ u H2
G2H1

G2G3
1 + G2H1
⇒ G2G3 H2
1+
(3C82)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(e) 1 G2H1
Hence the block diagram reduces to
G2G3
Step III :
––––––––
1 + G2H1
⇒ 1 + G2H1+ G2G3H2
––––––––
1 + G2H1

G2G3
⇒ 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2

(3C83)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(f)

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Hence the block diagram reduces to Hence the block diagram reduces to
Step V :
Step VII :

(3C90)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(n)

(3C86)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(j)
Applying Rule 2
Applying Rule 1
G1G2G3
⇒ 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 – G1 G2G3H1 + G4

G1G2G3 + G4 (1 + G2H1+ G2G3H2 – G1G2 G3H1)

⇒ 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 – G1G2G3H1
(3C87)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(k)
G1G2G3 + G4 + G2G4H1+ G2G3G4H2 – G1G2G3G4H1
Hence the block diagram reduces to ⇒ 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 – G1G2G3H1
Step VI :
Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step VIII :

(3C91)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(o)

Hence the transfer function is

(3C88)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(l)
C(s) G1G2G3 + G4 + G2G4H1 + G2G3G4H2 – G1G2G3G4H1
Applying Rule 3 R(s) = 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 – G1G2G3H1

...Ans.

Ex. 3.7.8
C(s)
Obtain system transfer function R(s) using block diagram
(3C89)Fig. Ex. 3.7.7(m) reduction technique for the system shown in Fig. Ex. 3.7.8.
Solving
G1G2G3
1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2
⇒ G1G2G3
1 – 1 + G H + G G H u+1
2 1 2 3 2
G1G2G3
––––––––––––––––
1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2
(3C41)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8
⇒ 1 + G2 H1 + G2 G3H2 – G1G2G3H1
1 + G2+1 + G2G3H2
––––––––––––––––
G1G2G3
⇒ 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 – G1 G2G3H1

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 Soln. : Applying Rule 1

Step I :

(3C46)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(e)

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step III :

(3C42)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(a)

Applying Rule 8

(3C47)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(f)

Applying Rule 3
(3C43)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(b)

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step II :

(3C48)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(g)

Hence the block diagram reduces to

Step IV :

(3C44)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(c)

Simplifying the diagram

(3C49)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(h)

Applying Rule 1

(3C50)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(i)

(3C45)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(d)

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Hence the block diagram reduces to Applying Rule 1
Step V :

(3C54)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(m)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VII :

(3C51)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(j)

Applying Rule 3

(3C55)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(n)

Applying Rule 3
(3C52)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(k)
Solving,
Solving G1G2G3H1
2
G2G3 G2G3 H1 + G3G2 H1 + G2G3
1 + G3H2H1 1 + G3H2H1 ⇒ G1G2G3H1
⇒ G2G3 ⇒ G2G3 1+ 2 u H3 H2 H1
1 H1+ G3G2 H1 + G2G3
1+1+G H H u H 1+ 2
3 2 1 1 H1 + G3H2 H
1 G1G2G3H1
2
G2G3 H
–––––––––––––––––
1 + G3G2 H1 + G2G3
1 + G3H2H1 ⇒ 2 2
H1+ G3G2 H1 + G2G3 + G1G2G3 H1 H2H3
⇒ 2 2
H1 + G3H2 H1 + G2G3 –––––––––––––––––
H1+ G3G2 H1 + G2G3
H1 (1 + G3H2H1)
G1G2G3H1
G2G3 H1 –––––––––––
(1 + G3H2H1) ⇒ 2 2
⇒ H1+ G3G2H1 + G2G3 + G1G2G3H1H2H3
1 + G3H2H1 u H1+ G3H2 H2 + G2G3
––––––––––
1

G2G3H1 Step VIII :

⇒ 2
H1 + G3H2 H1 + G2G3

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step VI :
(3C56)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(o)

Hence the required transfer function is

C(s) G1G2G3H1
R(s) = 2
H1 + G3G2 H1+ G2G3 + G1G2G3 H1 H2H3
2 ...Ans.

(3C53)Fig. Ex. 3.7.8(l)

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G4
UEx. 3.7 .SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks. ⇒ G 2 + G3
Determine the overall transfer function of system shown in
G4 + G3 G2
Fig. Ex. 3.7 using block diagram reduction rules. ⇒ G2
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step III :

(5C99)Fig. Ex. 3.7

 Soln. :
Step I : (5C104)Fig. Ex. 3.7(e)
Applying Rule 3

(5C105)Fig. Ex. 3.7(f)

Hence block diagram reduces to

Step IV :
(5C100)Fig. Ex. 3.7(a)

Applying Rule 8

(5C101)Fig. Ex. 3.7(b) (5C106)Fig. Ex. 3.7(g)

Hence block diagram reduces to Applying Rule 1
Step II :

(5C107)Fig. Ex. 3.7(h)

(5C102)Fig. Ex. 3.7(c)
2
G G4 + G2 G3
Applying Rule 2 ⇒ G1 u 1 + G H u
2 1 2
G

G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
⇒ 1 + G2 H1

(5C103)Fig. Ex. 3.7(d)

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Hence block diagram reduces to UEx. 3.8 .SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks.
Step V :
Determine the overall transfer function of system shown in
Fig. Ex. 3.8 using block diagram reduction rules.

(5C108)Fig. Ex. 3.7(i)

Applying Rule 3
(5C111)Fig. Ex. 3.8

Soln. :
Step I :

(5C109)Fig. Ex. 3.7(j)

G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
1 + G2H1
⇒ G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
1+ (5C112)Fig. Ex. 3.8(a)
1 + G2 H1

G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
Applying Rule 8
–––––––––
1 + G2H1
⇒ 1 + G2 H1 + G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
–––––––––
1 + G2H1

G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
⇒ 1 + G2 H1 + G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
(5C113)Fig. Ex. 3.8(b)
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step VI : Hence block diagram reduces to
Step II :

(5C110)Fig. Ex. 3.7(k)

Hence required transfer function

Y(s) G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
R(s) = 1 + G2 H1 + G1 G4 + G1 G2 G3
...Ans.

(5C114)Fig. Ex. 3.8(c)

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Applying Rule 1 G1 G2
1–––––––––––––
+ G1 G2 H1
⇒ 1 + G1 G2 H1 + G1 H2
(5C115)Fig. Ex. 3.8(d) 1–––––––––––––
+ G1 G2 H1
Hence block diagram reduces to Hence block diagram reduces to
Step III : Step V :

(5C120)Fig. Ex. 3.8(i)

Applying Rule 1
(5C116)Fig. Ex. 3.8(e)
Applying Rule 3

(5C117)Fig. Ex. 3.8(f)

(5C121)Fig. Ex. 3.8(j)
Hence block diagram reduces to
Hence block diagram reduces to
Step IV :
Step VI :

(5C122)Fig. Ex. 3.8(k)

(5C118)Fig. Ex. 3.8(g) Applying Rule 3
Applying Rule 3

(5C119)Fig. Ex. 3.8(h)

G1 G2
1 + G1 G2 H1
⇒
2
G1 G H (5C123)Fig. Ex. 3.8(l)
1+1+G G H u 2
1 2 1 2
G

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G1G2G3 Hence block diagram reduces to
1 + G1G2H1 + G1 H2 Step VII :
⇒ G G2G3
1 – 1 + G G1 H u H3
1 2 1 + G1 H2

G1G2G3
––––––––––––––––––––
1 + G1G2H1 + G1 H2 (5C124)Fig. Ex. 3.8(m)
⇒ 1 + G1 G2 H1 + G1 H2 – G1 G2 G3 H3 Hence required transfer function is
––––––––––––––––––––
1 + G1 G2 H1 + G1 H2
C(s) G1 G2 G3
G1 G2 G3 R(s) = 1 + G1 G2 H1 + G1 H2 – G1 G2 G3 H3
⇒ 1 + G1 G2 H1 + G1 H2 – G1 G2 G3 H3 ...Ans.
Chapter Ends...


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 70+6I
5KIPCN(NQY)TCRJ
%*#26'4

Syllabus

Signal flow graph.

4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4-2

4.2 Definition of Signal Flow Graph ...................................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.3 How to Draw Signal Flow Graph of Simple Algebraic Equation ? ................................................................................ 4-2
4.4 Properties of Signal Flow Graph ..................................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.5 Important Terms related to Signal Flow Graph............................................................................................................... 4-2
4.6 Construction of Signal Flow Graph ................................................................................................................................. 4-4
4.6.1 Set of Linear Algebraic Equations.................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.6.2 Block Diagram .................................................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.6.3 Electrical Network ............................................................................................................................................ 4-5
4.7 Difference between Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph........................................................................................... 4-6
4.8 Mason’s Gain Formula.................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.8.1 Steps to Solve SFG using Mason’s Gain Formula.......................................................................................... 4-6
4.9 Solved Examples ............................................................................................................................................................ 4-6
UEx. 4.1 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 4-6
UEx. 4.9.2 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 4-8
UEx. 4.2 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 4-10
UEx. 4.9.7 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 4-14

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 4-20


Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Signal Flow Graph)….Page no. (4-2)

  +PVTQFWEVKQP   2TQRGTVKGUQH5KIPCN(NQY)TCRJ

 In the previous section we have studied block diagram
reduction. In this section we will focus on signal flow graph. 1. Signal flow graph is applied to only linear time-invariant
 Signal flow graph is simplified version of block diagram systems.
reduction.
2. Signal flow graphs must be drawn for algebraic equations
 Signal flow graph was invented by Claude Shannon but it is
representing cause and effect.
often named after Samvel Jafferson Mason.
 Signal flow graph is used for studying cause-effect 3. Nodes are used to represent system variables and are arranged
relationship of linear system represented by algebraic from left to right from input to output.
equations. 4. Signals travel along the branches only in the direction
 Signal flow graph and block diagram provide same described by the arrows.
information. Signal flow graph consist of mathematical rule
5. The value of variable at a node is
which helps in reducing complex system diagrams.
 Signal flow graph gives relation between input and output equal to algebraic sum of all signals
variables of the system. arriving at that node.
 Signal flow graph consist of nodes which are used to x3 = 3x1 + 4x2 (1D4)Fig. 4.4.1
represent system variable and are interconnected by branches.
6. The value of the variable at a particular node depends only on
 Signals are transmitted in the direction of branch arrow from
incoming branches it is independent of outgoing branches.
input to output node.
e.g.
  &GHKPKVKQPQH5KIPCN(NQY)TCRJ From the Fig. 4.4.2.
x3 = 7x1 + 6x2
1. SFG is defined as pictorial representation of a system which Hence value of x3 only
displays graphically transmission of signals in a system.
depends on incoming
2. A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of control
branches from x1 and x2 and
system which consist of nodes representing system variables
and are interconnected using directed branches having branch is independent of outgoing
gain. branches.
Similarly we can write (1D5)Fig. 4.4.2
  *QYVQ&TCY5KIPCN(NQY)TCRJ x4 = 2x3
 QH5KORNG#NIGDTCKE'SWCVKQP! x5 = 3x3
x6 = 4x3
1. Algebraic equations contain dependent and independent
variables. These variables are represented by small circles (o) 7. Gain of signal flow graph can be obtained by Mason’s
called nodes. formula.
2. The nodes are connected using directed lines called branches. 8. Every block diagram can be represented by signal flow graph
Ex. but converse is not true.
Consider y2 = 5 y1
Here we have two variables y1 and y2   +ORQTVCPV6GTOUTGNCVGFVQ
y2 o dependent variable  5KIPCN(NQY)TCRJ
y1 o Independent variable
y2 is obtained from y1 by 1. Input node/source node
multiplying y1 by ‘5’. (1D1)Fig. 4.3.1 : SFG for y2 = 5y1
The node that has only outgoing branches is called input
Consider Ohm’s law node.
V = IR
(1D2)Fig. 4.3.2 : SFG for V = IR
If Ohms law is expressed as
V
I = R

V (1D6)Fig. 4.5.1 : Input node

(1D3)Fig. 4.3.3 : SFG for I = R

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Signal Flow Graph)….Page no. (4-3)
2. Output node/sink node Feedback path : x2 – x3 – x2
The node that has only incoming branches is called output
node/sink node.

(1D13)Fig. 4.5.8 : Feedback path

6. Self loop
A special feedback loop that consist of only one node is
(1D7)Fig. 4.5.2 : Output node called self loop.

3. Chain node
The node which has both incoming and outgoing branches is
called chain node.
(1D14)Fig. 4.5.9 : SFG

7. Path gain
The product of all branch gains while tracing a forward path
is called path gain.
(1D8)Fig. 4.5.3 : Chain node
4. Forward path
Any path from input node to output node is called forward
path.

(1D15)Fig. 4.5.10 : SFG

Forward path F1 o x1 – x2 – x3 – x
Forward path gain = A u B u D
Forward path F2 o x1 – x3 – x4
(1D9)Fig. 4.5.4 : SFG Forward path gain = C u D
First forward path F1 : x1 – x2 – x3 – x4 8. Loop gain
Loop gain is the path gain of the loop.

(1D10)Fig. 4.5.5 : Forward path 1 i.e. F1

Second forward path F2 : x1 – x3 – x4

(1D16)Fig. 4.5.11 : SFG

1. Loop 1
(1D11)Fig. 4.5.6 : Forward path 2 i.e. F2
Loop gain = B u – H1
5. Feedback path/feedback loops
= – BH1
It is the path which originates and terminates at the same
node. (1D17)Fig. 4.5.12 : Loop 1
2. Loop 2

(1D12)Fig. 4.5.7 : SFG

(1D18)Fig. 4.5.13 : Loop 2

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Signal Flow Graph)….Page no. (4-4)
Loop gain = A u B u C u – H2
  %QPUVTWEVKQPQH5KIPCN(NQY
= – ABCH2
 )TCRJ
9. Touching loops
Signal flow graph can be constructed from
Loops which have at least one node in common are called
1. Set of linear algebraic equations.
touching loops.
2. Block diagram
3. Electrical network

 4.6.1 Set of Linear Algebraic Equations

Consider a control system is represented by the following set
(1D19)Fig. 4.5.14 : SFG of equations.
x2 = 4x1 + 7x3
L1 o x2 – x3 – x2
x3 = 3x2 + 4x4
L2 o x3 – x4 – x3
x4 = 7x2 + 3x3 + 5x4
Loops L1 and L2 have one node x3 in common. L1 and L2 are
x5 = 2x2 + 6x4
touching loops.
1. Consider 1st equation
10. Non-touching loops
x2 = 4x1 + 7x3 (1D22)Fig. 4.6.1 : SFG for x2
Loops which do not have any common node are called
2. Consider 2nd equation
non-touching loops.
x3 = 3x2 + 4x4

(1D23)Fig. 4.6.2 : SFG of x3

3. Consider 3rd equation

x4 = 7x2 + 3x3 + 5x4

(1D20)Fig. 4.5.15 : SFG

L1 o x2 – x3 – x2
L2 o x1 – x4 – x1 (1D24)Fig. 4.6.3 : SFG of x4

Loops L1 and L2 do not have any node in common. Hence L1 4. Consider 4th equation
and L2 are non-touching loops. x5 = 2x2 + 6x4
11. Dummy nodes

A branch having gain ‘1’ which can be added only to

input/output node create additional nodes called dummy
nodes.
(1D25)Fig. 4.6.4 : SFG of x5

Combining signal flow graph of all equation. We get final

signal flow graph.

(1D21)Fig. 4.5.16

Note : Dummy node can be added only at the beginning or at

the end.

(1D26)Fig. 4.6.5 : Complete SFG

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 4.6.2 Block Diagram I1 =

Vi – V1
R1 ...(4.6.1)
Steps to draw SFG from block diagram
V1 = (I1 – I2) C1 ...(4.6.2)
Step I : Replace all summing points and take-off points with
nodes. Vo = I2 u C2 ...(4.6.3)
Step II : Replace input signal by input node and output signal by V1 – Vo
output node. I2 = ...(4.6.4)
R2
Step III : Branch connecting a summing point and a take-off
point directly will always have gain unity Transforming all equations in Laplace domain.
i.e. 1. Vi – V1 1 1
Step IV : Branch connecting two summing points or 2 take-off I1 = R1 = R1 Vi – R1 V1
points directly will always have gain unity i.e. ‘1’.
Step V : At summing point if ‘–’ sign is present then I1 – I2 (I1 – I2) I1 I1
transmittance/gain is multiplied by ‘– 1’. V1 = sC1 = sC1 = sC1 – sC2
e.g. Draw SFG for following block diagram I1
Vo = sC
2

V1 – Vo 1 1
I2 = R2 = R2 V1 – R2 Vo
Vi – V1 1 1
1. I1 = R1 = R1 Vi – R1 V1

(1D27)Fig. 4.6.6 : Block diagram

Numbers represent nodes.

(1D30)Fig. 4.6.9 : SFG of Equation (1) i.e. I1
Signal flow graph for above block diagram.
I1 I2
2. V1 = sC – sC
1 1

(1D31)Fig. 4.6.10 : SFG of V1

I2
3. Vo = sC
(1D28)Fig. 4.6.7 : SFG of Fig. 4.6.6 2

 4.6.3 Electrical Network

(1D32)Fig. 4.6.11 : SFG of Vo
1 1
Step 1 : Mark all the voltages and currents in the circuits. 4. I2 = R V1 – R Vo
2 2
Step 2 : Use mesh analysis/node analysis to write the equations
for voltages and currents.
Step 3 : Draw SFG for individual equations.
Step 4 : Combine and draw entire SFG.
(1D33)Fig. 4.6.12 : SFG of I2
e.g.
Combining all signal flow graph

(1D29)Fig. 4.6.8 (1D34)Fig. 4.6.13 : SFG combining all equation

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  &KHHGTGPEGDGVYGGP$NQEM&KCITCOCPF5KIPCN(NQY)TCRJ

Sr. Point of difference Block diagram Signal flow graph

No.
1. Representation Every element is represented by block. Every variable is represented by
node.
2. Method used to obtain transfer function Block diagram reduction rules are used. Mason’s gain formula is used.
3. Summing points and take-off points Present Represented by nodes.
4. Self loop Do not exist Exist
5. Time required More Comparatively less.
6. Emphasis on Elements and their transfer function. Variables of the system.
7. Applied to Linear as well as non-linear system. Only linear systems.

Step IV : Calculate '1, '2... 'k.

  /CUQPŏU)CKP(QTOWNC Step V : Use Mason’s formula
∑ Fk 'k
The Mason’s gain formula is used to obtain overall transfer Transfer function =
'
function. F1 '1 + F2 '2 + ...... + Fk 'k
∑ Fk 'k =
'
Overall transfer function =
'
where,   5QNXGF'ZCORNGU
1. k = No. of forward paths
2. Fk = Gain of kth forward path UEx. 4.1 SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
Obtain transfer function of system represented by signal flow graph
3. ' = System determinant which is calculated as in the Fig. Ex. 4.1.
' = 1 – [∑ all individual loop gains including

self loops] + [∑ product gains of two

non-touching loops] – [∑ product gains of

three non-touching loops]+...

4. 'k = Value of ' for the part of the graph not touching the kth
(5D1)Fig. Ex. 4.1
forward path.
 Soln. :
 4.8.1 Steps to Solve SFG using Mason’s
Step I : To find all possible forward path
Gain Formula There are two forward paths
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G6
Step I : Find all possible forward paths and their respective
gains i.e. F1, F2... Fk.
Step II : Find all individual loops and their loop gains.
(5D2)Fig. Ex. 4.1(a): F1 : Forward path 1
Step III
1. Find out all two non-touching loops and take product of their 2. F2 = G1 G2 G5 G6
loop gains.
2. Find out all three non-touching loops and take product of
their loop gains similarly find higher number of non-touching
loops and their gains.
(5D3)Fig. Ex. 4.1(b) : F2 : G1 G2 G5 G6
3. Calculate system determinant '.

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Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains Ex. 4.9.1
C (s) x6
Using Mason’s formula obtain ratio R (s) = x
1. 1

(5D4)

2.

(1D35)Fig. Ex. 4.9.1

(5D5)
 Soln. :
Step III : Step I : To find all possible forward path.
1. To find all possible two non-touching loops and product There are two forward paths.
of their loop gains. 1. F1 = G1 G2 G3
(a) L1 and L2 are two non-touching loops.
L12 = L1 u L2 = (– G2 H1) u (– G4H2)
= G2 G4 H1 H2 (1D36)Fig. Ex. 4.9.1(a) : F1 : Forward path 1
2. To find all possible three non-touching loops and product of
2. F2 = G 5
their gains.
There are no three non-touching loops.
3. To find system determinant '
' = 1 – [L1 + L2] + [L12]
' = 1 – [– G2H1 – G4 H2] + [ G2G4 H1 H2]
' = 1 + G1H1 + G4H2 + G2G4 H1 H2 (1D37)Fig. Ex. 4.9.1(b) : F2 : Forward path 2

Step IV : To find '1 and '2 Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains.

1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G6
1.
'1 = 1 – [6 all loop gains not touching F1]
+ Both L1 and L2 are touching F1
(1D38)Fig. Ex. 4.9.1(c) : L1 : Loop 1
'1 = 1–0
'1 = 1 2.
2. F2 = G1 G2 G5 G6
'2 = 1 – [6 all loop gains not touching F2]
+ L1 and L2 are touching F2 (1D39)Fig. Ex. 4.9.1(d)
'2 = 1–0 Step III :
1. To find all possible two non-touching loops and product of
'2 = 1
their gains.
Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula (a) L1 and L2 are non-touching loops.
2
L12 = L1 u L2 = (– G1 H1) u (– G3 H2)
∑ Fk ' k
L12 = G1 G3 H1 H2
k=1
Transfer function = 2. To find all possible three non-touching loops and product of
'
their gains.
F1 '1 + F2 '2
T.F. = There are no three non-touching loops.
' 3. To find system determinant '.
G1 G2 G3 G4 G6 + G1 G2 G5 G6
T.F. = 1+G H +G H +G G H H ' = 1 – [L1 + L2] + [L12]
1 1 4 2 2 4 1 2
' = 1 – [– G1 H1 – G3 H2] + [G1 G3 H1 H2]
...Ans.

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' = 1 + G1 H1 + G3 H2 + G1 G3 H1 H2 Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains.
Step IV : To find '1 and '2 1.
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3

'1 = 1 – [∑ all loop gains not touching F1] + ...

L1 and L2 both are touching F1 (5D9)
'1 = 1 – 0 2.
'1 = 1
2. F2 = G 5

'2 = 1 – [∑ all loop gains not touching F2] + ...

(5D10)
L1 and L2 both are touching G5
'2 = 1 – 0 = 1 Step III :
1. To find all possible two non-touching loops and product of
Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula
their gains.
2
(a) L1 and L2 are non-touching loops.
∑ Fk ' k L12 = L1 u L2 = (– G2 H1) (– G3 H2)
k=1 = G2 G3 H1 H2
Transfer function =
'
2. To find all possible three non-touching loops and product of
F1 '1 + F2 '2 their gains.
T. F. =
' There are no three non-touching loops.
G1 G2 G3 + G5 3. To find system determinant '.
T. F. = 1 + G H + G H + G G H H ...Ans. ' = 1 – [L1 + L2] + [L12]
1 1 3 2 1 3 1 2
' = 1 – [– G2 H1 – G3 H2] + [G2 G3 H1 H2]
UEx. 4.9.2 SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks) ' = 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G2 G3 H1 H2
Y(s) Step IV : To find '1 and '2.
Determine the overall transfer function R(s) for the signal flow
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3
graph shown in Fig. Ex. 4.9.2.
'1 = 1 – [∑ all loop gains not touching F1] + ....
'1 = 1–0
'1 = 1
2. F2 = G4
'2 = 1 – [∑ all loop gains not touching F2] +
[∑ product of gains of all two non-touching loop]
– [∑ product of gains of three non-touching loops]
(5D6)Fig. Ex. 4.9.2
+ .....
 Soln. : '2 = 1 – [L1 + L2] + [L12]
Step I : To find all possible forward paths. '2 = 1 – [– G2 H1 – G3 H2] + [G2 G3 H1 H2]
There are two forward paths. '2 = 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G2 G3 H1 H2
1) F1 = G1 G2 G3 Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula
2
∑ Fk ' k
(5D7)Fig. Ex. 4.9.2(a) : F1 : Forward path 1 k=1
Transfer function =
'
2) F2 = G4 F1 '1 + F2 '2
T.F. =
'
(G1 G2 G3) ˜ 1 + G4 (1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G2 G3 H1 H2)
T.F. = 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G2 G3 H1 H2
G1 G2 G3 + G4 + G2 G4 H1 + G3 G4 H2 + G2 G3 G4 H1 H2
T.F. = 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G2 G3 H1 H2
(5D8)Fig. Ex. 4.9.2(b) : F2 : Forward path 2 ...Ans.

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Ex. 4.9.3 Step III
Obtain transfer function of the following SFG using Mason’s gain 1. To obtain all possible 2 non-touching loops and taking
formula. product of their gains.
Loops L1 and L2 are non-touching.
L12 = G2 G3 G5 H1 H3
2. To obtain any three non-touching loops.
There are no three non-touching loops.
3. To obtain system determinant.
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4] + [L12]
(1D40)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3 : SFG
' = 1 – [– G5 H1 – G2 G3 H3 – G4 H2 – G6 H1 H2 H3]
 Soln. : + [G2 G3 G5 H1 H3]
Step I : To obtain all possible forward path.
' = 1 + G5 H1 + G2 G3 H3 + G4 H2 + G6 H1 H2 H3
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
+ G2 G3 G5 H1 H3
Step IV : To calculate '1 and '2
1. To calculate '1
(1D41)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3(a) : F1 : Forward path 1 F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
2. F2 = G 1 G 6 '1 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F1]
All the loops touch F1
'1 = 1 – 0 = 1
2. To calculate '2
F2 = G 1 G 6
(1D42)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3(b) : F2 : Forward path 2 '2 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F2]
Step II : To obtain all individual loop and loop gains. L3 is not touching F2
'2 = 1 – [– G4 H2]

1. '2 = 1 + G4 H2
Step V : To obtain transfer function using Mason’s gain formula
2
(1D43)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3(c) : L1 : Loop 1 6 Fk ' k
k=1
T. F. =
'
2. F1 '1 + F2 '2
T. F. =
'
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 + G1 G6 (1 + G4 H2)
(1D44)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3(d) : L2 : Loop 2 T. F. = 1 + G H + G G H + G H + G H H H + G G G H H
5 1 2 3 3 4 2 6 1 2 3 2 3 5 1 3

3. ...Ans.
Ex. 4.9.4
Obtain transfer function of the following SFG.
(1D45)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3(e) : L3 : Loop 3

4.

(1D54)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4 : SFG

(1D46)Fig. Ex. 4.9.3(f) : L4 : Loop 4

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 Soln. : 2. To find all three non-touching loops.

Step I : To find all possible forward paths There are no three non-touching loops.
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 3. To calculate system determinant '
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4] + [L13]
' = 1 – [– G1 G2 H3 – G2 G3 H2 – G4 H1 + G5 H1 H2]
(1D55)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4(a) : F1 : Forward path 1 + [G1 G2 G4 H1 H3]

2. F2 = G 1 G 5 ' = 1 + G1 G2 H3 + G2 G3 H2 + G4 H1 – G5 H1 H2
+ G1 G2 G4 H1 H3
Step IV : To calculate '1 and '2
1. '1 = 1 – [∑ all loops not touching F1] + ...
Loops L1, L2, L3 and L4 touch forward path F1
(1D56)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4(b) : F2 : Forward path 2 ? '1 = 1 – 0 '1 = 1
Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains. 2. '2 = 1 – [6 all loops not touching F2] + ...
There are 4 single loops present Loops L1, L2, L3 and L4 touch F2
1. '2 = 1 – 0 '2 = 1
Step V : Using Mason’s formula
2
6 Fk ' k
k=1
(1D57)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4(c) : L1 : Loop 1 Transfer function =
'
2. F1 '1 + F2 '2
T. F. =
'
G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G5
T. F. = 1 + G G H + G G H + G H – G H H + G G G H H
1 2 3 2 3 2 4 1 5 1 2 1 2 4 1 3

...Ans.
(1D58)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4(d) : L2 : Loop 2

3. UEx. 4.2 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)

Obtain the transfer function of the system represented by signal
flow graph as shown in Fig. Ex. 4.2.

(1D59)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4(e) : L3 : Loop 3

4.

(5D11)Fig. Ex. 4.2

(1D60)Fig. Ex. 4.9.4(f) : L4 : Loop 4  Soln. :

Step III : Step I : To find all possible forward paths
There are two forward paths.
1. To find all two non-touching loops and their loop gains. 1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
Loops L1 and L3 are non-touching loops.
? Product of their loop gains.
L13 = L1 u L3 = (– G1 G2 H3) u (– G4 H1) (5D12)Fig. Ex. 4.2(a) : F1 : Forward path 1
L13 = G1 G2 G4 H1 H3

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2. F2 = G1 G6 G5 Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula.
2
∑ Fk ' k
k=1
Transfer function =
'
F1 '1 + F2 '2
T.F. =
(5D13)Fig. Ex. 4.2(b) : F2 : Forward path 2 '

Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains. G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 + G1 G6 G5

T.F. = 1 + G H + G G G H + G H ...Ans.
1. 2 1 2 3 4 2 6 2

Ex. 4.9.5
Using Mason’s gain formula obtain T. F. of the following SFG.
(5D14)

2.

(5D15)

3.

(1D61)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5 : SFG

 Soln. :
Step I : To find all possible forward paths
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3

(5D16)

Step III (1D62)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(a) : F1 : Forward path 1

1. To find all possible two non-touching loops and product of
2. F2 = G 4 G 5
their loop gains.
There are no two non-touching loops.
2. To calculate '
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3]
' = 1 – [– G2 H1 – G2 G3 G4 H2 – G6 H2]
' = 1 + G2 H1 + G2 G3 G4 H2 + G6 H2
Step IV : To calculate '1 and '2. (1D63)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(b) : F2 : Forward path 2
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
Step II : To obtain all individual loops and their loop gains.
'1 = 1 – [∑ all loop gains not touching F1]
'1 = 1–0=1 There are 5 loops.
2. F2 = G1 G6 G5 1.
'2 = 1 – [∑ all loop gains not touching F2]
'2 = 1 – [0]
'2 = 1 (1D64)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(c) : L1 : Loop 1

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2. 3.

(1D65)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(d) : L2 : Loop 2

(1D66)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(e) : L3 : Loop 3

4. 5. Self loop

(1D67)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(f) : L4 : Loop 4 (1D68)Fig. Ex. 4.9.5(g)

Step III :
1. To find all two non-touching loops and product of their loop gains.
(a) L1 and L4 are non-touching loops.
L14 = L1 u L4 = (– G2 H3) u (– G4 G5 H4)
L14 = G2 G4 G5 H3 H4
(b) L1 and L5 are non-touching loops.
L15 = L1 u L5 = (– G2 H3) u (– H1)
L15 = G2 H1 H3
(c) L2 and L5 are non-touching loops.
L25 = L2 u L5 = (– G3 H2) u (– H1)
L25 = G3 H1 H2
(d) L3 and L5 are non-touching loops.
L35 = L3 u L5 = (– G1 G2 G3 H4) u (– H1)
L35 = G1 G2 G3 H1 H4
2. To find all possible three non-touching loops.
There are no three non-touching loops.
3. To obtain system determinant '
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5] + [L14 + L15 + L25 + L35]
' = 1 – [– G2 H3 – G3H2 – G1 G2 G3 H4 – G4 G5 H4 – H1] + [G2 G4 G5 H3 H4 + G2 H1 H3 + G3 H1 H2 + G1 G2 G3 H1 H4]
' = 1 + G2 H3 + G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3 H4 + G4 G5 H4 + H1 + G2 G4 G5 H3 H4 + G2 H1 H3 + G3 H1 H2 + G1 G2 G3 H1 H4
Step IV : To calculate '1 and '2
1. '1 = 1 – [6 all loops not touching F1] + ...
F1 = G1 G2 G3
Loops L5 does not touch F1
'1 = 1 – [– H1] = 1 + H1
2. '2 = 1 – [6 all loops not touching F2] + ...
F2 = G 4 G 5
Loops L1 does not touch F2
'2 = 1 – [– G2 H3] = 1 + G2 H3

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Step V : To calculate T. F. using Mason’s formula
2
6 Fk ' k
k=1 F1 '1 + F2 '2
Transfer function = T. F. =
' '
G1 G2 G3 (1 + H1) + G4 G5 (1 + G2 H3)
T. F. = 1 + G H + G H + G G G H + G G H + H + G G G H H + G H H + G H H + G G G H H
2 3 3 2 1 2 3 4 4 5 4 1 2 4 5 3 4 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 4
G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 G3 H1 + G4 G5 + G2 G4 G5 H3
T. F. = 1 + G H + G H + G G G H + G G H + H + G G G H H + G H H + G H H + G G G H H ...Ans.
2 3 3 2 1 2 3 4 4 5 4 1 2 4 5 3 4 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 4

Ex. 4.9.6 Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains.
Find transfer function of the following SFG. (a) L1 = – G 1 H 1

(1D84)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(e) : L1 : Loop 1

(b) L2 = – G 3 H 2
(1D79)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6 : SFG

 Soln. :
Step I : To find all possible forward paths
(a) F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
(1D85)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(f) : L2 : Loop 2

(c) L3 = – G 5 H 4
(1D80)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(a) : F1 : Forward path 1

(b) F2 = G6 G3 G4 G5

(1D86)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(g) : L3 : Loop 3

(d) L4 = – G 4 G 5 H 3

(1D81)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(b) : F2 : Forward path 2

(c) F3 = G1 G2 G3 G7

(1D87)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(h) : L4 : Loop 4

(e) L5 = – G 7 H 3
(1D82)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(c) : F3 : Forward path 3

(d) F4 = G6 G3 G7

(1D88)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(i) : L5 : Loop 5

(1D83)Fig. Ex. 4.9.6(d) : F4 : Forward path 4

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Step III : There are no four non-touching loops.

1. To find all possible two non-touching loops and product of 4. To calculate system determinant '
their loop gains. ' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5]
(a) L1 and L2 + [L12 + L13 + L14 + L15 + L23] – [L123]
L12 = L1 u L2 = (– G1 H1) u (– G3 H2) = G1 G3 H1 H2 ' = 1 – [– G1 H1 – G3 H2 – G5 H4 – G4 G5 H3 – G7 H3]
(b) L1 and L3 + [G1 G3 H1 H2 + G1 G5 H1 H4 + G1 G4 G5 H1 H3
L13 = L1 u L3 = (– G1 H1) u (– G5 H4) = G1 G5 H1 H4 + G1 G7 H1 H3 + G3 G5 H2 H4]
(c) L1 and L4 – [– G1 G3 G5 H1 H2 H4]
L14 = L1 u L4 = (– G1 H1) u (– G4 G5 H3)
' = 1 + G1 H1 + G3 H2 + G5 H4 + G4 G5 H3 + G7 H3
= G1 G4 G5 H1 H3
+ G1 G3 H1 H2 + G1 G5 H1 H4 + G1 G4 G5 H1 H3
(d) L1 and L5
+ G1 G7 H1 H3 + G3 G5 H2 H4 + G1 G3 G5 H1 H2 H4
L15 = L1 u L5 = (– G1 H1) u (– G7 H3) = G1 G7 H1 H3
Step IV : To calculate '1, '2, '3, '4
(e) L2 and L3
(a) '1 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F1]
L23 = L2 u L3 = (– G3 H2) u (– G5 H4) = G3 G5 H2 H4
F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
2. To find all possible three non-touching loops and product of
their loop gains. '1 = 1 – 0 = 1
(a) L1, L2 and L3
(b) Similarly '2 = 1, '3 = 1, '4 = 1
L123 = L1 u L2 u L3 = (– G1 H1) (– G3 H2) (– G5 H4)
L123 = – G1 G3 G5 H1 H2 H4

3. To find all possible four non-touching loops.

Step V : To calculate transfer function
4
6 Fk ' k
k=1 F1 '1 + F2 '2 + F3 '3 + F4 '4
T. F. = =
' '
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 + G6 G3 G4 G5 + G1 G2 G3 G7 + G6 G3 G7
T. F. = 1 + G H + G H + G H + G G H + G H + G G H H + G G H H + G G G H H + G G H H + G G H H + G G G H H H
1 1 3 2 5 4 4 5 3 7 3 1 3 1 2 1 5 1 4 1 4 5 1 3 1 7 1 3 3 5 2 4 1 3 5 1 2 4

...Ans.

UEx. 4.9.7 SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks)

Determine the overall transfer function C(s) / R(s) for the signal
Fig. Ex. 4.9.7(a) : Forward path 1
flow graph shown in Fig. Ex. 4.9.7.
2. F2 = G4 G7

Fig. Ex. 4.9.7(b) : Forward path 2

3. F3 = G1 G6

Fig. Ex. 4.9.7

 Soln. :
Step I : To find all possible forward paths
There are three forwards paths,
1. F1 = G1 G2 G7 Fig. Ex. 4.9.7(c) : Forward path 3

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Step II : To find all individual loops and loop gains  Soln. :
(i)
Step I : To determine all possible forward paths.
(1) F 1 = G1 G2 G3 G4

(ii)
(3D15)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(a) : F1 : Forward Path 1

(2) F2 = G1 G2 G6

Step III : To find all non-touching loops and product of their

loop gains
(i) There are no non-touching loops
(ii) To find '
' = 1 – [L1 + L2] (3D16)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(b) : F2 : Forward Path 2
' = 1 – [G2 G3 + G5]
Step II : To determine all individual loops and their loop gain.
' = 1 – G2 G3 – G5
(1) L1 = – G 2 H 2
Step IV : To find '1 '2 and '3
(i) '1 = 1 – [6 all loop gains not touching F1]
= 1 – [0]
= 1
(3D17)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(c) : L1 : Loop 1
(ii) '2 = 1 – [6 all loop gains not touching F2]
= 1–0 (2) L2 = – G2 G3 H1
= 1
(iii) '3 = 1 – [6 all loop gains not touching F3]
= 1–0
= 1
Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula
3 (3D18)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(d) : L2 : Loop 2
Fk ' k
T.F. = 6 ' (3) L3 = – G2 G3 G4 H3
k=1
F1 '1 + F2 '2 + F3 '3
T.F. =
'
G1 G2 G7 + G4 G7 + G1 G6
T.F. = 1 – G2 G3 – G5

Ex. 4.9.8
(3D19)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(e) : L3 : Loop 3
For the signal flow graph shown in the Fig. Ex. 4.9.8, using
Mason’s gain formula determine the overall transmission C/R. (4) L4 = – G2 G6 H3

(3D20)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(f) : L4 : Loop 4

(3D14)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8

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(5) L5 = G5 Ex. 4.9.9
C (s) x6
For the given SFG obtain R (s) = x using Mason’s formula.
1

(3D21)Fig. Ex. 4.9.8(g) : L5 : Loop 5

Step III
(1) To find all possible two non-touching loops and product of
their loop gains.
(a) L1 and L5
L15 = (L1 u L5) = (– G2 H2) u G5 = – G2 G5 H2
(b) L4 and L5
L45 = L4 u L5 = (– G2 G6 H3) u (G5) = – G2 G5 G6 H3
(1D69)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9 : SFG
(2) To find all possible three non-touching loops.
There are no such three non-touching loops.
 Soln. :
Step I : To obtain all possible forward paths
(3) To find system determinant ' 1. F1 = G1 G2 G3
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5] + [L15 + L45]
' = 1 – [– G2 H2 – G2 G3 H1 – G2 G3 G4 H3 – G2 G6 H3 + G5]
+ [– G2 G5 H2 – G2 G5 G6 H3]
' = 1 + G2 H2 + G2 G3 H1 + G2 G3 G4 H3 + G2 G6 H3 – G5
(1D70)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(a) : F1 : Forward path 1
– G2 G5 H2 – G2 G5 G6 H3
Step IV : To calculate '1 and '2 2. F2 = G4 G5 G6

(1) '1 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F1]

'1 = 1 – 0 = 1

(2) '2 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F2]

(1D71)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(b) : F2 : Forward path 2
'2 = 1 – [L5]
'2 = 1 – G5 3. F3 = G1 G7 G6

Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula

2
6 Fk ' k
k=1
T.F. =
'
F1 ' 1 + F2 ' 2
T.F. =
'
G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G2 G6 (1 – G5) (1D72)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(c) : F3 : Forward path 3
T.F. = 1 + G2 H2 + G2 G3 H1 + G2 G3 G4 H3 + G2 G6 H3 – G5 – G2 G5 H2 – G2 G5 G6 H3

G1 G2 G3 G4 + G1 G2 G6 – G1 G2 G5 G6
T.F. = 1 + G H + G G H + G G G H + G G H – G – G G H – G G G H
2 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 2 6 3 5 2 5 2 2 5 6 3

...Ans.

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4. F4 = G4 G8 G3 3.

(1D78)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(i)

(1D73)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(d) : F4 : Forward path 4
Step III :
5. F5 = G 1 G 7 – H 2 G 8 G 3
1. To obtain all possible two non-touching loops and product of
their gains.
L1 and L2 are non-touching loops.
L12 = G2 G5 H1 H2
2. To obtain all possible three non-touching loops.
There are no such three non-touching loops.
3. To obtain system determinant '.
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3] + [L12]
' = 1 – [– G2 H1 – G5H2 + G7 G8 H1 H2]
+ [G2 G5 H1 H2]
(1D74)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(e) : F5 : Forward path 5
' = 1 + G2 H1 + G5 H2 + G7 G8 H1 H2 + G2 G5 H1 H2
6. F6 = G4 G8 – H1 G7 G6 Step IV : To calculate value of '1, '2, '3, '4, '5 and '6
1. To calculate '1
F1 = G1 G2 G3
'1 = 1 – [∑ of loop gains not touching
forward path F1]
L2 does not touch F1
'1 = 1 – [– G5 H2]
'1 = 1 + G5 H2
2. To calculate '2
F2 = G4 G5 G6
(1D75)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(f) : F6 : Forward path 6
'2 = 1 – [6 of loop gains not touching F2]
Step II : To obtain total number of individual loops and their L2 does not touch F2
loop gains.
'2 = 1 – [– G2 H1]
1.
'2 = 1 + G2 H1
3. To calculate '3
F3 = G1 G7 G6
(1D76)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(g) '3 = 1 – [6 of loop gains do not touch F3]
2. All loop touch F3
'3 = 1 – 0 = 1
4. Similarly '4, '5 and '6 also have value 1.

(1D77)Fig. Ex. 4.9.9(h)

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Step V : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula

6
6 Fk ' k
k=1
T. F. =
'
F1 '1 + F2 '2 + F3 '3 + F4 '4 + F5 '5 + F6 '6
T. F. =
'
G1 G2 G3 (1 + G5 H2) + G4 G5 G6 (1 + G2 H1) + G1 G7 G6 + G4 G8 G3 – G1 G7 G8 G3 H2 – G4 G8 H1 G7 G6
T. F. = 1 + G2 H1 + G5 H2 + G7 G8 H1 H2 + G2 G5 H1 H2

G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 G3 G5 H2 + G4 G5 G6 + G2 G4 G5 G6 H1 + G1 G6 G7 + G4 G8 G3 – G1 G3 G7 G8 H2 – G4 G6 G7 G8 H1
T. F.= 1 + G2 H1 + G5 H2 + G7 G8 H1 H2 + G2 G5 H1 H2 ...Ans.

Ex. 4.9.10 2.
Find the transfer function of the following SFG.

(1D93)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(d) : L2 : Loop 2

3.

(1D94)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(e) : L3 : Loop 3

1D89)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10 4.

 Soln. :
Step I : To find all possible forward paths
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 (1D95)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(f) : L4 : Loop 4

5.

(1D90)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(a) : F1 : Forward path 1

2. F2 = G 6 G 5 (1D96)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(g) : L5 : Loop 5

6.

(1D91)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(b) : F2 : Forward path 2

Step II : To find all individual loops and their loop gains.

1. (1D97)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(h) : L6 : Loop 6

(1D92)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(c) : L1 : Loop 1

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7. (a) L1, L3 and L8 are non-touching loops.
L138 = L1 u L3 u L8 = (– G1 H1) u (– G3 H3) u (– H6)
= – G1 G3 H1 H3 H6
(b) L1, L4 and L8 are non-touching loops.
L148 = L1 u L4 u L8 = (– G1 H1) u (– G4 H4) u (– H6)
= – G1 G4 H1 H4 H6
(c) L2, L4 and L8 are non-touching loops.
(1D98)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(i) : L7 : Loop 7
L248 = L2 u L4 u L8 = (– G2 H2) (– G4 H4) (– H6)
8. = – G2 G4 H2 H4 H6
Step IV : To find all possible four non-touching loops.
There are no four non-touching loops.
(1D99)Fig. Ex. 4.9.10(j) : L8 : Loop 8 Step V : To find system determinant
' = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 + L8]
Step III
1. To find all possible two non-touching loops and product of + [L13 + L14 + L18 + L24 + L28 + L37 + L38 + L48]
their loop gains. [L138 + L148 + L248]
(a) L1 and L3 ' = 1 – [– G1 H1 – G2 H2 – G3 H3 – G4 H4 – G2 G3 G4
L13 = L1 u L3 = (– G1 H1) u (– G3 H3) = G1 G3 H1 H3 G5 H5 + G1 H1 H2 H3 H4 + G6 G5 H1 H5 – H6]
(b) L1 and L4 + [G1 G3 H1 H3 + G1 G4 H1 H4 + G1 H1 H6
L14 = L1 u L4 = (– G1 H1) u (– G4 H4) = G1 G4 H1 H4 + G2 G4 H2 H4 + G2 H2 H6 – G3 G5 G6 H1 H3 H5
(c) L1 and L8 + G3 H3 H6 + G4 H4 H6] – [– G1 G3 H1 H3 H6
L18 = L1 u L8 = (– G1 H1) u (– H6) – G1 G4 H1 H4 H6 – G2 G4 H2 H4 H6]
= G1 H1 H6 ' = 1 + G1 H1 + G2 H2 + G3 H3 + G4 H4 + G2 G3 G4
(d) L2 and L4 G5 H5 – G1 H1 H2 H3 H4 – G6 G5 H1 H5 – H6
L24 = L2 u L4 = (– G2 H2) (– G4 H4) = G2 G4 H2 H4 + G1 G3 H1 H3 + G1 G4 H1 H4 + G1 H1 H6 + G2 G4

(e) L2 and L8 H2 H4 + G2 H2 H6 – G3 G5 G6 H1 H3 H5 + G3 H3 H6
+ G4 H4 H6 + G1 G3 H1 H3 H6 + G1 G4 H1 H4 H6
L28 = L2 u L8 = (– G2 H2) u (– H6) = G2 H2 H6
+ G2 G4 H2 H4 H6
(f) L3 and L7
Step VI : To calculate '1 and '2
L37 = L3 u L7 = (– G3 H3) u (G6 G5 H1 H5)
(a) '1 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F1] + ...
= – G3 G5 G6 H1 H3 H5
F1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
(g) L3 and L8 '1 = 1 – 0 = 1
L38 = L3 u L8 = (– G3 H3) u (– H6) = G3 H3 H6 (b) '2 = 1 – [6 loop gains not touching F2] + ...
(h) L4 and L8 F2 = G 6 G 5
L48 = L4 u L8 = (– G4 H4) u (– H6) = G4 H4 H6 '2 = 1 – [L2 + L3]
2. To find all three non-touching loops and product of their loop '2 = 1 – [– G2 H2 – G3 H3]
gains. ' 2 = 1 + G 2 H 2 + G3 H 3
Step VII : To calculate transfer function
2
6 Fk ' k
k=1 F1 '1 + F2 '2
T. F. = =
' '
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 + G6 G5 (1 + G2 H2 + G3 H3)
T. F. =
(1 + G1 H1 + G2 H2 + G3 H3 + G4 H4 + G2 G3 G4 G5 H5 – G1 H1 H2 H3 H4 – G6 G5 H1 H5 – H6
+ G1 G3 H1 H3 + G1 G4 H1 H4 + G1 H1 H6 + G2 G4 H2 H4 + G2 H2 H6 – G3 G5 G6 H1 H3 H5 + G3 H3 H6
+ G4 H4 H6 + G1 G3 H1 H3 H6 + G1 G4 H1 H4 H6 + G2 G4 H2 H4 H6 ) ...Ans.

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Ex. 4.9.11 Step III : To find all possible individual loop and their loop
gains.
Find transfer function using Mason’s gain formula for the given
Fig. Ex. 4.9.11. 1.

(1D105)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11(e) : L1 : Loop 1

2.

(1D100)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11 : Block diagram

(1D106)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11(f) : L2 : Loop 2
 Soln. : Step IV :
Step I : To draw SFG from given block diagram.
1. To find all possible 2 non-touching loops and product of their
1. Mark all summing points, take-off points, input points, output loop gains.
points as nodes.
There are no 2 non-touching loops.
2. To calculate system determinant '
' = 1 – [L1 + L2]
' = 1 – [– G1 G2 H2 – G2 H1]
' = 1 + G1 G2 H2 + G2 H1
Step V : To calculate '1 and '2
(a) '1 = 1 – [6 loop not touching F1]
F1 = G1 G2 G3
(1D101)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11(a) : Block diagram All loops are touching F1
? '1 = 1 – 0 = 1
(b) '2 = 1 – [6 loop not touching F2]
F2 = G1 G2 G4
All loops are touching F2
'2 = 1 – 0 = 1
Step VI : To calculate transfer function using Mason’s formula
(1D102)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11(b) : SFG 2
6 Fk ' k
Step II : To find all possible forward paths. k=1
T. F. =
1. F1 = G1 G2 G3 '
F1 '1 + F2 '2
T. F. =
'
G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 G4
(1D103)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11(c) : F1 : Forward path 1 T. F. = 1 + G G H + G H ...Ans.
1 2 2 2 1

2. F2 = G1 G2 G4

(1D104)Fig. Ex. 4.9.11(d) : F2 : Forward path 2

Chapter Ends…


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 70+6II
6KOG&QOCKP#PCN[UKU
%*#26'4

Syllabus

Transient response and steady state response, standard test inputs for time domain analysis, order and type of a
system, transient analysis of first and second order systems, time domain specifications of second order under
damped system from its step response, Steady state error and static error constants.

5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5-3

5.2 Time Response of the System ....................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.1 Transient Response ...................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.2 Steady State Response ................................................................................................................................ 5-3
5.3 Standard Test Input Signal ............................................................................................................................................. 5-4
5.3.1 Step Input ...................................................................................................................................................... 5-4
5.3.2 Ramp Input .................................................................................................................................................... 5-4
5.3.3 Parabolic Input .............................................................................................................................................. 5-4
5.3.4 Impulse Input ................................................................................................................................................. 5-4
5.4 Steady State Analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-5
5.4.1 Derivation of Steady State Error (ess) ............................................................................................................ 5-5

5.4.2 Steady State Error Coefficients / Static Error Coefficients ............................................................................ 5-5
5.4.3 Type of The System ...................................................................................................................................... 5-6
5.4.3(A) Analysis of Type 0 System ............................................................................................................................ 5-7
5.4.3(B) Analysis of Type 1 System ............................................................................................................................ 5-7
5.4.3(C) Analysis of Type 2 System ............................................................................................................................ 5-8
5.4.4 Disadvantages of Static Error Coefficient Method ........................................................................................ 5-9
5.4.5 Examples on Steady State Analysis ............................................................................................................. 5-9
UEx. 5.1 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 5-11
UEx. 5.2 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 5-11
UEx. 5.3 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks). .......................................................................................................................... 5-12
Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-2)

UEx. 5.4 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 5-13

UEx. 5.5 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 5-14
UEx. 5.6 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 5-15
UEx. 5.4.9 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 5-15
5.5 Transient Response Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 5-16
5.5.1 Analysis of First Order System .................................................................................................................... 5-16
5.5.2 Analysis of Second Order System .............................................................................................................. 5-17
5.5.3 Derivation of Unit Step Response of Second Order System...................................................................... 5-20
5.6 Transient Response Specifications / Design Specifications for Second Order System ............................................... 5-21
5.6.1 Derivation of Rise Time (Tr) ........................................................................................................................ 5-22
5.6.2 Derivation of Peak Time (Tp) ....................................................................................................................... 5-22
5.6.3 Derivation of Mp ........................................................................................................................................... 5-23
5.6.4 Derivation of Settling Time (Ts) .................................................................................................................. 5-23

5.6.5 Formulae at Glance ..................................................................................................................................... 5-24

5.6.6 Examples based on Design Specifications of Transient Response .......................................................... 5-24
UEx. 5.6.2 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 4 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 5-24
UEx. 5.7 (SPPU - Dec. 16, Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................. 5-25
UEx. 5.8 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 5-26
UEx. 5.9 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 5-27
UEx. 5.10 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 5-28
UEx. 5.11 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 5-30
UEx. 5.12 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 5-30
UEx. 5.13 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 5-31
UEx. 5.14 (SPPU - May 15, Dec. 15, 6 Marks). .......................................................................................................... 5-33
UEx. 5.15 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 5-35
UEx. 5.16 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 5-35

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 5-36

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  +PVTQFWEVKQP  5.2.1 Transient Response

Time is an independent variable used in most of the control

 &GHKPKVKQPQHVTCPUKGPVTGURQPUG
system. 6JG XCTKCVKQP QH QWVRWV HTQO KPKVKCN XCNWG VQ HKPCN
XCNWG CHVGT IKXKPI KPRWV VQ VJG U[UVGO KU ECNNGF
 Whenever input (excitation) is applied to the system there is
output (response) which varies with respect to time.
VTCPUKGPVTGURQPUGQHVJGU[UVGO
 We can evaluate systems by analyzing such time responses.  The time taken to reach final value is called transient time. It
is denoted by ct (t).
 For the purpose of analysis systems are tested with various
 If transient response vanishes after some time then such
known inputs called standard inputs.
systems are called stable system.
 These standard inputs are singularity functions as they can be  Mathematically it can be expressed as
obtained from one another by differentiation or integration.
lim
 Time response gives us information about the output whether c (t) = 0 for stable systems
tof t
it is in desired range or not.  Transient response can be exponential or oscillatory in nature.
 It helps to determine parameters like accuracy, stability, etc,
Information provided by transient response
of the system.
 In this part we are going to study all the concepts related to 1. Time instant when system starts responding to the applied
time response of the system. input.
2. Rate of change of output which can give speed of system.

  6KOG4GURQPUGQHVJG5[UVGO
3.
4.
Nature of the output.
Whether output is stable or oscillating about its final value.

 &GHKPKVKQPQHTGURQPUGQHVJGU[UVGO  5.2.2 Steady State Response

6KOG TGURQPUG QH VJG U[UVGO KU FGHKPGF CU QWVRWV QH
VJG U[UVGO YJKEJ KU HWPEVKQP QH VKOG YJGP KPRWV KG
 &GHKPKVKQPQHUVGCF[UVCVGTGURQPUG
GZEKVCVKQP KU CRRNKGF VQ VJG U[UVGO +V KU FGPQVGF D[ 6JGRCTVQHVJGU[UVGOVKOGTGURQPUGYJKEJTGOCKPU
E V  CHVGT VTCPUKGPV TGURQPUG XCPKUJGU KU ECNNGF UVGCF[
UVCVGTGURQPUG+VKUFGPQVGFD[EUU V 
 Consider an example of measuring voltage and current using
voltmeter and ammeter. The steady state response is the final value achieved by the
system.
 In an experiment if we are measuring voltage and current
using voltmeter and ammeter, it take some time for the Information provided by steady state response
voltmeter and ammeter to show readings after giving input to 1. Information about error i.e. difference between desired output
the circuit. and actual output.
 Consider voltmeter is showing reading 5 V and ammeter is 2. Time required to reach steady state.
showing reading 0.5 A. 3. Accuracy of the system.
 The needle of voltmeter and ammeter rises gradually from Steady state error [ess]
0 to 5 V and 0 to 0.5 A.
 The difference between desired output and actual output of
 After reaching the final value also it takes time to settle down. the system is called steady state error. It is denoted by ess.
 There are various factors due to which needle takes time to  The transient and steady state response can be well
settle down like friction, inertia of needle etc. understood from the following waveforms.
 From the above example we can conclude that after giving
input system takes some time to respond and settle.
 On basis of time, time response can be divided into two parts.
(I) Transient response
(II) Steady state response

(1E2)Fig. 5.2.1 : Exponential output

(1E1)

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(1E4)Fig. 5.3.2 : Ramp input

(1E2)Fig. 5.2.2 : Oscillatory output
Ramp input is a velocity function.

  5VCPFCTF6GUV+PRWV5KIPCN  5.3.3 Parabolic Input

2
At
 There are variety of input signals available. It is practically r (t) = 2 tt0
not possible to apply all the signals to the system and study
the behavior of the system. = 0 otherwise
 Hence some reference signals called standard signals are used If A = 1 then it is called unit parabolic system.
3
for analysis of the system. Laplace transform of parabolic input is A/s .
 When system work satisfactorily for these reference inputs
than actual input is given to the system.
Types of standard test inputs
(I) Step input
(II) Ramp input
(III) Parabolic input
(IV) Impulse input

 5.3.1 Step Input (1E5)Fig. 5.3.3 : Parabolic input

r (t) = A t t 0 Parabolic input is acceleration function.

= 0 otherwise
Here r (t) is called reference input.
 5.3.4 Impulse Input
If A = 1 then it is called unit step input. Laplace transform of r (t) = A for t = 0
step input is given by A/s. Step input is a position function. = 0 otherwise
It is the input applied for very short duration of time. It is a
pulse whose magnitude is infinite and width tends to zero.

(1E3)Fig. 5.3.1 : Step input

 5.3.2 Ramp Input

r (t) = A t tt0
= 0 otherwise (1E6)Fig. 5.3.4 : Impulse signal
If A = 1 then it is called unit ramp input. Laplace transform of Laplace transform of impulse function is ‘1’ for A =1.
2
ramp input is A/s .

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Sr. Reference input r (t) Laplace transform R (s) Substituting value from Equation (5.4.4) in Equation (5.4.3)
No. E (s) = R (s) ∓ E (s) G (s) H (s)
1. Step input A/s E (s) r E (s) G (s) H (s) = R (s)
A for t t 0
E (s) [1 r G (s) H (s)] = R (s)
0 otherwise
R (s)
If A = 1 1/s E (s) =
2
1 r G (s) H (s)
2. Ramp input A/s
lim
At for t t 0 Steady state error ess = error.
tof
0 otherwise lim
2 ess = e (t)
If A = 1 1/s tof
3
3. Parabolic input A/s Using final value theorem of Laplace transform
2
At lim lim
2 for t t 0 ess=
tof
e (t) =
so0
s · E (s)
3
0 otherwise 1/s lim R (s)
? ess = s˜
If A = 1 s o 0 1 r G (s) H (s)
4. Impulse for A = 1 1
Note : For negative feedback sign in the denominator is ‘+’ and


for positive feedback sign in the denominator is ‘–’.
 5VGCF[5VCVG#PCN[UKU
For further analysis we consider negative feedback.
 Steady state response is that part of the output which remains
constant.
 5.4.2 Steady State Error Coefficients/
 The parameter related to steady state response is steady state Static Error Coefficients
error, which is denoted by ess. Mathematically,  A control system has steady state error constants for changes
lim in position, velocity and acceleration, these constants are
ess = error
tof called static error coefficients.
Where error is difference between desired output and actual  The various static error coefficients are
output. kp = Position error constant/coefficient

 5.4.1 Derivation of Steady State Error (ess)

kv = Velocity error constant/coefficient
ka = Acceleration error constant/coefficient
 We can calculate these coefficient by applying step, ramp and
parabolic input to control system.
1. Applying step input
r (t) = A for t t 0
= 0 otherwise
(1E7)Fig. 5.4.1 : Simple closed loop system
R (s) = A/s
Where lim R (s)
ess = s˜
s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
R (s) = Laplace transform of input r (t)
...Considering negative feedback
C (s) = Laplace transform of output c (t)
lim /s ˜ A//s
B (s) = Laplace transform of feedback signal b (t) ess =
s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
E (s) = Laplace transform of error signal e (t) lim A
ess =
G (s) = Laplace transform of main system s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
H (s) = Laplace transform of feedback system A
ess = lim
From the Fig. 5.4.1, 1+ G (s) H (s)
so0
E (s) = R (s) ∓ B (s) ...(5.4.1) lim
kp = G (s) H (s)
B (s) = C (s) H (s) ...(5.4.2) so0
Substituting value from Equation (5.4.2) in Equation (5.4.1) A
? ess = 1 + kp
E (s) = R (s) ∓ C (s) H (s) ...(5.4.3)
where kp = position error constant
C (s) = E (s) G (s) ...(5.4.4)

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3
lim s ˜ A/s
ess =
s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
lim A
ess =
s o 0 s2 (1 + G (s) H (s))
lim A
ess =
s o 0 s2 + s2 G (s) H (s)
A
ess = lim 2 lim 2
s + s G (s) H (s)
so0 so0
lim 2
(1E8)Fig. 5.4.2 : ess for step input ka = s G (s) H (s)
so0
where ka = Acceleration error constant
2. Applying ramp input
A
r (t) = A t for t t 0 ess = k
a
= 0 otherwise
2
R (s) = A/s
lim s ˜ R (s)
ess =
s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
...For negative feedback
s ˜ A/s/
2
lim /
ess =
s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
lim A
ess =
s o 0 s (1 + G (s) H (s))
A (1E10)Fig. 5.4.4 : ess for parabolic input
ess = lim lim
s+ s G (s) H (s) Sr. Input Static error coefficient Steady state
so0 so0
No. error
A
ess = lim 1. Step lim A
s G (s) H (s) kp = G (s) H (s) ess = 1 + k
so0 so0 p

lim 2. Ramp lim A

kv = s G (s) H (s) kv = s ˜ G (s) H (s) ess = k
so0 so0 v
A 3. Parabolic lim 2 A
? ess = kv Where kv = velocity error constant ka = s G (s) H (s) ess= k
so0 a

 5.4.3 Type of The System

 &GHKPKVKQP
6[RGQHVJGU[UVGOKUFGHKPGFCUPWODGTQHQRGPNQQR
RQNGURTGUGPVCVVJGQTKIKP
 Type is property of open loop transfer function.
 To understand type of the system G (s) H (s) is expressed in a
special form called as time constant form.
k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
(1E9)Fig. 5.4.3 : ess for ramp input G (s) H (s) = i
s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
3. Applying parabolic input k = Resultant gain of the system
A 2 i = Type of the system
r (t) = 2 t for t t 0
i = 0 type zero system (no pole at origin)
= 0 otherwise
3
i = 1 type one system (one pole at origin)
R (s) = A/s
i = 2 type two system (two pole at origin)
lim s ˜ R (s)
ess = ...Negative feedback i = n type n system (n pole at origin)
s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)

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 5.4.3(A) Analysis of Type 0 System ka =

lim 2
so0
s G (s) H (s)
Time constant form for type ‘0’ system is given as lim 2 k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams) ka = s ˜
so0 (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
G (s) H (s) = 0
s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s) ka = 0
1. Step input to type ‘0’ system A
For step input we calculate kp ? ess = k = f
a
lim Hence we conclude that error is infinite.
kp = G (s) H (s)
so0
lim k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
kp =
s o 0 (1 + T s) (1 + T s)... (1 + T s)
b1 b2 bn

kp = k
A A
? ess = 1 + k = 1 + k
p

Hence we can conclude that error is constant.

(1E13)Fig. 5.4.7 : Type 0 system with parabolic input

 5.4.3(B) Analysis of Type 1 System

Time constant form for type ‘1’ system is given as
k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
G (s) H (s) = s (1 + T s) (1 + T s)... (1 + T s)
b1 b2 bn

1. Step input applied to type 1 system

(1E11)Fig. 5.4.5 : Type 0 system with step input lim
kp = G (s) H (s)
so0
2. Ramp input to type ‘0’ system
For ramp input we calculate kv lim k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
kp =
lim s o 0 s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
kv = s ˜ G (s) H (s) kp = f
so0
A A
ess = 1 + k = =0
k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams) p 1+f
lim
kv = s˜
so0 (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
kv = 0
A
ess = k = f
v

Hence we conclude that error is infinite.

(1E14)Fig. 5.4.8 : Type 1 system with step input

2. Ramp input applied to type 1 system

lim
kv = s G (s) H (s)
so0
lim k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
kv = /s˜
so0 /s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
(1E12)Fig. 5.4.6 : Type 0 system with ramp input kv = k
A A
3. Parabolic input to type ‘0’ system ess = k = k
v
For parabolic input we calculate ka

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Hence we conclude that error is constant.

(1E17)Fig. 5.4.11 : Type 2 system with step input

(1E15)Fig. 5.4.9 : Type 1 system with ramp input 2. Ramp input applied to type 2 system.
lim
3. Parabolic input applied to type 1 system kv = s ˜ G (s) H (s)
so0
lim 2 lim k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
ka = s G (s) H (s) kv = /s 
so0 so0 2
s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
lim /2 k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
ka = s kv = f
so0 /s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
A A
ka = 0 ess = kv = f = 0
A A Hence we conclude that error is zero.
ess = k = 0 = f
a

Hence we can conclude that error is infinite.

(1E18)Fig. 5.4.12 : Type 2 system with ramp input

3. Parabolic input applied to type 2 system.
lim 2
(1E16)Fig. 5.4.10 : Type 1 system with parabolic input kp = s G (s) H (s)
so0
lim 2 k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
 5.4.3(C) Analysis of Type 2 System kp =
so0

s 2
s (1 +Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s)
Time constant form for type 2 system is given as kp = k
k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
G (s) H (s) = 2 A A
ess = k = k
s (1 + Tb1 s) (1 + Tb2 s)... (1 + Tbn s) p

1. Step input applied to type 2 system. Hence we conclude that error is constant.
lim
kp = G (s) H (s)
so0
lim k (1 + Ta1s) (1 + Ta2s)...(1 + Tams)
kp =
s o 0 s2 (1 + T s) (1 + T s)... (1 + T s)
b1 b2 bn

kp = f
A A
ess = 1 + k = =0
p 1+f
Hence we can conclude that error is zero.

(1E19)Fig. 5.4.13 : Type 2 system with parabolic input

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Type Step Ramp Parabolic Since r (t) = 2t ? A=2

kp ess kv ess ka ess A 2
ess = k = 0.5
v
Type 0 k A 0 f 0 f
1+k ess = 4
Type 1 f 0 k A 0 f 2. If ess = 0.4
k A 2
ess = k = k
Type 2 f 0 f 0 k A v v
k 2
0.4 = k

v
5.4.4 Disadvantages of Static Error 2
kv = 0.4 = 5
Coefficient Method
1. This method can be used for only three standard inputs. For the given system,
2. Most of the time error is ‘0’ or ‘f’. Hence exact value of k
kv = 8
error is not specified.
3. This method is applicable to only stable system. k
5 = 8 ? k = 40
 5.4.5 Examples on Steady State
Analysis Ex. 5.4.2
The overall transfer function of unity feedback control system is
Ex. 5.4.1 C(s) 10
given by, R(s) = 2
A unity feedback system has s + 6s + 10
k Find : 1. Position error constant
G (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 4)
2. Velocity error constant
1. If r (t) = 2t and k = 4 find steady state error.
3. Acceleration error constant
2. Find value of ‘k’ if steady state error is 0.4.
 Soln. :
 Soln. : Step I : Since the given transfer function is closed loop transfer
Since the given system is unity feedback system function. Let us find G(s) from it.
H (s) = 1 C(s) G(s)
k R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
G (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 4)
Given system is unity feedback system.
Converting the system to time constant form Hence, H(s) = 1
k Hence,
G (s) =
s s
( ) ( )
su2 1+2 u4 1+4
2
10
s + 6s + 10
=
G(s)
1 + G(s) H(s)
k
G (s) = Here, 10 is gain i.e. k
8s ( ) (1 + 4s )
s
1+2 1
1 + G(s) H(s) = 2
1
s + 6s + 10
1. The given input r (t) = 2t is ramp input. Hence we need to
calculate kv. H(s) = 1
lim 1 1
kv =
so0
s ˜ G (s) H (s) 1 + G(s) = 2
s + 6s + 9 +1
lim /
s uk 1
kv = ? G(s) =
so0 s s 2
8/ s 1+2 ( )( )
1+4 s + 6s + 9
10
k ? G(s) ˜H(s) = 2
kv = 8 s + 6s + 9
10
? G(s) ˜H(s) = (s + 3) (s + 3)
Given k = 4
4 1 Step II : To find kp, kv and ka
kv = 8 = 2 = 0.5
10
G(s) H(s) = (s + 3) (s + 3)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-10)
10 lim 600 (1 + 0.166s)
G(s) H(s) = kp =
s s s o 0 7 (1 + 0.1428s) (1 + 0.1s)
3 u ( 1+3)( 1+3 ) kp
600
= 7 ...Ans.
10
= 9 (1 + 0.33s) (1 + 0.33s)
(ii) To calculate kv
1.11
G(s) H(s) = lim
(1 + 0.33s) (1 + 0.33s) kv = s ˜ G (s) H (s)
so0
lim
(i) kp = G(s) H(s) lim 600 (1 + 0.166s)
s o 0 kv = s˜
s o 0 7 (1 + 0.1428s) (1 + 0.1s)
lim 1.11
=
s o 0 (1 + 0.33s) (1 + 0.33s) kv = 0 ...Ans.
1.11
= (iii) To calculate ka
1 u
lim 2
kp = 1.11 ka = s G (s) H (s)
so0
lim
(ii) kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s) lim 2 600 (1 + 0.166s)
s o 0 ka = s
s o 0 7 (1 + 0.1428s) (1 + 0.1s)
lim 1.11
= s u (1 + 0.33s) (1 + 0.33s)
s o 0 ka = 0 ...Ans.
kv = 0
(iv) The given input is 2 + 6t
lim 2
(iiii) ka = s G(s) H(s) ess = ess1 + ess2
s o 0
lim 2 1.11 A1 A2
= s ess = 1 + k + k [Since 2 is step input and 6t is ramp]
s o 0 (1 + 0.33s) (1 + 0.33s)
p v
ka = 0
From the input A1 = 2 A2 = 6
Ex. 5.4.3 2 6
ess = 600 + 0 = 0.02 + f = f
A unity feedback system is represented by 1+ 7
1000 (s + 6)
G (s) = (s + 7) (s + 10)
Ex. 5.4.4
Evaluate kp, kv and ka. Find steady state error for the input 10 (s + 1)
2 + 6t. For unity feedback system having G(s) = 2 .
s (s + 2) (s +10)
 Soln. : Determine type of system and error coefficients.
The given system is unity feedback system  Soln. :
? H (s) = 1 Step I : To determine system type
1000 (s + 6) The given system is unity feedback system.
G (s) = (s + 7) (s + 10)
 ? H(s) = 1
Converting the above system to time constant form 10 (s + 1)
G(s) = 2
s s (s + 2) (s +10)

G (s) =
100/ ( )
0u6 1+6 Since there is two open loop pole at origin.
s s ? System is Type 2 system.
( ) ( )
7 1 + 7 u 1/ 0 1 + 10 Step II : To determine kp, kv and ka.
s lim
600 (1 + 6 ) kp =
s o 0
G(s) ˜ H(s)
G (s) =
s s lim 10 (s + 1)
7 (1 + 7 ) (1 + 10) =
s o 0 s2 (s + 2) (s +10)
u

600 (1 + 0.166s)

(i)
G (s) = 7 (1 + 0.1428s) (1 + 0.1s)
To calculate kp. =
lim
 ( 1 + 1s )
10 u
s o 0 s s
s u 2 ( 1 + 2 ) ( 1 + 10 ) 
2
lim 10
kp = G (s) H (s)
so0

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(1+1
s
)  Soln. :
lim
kp = Step I : If r(t) = 4t and k = 2
s o 0 s2 u 2 (1 + 0.5s ) (1 + 0.1s)
Since given input is ramp signal hence we need to calculate kv
kp = f lim
kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s)
so0
lim
kv = sG(s) ˜ H(s) Since system is unity feedback
s o 0
?H(s) = 1
lim s (1 + s)
= lim k
2
s o 0 2 u s (1 + 0.5 s) (1 + 0. 1s) kv = s ˜ s(1 + s)(1 + 0.45s)
so0

kv = f k = 2
lim 2
2
s (1 + s) kv = 
s ˜
ka =
lim so0 
s (1 + s)(1 + 0.45s)
2
s o 0 2 u s (1 + 0.5 s) (1 + 0. 1s)
kv = 2
(1 + 0) A
= 2 (1 + 0) (1 + 0) ess = kv
1 A = 4
ka = 2 4
ess = 2 =2
ka = 0.5
ess = 2
Ex. 5.4.5 Step II : ess = 0.2
The unity feedback system has a open loop transfer function of lim
20(s + 5) kv = s˜ G(s) H(s)
G(s) = . Determine steady-state error for so0
s(s + 0.1) (s + 3) lim k
kv = s ? kv = k
parabolic input. so0 s (1 + s)(1 + 0.45s)
 Soln. : ess =
A
kv
Step I : To calculate ka
Since the input is parabolic, we calculated the acceleration Since r(t) = 4t ?A=4
error coefficient ka. 4 4
ess = k 0.2 = k
lim 2
ka = s G(s) ˜ H(s) 4
s o 0
k = 0.2 = 20
H(s) = 1
lim  2 20 (s + 5)
ka = s UEx. 5.2 SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks.
s o 0 ؔs (s + 0.1)(s + 3)
For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
ka = 0 2
10 (s + 3) (s + 4s + 12)
Step II : To calculate ess G(s) = 2
s (s + 4) (s + 6) (s + s + 5)
Steady state error for a parabolic input is given by the
Determine type and older of system, kp, kv, ka and steady state error
A
ess = k for ramp input.
a

A = 4  Soln. :
4 Step I : The given open loop transfer function is
ess = 0 2
10 (s + 3) (s + 4s + 12)
ess = f G(s) = 2
s (s + 4) (s + 6) (s + s + 5)
(i) To determine type of system,
UEx. 5.1 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks)
A unity feedback system has Since there is one pole at origin
k ? System is Type 1.
G(s) = s(s + 1)(1 + 0.45s)
(ii) To determine order of system,
(i) If r(t) = 4t and k = 2 find steady state error. The highest order of ‘s’ in denominator
(ii) If the desired value of steady state error to be 0.2 find Order of system = 5
corresponding value of k.

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Step II : To calculate static error constants 3. To calculate ka

(i) To calculate kp lim 2
ka = s G(s) H(s)
so0
lim
kp = G(s) H(s) lim /2 k
so0 ka = s
2 so0 
s (s + 2) (s + 4) + 10
lim 10 (s + 3) (s + 4s + 12)
kp =
s o 0 s (s + 4) (s + 6) (s2 + s + 5) ka = 0
kp = f Step II : To calculate steady state error
For step input
A
(ii) To calculate kv ess = 1 + k
p
lim
kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s) 1
so0 ess =
2 1+f
lim 10 (s + 3) (s + 4s + 12)
kv = s 2 ess = 0
so0 s (s + 4) (s + 6) (s + s + 5)
Step III : To calculate value of k if steady state error for step input
10 u 3 u 12 is 0.8.
kv = =3
4u6u5
A
(iii) To calculate ka ess = 1 + k
p
lim 2 A
ka = s G(s) H(s) 0.8 =
so0 1+k
2
lim 2/ 10 (s + 3) (s + 4s + 12) 1
ka = s 2 0.8 (1 + k) = 1 1+k =
so0 s (s + 4) (s + 6) (s + s + 5) 0.8
ka = 0 1
k = 0.8 – 1 = 0.25
Step III : To calculate steady state error for ramp input
A 1 k = 0.25
ess = k = 3 = 0.333
v Ex. 5.4.6
ess = 0.333
A unity feedback system has forward path transfer function
k (2s + 1)
UEx. 5.3 .SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks. G (s) = s (5s + 1) (s + 1)
Determine static error constant (kp, kv, ka) and steady state error for
The input r (t) is applied to the system. Determine value of k of
step input if the unity feedback system has open loop transfer
steady state error is to be less than 0.1.
function.
k r (t) = 1 + 6t. Also determine system type.
G(s) = s (s + 2) (s + 4) + 10 ; k = 20
 Soln. :
Also find k if steady state error for step input is 0.8. 1. To determine system type
 Soln. : The given system is unity feedback system
Step I : To calculate static error constants ? H (s) = 1
1. To calculate kp k (1 + 2s)
G (s) = s (1 + 5s) (1 + s)
lim
kp = G(s) H(s)
so0 Since there is one open loop pole at origin
lim k
kp = ? System is type 1 system.
s o 0 s(s + 2) (s + 4) + 10
2. To determine kp, kv and ka
kp = f
lim
2. To determine kv kp = G (s) H (s)
so0
lim lim
kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s) k (1 + 2s)
so0 kp =
s o 0 s (1 + 5s) (1 + s)
lim k
kv = s
so0 s (s + 2) (s + 4) + 10 kp = f ...Ans.
lim 20 20 lim
kv = = 18 kv = s G (s) H (s)
s o 0 (2 u 4) + 10 so0
lim k (1 + 2s)
kv = 1.11 kv = /
s ˜ /s (1 + 5s) (1 + s) = k
so0

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lim 2 2. To calculate kv
ka = s G (s) H (s)
so0 lim
lim k (1 + 2s) kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s)
2 so0
ka = s/
so0 /s (1 + 5s) (1 + s) lim 100 (s + 5)
kv = ਋s 2
so0 ਋s (s + 7s + 20) (s + 10)
ka = 0 ...Ans.
100 u 5
3. The given input r (t) = 1 + 6t kv = = 2.5
20 u 10
1 o step input
3. To calculate ka
6t o ramp input
A1 A2 lim 2
ka = s G(s) H(s)
ess = 1 + k + k so0
p v
lim /2 100 (s + 5)
1 6 ka = s 2
ess = + so0 ਋
s (s + 7s + 20) (s + 10)
1+f k
6 ka = 0
ess = 0 + k Step III :
6 Steady state error for unit ramp input
ess = k A
ess = k
ess should be less than 0.1 v

Substitute ess = 0.1 1

ess = kv
6
0.1 = k
Since unit ramp input ?A=1
1
kmin = 60 ess = 2.5 = 0.4
ess = 0.4
Minimum value of k must be 60
i.e. 60 d k < f Ex. 5.4.7
100 (s + 1)
UEx. 5.4 .SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks. For a unity feedback system G (s) = 2
s (s + 2) (s + 10)
For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function Determine
100 (s + 5)
G(s) = 2 (i) Type of system (ii) error coefficients
s(s + 7s + 20) (s + 10) 2
t
Determine order, type of system, kp, kv ka and steady state error for (iii) Steady state error if input is 1 + 4t + 2
unit ramp input.
 Soln. :
 Soln. : (i) To determine type of system. Since given system is unity
Step I : The given open loop transfer function is feedback system H (s) = 1.
100 (s + 5) 100 (s + 1)
G(s) = 2 G (s) = 2
s(s + 7s + 20) (s + 10) s (s + 2) (s + 10)
1. Type of system Converting the system to time constant form
Since there is one pole at origin. The type of system is ‘1’. 100 (s + 1)
G (s) =
s s
2. Order of system
2
( ) (
s u 2 1 + 2 10 1 + 10 )
The highest power of ‘s’ in denominator is order of system. 100 (s + 1)
G (s) =
s s
The order of system is 4.
2
s u 20 1 + 2( )( 1 + 10 )
Step II : To calculate kp, kv ka
5 (s + 1)
G (s) =
1. To calculate kp s s

kp =
lim
G(s) H(s)
s
2
( )(
1+2 1 + 10 )
so0 Since there are two open loop poles at the origin system is
lim 100 (s + 5) Type 2 system.
kp =
s o 0 s(s2 + 7s + 20) (s + 10)
kp = f

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(ii) To determine error coefficients lim 100 (s + 2)
kv = 
s
lim so0 
s (s + 5) (s + 10)
(a) kp = G (s) H (s)
so0 lim 100 u2
lim 5 (s + 1) kv =
kp = s o 0 5 u 10
so0 2 s s
s 1+2( )( 1 + 10 ) kv = 4
Step II : To calculate steady state error for input r(t) = 1 + t
lim 5 (1 + s)
kp = r(t) = 1+t
s o 0 s2 (1 + 0.5s) (1 + 0.1s)
A1 A2
kp = f ...Ans. ess = +
1 + kp kv
lim A 1
(b) kv = s G (s) H (s) ess = +
so0 1+f 4
lim 5 (1 + s) ess = 0 + 0.25 = 0.25
kv = /
s ˜ 2
so0 /
s (1 + 0.5s) (1 + 0.1s)
UEx. 5.6 .SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks.
kv = f ...Ans.
For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
lim 2
(c) ka = s G (s) H (s) 50 (s + 5)
so0 G(s) = 2
s(s + 5s + 50)
lim 2 5 (1 + s)
ka = 
s ˜ 2
so0 
s (1 + 0.5s) (1 + 0.1s) Determine static error constants and steady state error of input

ka = 5 ...Ans. r(t) = 1 + 5t
(iii) To determine steady state error  Soln. :
2
t Step I : To determine static error constants
For input r (t) = 1 + 4t + 2
1. To determine kp
Comparing r (t) with standard inputs lim
A1 = 1 A2 = 4 A3 = 1 kp = G(s) H(s)
so0
A1 A2 A3 lim 50 (s + 5)
kp =
ess = ess1 + ess2 + ess3 = 1 + k + k + k s o 0 s(s2 + 5s + 50)
p v a
1 4 1 kp = f
ess = + + 2. To determine kv
1+f f 5
1 lim
ess = 0+0+5 kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s)
so0
lim 50 (s + 5)
ess = 0.2 ...Ans. kv = s 2
so0 s (s + 5s + 50)
UEx. 5.5 SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks. 
50 u 5
kv =
For unity feedback system with open loop transfer function 
50
100 (s + 2) kv = 5
G(s) = s (s + 5) (s + 10)
3. To determine ka
Determine static error constants and steady state error if input. lim 2
ka = s G(s) H(s)
so0
r(t) = 1 + t
lim /2 50 (s + 5)
 Soln. : ka =
so0
s

2
s (s + 5s + 50)
Step I : To calculate static error constants ka = 0
1. To calculate kp Step II : To determine steady state error, if input r(t) = 1 + 5t
lim r(t) = 1 + 5t
kp = G(s) H(s)
so0 A1 A2
100 (s + 2) ess = 1 + k + k
kp = s(s + 5 )(s + 10) p v
Comparing A1 = 1, A2 = 5
kp = f 1 5
2. To determine kv ess = +
(1 + f) 5
lim ess = 0 + 1
kv = s ˜ G(s) H(s)
so0 ess = 1

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(b) To calculate kv
Ex. 5.4.8
r (t) = 0.01 t and it is desired that ess d 0.05 find the range of k for lim
kv = s ˜ G(s) H (s)
so0
error to be within specified limit for given system.
lim k (s + 2)
kv = s ˜ 3 2
so0 
s (s + 7s + 12s)
2
kv = 0=f
(1E20)Fig. Ex. 5.4.9 (c) To calculate ka

 Soln. : ka =
lim 2
so0
s G(s) H (s)
k
G (s) = s (s + 1) lim 2 k (s + 2)
ka = 
s ˜ 2 2
so0 
s (s + 7s + 12)
H (s) = 1
k (0 + 2)
The given input r (t) = 0.01 t ka = 0 + 0 + 12
A = 0.01 2k k
Since the input is ramp ka = 12 = 6 = 0.1666k
? We need to calculate kv R 2
(iii) Input is 2 t i.e. parabolic input. Hence amplitude is R.
lim
1. kv = s ˜ G (s) H (s)
so0 A R 6R
ess = k = k/6 = k
lim k
kv = /
s ˜ /s (s + 1) = k a
so0
2. ess d 0.05 Ex. 5.4.10
A A unity feedback heat treatment system has set point
ess = k
v 500q C. What is steady state temperature of the system ?
Let ess = 0.05
0.01
0.05 = k
0.01
k = 0.05 = 0.2

This is minimum value of k (1E21)Fig. Ex. 5.4.10

0.2 d k < f ...Ans.
 Soln. :
UEx. 5.4.9 .SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks. 500
r (t) = 500 R (s) = s
For a unity feedback system having open loop transfer function :
k (s + 2) From the given Fig. Ex. 5.4.11,
G(s) = 3 2
s (s + 7s + 12s) 10000
G (s) = (1 + s) (1 + 0.5s) (1 + 0.025s)
Find : (i) Type of system (ii) Error coefficients kp, kv, ka
R 2 H (s) = 1
(iii) Steady state error when input to the system is 2 t .
lim R (s)
ess = s˜
 Soln. : s o 0 1 + G (s) H (s)
500
(i) Type of system 
s ˜
lim s
Since there is one pole at origin the type of system is ‘1’. ess =
so0 10000
(ii) Error coefficients kp, kv, ka 1 + (1 + s) (1 + 0.5s) (1 + 0.025s)

(a) To calculate kp ess = 0.04999

lim ess = r (t) – c (t)
kp = G(s) H (s)
so0
lim k (s + 2) c (t) = r (t) – ess = 500 – 0.04999
kp =
s o 0 s (s3 + 7s2 + 12s) c (t) = 499.95 ...Ans.
kp = f This is the required steady state temperature.

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  6TCPUKGPV4GURQPUG#PCN[UKU 1
Vo (s) = s (1 + sRC) ...(5.5.7)

We want response of the system i.e. vo (t).

 The total output of the system consist of transient response
and steady state response. Taking inverse Laplace transform Vo (s) using partial fraction
c (t) = ct (t) + css (t)
method.
 We have already studied steady state response and also A1 A2
calculated steady state error constants steady state response is Vo (s) = + ...(5.5.8)
related to type of the system and depends on open loop s 1 + sRC
transfer function. To calculate value of A1 and A2
 Transient response is part of output which changes from 1
initial to final position.
A1 = /
s ˜ /
s (1 + sRC) | s=0
=1

 Transient response is related to order of the system and 1 1

depends on closed loop transfer function. A2 = (1 + sRC) ˜ s (1
–––––––– ––––––––
+ sRC) | s = – 1/RC
= 1 = – RC
– RC
 Order of the system is highest power of ‘s’ in characteristic
equation. i.e. [denominator of closed loop transfer function]. 1 RC
Vo (s) = s – 1 + sRC
 5.5.1 Analysis of First Order System

RC
1
 For analysis of first order system let us consider simple R-C Vo (s) = s–
circuit. 
RC (s + RC1 )
1 1
Vo (s) = s– 1 ...(5.5.9)
s + RC

Taking ILT
1
(1E22)Fig. 5.5.1 : R-C circuit
vo (t) = u (t) – e
( – RC) t
u (t)
 Let us calculate transfer function of R-C circuit.
⎛ (– RC1 ) t ⎞⎟⎠ u (t)
Applying KVL to the input side ⎜
vo (t) = ⎝1 – e
∫
1
vi (t) = R i (t) + C i (t) dt ...(5.5.1)
(A) Let us plot vo (t) taking various values of RC.
Taking Laplace transform of the above Equation (5.5.1)
Let RC = 1
1
Vi (s) = R I (s) + sC I (s) ...(5.5.2) –t
vo (t) = [1 – e ] u (t)
Applying KVL to the output side t vo (t)
∫
1
vo (t) = C i (t) dt ...(5.5.3) 0 0
1 0.632
Taking Laplace transform of Equation (5.5.3)
2 0.864
1
Vo (s) = sC I (s) ...(5.5.4) 3 0.950
1 4 0.981
Vo (s) sC I (s) 5 0.99
Vi (s) = 1
(
R + sC I (s)) 
f

1
Vo (s) 1
Vi (s) = 1 + sRC ...(5.5.5) (1E23)Fig. 5.5.2 : Unit step response of first order system
with RC = 1
If input to the system is unit step i.e.
vi (t) = u (t) then Vi (s) = 1/s ...(5.5.6) Let RC = 0.2
Vi (s) ⎡ (– 0.21 ) t ⎤⎥⎦ u (t)
Vo (s) = 1 + sRC ⎢
vo (t) = ⎣1 – e
Substituting value of Vi (s) vo (t) = [1 – e
– 5t
] u (t)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-17)

t vo (t)
0 0
0.1 0.393
0.2 0.632
0.3 0.776
0.4 0.864
0.5 0.91
1 0.99
5 1
  (1E26)Fig. 5.5.5 : Pole-zero plot with RC = 1
f 1 If RC = 0.2 ; p2 = – 5

(1E27)Fig. 5.5.6 : Pole-zero plot with RC = 0.2

From the above pole-zero plot we can conclude that as value

(1E24)Fig. 5.5.3 : Unit step response of first order system
of RC decreases pole shifts toward left side.
with RC = 0.2
Following conclusions can be derived from vo (t) and pole
vo (t) is divided into transient and steady state response. zero plot.
u (t) is steady state response. 1. The response of first order system depends on value of time
1 constant i.e. ‘RC’.
e
( – RC) t
u(t) is transient response value of RC affects the
2. ‘RC’ only affects transient response where as steady state
response remains unchanged.
transient response of the system.
3. Both the response are purely exponential. Hence response of
From the above two graphs we can conclude that there is rate
first order system is purely exponential.
of change in transient response as we change value of RC.
4. ‘RC’ changes speed of the response.
(B) Pole zero plot
1
Vo (s) = s (1 + sRC)  5.5.2 Analysis of Second Order System
There are two poles at  As we have already seen that response i.e. output of any
1 system is divided into two parts.
s = 0 and s = – RC
1. Transient response. 2. Steady state response.
 In transient response when output varies from initial value to
final value the nature of the output can be exponential of
oscillatory.
 The system behavior depends on closed loop poles i.e. nature
and location of closed loop poles.

1. Damping and damp ratio [[]

 Every system has tendency to oppose oscillatory behavior of
output of the system.
 This is called damping. Damping is measured by a factor of
ratio called damping ratio denoted by ‘[’ [zeta].
(1E25)Fig. 5.5.4 : Pole-zero plot of Vo (s)  In some systems opposition will be low in some systems
opposition may be high.
If RC = 1 then p2 = – 1

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-18)

2. Natural frequency [Zn] 1. 1 <[<f

 When there is no damping i.e. ‘[’ = 0 hence there is no Poles will be

2
opposition to the system. s1 = – [Zn + Zn [ –1
2
 Hence system oscillates with maximum frequency. This s2 = – [Zn – Zn [ –1
frequency is called as natural frequency and denoted by [Zn]. Nature of poles : Real, unequal, negative
 The closed loop transfer function of second order system is 2. [=1
expressed using these two factors ‘[’ and ‘Zn’. s1, s2 = – Zn r Zn 1 – 1
 The closed loop transfer function for a standard second order s1, s2 = – Zn
system is
2 Nature of poles : Real, equal and negative
C (s) Zn
= 2 3. 0 <[<1
R (s) 2
s + 2[Zns + Z
n 2 2
[ –1 = – 1 (1 – [ )
 The characteristic equation of second order system is given 2
= j 1–[
by 2
2 2 s1 = – [Zn + j Zn 1–[
s + 2[Zns + Zn = 0
2
s2 = – [Zn – j Zn 1–[
Effect of ‘[’ on position of closed loop poles
Nature of poles : Imaginary, complex conjugate and
 Consider the characteristic equation of second order system. negative.
2 2
s + 2[Zns + Z = 0 4. [=0
n

 Comparing with standard quadratic equation. s1, s2 = r Zn –1

2 s1 = jZn
ax + bx + c = 0
2
a = 1 b = 2[Zn c=Z s2 = – jZn
n
2 2 2
– 2[Zn r 4 [ Z – 4Z Nature of poles : Imaginary and conjugate on imaginary
n n
s 1, s 2 = 2 axis.
2
s1, s2 = [Zn r Zn [ –1 ...Ans.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-19)

Sr. No. [ Position of poles Response when input is step

1. 1<[<f

(1E28b)Fig. 5.5.8

Overdamped
(1E28a)Fig. 5.5.7

Real, unequal, negative

2. [=1

(1E28c)Fig. 5.5.9 (1E28d)Fig. 5.5.10

Real, equal, negative Critically damped

3. 0<[<1

(1E28e)Fig. 5.5.11 (1E28f)Fig. 5.5.12

Imaginary, complex conjugate , negative real part Underdamped

4. [=0

(1E28g)Fig. 5.5.13 (1E28h)Fig. 5.5.14

Imaginary, complex conjugate with ‘0’ real part Undamped

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-20)

(3E4)Fig. 5.5.15 : Location of poles for various values of ‘[’

 5.5.3 Derivation of Unit Step Response of

Solving above equations we get
A1 = 1 A2 = – 1 and A3 = – 2[Zn
Second Order System
Hence Equation (5.5.12) becomes
The input signal is unit step
1 – s – 2[Zn
r (t) = u (t) C (s) = s + 2 2
R (s) = 1/s s + 2[Zns + Z
n

The closed loop transfer function of 2nd order system is s + 2[Zn

2 1
Zn C (s) = s – 2 2 ...(5.5.13)
C (s) s + 2[Zns + Z
R (s) = s2 + 2[Z s + Z2 ...(5.5.10) n
n n
2
For simplicity let D = [Zn
Zn
C (s) = R (s) ˜ 1 s + 2D
2 2 ? C (s) = s – 2 2
s + 2[Zns + Z s + 2Ds + Zn
n
2
Z 2
1
C (s) = s u 2
n
...(5.5.11) Adding and subtracting D in the 2nd terms denominator we
2
s + 2[Zns + Z get
n

Expressing equation in partial fraction form 1 s + 2D

C (s) = s – 2 2 2 2
A1 A 2s + A 3 s + 2Ds + Zn + D – D
C (s) = s + 2 2 ...(5.5.12)
s + 2[Z s + Z n n 1 s + 2D
C (s) = s – 2 2
To find values of A1 A2 and A3 2
(s + 2Ds + D ) + Zn – D
2

Substitute value of C (s) from Equation (5.5.11)

2 2 2 1 s + 2D
Zn
=
(
A1 s + 2[Zns + Zn ) + (A s + A ) s 2 3 C (s) = s – 2 2 2 2
(s + D) + Zn – [ Zn
2 2 2 2
(
s s + 2[Zns + Z
––––––––––––––––––
n ) s (s + 2[Z s + Z )
–––––––––––––––––––
n n
2 2 2 2
1 s + 2D
Z = A1s + 2A1[Zns + A1Z + A2s + A3s C (s) = s – 2 2 2
n n (s + D) + Zn (1 – [ )
2 2 2
Zn = (A1 + A2) s + (2A1[Zn + A3) s + A1Zn 2
Let Zd = Zn 1–[
Comparing LHS and RHS
1 s + 2D
A 1 + A2 = 0 C (s) = s – 2 2
(s + D) + Zd
2A1[Zn + A3 = 0

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Splitting the second term into two parts Equation (5.5.16) becomes

C (s) = s – ⎡ ⎤
1 s+D D 1–e
– [Znt
⎢ (s + D)2 + Z2 + (s + D)2 + Z2 ⎥ c (t) = [sin (Zd t + T)]
⎣ d d ⎦ 1–[
2

2
D Where Zd = Zn 1 – [
Adjusting Zd in the term 2 2 by multiplying and
⎡ ⎤
2
(s + D) + Zd –1 1–[
T = tan
dividing by Zd. ⎣ [ ⎦
Output for underdamped system.
1 ⎡ s+D D Zd ⎤ The nature of c (t) will be exponentially decaying.
C (s) = s – ⎢ 2 2 +
Z
˜ 2 2⎥ ...(5.5.14)
⎣ (s + D) + Z d (s + D) +
d
Z
d⎦

Using standard Laplace transform formula

L
–1
⎡ s+a
⎤ = e
– at
cos (Zt)
⎣ 2
(s + a) + Z
2
⎦
L
–1 ⎡ Z ⎤ = e
– at
sin (Zt)
⎣ 2
(s + a) + Z
2
⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform of equations we get

c (t) = 1 – ⎡ e e sin (Zd t)⎤

– Dt D – Dt
cos (Zd t) +
⎣ Zd ⎦
(1E30)Fig. 5.5.17
c (t) = 1 – e
– Dt ⎡cos (Zd t) + D sin (Zd t)⎤
⎣ Zd ⎦  6TCPUKGPV4GURQPUG5RGEKHKECVKQPU
Re-substituting value of D = [Zn and Zd = Zn 1 – [
2
&GUKIP5RGEKHKECVKQPUHQT5GEQPF
⎡cos (Zd t) + 1TFGT5[UVGO
sin (Zd t)⎤
– [Znt [
c (t) = 1–e
⎣ 1–[
2
⎦
– [Znt
1–e
c (t) =
1–[
2 [ 2
1 – [ cos (Zd t) + [ sin (Zd t) ...(5.5.15) ]
Consider a triangle as shown in Fig. 5.5.16.

(1E29)Fig. 5.5.16

From the triangle

2
cos T = [ and sin T = 1–[
2
1–[
tan T =
[
⎡ ⎤
2
–1 1–[
T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦ (1E31)Fig. 5.6.1
Hence Equation (5.5.15) becomes
– [Znt
1. Delay time (Td)
1–e
c (t) = 2 [sin T cos (Zd t) + cos T sin (Zd t)] The time required by the response of the system to reach
1–[
50 % of final value in first attempt.
...(5.5.16) 1 + 0.7 [
Using the formula Td = sec
Zn
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

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2. Rise time (Tr) Hence
sin (Zd Tr + T) = 0
It is time required by the system response to rise from 10 %
to 90 % of final value for overdamped system and 0 % to 100 But sin (nS) = 0 where n = 0, 1, 2...
% of final value for underdamped system. ? Zd Tr + T = nS
S–T Zd Tr = nS – T
Tr = sec
Zd
nS – T
Tr =
⎡ ⎤ rad
2
–1 1–[ Zd
where T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦ Since Tr is calculated when the output reaches 100 %.

Note : Use calculator or in radian mode to calculate ‘T’. Hence n = 1

2
S–T
Zd = Zn 1–[ Tr =
Zd
3. Peak time (Tp)
⎡ ⎤;
2
–1 1–[ 2
Where T = tan Zd = Zn 1 – [
It is the time required by the system to reach its first peak.
⎣ [ ⎦
The first peak is always maximum peak.

Tp =
S
Zd
sec  5.6.2 Derivation of Peak Time (Tp)
At peak time value of response c (t) is maximum.
4. Peak overshoot (Mp)
Mathematically derivative of maxima is zero. Hence
 It is maximum peak value of the response measured from d ⎪
input signal value. dt c (t))⎪ t = TP = 0
 It is the maximum error between input and output. It is e
– [Znt

expressed in terms of percentage. c (t) = 1– 2 sin (Zd t + T)

2
1–[
– [S/ 1 – [
% Mp = e u 100 Differentiate c (t) w.r.t. ‘t’ and equating it to ‘0’
– [Znt
d⎡
sin (Zd t + T)⎤ = 0
e
5. Settling time (Ts)
dt ⎣ 1 – 1–[
2
⎦
 It is defined as time required for transient damped oscillations – [Znt – [Znt
e e
0– 2 Zd cos (Zd t + T) – 2
to reach and stay within specified tolerance band (usually 2 % 1–[ 1–[
of input value). u – [Zn sin (Zd t + T) = 0
4 Re-arranging
Ts = sec
[Zn – [Znt – [Znt
e e
 All these parameters give information about the speed of 2 u [Zn sin (Zd t + T) – 2
1–[ 1–[
transient response. 2
˜ Zn 1 – [ cos (Zd t + T) = 0
 5.6.1 Derivation of Rise Time (Tr) e
– [Znt

[
Zn [ sin (Zd t + T) – Zn 1 – [ cos (Zd t + T)
2
] = 0
2
1–[
We know that rise time is time required for output response
– [Znt
c (t) to reach 100 % i.e. for step input value of c (t) = 1. e
– [Znt 2 Zn z 0
e 1–[
c (t) = 1 – 2 sin (Zd t + T) ...(5.6.1)
1–[ [
? [ sin (Zd t + T) – 1 – [ cos (Zd t + T) = 0
2
]
Substitute t = Tr and c (t) = 1 in Equation (5.6.1)
– [ZnTr [[ sin (Zd t + T)] = [ 2
1 – [ cos (Zd t + T) ]
e
1 = 1– 2 sin (Zd Tr + T) sin (Zd t + T) 1–[
2
1–[ =
– [ZnTr
cos (Zd t + T) [
e 2
1–1 = – 2 sin (Zd Tr + T) 1–[
1–[ tan (Zd t + T) =
[
– [ZnTr
e
⎡ ⎤
2
? 2 sin (Zd Tr + T) = 0 ...(5.6.2) –1 1–[
T = tan
1–[ ⎣ [ ⎦
– [Z T
In the above equation e n r z 0 2
1–[
? The remaining term will make it ‘0’. ? tan T =
[

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– [ZnTP
? tan (Zd t + T) = tan T e 2
Mp = 2 u 1–[
–––––
Using basic trigonometric formula 1–[
–––––
tan (nS + T) = tan T – [ZnTP
Mp = e ...(5.6.8)
? nS = Zdt
S S
At t = TP n=1 But Tp = =
Zd Z 1–[
2
n
S = Zd Tp
S S Hence Equation (5.6.8) becomes
TP = = sec
Zd Z 1 – [2 – [Z਋
n S
n 2
Z/n 1–[

 5.6.3 Derivation of Mp
Mp = e
2
˜
– [S/ 1–[
Mp = e
2
– S[/ 1–[
% Mp = e u 100

 5.6.4 Derivation of Settling Time (Ts)

The output for underdamped system is given by

– [Znt
e
c (t) = 1 – 2 sin (Zd t + T) ...(5.6.9)
1–[

(1E32)Fig. 5.6.2 : Response of system Settling time is time where output remains constant. Hence
there are no oscillations.
? sin (Zd t + T) is neglected.
From the Fig. 5.6.2
Range of tolerance is 2 %.
⎡c (t) ⎪ ⎤
Mp =
⎣ ⎪ t = TP ⎦ – 1 ...(5.6.3)
Hence out reaches 98 % i.e. 0.98.
– [Znt
Substituting value of c (t) e
– [ZnTP ?1– = 0.98
⎡1– sin (Zd TP + T)⎤ – 1
2
e 1–[
Mp = ...(5.6.4)
⎣ 1–[
2
⎦ e
– [Znt

– [ZnTP 2 = 1 – 0.98
–e 1–[
? Mp = 2 sin (Zd TP + T) ...(5.6.5)
1–[ e
– [Znt

S 2 = 0.02 ...(5.6.10)
Put TP = in Equation (5.6.5) 1–[
Zd
– [ZnTP 2
–e [<<<1 ? 1–[ | 1 =1
Mp = 2 sin (S + T) ...(5.6.6)
1–[ ? Equation (5.6.10) becomes
– [Znt
But sin (S + T) = – sin T e = 0.02
? Equation (5.6.6) becomes at t = Ts
– [ZnTP
e – [ZnTs
Mp = 2 sin T ...(5.6.7) e = 0.02
1–[
2 – [ZnTs = loge (0.02)
1–[
We have tan T =
[ – [ZnTs = /
/ – 3.912
2
sin T 1–[ 3.912
From this tan T = = Ts =
cos T [ [Zn

? sin T = 1–[
2 4
Practically Ts = ...Ans.
[Zn
Hence Equation (5.6.7) becomes

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S S
5.6.5 Formulae at Glance 3. Tp = =
Zd Z 1–[
2
n
1. Output for underdamped system with unit step input S
– [Znt Tp = 2 = 0.475 sec
e 10 1 – (0.75)
c (t) = 1 – 2 sin (Zd t + T)
1–[ Tp = 0.475 sec ...Ans.
2
Where Zd = Zn 1 – [ 4. Peak overshoot
2
⎡ ⎤ radians
2
–1 1–[ – S[/ 1–[
T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦ % Mp = e u 100
2
S–T – S u 0.75/ 1 – (0.75)
2. Tr = sec % Mp = e u 100
Zd
1 + 0.7[ % Mp = 2.83 % ...Ans.
3. Td = sec 5. Ts i.e. setting time
Zn
S 4 4
4. Tp = sec Ts = =
Zd [Zn 0.75 u 10
2 Ts = 0.533 sec ...Ans.
= [e ] u 100
– S[/ 1–[
5. % Mp 6. Rise time Tr
4 S–T
6. Ts = sec Tr =
[Zn Zd

⎡ ⎤ rad
2
Note : Transient response is related to closed loop transfer –1 1–[
T = tan
function. Hence all the design parameters are calculated ⎣ [ ⎦
–1⎡ 1 – (0.75) ⎤
2
from closed loop transfer function. T = tan
⎣ 0.75 ⎦
G
Closed loop transfer function = T = 0.722 rad
1 r G (s) H (s)
S – 0.722 2

 5.6.6 Examples based on Design

Tr =
10 1 – (0.75)
2 since Zd = Zn 1–[

Specifications of Transient S – 0.722

Tr = 6.614 = 0.365 sec
Response
Tr = 0.365 sec ...Ans.
Ex. 5.6.1
For the given transfer function UEx. 5.6.2 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 4 Marks)
C (s) 100 C(s) 25
Second order system is given by R(s) = 2
R (s) = s2 + 15s + 100 s + 6s + 25

Calculate peak time, percent overshoot, settling time, rise time. Find : Rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, settling time if
subjected to unit step input.
 Soln. :
The given transfer function is
 Soln. :
C (s) 100 Step I : The given transfer function is
R (s) = s2 + 15s + 100 C(s) 25
R(s) = s2 + 6s + 25
Comparing with standard transfer function of second order
system. Comparing with standard transfer function of second order system.
2 2
Z C(s) Z
C (s) n n
R (s) = 2 2 R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2
2 (1) Zn = 25 ? Zn = 5
1. Zn = 100
(2) 2[Zn = 6 2 u[ u = 6
? Zn = 10 ...Ans.
6
2. 2[Zn = 15 [ = 10 [ = 0.6
2 u [ u 10 = 15
[ = 0.75 ...Ans.

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(3) Rise time (Tr) Zd = 2.227 rad/sec
S–T
⎡ ⎤
2
Tr = –1 1–[
T = tan
Zd ⎣ [ ⎦
⎡ ⎤ rad = tan–1 ⎡ ⎤
2 2
⎡ ⎤
1–[ 1 – (0.6) 2
T =
–1 –1 1 – (0.67)
tan
⎣ [ ⎦ ⎣ (0.6) ⎦ T = tan
⎣ 0.67 ⎦
T = 0.9272 rad T = 0.8365 rad
S – 0.9272 S – 0.8365
Tr = 2 Tr = = 1.0350 sec
5 1 – (0.6) 2.227

since, Zd = Zn 1–[
2 (ii) To calculate peak time
Tp = S/Zd = S/2.227
Tr = 0.5535 sec.
Tp = 1.410 sec
(4) Peak time (Tp)
(iii) To calculate peak overshoot
S S S
Tp = = = – S[/ 1 – [
2
Zd Zn 1–[
2
5 1 – (0.6)
2
% Mp = e u 100
Tp = 0.7853 sec – S u 0.67/ 1 – (0.67)
2

(5) Peak overshoot (Mp) % Mp = e u 100

2 – 2.1048/0.7423
% Mp = e– S[ / 1–[
u % Mp = e u 100
% Mp = 9.478 %
(6) Ts i.e. Settling time
% Mp = 5.868 %
4 4
Ts = = (iv) To calculate settling time
[Zn (0.6) u
Ts = 1.333 sec 4 4
Ts = =
[Zn 0.67 u 3
UEx. 5.7 (SPPU - Dec. 16, Dec. 17, 6 Marks) Ts = 1.990 sec
For a system with closed loop transfer function
9 Ex. 5.6.3
G(s) = 2
s + 4s + 9 For the system with closed loop transfer function.
Determine rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, settling time with 16
G(s) = 2
2% criterion. s + 4s + 16

 Soln. : Determine rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, settling time with
Step I : The closed loop transfer function 2 % criterion.
C(s) 9  Soln. :
R(s) = s2 + 4s + 9
Step I : Comparing the given closed loop transfer function with
Comparing with standard closed loop transfer function standard closed loop function,
2 C(s) 16
Zn
C(s)
= 2
R(s) = s2 + 4s + 16
R(s) 2
s + 2[Zn s + Z n
2
Comparing with
(i) Zn = 9 2
C(s) Z
n
Zn = 3 R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zn s + Zn
(ii) 2[Zn = 4
2
2[ u 3 = 4 ?Z = 16, Zn = 4
n
[ = 0.67 2[Zn = 4,2 u [ u 4 = 4
Step II : To calculate design specifications [ = 0.5
(1) To calculate rise time Step II : To calculate design specifications
S–T
Tr = (1) To calculate rise time
Zd
2 S–T
Zd = Zn 1 – [ Tr =
Zd
2
Zd = 3 1 – (0.67)

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⎡ ⎤
2 (2) To calculate rise time
–1 1–[
T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦ Tr =
S–T
2 Zd
tan ⎡ ⎤
–1 1 – (0.5)
T =
⎣ 0.5 ⎦ = 1.047 rad
–1 ⎡ 1–[ ⎤
2
T = tan
Zd = Zn 1–[
2 ⎣ [ ⎦
2 T = 0.927 rad
Zd = 4 1 – (0.5) = 3.464 rad / sec
S – 0.927
S – 1.047 Tr = 8
Tr = 3.464 = 0.6046 sec
Tr = 0.276 sec
Tr = 0.6046 sec – S[
2
(2) To calculate Tp 1–[
(3) % Mp = e u 100
S – S u 0.6
Tp = 1 – (0.6)
2
Zd % Mp = e u 100
Tp = 0.906 sec % Mp = 9.478%
(4) To calculate settling time Ts
(3) Peak overshoot
4 4
– S[/ 1 – [
2 Ts = =
[Zn 0.6 u 10
% Mp = e u 100
Ts = 0.67 sec
% Mp = 16.30 %
(4) To calculate Ts UEx. 5.9 SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks.
4 4 For the system with closed loop transfer function
Ts = =
[Zn 0.5 u 4 10
G(s) H(s) = 2
Ts = 2 sec s + 5s + 10
Determine rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, settling time with
UEx. 5.8 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks)
2% criterion.
For the system with closed loop transfer function.
100  Soln. :
G(s) = 2
s + 12s + 100 Step I : To given closed loop transfer function is
10
Determine [, Zn , Tp, Tr, Mp, and Ts for 2 % setting. G(s) H(s) = 2
s + 5s + 10
 Soln. : Comparing with standard second order transfer function
Step I : The given closed loop transfer function is 2
Zn
C(s) 100 G(s) H(s) = 2
R(s) =
2
2
s + 12s + 100 s + 2[Zn s + Zn
2
Comparing with standard second order closed loop transfer (i) Zn = 10
function.
2
Zn = 10 = 3.1622 rad/sec.
C(s) Z (ii) 2[ Zn = 5
n
R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zn s + Z 2 u [ u 10 = 5
n
2
(i) ?Z = 100 [ = 0.79
n
Step II :
Zn = 10
(1) To calculate rise time
(ii) 2[Zn = 12, 2 u [ u 10 = 12
S–T S–T
[ = 0.6 Tr = 2= Z
Zn 1 – [ d

Step II : To calculate design specification

⎡ ⎤
2
–1 1–[
T = tan
(1) To calculate peak time Tp ⎣ [ ⎦
S S S S T = 0.6599
Tp = = = 2 = 8
Zd Z 1 – [2 10 1 – (0.6) 2
n Zd = Zn 1–[
Tp = 0.392 sec 2
Zd = 10 u 1 – (0.79)

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2
Zd = 1.9388 Z = 25
n
S – 0.6599 ? Zn = 5 ...Ans.
Tr = 1.9388 = 1.2800.
Tr = 1.28 sec. 2[Zn = 5
(2) To calculate peak time 2[u5 = 5
S [ = 0.5 ...Ans.
Tp =
Zd
Step II :
S 1. To calculate rise time
Tp = 1.9388
S–T
Tp = 1.620 sec. Tr =
Zd
(3) To calculate peak overshoot
⎡ ⎤
2
–1 1–[
T = tan
– S[
2
⎣ [ ⎦
1–[
% Mp = e u 100
–1⎡ ⎤
2
1 – (0.5)
T =
– S u 0.79
2
tan
⎣ 0.5 ⎦
1 – (0.79)
% Mp = e u 100 T = 1.04719
% Mp = 1.74% S – 1.04719
Tr = 2
(4) To calculate settling time Zn 1 – [
4 Tr = 0.483 sec ...Ans.
Ts =
[Zn 2. To calculate peak time Tp
4 S S
Ts = Tp = =
0.79 u 10 Zd Z 2
n 1–[
Ts = 1.601 sec
S
Tp = 2
5 1 – (0.5)
Ex. 5.6.4
25 Tp = 0.7255 sec ...Ans.
If G (s) = s (s + 5) ; H (s) = 1
3. Delay time
Calculate 1 + 0.7[
Td =
1. Rise time 2. Peak time Zn

3. Delay time 4. Peak overshoot 1 + (0.7 u 0.5)

Td = 5
5. Settling time
Td = 0.27 sec ...Ans.
 Soln. :
Step I : Calculating closed loop transfer function 4. Peak overshoot
2

= (e ) u 100
C (s) G (s) – S[/ 1–[
R (s) = 1 + G (s) H (s) % Mp
⎛ – S u 0.5/ ⎞
2
25 1 – (0.5)
C (s) s (s + 5) % Mp = ⎝e ⎠ u 100
R (s) = 25 % Mp = 16.30 % ...Ans.
1 + s (s + 5)
5. Settling time
25 4 4
C (s) s––––––
(s + 5) Ts = =
[Zn 0.5 u 5
R (s) = s (s + 5) + 25
s––––––
(s + 5) Ts = 1.6 sec ...Ans.
C (s) 25
R (s) = s2 + 5s + 25 UEx. 5.10 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks)
k
Comparing with standard closed loop transfer function. If G(s) = s (s + 64) with H(s) = 1 determine value of k so that
2
C (s) Z damping factor is 0.5. For the value of k determine
n
R (s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn (i) Rise time (ii) Settling time
Assume unit step input.

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 Soln. : Ex. 5.6.5

Obtain the values of delay time td, rise time tr, peak time tp, settling
Step I : Calculating closed loop transfer function
time ts and peak overshoot Mp for the given open loop transfer
C(s) G(s) 16
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) function of a unity feedback control system G(s) = s(s + 6) .

Since, H(s) = 1  Soln. :

k Step I :
C(s) s (s + 64) 16
? R(s) = k G(s) = s(s + 6)
1 + s (s + 64) ˜ 1
The closed loop transfer function is
k C(s) G(s)
C(s) –-––-––––
s (s + 64) R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
? R(s) = s (s + 64) + k
–-–––-–––
s (s + 64) H(s) = 1

C(s) k 16
? R(s) = 2 C(s) s (s + 6)
s + 64 s + k R(s) = 16
1 + s (s + 6)
Comparing with standard closed loop transfer function,
2
Zn 16
C(s)
? = 2 C(s) –––––––
s (s + 6)
R(s) 2
s + 2[ Zn s + Zn R(s) = s(s + 6) + 16
2 –––––––
s (s + 6)
? Zn = k
C(s) 16
Zn = k R(s) = 2
s + 6s + 16
2[ Zn = 64 Step II : Comparing with standard transfer function of second
order system.
2 u 0.5 u k = 64 2
C(s) Zn
k = 64 R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2

n
k = 4096 (i) Z2 = 16
C(s) 4096 ? Zn = 4
R(s) = 2
s + 64 s + 4096 (ii) 2[ Zn = 6
Step II 2 u[u = 6
6
1. To Calculate rise time [ = 8
S–T
Rise time, Tr = [ = 0.75
Zd
(i) Delay time (Td)
2
Zd = Zn 1–[ 1 + 0.7[
Td =
Zd = 64 1 – (0.5)
2 Zn
1 + 0.7 (0.75)
Zd = 55.425 rad/sec. Td = 4
⎡ ⎤ = 1.047 rad
2
–1 1–[ Td = 0.38125 sec
T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦ (ii) Rise time (Tr)
S – 1.047 S–T
Tr = 55.425 Tr =
Zd

⎡ ⎤ rad
2
Tr = 0.0377 sec. –1 1–[
T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦
2. Settling time
–1 ⎡ 1 – (0.75) ⎤
2
4 4
Ts =
[ Zn
=
0.5 u 64
= 0.125 sec. = tan
⎣ (0.75) ⎦
T = 0.7227 rad
Ts = 0.125 sec.

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S – 0.7227 (ii) 2[Zn = 4
Tr = 2
4 1 – (0.75) 4
[ =
Tr = 0.9142 sec 2 uZn
(ii) Peak time (Tp) 4
[ =
2 u 2.83
S S S
Tp = = = [ = 0.7062
Zd Z 1 – [2 4 1 – (0.75)2
n
2
Tp = 1.1874 sec. (iii) Zd = Zn 1–[
2
(iv) Settling time (Ts) = 2.83 1 – (0.7067)
4 Zd = 2.002 rad/sec
Ts =
[Zn
⎡ ⎤ rad
2
–1 1–[
(iv) T = tan
= =
4 ⎣ [ ⎦
0.75 u 4
–1 ⎡ ⎤
2
1 – (0.7067)
Ts = 1.333 sec = tan
⎣ (0.7067) ⎦
T = 0.786 rad
(5) Peak overshoot (Mp)
2
(v) To calculate Td
% Mp = e– S[ / 1–[
u 1 + 0.7[ 1 + 0.7 (0.7067)
Td = = 2.83
% Mp = 2.83 % Zn
Td = 0.528 sec
Ex. 5.6.6 (vi) To calculate Tr
A unity feedback closed loop control system is given by S–T
2
d y(t) 4 dy(t) Tr =
Zd
differential equation 2 + + 8y(t) = 8 x(t).
dt dt S – 0.786
= 2.002
Where, y(t) = output and x(t) = input.
Tr = 1.176 sec
(a) Draw the block diagram for closed loop system.
(vii) To calculate Tp
(b) What is the characteristic equation of the system.
S
(c) Find out damping ratio and natural frequency of oscillation. Tp =
Zd
(d) Discuss the nature of the system. S
= 2.002
(e) Determine and sketch the transient response for unit step input.
Tp = 1.57 sec
(f) Find out the time domain specification : rise time, peak time,
(viii) To calculate Mp
settling time, maximum overshoot. 2
1–[
% Mp = e–[S / u
 Soln. : – (0.7067) S / 1 –(0.7067)
2

Step I :    e u
2 % Mp = 4.33 %
d 4 dy(t)
2 y(t) + + 8y(t) = 8x(t).
(ix) To calculate Ts
dt dt
We take Laplace transform and assume initial condition to be 4 4
Ts = =
zero. [ Zn (0.706) u 
2
s Y(s) + 4s(s) + 8Y(s) = 8X(s) Ts = 2 sec
2
y(s)[s + 4s + 8] = 8X (s) e – [Znt
Y(s) 8 (x) c(t) = 1 – 2 sin (Zd t + T)
1–[
X(s) = 2
s + 4s + 8
e – (0.706) (2.83) t
Step II : Compare with standard equation. = 1– 2 sin (2.002 t + 0.769)
1 – (0.706)
2
Zn –2t
c(t) = 1.1413 e sin (2t + 0.769)
= 2 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn Step III : To draw the block diagram for closed loop system
2 Y(s) 8
(i) Zn = 8
X(s) = 2
s + 4s + 8
Zn = 2.83 rad/sec

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-30)

UEx. 5.12 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks)

For unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
36
G(s) = s(s + 6) determine rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and
(3E1)Fig. Ex. 5.6.6
settling time with 2 % criterion.
Step IV : Characteristic equation
Characteristic equation of system is the denominator of  Soln. :
closed loop transfer function. Step I : Calculating closed loop transfer function
2
? Characteristic equation = s + 4s + 8 = 0 C(s) G(s)
UEx. 5.11 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
For unity feedback system with open loop transfer function 36
k C(s) s (s + 6)
G(s) = s(s + 5) . Determine k, peak overshoot, rise time, settling R(s) = 36
1 + s (s + 6)
time with 2 % criterion if damping factor is [ = 0.5.
36
 Soln. : C(s) s––––––
(s + 6) 36
R(s) = s (s + 6) + 36 = s2 + 6s + 36
Step I : Calculating closed loop transfer function
k k s––––––
(s + 6)
C(s) s (s + 5) s––––––
(s + 5) Comparing with standard equation of closed loop transfer
R(s) = k = s (s + 5) + k
function
1 + s (s + 5) ˜1 s––––––
(s + 5) 2
C(s) Z
n
C(s) k = 2
= 2 R(s) 2
s + 2[ Zn s + Zn
R(s) s + 5s + k
2
Comparing with standard closed loop transfer function (i) Z = 36
2 n

C(s) Z Zn = 6
n
R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[ Zn s + Zn (ii) 2[Zn = 6, 2[ u 6 = 6
2 [ = 0.5
(i) Z = k
n
Step III : To calculate design specifications
Zn = k (1) To calculate rise time
(ii) 2[ Zn = 5,2 u 0.5 u k =5 S–T
Tr =
k = 25 Zd

⎡ ⎤
2
Step II : To calculate design specifications –1 1–[
T = tan = 1.047 rad
(i) To calculate peak overshoot ⎣ [ ⎦
2 2 2
– S[/ 1 – [ Zd = Zn 1 – [ = 6 1 – (0.5) = 5.196 rad/sec
% Mp = e u 100
S – 1.047
– S u 0.5/ 1 – (0.5)
2
Tr = 5.196
% Mp = e u 100
Tr = 0.4031 sec
% Mp = 16.303 %
(ii) Rise time (2) Peak time
S–T S S
Tr = Tp = = = 0.6046
Zd Zd 5.196

⎡ ⎤ Tp = 0.6046 sec
2 2
T = tan
–1 1–[ –1 ⎡ 1 – (0.5) ⎤
⎣ [ ⎦ = tan
⎣ 0.5 ⎦ (3) Peak overshoot
T = 1.047 rad – S[/ 1 – [
2

Zd = Zn 1 – [ = 5
2 2
1 – (0.5) = 4.330 rad/sec. % Mp = e u 100
S – 1.047 % Mp = 16.303 %
Tr = 4.330 = 0.4837 sec (4) Settling time
(iii) Settling time 4 4
4 4 Ts = =
Ts = = = 1.6 sec [Zn 0.5 u 6
[Zn 0.5 u 5
Ts = 1.333 sec

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-31)

UEx. 5.13 SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks. Ex. 5.6.7

The unity feedback system with open loop transfer function For a unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
k 25
G(s) = s(s + 10) G(s) = s(s + k) determine damping factor, k, peak overshoot, peak

Determine k, peak overshoot, settling time, time to peak overshoot time if settling time with 2 % criterion is 2 sec.
for unit step input if damping factor is 0.5.  Soln. :
 Soln. : Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function 25
C(s) G(s) C(s) G(s) s(s + k)
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) = 25
1 + s(s + k) u 1
k
C(s) s(s + 10) 25
R(s) = k C(s) s––––––
(s + k) 25
1 + s(s + 10) 1 =
R(s) s(s + k) + 25 = s2 + ks + 25
k s––––––
(s + k)
C(s) –-––-–––
s(s + 10)
R(s) = s(s + 10) + k Comparing with standard transfer function
2
–-––-–––
s(s + 10) Z
C(s) n
C(s) k R(s) = 2 2
= s + 2[ Zns + Zn
R(s) 2
s + 10 s + k 2
Comparing with standard second order transfer function. (i) Zn = 25
2
C(s) Zn Zn = 5
R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zn s + Zn
(ii) 2[Zn = k
2
(i) Zn = k
Step II : Given settling time Ts = 2 sec
(ii) 2[Zn = 10 4 4
Ts = 2 =
[ = 0.5 [Zn [u5
2 u 0.5 u Zn = 10
[ = 0.4
Zn = 10
2 ?Value of k = 2[Zn
(iii) k = Zn
2 k = 2 u 0.4 u 5 = 4
k = 10 = 100
Step II : Step III :
1. To calculate peak overshoot
(1) To calculate peak overshoot
– S[
2
2 – S[/ 1 – [
1–[ % Mp = e u 100
% Mp = e u 100
2
– S u 0.5 – S u 0.4/ 1 –(0.4)
2 % Mp = e u 100
1 – (0.5)
% Mp = e u 100
% Mp = 25.38 %
% Mp = 16.30%
2. To calculate settling time (2) To calculate peak time
4 4 S
Ts = = Tp =
[Zn 0.5 u 10 Zd
Ts = 0.8 sec S S
Tp = 2 = 2
3. To calculate time for peak overshoot Zn 1 – [ 5 1 – (0.4)
S S S
Tp = = Tp =
Zd Z 1 – [2 4.5825 = 0.6855 sec
n

S Tp = 0.6855 sec
Tp = 2
10 1 – (0.5)
Tp = 0.3627 sec.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-32)
2
– S[2/ 1 – [2
Ex. 5.6.8 Mp = e u 100
2
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given – S[2/ 1 – [2
k 25 = e u 100
by G(s) = s(sT +1) where k and T are positive constant. By what [2 = 0.4037
factor should the amplifier gain k be reduced, so that the peak 1
Now [ =
overshoot of unit step response of the system is reduced from 75% 2 kT
to 25%. 1
So [1 =
 Soln. : 2 k1T
1
Step I : and [2 =
2 k2T
k
G(s) = s(sT + 1) Taking Ratio
H(s) = 1 [2 k1
? =
Closed loop transfer function is [1 k2
C(s) G(s) 0.4037 k1
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) ? 0.0912 =
k2
k
C(s) s(sT + 1) k1
? = 4.43
R(s) = k k2
1 + s(sT + 1)
k1
k k2 = 19.63
C(s) s–––––––
(sT + 1)
k1
R(s) = s (sT + 1) + k ? k2 =
s–––––––
(sT + 1) 19.63

C(s) k ? k2 = 0.0509 k1
R(s) = 2
Ts + s + k Gain must be reduced by factor 0.0509.
C(s) k/T
R(s) = 2 s k Ex. 5.6.9
s +T+T
For the system with open loop transfer function
2 k2
Zn
Comparing with 2
G(s) = s (s + k ) , H(s) = 1
2 1
s + 2[Zns + Zn
with unity feedback. Determine values of k1 and k2, if damping
We get
2 k factor is 0.6 and peak time is 1 sec. Also determine peak overshoot,
(i) Zn = T natural frequency, rise time and settling time.

Zn =
k  Soln. :
T
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
1 C(s) G(s)
(ii) 2[Zn = T R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
1/T 1/T k2
[ = =
2Zn 2 k/T
C(s) s (s + k1)
[ =
1 R(s) = k2
2 k/T 1 + s (s + k )
1
For Mp = 75%
k2
Let [ = [1 and k = k1
C(s) ––––––––
s (s + k1)
2 =
Mp = e– S [/ 1 – [ u 100 R(s) s (s + k1) + k2
2 ––––––––
s (s + k1)
– S [1/ 1 – [1
75 = e u 100
C(s) k2
[1 = 0.0912 = 2
R(s) s + k1s + k2
For Mp = 25%
Let [ = [2 and k = k2

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Comparing with standard second order closed loop transfer UEx. 5.14 SPPU - May 15, Dec. 15, 6 Marks.
function,
2 The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system.
C(s) Zn k
R(s) = 2 2 G (s) = where k, W > 0.
s + 2[Zn s + Zn s (Ws + 1)
2
(i) Zn = k2 With given value of k, the peak overshoot was found to be
Zn = k2 80 %. Suppose the peak overshoot is decreased to 20 % by
decreasing ‘k’. Find new value of ‘k’ in terms of old value.
(ii) 2[Zn = k1
Step II : Given [ = 0.6 at Tp = 1 sec  Soln. :
S Step I : To find characteristic equation and analyze it.
(1) Tp =
Zd
Characteristic equation is given by 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0.
S
1 = k
Zd 1+ = 0
s (Ws + 1)
S
Zd = 1 = 3.141 s (W s + 1) + k = 0
2 2
(2) Zd = Zn 1 – [ Ws +s+k = 0
3.141 = Zn 1 – (0.6)
2 2 1 k
s + s+ = 0
W W
3.141 = Zn u 0.8
Comparing with standard equation
Zn = 3.926 rad/sec. 2 2
s + 2[Zns + Z = 0
(3) 3.926 = k2 n
2 k
? k2 = 15.4134 Z =
n W
(4) k1 = 2[Zn
k
k1 = 2 u 0.6 u 3.926 ? Zn =
W
k1 = 4.7112 1
2[Zn =
(5) To determine W
– S[ 1
?[ =
1–[
2 2W ˜ Zn
% Mp = e u 100
– S u 0.6
1
[ =
1 – (0.6)
2 k
% Mp = e u 100 2W ˜
W
% Mp = 9.478 % 1
[ =
(6) To determine rise time 2 kW
S–T When peak overshoot changes from 80 % to 20 % damping
Tr =
Zd factor [ changes from [1 and [2. Let k1 be the gain for [1 and k2 be
⎡ ⎤
2 the gain for [2.
–1 1–[
T = tan
⎣ [ ⎦ ? [1 =
1
...(1)
–1 ⎡
2 k1 W
⎤
2
1 – (0.6)
T = tan
⎣ 0.6 ⎦ 1
[2 = ...(2)
T = 0.927 rad 2 k2 W
S – 0.927 Step II : To calculate value of [1 and [2 from Mp
Tr = 3.141 = 0.705 (i) Mp = 80 % for [1
Tr = 0.705 sec 2
– S [ 1/ 1 – [1
(7) To calculate settling time 0.8 = e
4 – S[1
Ts =
[Zn 2 = loge (0.8) = ln (0.8)
4 1 – [1
Ts =
0.6 u 3.926 Solving for [1
Ts = 1.698 sec [1 = 0.0708

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(ii) Mp = 20 % C(s) k/T
2 R(s) = s k
2
– S[2/ 1 – [2 s +T + T
0.2 = e
2
– S[2 Zn
2 = loge (0.2) = ln (0.2) Comparing with 2 2
1–[ s + 2[Zns + Zn
2
We get,
Solving for [2
n k
[2 = 0.4559 (i) Z2 = T
Step III : To calculate k2 in terms of k1 k
Taking ratio of Equations (1) and (2) Zn = T
[1 1/2 k1 W 1
= (ii) 2[Zn = T
[2 1/2 k2 W
1/T
[1 1 2 k2 /
/ W [ =
2 Zn
= u 1
[2 /
2 k1 /
W 1/T
[ =
[1 k2 2 kT
= For Mp = 60 %
[2 k1
[ = [1 and k = k1
k2 0.0708 2
= 0.4559 = 0.1552
k1 Mp = e– S [ / 1 – [ u 100
2
Squaring both sides – S [1/ 1 – [1
60 = e u 100
k2
[1 = 0.1604
k1 = 0.02411
For Mp = 20%
? k2 = 0.02411 k1 ...Ans. [ = [2 and k = k2
2
– S[ / 1–[
Ex. 5.6.10 Mp = e u 100
2
The maximum overshoot for a unity feedback control system – S [2 / 1 – [2
k 20 = e u 100
having its forward path transfer function G(s) = s(sT + 1) is to be [2 = 0.4559
reduced 60 % to20 %. The system input is unit step. Determine the 1
Now, [ =
factor by which k should reduce to achieve a foresaid reduction. 2 kT

 Soln. : So, [1 =
1
2 k1T
and [2 =
1
2 k2T
Step I :
Taking ratio
k
G(s) = s(sT + 1) [2 k1
=
H(s) = 1 [1 k2
Closed loop transfer function 0.4559 k1
C(s) G(s) ? 0.1604 = k2
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
k1
k ? = 2.842
k2
C(s) s(sT + 1)
R(s) = k k1
1 + s(sT + 1) ?k = 8.078
2

k k1
C(s) ––––––––
s (1 + sT) ? k2 = 8.078
R(s) = s(1 + sT) + k ? k2 = 0.1237 k1
––––––––
s (1 + sT)
Gain must be reduced by factor 0.1237.
C(s) k
R(s) = 2
Ts + s + k

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Time Domain Analysis)….Page no. (5-35)
Tp = 2 sec
Ex. 5.6.11 – S[/ 1 – [
2

If peak overshoot is 18.3 % and peak time is 0.3023 seconds. Find % Mp = e u 100
2
1. Damping factor 2. Undamped natural frequency – S[/ 1 – [
10 = e u 100
3. Settling time 2
– S[/ 1 – [
 Soln. : 0.1 = e
2
Step I : To calculate damping factor ‘[’ from Mp – 2.302 = – S[ / 1–[
2
Squaring
% Mp = (e – S[/ 1–[
) u 100 2 2
S[ 9.8696[
2

2 5.299 = 2 = 2

= (e ) u 100
– S[/ 1–[ 1–[ 1–[
18.3 2 2
5.299 – 5.299[ = 9.8696 [
2
– S[/ 1 – [
18.3 [ = 0.5910
100 = e Step II :
2
– S[/ 1–[ S S
0.183 = e (1) Tp = , 2 =
Zd Zd
– S[
2 = loge (0.183) Zd = S/2 = 1.5707 rad/sec
1–[
– S[ Zd = 1.5707 rad/sec
2 = ln (0.183) 2
1–[ (2) Zd = Zn 1–[
/
– S[ 1.5707 = Zn 1 – (0.5910)
2
2 = /
– 1.6982
1–[
Zn = 1.947 rad/sec
Solving for [
4 4
Ts = =
[ = 0.4755 ...Ans. [Zn 0.5910 u 1.947

Step II : To calculate Zn from Tp Ts = 3.476 sec

S S
Tp = = UEx. 5.16 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks)
Zd Z 1–[
2
n
1
S For the system with transfer function (s + 3 + 7j)(s + 3 – 7j) find
0.3023 = 2
Zn 1 – (0.4755) peak time and maximum peak overshoot.

0.3023 =
S
0.8797 Zn
 Soln. :
Step I : The given transfer function
S
Zn = C(s) 1 1
0.3023 u 0.8797
R(s) = (s + 3 + 7j) (s + 3 – 7j) = (s + 3)2 – (7j)2
Zn = 11.81 rad/sec ...Ans. C(s) 1 1
R(s) = (s2 + 6s + 9) – (49j2) = s2 + 6s + 9 + 49
Step III : To calculate
4 4 C(s) 1
Ts = =
[Zn 0.4755 u 11.81 R(s) = s2 + 6s + 58
Comparing with standard closed loop transfer function
2
Ts = 0.7122 sec ...Ans. Z
C(s) n
UEx. 5.15 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zn s + Zn
A second order system peak time of 2 sec and peak overshoot of 2
10%. Find its damping factor, undamped natural frequency, settling (i) Z = 58
n
time with 2 % criterion and closed loop transfer function if its gain Zn = 7.615 rad/sec
at steady state is unity. (ii) 2[Zn = 6
 Soln. : 2[ u 7.615 = 6
Step I : [ = 0.39
% Mp = 10 %

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Step II : To calculate design specifications Zn = 2
2
(i) Peak time 2. k1 = Zn
S S k1 = 4
Tp = =
Zd Z 1 – [2 3. k2 = 2[Zn = 2 u 0.5 u 2
n

Tp = 0.448 sec k2 = 2
Step III :
(ii) Maximum peak overshoot
(1) To calculate peak time
2
– S[/ 1 – [ S
% Mp = e u 100 Tp =
Zd
% Mp = 26.43 %
S S
Tp = 2 = 2
Zn 1 – [ 2 1 – (0.5)
Ex. 5.6.12
Tp = 1.813 sec.
For the system with closed loop transfer function
k1 (2) To calculate peak overshoot
G(s) = 2 – S[
s + k2 s + k1 2
1–[
% Mp = e u 100
Determine k1 and k2 if [ = 0.5 and settling time for 2% setting is
– S u 0.5
4 sec. Also find peak time, peak overshoot, rise time. 1 – (0.5)
2

% Mp = e u 100
 Soln. : % Mp = 16.30%
Step I : To given closed loop transfer function is
(3) To calculate rise time
k1
G(s) = S–T
2 Tr =
s + k2 s + k1 Zd

⎡ ⎤
Comparing with standard closed loop transfer function 2
–1 1–[
T = tan
C(s) Zn
2
⎣ [ ⎦
= 2 2
–1 ⎡ ⎤
R(s) s + 2[Zn s + Zn 1 – (0.5)
2

Zn
2
= k1
= tan
⎣ 0.5 ⎦
T = 1.047 rad
2[Zn = k2
2 2
Step II : Given [ = 0.5 Zd = Zn 1–[ =2 1 – (0.5)
and Ts = 4 = 1.7320 rad/sec.
4 4 S – 1.047
1. Ts = 4 = Tr = 1.7320
[Zn 0.5 u Zn
4 Tr = 1.209 sec.
Zn =
0.5 u 4

...Chapter Ends


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 70+6III
5VCDKNKV[#PCN[UKU
%*#26'4

Syllabus

Characteristic equation of a system, concept of pole and zero, response of various pole locations in s-plane, concept of
stability absolute stability, relative stability, stability of system from pole locations, Routh Hurwitz stability criterion.

6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6-2

6.2 Concept of Stability ......................................................................................................................................................... 6-2
6.2.1 Stable System .................................................................................................................................................. 6-2
6.2.2 Unstable System .............................................................................................................................................. 6-2
6.2.3 Marginally Stable System ................................................................................................................................ 6-2
6.2.4 Conditionally Stable System ............................................................................................................................ 6-2
6.3 Time Response of Poles and Stability ........................................................................................................................... 6-3
6.3.1 Summary of Location of Poles and Stability .................................................................................................... 6-4
6.4 Hurwitz Stability Criterion ............................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.4.1 Disadvantages of the Hurwitz Criterion........................................................................................................... 6-5
6.4.2 Examples on Hurwitz Criterion ......................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.5 Routh’s - Stability Criterion ............................................................................................................................................. 6-6
6.5.1 Determination of Stability from Routh’s Array ................................................................................................. 6-7
6.5.2 Advantages of Routh’s Stability Criterion........................................................................................................ 6-7
6.5.3 Disadvantages of Routh’s Stability Criterion ................................................................................................... 6-7
6.5.4 Examples on Routh’s-Hurwitz Criterion .......................................................................................................... 6-7
UEx. 6.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 6-8
UEx. 6.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 6-8
UEx. 6.3 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 6-8
UEx. 6.4 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 6-8
UEx. 6.5 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 6-9
UEx. 6.6 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 6-9
UEx. 6.5.2 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 4 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 6-9
UEx. 6.7 (SPPU - May 15, 4 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.6 Special Cases of Routh’s Criterion ............................................................................................................................ 6-10
6.6.1 Special Case I ................................................................................................................................................ 6-10
6.6.2 Special Case II ............................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.6.3 Examples on Special Cases of Routh’s Criterion .......................................................................................... 6-12
UEx. 6.8 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 6-14
UEx. 6.9 (SPPU - May 19, 4 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 6-16
6.7 Application of Routh’s Criterion to Determine Range of Unknown ‘k’.......................................................................... 6-16
6.7.1 Examples ....................................................................................................................................................... 6-17
UEx. 6.10 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 6-17
UEx. 6.11 (SPPU - May 16, 4 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 6-18
UEx. 6.12 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 6-18

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 6-21

Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-2)

  +PVTQFWEVKQP  6.2.2 Unstable System

In the previous sections we have already studied that

whenever input is applied to the system it produces the required
output. We also know that small change in input/system parameters
do not result in large/considerable change in output. To produce
output every system has to pass through a small amount of time
(1F2)Fig. 6.2.2 : Unstable system
called transient period. Whenever input is given to the system we
have to analyse whether it reaches steady state output crossing the A system is unstable if for bounded input the response of
transient time, this analysis is called “Stability Analysis” of the system is unbounded i.e. response approaches towards infinity.


system.
6.2.3 Marginally Stable System
To understand stability analysis we can consider a very
simple example of measurement of parameter like current on A system is said to be marginally stable if for bounded input
ammeter. Before showing any reading pointer will pass through a system response is neither decreasing to zero nor increasing to
infinity but having constant amplitude and frequency.
small period and then will move “to and fro” over the final value
and eventually will settle to final value i.e. become stable and give
reading. Design of control system is mainly based on three
parameters.
1. Transient response 2. Stability 3. Steady state response
Out of the three stability is considered to be a vary important
factor. In this chapter we are going to study different methods of
stability analysis of linear time invariant systems. (1F3)Fig. 6.2.3 : Marginally stable system

  %QPEGRVQH5VCDKNKV[ Note : Marginally stable systems are also known as critically
stable systems.
 6.2.1 Stable System
A system is stable if
 6.2.4 Conditionally Stable System
(a) For bounded input the response of the system is
If stability of the system depends on certain condition of the
bounded [BIBO].
(b) In absence of input, the response of the system must system then such systems are called conditionally stable system
approach to zero as time approaches infinity. i.e. for bounded input bounded output is produced if and only the
As t o f, output c(t) o 0 condition is satisfied.
Consider a wooden block placed on a table. If we apply small
force the block will remain at the same position. Now increase the
force, at certain force block will be displaced from original position
to new position. This force is critical force (Fcritical). From the
above experiment we can conclude that :
(a) As long as force (F) is less than Fcritical
(1F1)Fig. 6.2.1 : Stable system
F < Fcritical , system is stable.
Note : Bounded means input and output have certain limits i.e. (b) When F > Fcritical , system becomes unstable.
finite range.
Hence the condition for stability is :
F < Fcritical

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-3)

  6KOG4GURQPUGQH2QNGUCPF C(s) =

A1 A2 A3
s +s–1 +s+2 ...(6.3.9)
 5VCDKNKV[
20 ⎪
A1 = s˜
s  (s – 1) (s + 2)
⎪
We can determine the stability of linear closed loop system ⎪s = 0
from the location of closed loop poles in the s-plane. 20
A1 =
e.g. (– 1) u (2)
1. Consider a closed loop system having A1 = – 10
Transfer function
20 ⎪
C(s) 20 A2 = (s㧛
– 1) ˜
s (s㧛
⎪
R(s) = (s + 1) (s + 3) ...(6.3.1) – 1) (s + 2) ⎪s = 1
20 20
Let r(t) be unit step A2 = 1 (1 + 2) = 3
1
? R(s) = ...(6.3.2) 20
s Similarly A3 = 6
20
Hence the output C(s) = s (s + 1) (s + 3) ...(6.3.3) Hence Equation (6.3.9) becomes
A1 A2 A3 20 20
C(s) = s + s+1 s+3+ ...(6.3.4) – 10 3 6
C(s) = s +s–1 +s+2 ...(6.3.10)
Partial fraction form
Taking ILT of Equation (6.3.10)
20 ⎪
A1 = s˜
s  (s + 1) (s + 3)
⎪ 20 t 20 – 2t
⎪s = 0 c(t) = – 10 + 3 e + 6 e
20
A1 = 3
Steady Transient
20
Similarly A2 = – 10, A3 = 6 State Response
c(t) = cs (t) + ct (t)
Hence Equation (6.3.4) becomes
20/3 10 20/6 Here transient response consist of exponential terms with
C(s) = s –s+1 +s+3 ...(6.3.5)
positive indices. Hence as t o f
Taking ILT of Equation (6.3.5) ct (t) o f
20 –t 20 – 3t
c(t) = 3 – 10 e + 6 e ...(6.3.6)
Since transient response approaches towards ‘f’ system is
unstable. Here one pole in RHP. Hence from the above two
Steady Transient examples we can conclude that :
State State
(i) When the closed loop poles are located in the Left Half Plane
c(t) = cs (t) + ct (t)
[LHP] of ‘s’ plane, system is stable.
In transient response as t o f the output ct (t) o 0 as ct (t)
(ii) Even if one closed loop pole lies in RHP of ‘s’ plane. System
consist of output response with negative indices. Hence output is
is unstable.
stable. Here both pole lie in LHP.
Note : Closed loop poles are the roots of characteristic equation.
2. Now consider a closed loop system having transfer function :
C(s) 20 Hence from above discussion it is very clear that we can
R(s) = (s – 1) (s + 2) ...(6.3.7)
determine stability from the location of poles.
Let r(t) = unit step The following table gives details regarding the location of
1
R(s) = s poles, step response and stability of the system.
20
C(s) = s (s – 1) (s + 2) ...(6.3.8)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-4)

 6.3.1 Summary of Location of Poles and Stability

(1F4)Table 6.3.1

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Since this nth order characteristic equation. Hence order of the

  *WTYKV\5VCDKNKV[%TKVGTKQP determinant is n u n. Make sub-determinants from the main
Hurwitz determinant.
We can predict the stability of a closed loop system from the
⎪ ⎪
a1 a3 a5
characteristic equation of closed loop system without actually ⎪ a1 a3
⎪
solving the characteristic equation using Hurwitz criterion. D1 = | a1 | , D2 = ⎪
⎪ a0 a2 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ , D3 = a0 a2 a4 , Dn = | H |
Consider the characteristic equation of closed loop system.
n n–1 n– 2
⎪ 0 a1 a3⎪
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + ... + an = 0 A system is said to be stable if all the sub-determinants are
Using coefficients of characteristic equations construct positive i.e. D1, D2, D3, ... Dn are positive.
Hurwitz determinant as follows :
 6.4.1 Disadvantages of the Hurwitz
Criterion
1. For higher order systems, it is difficult to solve higher older
determinants and it is also very time consuming process.
2. Using Hurwitz criterion we cannot predict number of roots
located in RHS of ‘s’ plane.
3. Marginal stability cannot be predicted using Hurwitz
(1F5)Fig. 6.4.1 criterion.

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 6.4.2 Examples on Hurwitz Criterion Ex. 6.4.2

Determine stability of the system using Hurwitz criterion whose
3 2
Ex. 6.4.1 characteristic equation is : 9s + 8s + 6s + 4 = 0
4 3 2
Determine stability of s + 8s + 18s + 16s + 5 = 0 using Hurwitz  Soln. :
criterion.
Step I : Calculate coefficient of characteristic equations.
 Soln. : The given characteristic equation is :
3 2
Step I : Calculate coefficients of characteristic equation. The 9s + 8s + 6s + 4 = 0
given characteristic equation is Comparing with standard equation
4 3 2 3 2
s + 8s + 18s + 16s + 5 = 0 a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 = 0
Comparing with standard equation. a0 = 9, a1 = 8, a2 = 6, a3 = 4
4 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0 Step II : To construct Hurwitz determinant of order (3 u 3)
Hence, a0 = 1, a1 = 8, a2 = 18, a3 = 16, a4 = 5
Step II : Construct Hurwitz determinant of order (4 u 4)

⎪ ⎪
a1 a3 a5 a7

⎪ ⎪
(1F5A)
a0 a2 a4 a6
H =
⎪ 0 a1 a3 a5
⎪
⎪ 0 a0 a2 a4 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
8 16 0 0
1 18 5 0
H = ⎪ 0 8 16 0 ⎪ Step III : To determine the sub-determinants and calculate their
⎪ 0 1 18 5 ⎪ values
(i) D1 = | 8 | = 8 > 0 i.e. positive
Note : Since order of characteristic equation is ‘4’, order of
Hurwitz determinant is 4 u 4. (ii) D2 = ⎪ 8 4
⎪ = 12 > 0 i.e. positive
⎪ 9 6 ⎪
Step III : Construct and calculate values for sub-determinants.
(i) D1 = | 8 | ⎪ 8 4 0
⎪
(iii) D3 = ⎪ 9 6 0 ⎪ = 48 > 0
D1 = 8 > 0 i.e. positive ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 0 8 4 ⎪
D2 = ⎪ ⎪ = 128 > 0 i.e. positive
8 16
(ii)
⎪ 1 18 ⎪ Since all the determinants D1, D2, D3 are positive system is
stable.
⎪
8 16 0
⎪
(iii) D3 = ⎪ 1 18 5 ⎪ = 1728 > 0 i.e. positive   4QWVJŏU5VCDKNKV[%TKVGTKQP
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 0 8 16 ⎪ In Routh’s - stability criterion we construct Routh’s array

⎪ ⎪
8 16 0 0 using the co-efficient of characteristic equation.
1 18 5 0 Consider a characteristic equation.
(iv) D4 = ⎪ 0 8 16 0 ⎪ n
a0 s + a1 s
n–1
+ a2 s
n–3
+ ... + an = 0

⎪ 0 1 18 5 ⎪ then Routh’s - array is constructed as follows :

⎪ 18 5 0
⎪ ⎪ 1 5 0
⎪
= 8⎪ 8 16 0 ⎪ – 16 ⎪ 0 16 0 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1 18 5 ⎪ ⎪ 0 18 5 ⎪

⎪ 1 18 0
⎪ ⎪ 1 18 5
⎪
+0⎪ 0 8 0 ⎪–0⎪ 0 8 16 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 0 1 5 ⎪ ⎪ 0 1 18 ⎪ (1F6)Fig. 6.5.1

= (8 u 1240) – (16 u 80) + 0 – 0 In the Routh’s array the first two rows contain the co-efficient
= 8640 > 0 i.e. positive. Hence system is stable. of characteristic equation.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-7)
(i) To calculate b1 3. We can judge number of poles in right hand plane.
4. We can judge relative stability of system.
5. It helps to find points of intersection of root locus with
imaginary axis.
6. It helps us to determine value of ‘k’ for which system is
stable.

 6.5.3 Disadvantages of Routh’s

(1F7)Fig. 6.5.2 Stability Criterion
(ii) To calculate b2 (iii) To calculate b3 1. Applicable to linear systems only.
2. Valid only if characteristic equations have real coefficients.
3. Exact locations of closed loop poles cannot be determined.

Note : Routh’s stability method is also called

Routh’s - Hurwitz’s method.

 6.5.4 Examples on Routh’s-Hurwitz

Criterion
Ex. 6.5.1
(1F8)Fig. 6.5.3 (1F9)Fig. 6.5.4
Determine the stability using Routh’s Criterion and comment on
(iv) To calculate c1 the poles in RHP. The equation is :
4 3 2
s + 2s + 4s + 6s + 8 = 0
 Soln. :
Step I : To calculate the coefficients of characteristic equations.
4 3 2
s + 2s + 4s + 6s + 8 = 0
Comparing with
4 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 4, a3 = 6, a4 = 8
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
(1F10)Fig. 6.5.5 4
s a0 a2 a4 a6
(v) Similarly 3
a1 a3 a5 a7
s
b1 a5 – b3 a1 s
2
b1 b2 b3 ...
c2 = b1 1
0
s c1 c2 c3 ...
Complete the Routh’s array till s using the same logic. 0
s d1 d2 d3 ...
 6.5.1 Determination of Stability from (i) b1 =
(2 u 4) – (6 u 1) 2
2 =2 =1
Routh’s Array
(2 u 8) – (0 u 1) 16
(ii) b2 = 2 = 2 =8
1. Check the first column of Routh’s array.
2. If there is no sign change in the first column then system is (2 u 0) – (0 u 1)
(iii) b3 = 2 =0
stable.
3. If there is sign change in first column the system is unstable.
Number of sign change = Number of poles in RHS of s-plane (1F11)Fig. Ex. 6.5.1

 6.5.2 Advantages of Routh’s Stability

(iv) c1 =
(1 u 6) – (8 u 2)
= – 10
Criterion 1
(1 u 0) – (0 u 2)
1. No determinants to solve, hence time saving. (v) c2 = 1 =0
2. We can find stability of system without solving characteristic (– 10 u 8) – (0 u 1)
equation. (vi) d1 = – 10 =8

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-8)
Step III : Analysis of Routh’s array We get, a0 = 1, a1 = 3, a2 = 4, a3 = 3, a4 = 2
(i) Since there are sign changes in first column, system is
unstable. Step II : To construct Routh’s array
4
(ii) There are two sign changes in first column. Hence two poles s 1 4 2 0
in RHP of the ‘s’ plane. s
3
3 3 0 0
2
Note : Arrow in Routh’s array indicates the sign change. s 3 2 0 0
1
s 1 0 0 0
UEx. 6.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 4 Marks) 0
s 2 0 0 0
Comment on the stability using Routh’s criteria if characteristic
4 3 2 Step III : To determine stability
equation is D(s) = s + 5s + s + 10s + 1. How many poles lie in
4
Right of s-plane? s +
3
 Soln. : s
2
+
+
s
Step I : To calculate coefficients of characteristic equation s
1
+
4 3 2 0
s + 5s + s + 10s + 1 = 0 s +
Comparing with There is no sign change. Hence all poles lie in left side of s-
4 3 2 plane. Hence system is stable.
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
We get, a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 1, a3 = 10, a4 = 1 UEx. 6.3 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks)
For the system with closed loop characteristic equation
Step II : To construct Routh’s array 4 3 2
Q(s) = s + 7s + 9s + 12s + 2 = 0
4
s 1 1 1 0 Investigate stability using Routh’s stability criterion.
3
s
2
5 10 0 0
 Soln. :
s –1 1 0 0
Step I : To calculate co-efficients of characteristic equations
1 4 3 2
s 15 0 0 0 s + 7s + 9s + 12s + 2 = 0
0
s 1 Comparing with standard equation,
4 3 2
Step III : To determine stability a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
?a0 = 1, a1 = 7, a2 = 9, a3= 12, a4 = 2
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
4
s 1 9 2 0
3
s 7 12 0 0
2
s 7.285 2 0 0
1
s 10.07 0 0 0
0
s 2
(5F1) Step III : To determine stability
4
s +
Since there are sign changes two times hence 2 poles lie in 3
s +
right hand of s-plane. 2
s +
Hence system is unstable. 1
s +
0
UEx. 6.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 4 Marks) s +
Investigate stability of the system with characteristic equation Since there are no sign changes, no poles lie in RHS of s-
4 3 2 plane. Hence system is stable.
Q(s) = s + 3s + 4s + 3s + 2 = 0
UEx. 6.4 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks)
 Soln. : Investigate the stability of a system having closed loop
Step I : To calculate coefficients of characteristic equation characteristic equation
4 3 2
4 3
s + 3s + 4s + 3s + 2 = 0
2 Q(s) = s + 5s + 7s + 3s + 2

Compare with  Soln. :

4 3 2 Step I : To calculate co-efficient of characteristic equation
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0 4 3 2
s + 5s + 7s + 3s + 2

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-9)
Comparing with, UEx. 6.6 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks)
4 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 Investigate the stability of system with characteristic equation
?a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 7, a3= 3, a4 = 2 4 3
Q(s) = s + 6s + 15s + 5s + 3 = 0.
2

Step II : To construct Routh’s array

4
 Soln. :
s 1 7 2
3
Step I : To calculate coefficients of characteristic equation
s 5 3 0 4 3 2
2
s + 6s + 15s + 5s + 3 = 0
s 6.4 2 0
1 Comparing with standard equation,
s 1.4375 0 0 4 3 2
0 a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
s 2
? a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 = 15, a3= 5, a4 = 3
Step III : To determine stability
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
4
s + 4
3 s 1 15 3 0
s + 3
2 s 6 5 0 0
s + 2
s
1
+ s 14.166 3 0 0
0 1
s + s 3.72 0 0 0
0
Since there is no sign change, no poles lie in RHS of s 3 0 0
s-plane. Hence system is stable. Step III : To determine stability
4
UEx. 6.5 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 4 Marks) s +
3
Investigate the stability of the system having characteristic s +
4 3 2 2
equation Q(s) = s + 9s + 7s + 4s + 3 = 0 using Routh’s stability s +
test. Also determine number of poles in right half of s-plane. 1
s +
 Soln. : s
0
+
Step I : To calculate coefficients of characteristic equation Since there is no sign change, no poles lie in right half of s-
4 3 2
s + 9s + 7s + 4s + 3 = 0 plane. Hence system is stable.
Comparing with,
4 3 2 UEx. 6.5.2 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 4 Marks)
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
?a0 = 1, a1 = 9, a2 = 7, a3= 4, a4 = 3 Investigate the stability of system with characteristic equation :
4 3 2
s + 2s + 4s + 6s + 8 = 0
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
4 How many poles of systems lie in right half of s-plane ?
s 1 7 3 0
s
3
9 4 0 0  Soln. :
2
s 6.55 3 0 0 Step I : Comparing with standard equation
s
1
– 0.122 0 0 0 a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 4, a3 = 6, a4 = 8
s
0
3 Step II : To construct Routh’s array
4
Step II : To determine stability s 1 4 8
3
s 2 6 0
2
s 1 8 0
1
s – 10 0 0
s0 8
Step III : To determine stability
4
s +
3
s +
2
s +
(5F5)
1
s –
Since there are two sign changes, two poles lie right half of s- s 0
+
plane.
Since there are sign changes 2 times. Hence two poles lie in
Hence system is unstable.
RHP.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-10)
UEx. 6.7 (SPPU - May 15, 4 Marks) Step III : To determine stability
Using Routh’s criteria comment on stability if characteristic
5 4 3 2
equation is s + 2s + 3s + 8s + s + 1 = 0
 Soln. :
Step I : To calculate co-efficient of characteristic equation
5 4 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 8s + s + 1 = 0
Comparing with
5 4 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 s + a5 = 0
We get, a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 3, a3 = 8, a4 = 1, a5 = 1
(1F25)
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
5
Since there is sign change in first column, system is unstable.
s 1 3 1 0
4
Since the sign changes two times, hence two poles in right
s 2 8 1 0 hand plane.
3
s –1 0.5 0 0
s
2
9 1 0 0   5RGEKCN%CUGUQH4QWVJŏU
 %TKVGTKQP
1
s 0.611 0 0 0
0
s 1
Step III : To determine stability  6.6.1 Special Case I
In Routh’s array if first element of any row is zero and
remaining row contains at least one non-zero element. There are
two methods to solve such examples.
Method 1 : Using small positive value .
1
Method 2 : Using s = z
Consider the following example :
5 4 3 2
F(s) = s + 2s + 3s + 4s + 5s + 6 = 0
Let us construct Routh’s array.
(5F4)
Comparing given equation with standard equation.
There are two sign changes. Hence, two poles in right side of a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 3, a3 = 4, a4 = 5, a5 = 6
s-plane. Hence, system is unstable.
Ex. 6.5.3
Check whether the given system is stable
6 5 4 3 2
s + 3s + 2s + 9s + 5s + 12s + 20 = 0
 Soln. :
Step I : To find coefficients of characteristic equation.
Comparing the characteristic equation with standard.
a0 = 1, a1 = 3, a2 = 2, a3 = 9, a4 = 5, a5 = 12, a6 = 20 (1F13)Fig. 6.6.1
Step II : To construct Routh’s array Since the above Routh’s array contains ‘0’ as first
2
6 element in s
s 1 2 5 20
This is special case. Let us solve using both the methods.
5
s 3 9 12 0 Method 1 : Steps
4
s –1 1 20 0 1. Replace zero by small positive value ‘’.
3 2. Complete Routh’s array with ‘’.
s 12 72 0 0 lim
3. Compute the signs by considering for values
s
2
7 20 0 0 o0
containing  in first column.
1
s 37.71 0 0 0 4. Determine stability.
0
s 20

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-11)
For the above example
5
 6.6.2 Special Case II
s 1 3 5
4 All the elements of a row in a Routh’s array are zero.
s 2 4 6
3
s 1 2 0 Steps to solve problems on special case II
2
s  6 0 1. Construct an auxiliary equation by using coefficients just
1
s 2 – 6 above the row of zeros. Let us denote auxiliary equation by
0 0
 A(s).
0
s 6 2. Differentiate A(s) w.r.t. s
dA(s)
lim 2 – 6 lim 2  6
= – ds
o 0   o 0  
dA(s)
lim 6 3. Coefficients of ds become coefficients of rows of zeros.
= 2–
o0 
4. Complete Routh’s array.
= 2–f
5. If there is no sign change solve the auxillary equation to get
= –f
? Sign is negative. its roots.
Sign change occurs. (1F14)Fig. 6.6.2 6. Analyze the roots if they satisfy stability conditions as
Hence system is unstable. mentioned in table of poles then system is stable.
There are two sign changes. Hence two poles in right hand Consider the following example,
side of ‘s’ plane. 6 5 4 3 2
F(s) = s + 3s + 4s + 6s + 5s + 3s + 2 = 0
Method 2 : Steps
Comparing with standard equation.
1
1. Replace every s by z . a0 = 1, a1 = 3, a2 = 4, a3 = 6, a4 = 5, a5 = 3, a6 = 2
Constructing Routh’s array
2. Let the new characteristic equation in terms of z.
3. Construct Routh’s array and determine stability.
5 4 3 2
(1) F(s) = s + 2s + 3s + 4s + 5s + 6 = 0
1 2 3 4 5
F(z) = 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + z + 6 = 0
z z z z
5 4 3 2
(2) F(z) = 6z + 5z + 4z + 3z + 2z + 1 = 0
Compare with standard equation
a0 = 6, a1 = 5, a2 = 4, a3 = 3, a4 = 2, a5 = 1
Constructing Routh’s Array
5 (1F16)Fig. 6.6.4
z 6 4 2 0
4
z 5 3 1 0 Step I : Construct auxillary equation
3
z 0.4 0.8 0 0 4 2
2
A(s) = 2s + 4s + 2 = 0
z –7 1 0 0
1 dA(s) 3
z 0.85 0 0 Step II : ds = 8s + 8s
0
z 1
Step III :
(3) To determine stability

(1F15)Fig. 6.6.3 (1F17)Fig. 6.6.5

There is sign change. Hence system is unstable. There are two
sign changes hence two poles in right hand plane.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-12)
Here we get one more row of zeros. Hence same procedure
followed again.
 6.6.3 Examples on Special Cases of
Step I : Auxiliary equation Routh’s Criterion
2
A1(s) = 2s + 2
Ex. 6.6.1
Step II :
dA1(s) Using Routh’s stability Criterion determine the number of roots in
ds = 4s right half plane. Comment on stability of the system.
5 4 3 2
Step III : Routh’s array F(s) = s + 2s + 3s + 6s + 10s + 15

s
6
1 4 5 2  Soln. :
5
s 3 6 3 0 Step I : The given characteristic equation is :
4
s 2 4 2 0 5 4 3 2
3 F(s) = s + 2s + 3s + 6s + 10s + 15
s 8 8 0 0
2 Comparing with standard equation.
s 2 2 0 0
5 4 3 2
s
1
4 0 0 0 a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 s + a5
0
s 2 0 0 a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 3, a3 = 6, a4 = 10, a5 = 15
Step IV : Since there is no sign change in Routh’s array. Let us Step II : To construct Routh’s array
calculate roots of auxiliary equations.
4 2
A(s) = 2s + 4s + 2 = 0
2
Put s = z
2
2z + 4z + 2 = 0
Finding value of z
z = –1
Re-substituting
2
s = z
2 (1F19)Fig. Ex. 6.6.1
?s = –1
s = r –1 Since ‘0’ is present in first column and there is a non-zero
element present in that row. Hence this is an example of special
s1 = + – 1 , s2 = – – 1
case I. There are two methods.
But – 1 is j
Method I
? s1 = + j, s2 = – j
Replace 0 by small positive value .
Consider 2nd auxiliary equation
5
2
2s + 2 = 0 s 1 3 10
4
2s
2
= –2 s 2 6 15
2 3
s = –1 s  2.5 0
2 6 – 5
s = r –1 s 15 0
6
s = rj 1
s 15
? s3 = + j, s4 = – j 2.5 –
⎛ – 5⎞
6
⎝ 6 ⎠
(1F18)Fig. 6.6.6 s 15
0

To check the signs

From above solution. It is clear that there are repeated poles
lim 6 – 5 lim 5 –5
on imaginary axis. Hence system is unstable. (1) = –6 = 6
o0 6 o0
lim 15 lim 90
Note : In the above example we get two auxiliary equations. To (2) 2.5 – = 2.5 – = 2.5
o0 6 – 5  o 0 6 – 5
determine stability we must determine and check roots of 6
both auxiliary equations.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-13)
6 5 4 3 2
s + s + 3s + 3s + 2s + s + 1 = 0
Comparing with
6 5 4 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 s + a5 s + a6 = 0
a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = 3, a3 = 3, a4 = 2, a5 = 2, a6 = 1
Step II : Construct Routh’s array

(1F20)Fig. Ex. 6.6.1(a)

Since there are two sign changes. Hence there are two poles
in right hand s-plane. Hence system is unstable.
Method II
5 4 3 2
1. F(s) = s + 2s + 3s + 6s + 10s + 15 = 0
1
Replace s = z (1F22)Fig. Ex. 6.6.2
1 2 3 6 10
F(z) = 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + z + 15 = 0 To solve this special case - I we will use method 2
z z z z
1
5 4 3
F(z) = 15z + 10z + 6z + 3z + 2z + 1 = 0
2 i.e. substitute s = z
6 5 4 3 2
2. Comparing F(z) with standard equation 1. F(s) = s + s + 3s + 3s + 2s + s + 1 = 0
a0 = 15, a1 = 10, a2 = 6, a3 = 3, a4 = 2, a5 = 1 1
Substitute s = z
3. Routh’s array 1 1 3 3 2 1
5
F(z) = 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + z + 1 = 0
z 15 6 2 0 z z z z z
6 5 4 3 2
z
4
10 3 1 0 F(z) = z + 2z + 2z + 3z + 3z + z + 1 = 0
3 2. Comparing with standard equation
z 1.5 0.5 0 0
a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 2, a3 = 3, a4 = 3, a5 = 1, a6 = 1
2
z – 0.33 1 0 0 3. To construct Routh’s array
1 6
z 5.045 0 0 z 1 2 3 1 0
0 5
z 1 z 2 3 1 0 0
4
z 0.5 2.5 1 0 0
4. Stability analysis 3
z –7 –3 0 0
2
z 16 1 0 0
7
1
z 0.06 0 0
0
z 1
4. Stability analysis

(1F21)Fig. Ex. 6.6.1(b)

There are two sign changes. Hence two poles in right hand ‘s’
plane. Hence system is unstable.
Ex. 6.6.2
Using Routh’s Criterion find the stability of the given characteristic
equation.
6 5 4 3 2 (1F23)Fig. Ex. 6.6.2(a)
s + s + 3s + 3s + 2s + 2s + 1 = 0
 Soln. : Two sign changes. Hence two poles in right hand plane.
Hence system is unstable.
Step I : The given characteristic equation is,

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-14)
UEx. 6.8 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) Ex. 6.6.3
Investigate the stability of the system with characteristic equation Check the stability of the system using Routh’s stability Criterion.
4 3 2 3 2
Q(s) = s + s + 2s + 2s + 1 = 0 s + 9s + 4s + 36
 Soln. :  Soln. :
Step I : To calculate coefficients of characteristic equation Step I : Comparing with standard equation.
4 3 2 a0 = 1, a1 = 9, a2 = 4, a3 = 36
s + s + 2s + 2s + 1 = 0
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
Comparing with
4 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
We get, a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 2, a4 = 1
Step II : To construct Routh’s array

(1F24)Fig. Ex. 6.6.3

2
(1) A(s) = 9s + 36
dA(s)
(2) ds = 18s

(3) Routh’s array

3
s 1 4 0
2
(5F2) s 9 36 0
Step III : 1
s 18 0 0
0
(a) Replace every s by 1/z s 36
4 3
Hence s + s + 2s + 2s + 1
2
= 0 (4) Since there is no sign change.
1 1 2 2 System might be stable.
4 + 3 + 2 + +1 = 0 2
z z z z A(s) = 9s + 36 = 0
2 2
4 3 2 9s = – 36 s = –4
z + 2z + 2z + z + 1 = 0
s = r –4 s = r 2j
(b) Comparing with standard equation
Since there is a pair of complex conjugate pole on imaginary
a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 2, a3 = 1, a4 = 1 axis. System is marginally stable.
(c)
4 Ex. 6.6.4
z 1 2 1
3
Using Routh’s criterion check the testability of a system whose
z 2 1 0 characteristic equation is given by,
2 6 5 4 3 2
z 1.5 1 0 s + 3s + 4s + 6s + 5s + 3s + 2 = 0
 Soln. :
1
z – 0.33 0 0
0
z 1 Step I : To find coefficients of characteristic equation
Comparing the characteristic equation with standard equation
(d) To determine stability
a0 = 1, a1 = 3, a2 = 4, a3 = 6, a4 = 5, a5 = 3, a6 = 2.
Step II : To construct Routh’s Array

(5F3)Fig. Ex. 6.8 (3F1) Fig. Ex. 6.6.4

There are two sign changes. Hence two poles in right hand
side of s-plane. Hence system is unstable.

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4 2
(1) A(s) = 2s +4s + 2
dA(s) 3
(2) ds = 8s + 8s

(3) Routh’s array

(3F3)Fig. Ex. 6.6.4(c)

(3F2)Fig. Ex. 6.6.4(a) Ex. 6.6.5

2
Using Routh’s criterion check the stability of a system whose
(4) A1[s] = 2s + 2 characteristics equation is given by,
aA1[s] 5 4 3 2
s + 2s + 2s + 4s + 11s + 10 = 0
(5) ds = 4s

(6) Routh array

 Soln. :
6 Step I : To calculate co-efficient of characteristic equation
s 1 4 5 2
s
5
3 6 3 0 Comparing the characteristic equation by standard equation
4 a0 =1, a1 = 2, a2 = 2, a3 = 4, a4 = 11, a5 = 10
s 2 4 2 0
3
s 8 8 0 0 Step II : To construct Routh’s Array
2
s 2 2 0
1
s 4 0 0
0
s 2
(3F3A)Fig. Ex. 6.6.4(b)

Step III : (3F4)Fig. Ex. 6.6.5

5 4 3 2
Since there is no sign change in Routh’s Array let us calculate 1. F(s) = s +2s + 2s + 4s + 11s + 10 = 0
roots of auxiliary equations. 1 2 2 4 11
4 2
F(z) = 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + z + 10 = 0
A(s) = 2s + 4s + 2 = 0 z z z z
2 2 3 4 5
Put, s = z 2. F(z) = 1+ 2z + 2z +4s + 11z + 10z = 0
2 5 4 3 2
2z +4z + 2 = 0 F(z) = 10z + 11z + 4z +2z + 2z + 1 = 0

Finding value of z Compare with standard equation

a0 = 10, a1 = 11, a2 = 4, a3 = 2, a4 = 2, a5 = 1.
z = –1
3. Construct Routh’s Array
Re substituting
5
s
2
= z z 10 4 2
2 4
? s = –1 z 11 2 1
3
s = r –1 z 2.181 1.090 0
But = – 1 is j z
2
–7.628 1 0
s = rj 1
z 1.375 0
nd
Consider 2 auxiliary equation 0
2
z 1
2s + 2 = 0=–2
2
s = –1; s=rj
From above solution. It is clear that there are repeated poles
on imaginary axis. Hence system is unstable.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-16)
4. To determine stability UEx. 6.9 (SPPU - May 19, 4 Marks)
Investigate the stability of system with characteristic equation
4 3 2
Q(s) = s + 6s + 11s + 6s + 10 = 0. Comment on stability.
 Soln. :
Step I : To calculate coefficients of characteristic equation
4 3 2
Q(s) = s + 6s + 11s + 6s + 10 = 0
(3F5)Fig. Ex. 6.6.5(a) Comparing with,
4 3 2
There is sign change. Hence system is unstable. There are two a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0
sign change hence two poles in right hand plane. ? a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 = 11, a3= 6, a4 = 10

Ex. 6.6.6 Step II : To construct Routh’s array

Using Routh’s criterion check the stability of a system whose

characteristic equation is given by
6 5 4 3 2
s + 3s + 5s + 9s +8s + 6s + 4 = 0.
 Soln. :
Step I : To find the co-efficient of characteristic equation.
Comparing the characteristic equation with standard equation.
a0 =1, a1 = 3, a2 = 5, a3 = 9, a4 = 8, a5 = 6, a6 = 4. (5F6)

Step II : To construct Roth’s Array Step III :

(i) To construct auxillary equation
2
A(s) = 10s + 10
dA(s)
(ii) ds = 20s

(iii) Routh’s array

4
(3F6)Fig. Ex. 6.6.6 s 1 11 10
3
4 2 s 6 6 0
1. A(s) = 2s + 6s + 4 2
s 10 10 0
dA[s] 3
2. ds = 8s +12s s
1
20 0 0
0
3. Routh’s array s 10
6
1 5 8 4 (iv) There is no sign change. System might be stable.
s 2
s
5
3 9 6 0 A(s) = 10s + 10 = 0
2
s
4
2 6 4 0 10s = – 10
3 2
s 8 12 0 0 s = –1
2 s = rj
s 3 4 0 0
1 Since the roots of auxiliary equation is pair of complex
s 4 0 0 0
0 conjugate pole on imaginary axis, system is marginally stable.
s 4


4. Since there is no sign change in first column. System might
be stable.  #RRNKECVKQPQH4QWVJŏU
A(s) =
4 2
2s + 6s + 4 = 0  %TKVGTKQPVQ&GVGTOKPG4CPIG
Substitute s
2
= t  QH7PMPQYPŎMŏ
2
2t + 6t + 4 = 0
Consider a closed loop system having transfer function.
t = – 1 and – 2
2 2 C(s) G(s)
s = – 1 and s – 2 R(s) = 1 + k G(s) H(s)
s = r j; s = r 2 j The characteristic equation is given by
Since there is a pair of complex conjugate pole on imaginary F(s) = 1 + kG(s) H(s) = 0
axis. System is marginally stable.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-17)

The unknown ‘k’ is present in the characteristic equation, we Ex. 6.7.2

can determine range of ‘k’ for absolute stability of the system using 4 3 2
The characteristic equation of system is s + s + ks + s + 1 = 0.
Routh’s Criterion. In this case stability depends on ‘k’. Hence it is Find kmar and Z at kmar.
called conditional stability. We can also determine marginal value
 Soln. :
of ‘k’. This value of ‘k’ makes any row of Routh’s array zero
Step I : To find characteristic equation and its co-efficients.
0 0
except s row. If the s row is row of zeros then constant k becomes Characteristic equation is,
4 3 2
zero making the system unstable. Hence marginal value of ‘k’ is s + s + ks + s + 1 =0
that value of ‘k’ which makes any row of Routh’s array zero except Compare with standard equation
0 a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = k, a3 = 1, a4 = 1.
s row. The marginal value of ‘k’ is denoted by kmar.
Step II : To construct Routh’s Array
 6.7.1 Examples s
4

3
1 k 1
s 1 1 0
Ex. 6.7.1 2
s k–1 1 0
1
Find the range of ‘k’ so that system will be stable using Routh’s s k–2 0
criteria for characteristic equation k –1
4 3 2 0
F(s) = s + 5s + 5s + 4s + k = 0 s 1

 Soln. : Step III : To determine kmar

For system to be marginally stable one row of Routh’s array
Step I : Comparing the given characteristic equation with 0
must be zero. Except s row.
standard equation. kmar – 2
a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 5, a3 = 4, a4 = k Hence k – 1 = 0
mar
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
kmar – 2 = 0
4
s 1 5 k kmar = 2
3
s 5 4 0 Step IV : To find Z
2
s 4.2 k 0 Characteristic equation is
1 16.8 – 5k 2
s 0 0 (kmar – 1) s + 1 = 0
4.2
Substitute kmar = 2
0
s k 2
(2 – 1) s + 1 = 0
Step III : To determine range of ‘k’ 2
s +1 = 0
(i) For stability the values in the first column of Routh’s array s
2
= –1
must be positive i.e. no sign change.
s = rj
16.8 – 5k
(ii) Hence 4.2 >0 and k > 0 since s = jZ
16.8 – 5k > 0 ? Z = r 1 rad/sec
Subtract 16.8 from both sides UEx. 6.10 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks)
16.8 – 5k – 16.8 > 0 – 16.8 Investigate the stability of a system having closed loop
– 5k > – 16.8 characteristic equation
3 2
Divide by – 5 Q(s) = s + 7s + 10s + k = 0 and find kmar and Zmar.
– 5k
–5 <
– 16.8
–5 k < 3.36  Soln. :
Step I : To calculate co-efficients of characteristic equation
3 2
Note : If we multiply or divide by a negative number in s + 7s + 10s + k = 0
inequality then inequality symbol is reversed.
Comparing with,
Hence we get, 3 2
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 = 0
k > 0
? a0 = 1, a1 = 7, a2= 10, a3 = k
k < 3.36
Combining we can write
0 < k < 3.36

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-18)
Step II : To construct Routh’s array Ex. 6.7.3
3
s 1 10 0 k
2 A unity feedback system has G(s) = 2
s 7 k 0 s(s + 10) (s + 4s + 5)
1
s 70 – k 0 0
Determine the range of ‘k’ for closed loop system to be stable.
7
s
0
k  Soln. :
Step III : For system to be stable Step I : To find the characteristic equation
70 – k 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
(i) 7 > 0 – k > – 70 k < 70
Since unity feedback H(s) = 1
(ii) k > 0 k
Combining Equations (i) and (ii), 1+ 2 = 0
s(s + 10) (s + 4s + s)
0 < k < 70 2
s(s + 10) (s + 4s + 5) + k = 0
Step IV : To determine kmar, Zmar 2 2
70 – kmar (s + 10s) (s + 4s + 5) + k = 0
7 = 0 kmar = 70 4 3 2 3
s + 4s + 5s + 10s + 40s + 50s + k = 0
2

To construct auxillary equation, 4 3 2

s + 14s + 45s + 50s + k = 0
2 2
7s + k = 0 7s + 70 = 0 Comparing with standard equation
2 2
7s = – 70 s = – 10 a0 = 1, a1 = 14, a2 = 45, a3 = 50, a4 = k
s = r 3.1622j s = r j Zmar Step II : Constructing Routh’s array
4
? Zmar = r 3.1622 s 1 45 k
3
s 14 50 0
UEx. 6.11 (SPPU - May 16, 4 Marks) 2
s 41.42 k 0
Find range of k so that system will be stable using Routh-Hurwitz s
1
2071 – 14k 0 0
criterion for the characteristic equation. 41.42
4 3 2 0
D(s) = s + 5s + 5s + 4s + k = 0 s k

 Soln. : Step III : To determine range of k

(i) For system to be stable
Step I : To determine co-efficient of the characteristic equation 2071 – 14k
4 3 2
41.42 > 0
s + 5s + 5s + 4s + k = 0
Comparing with standard equation and k > 0
4 3 2 2071 – 14k
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 s + a4 = 0 (ii) Let us solve 41.42 > 0
?a0 = 1 a1 = 5 a2 = 5 a3= 4 a4 = k
2071 – 14k > 0
Step III : To construct Routh’s array
– 14k > – 2071
4
s 1 5 k 0 Divide by – 14
3
s 5 4 0 0 k < 147.92
2 (iii) k < 147.92and k > 0
s 4.2 k 0 0
1 Combining 0 < k < 147.92
s 16.8 – 5k 0 0
4.2
UEx. 6.12 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks)
0
s k Determine the range of k for closed loop stability of unity feedback
Step III : To determine value of k system with open loop transfer function
16.8 – 5k k
(i) >0 G(s) = s(s + 1) (s + 4)
4.2
(ii) and k>0 Also determine frequency of oscillation when system is marginally
? 16.8 – 5k > 0 stable.

– 5k > – 16.8 k < 3.36  Soln. :

Combining both condition, Step I : To construct the characteristic equation
0 < k < 3.36 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-19)
Since unity feedback system, H(s) = 1 Comparing with standard equation
k a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 = 6 + k a3 = 20k
1 + s(s + 1)(s + 4) = 0
Step II : To construct Routh’s Array
s(s + 1)(s + 4) + k = 0 3
2 s 1 6+k
s(s + 5s + 4) + k = 0 2
3 2 s 6 20k
s + 5s + 4s + k = 0 1
s 36 – 14k 0
Step II : To calculate co-efficient of characteristic equation
6
Comparing with, 0
3 2 s 20k
a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 = 0
Step III : To determine range of k since system is stable.
? a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 4, a3 = k
Therefore,
Step III : To construct Routh’s array 36 – 14k
s
3
1 4 0 (i) 6 > 0
2
s 5 k 0 36 – 14k > 0
1
s 20 – k 0 0 94 k > – 36
5
0 k < 2.571
s k
(ii) 20 k > 0
Step IV : To calculate ‘k’
Since system is stable : k > 0
20 – k Combining both conditions
(a) ? 5 > 0 20 – k > 0
0 < k < 2.571
–k > – 20 i.e., k < 20
(b) k > 0 Ex. 6.7.5
Combining both conditions we get range of k. For a unity feedback system
0 < k < 20 k
G(s) = s(s + 2) (s + 10)
20 – kmar
Step IV : 5 =0
Determine the marginal value of ‘k’ for which system will be
? kmar = 20
marginally stable.
To determine frequency of oscillation we use auxiliary
equation.  Soln. :
2 2
5s + kmar = 0;5s + 20 = 0 Step I : To find characteristic equation and its coefficients.
2 2
5s = – 20 s = –4
Characteristic equation is
s = r 2j
? r j Zmar = r 2j 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0

? Zmar = r2 Since the given system is unity feedback system H(s) = 1.

k
1 + s(s + 2) (s + 10) = 0
Ex. 6.7.4
Find the range of k to make the unit of feedback system stable s(s + 2) (s + 10) + k = 0
k (s + 20) 2
using Routh’s criterion. G(s) = s(s + 2) (s + 3) (s + 2s) (s + 10) + k = 0
3 2 2
 Soln. : s + 10s + 2s + 20s + k
3 2
= 0

Step I : To find characteristic equation and co-efficient of s + 12s + 20s + k = 0

characteristic equation. Step II : To construct Routh’s array
Characteristic equation is given by,
1+ G(s) H(s) = 0 3
s 1 20
k (s + 20)
1 + s (s + 2) (s + 3) = 0 2
s 12 k
s (s + 2) (s + 3) + k (s + 20) = 0 1 240 – k
2 s 0
s (s + 6s + 6) + k (s + 20) = 0 12
3 2
s + 6s + 6s + ks + 20k = 0 0
3 2
s + 6s + (6 + k) s + 20k = 0 s k

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-20)

Step III : To determine kmar Ex. 6.7.7

For system to be marginally stable. One row of Routh’s array Find range of value s of ‘k’ using Routh criterion so that system
0 with following characteristic equation will be stable.
must be zero except s row 2
240 – kmar s (s + s + 1) (s + 4) + k = 0
Hence 12 = 0
 Soln. :
kmar = 240 Step I : To find coefficients of characteristic equation and co-
efficient of characteristic equation
Ex. 6.7.6 Characteristic equation is
2
s (s + s + 1) (s + 4) + k = 0
The system has 3 2
k (s + s + s) (s + 4) + k = 0
G(s) H(s) = s(s + 2) (s + 4) (s + 8) 4 3 2 3 2
s + s + s + 4s + 4s + 4s + k = 0
4 3 2
using Routh’s criterion find range of ‘k’ for stability. s + 5s + 5s + 4s + k = 0
Comparing with standard equation
 Soln. : a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 5, a3 = 4, a4 = k
Step I : To find characteristic equation and coefficient of Step II : To construct Routh’s Array
4
characteristic equation. Characteristic equation is given s 1 5 k
3
by, s 5 4 0
2
s 4.2 k 0
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 1
k s 16.8 – 5k 0
1 + s(s + 2) (s + 4) (s + 8) = 0 4.2
0
s k
s(s + 2) (s + 4) (s + 8) + k = 0
2 2 Step II : To determine the range of k since system is stable
(s + 2s) (s + 12s + 32) + k = 0
Therefore
4 3 2 3 2
s + 12s + 32s + 2s + 24s + 64s + k = 0 16.8 – 5k
4 3 2 (i) 4.2 > 0
s + 14s + 56s + 64s + k = 0
Comparing with standard equation 16.8 – 5k > 0
a0 = 1, a1 = 14, a2 = 56, a3 = 64, a4 = k – 5k > –16.8

Step II : To construct Routh’s array k < 3.36

(ii) k > 0
4 Comparing both conditions
s 1 56 k
3
0 < k < 3.36
s 14 64 0
s
2
51.42 k 0 Ex. 6.7.8
1 3291.42 – 14k Determine range of k for system stability, for the given
s 0
51.42 characteristic equation of feedback control system
4 3 2
s
0
k s + 2s + (4 + k)s + 9s + 25 = 0.

Step III : To determine range of k  Soln. :

Step I : Comparing the given characteristic equation with
Since system is stable. Therefore standard equation.
3291.42 – 14k a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = (4 + k), a3 = 9, a4 = 25
(i) 51.42 > 0
Step II : To construct Routh’s array
3291.42 – 14k > 0
4
– 14k > – 3291.42 s 1 4+k 25
3
s 2 9 0
k < 235.10 2
s 2k – 1 25 0
(ii) k > 0 2
1
Combining both conditions s 18k – 109 0
2k – 1
0 < k  235.10 0
s 25

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Stability Analysis)….Page no. (6-21)
Step II : To determine range of ‘k’. 18k – 109
(iv) 2k – 1 > 0
(i) For stability the values in first column of Routh’s array must
be positive i.e. no sign change. 18 k – 109 > 0
(ii) Hence 18 k > 109
2k – 1 109
2 > 0 k > 18
2k – 1 > 0 k > 6.055
2k > 1 Combining both condition.
k > 1/2 k > 6.055

Chapter Ends…


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 70+6III
4QQV.QEWU
%*#26'4

Syllabus

Definition, magnitude and angle conditions, construction of root locus, concept of dominant poles, effect of addition of
pole and zero on root locus. Application of root locus for stability analysis.

7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7-2

7.2 Concept of Root Locus ................................................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3 Angle and Magnitude Condition ..................................................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.1 Angle Condition ................................................................................................................................................ 7-3
7.3.2 Magnitude Condition ........................................................................................................................................ 7-3
7.4 General Rules for Constructing Root Locus ................................................................................................................. 7-4
7.4.1 Determination of Value of ‘k’ From Damping Ratio ‘[’ ..................................................................................... 7-7
7.5 Steps for Constructing Root Locus ................................................................................................................................. 7-7
7.6 Examples on Root Locus ................................................................................................................................................ 7-8
7.6.1 Type I : 3 poles................................................................................................................................................. 7-8
UEx. 7.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 7-9
UEx. 7.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 7-11
UEx. 7.3 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 7-12
UEx. 7.4 (SPPU - May 15, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 7-13
UEx. 7.5 (SPPU - May 17, Dec. 18, May 19, Dec. 19, 8 Marks) ................................................................................. 7-15
UEx. 7.6 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 7-15
UEx. 7.7 (SPPU - May 18, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 7-17
UEx. 7.8 (SPPU - May 18, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 7-18
UEx. 7.9 (SPPU - May 17, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 7-20
7.6.2 Type II : 3 Real Poles and One Zero ............................................................................................................. 7-24
7.6.3 Type III : 4 Poles ............................................................................................................................................ 7-27
UEx. 7.10 (SPPU - May 16, 8 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 7-27
7.6.4 Miscellaneous Examples ............................................................................................................................. 7-32

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 7-34

Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-2)

Now we will calculate values of s1 and s2 for various values

  +PVTQFWEVKQP of ‘k’ varying from 0 to f.
k s 1 = – 1 + 1 – k s2 = – 1 – 1 – k
 In the previous chapter we have studied the stability of the
system depends on the position of closed loop poles in the 0 0 –2
s-plane. 0.5 – 0.2928 – 1.707
 The closed loop poles are the roots of characteristic equation 1 –1 –1
[1 + G(s) H(s)] 2 –1+j –1–j
 Along with stability, the nature of transient response of closed 3 – 1 + 1.4142 j – 1 – 1.4142 j
loop system is also related to closed loop poles.
10 – 1 + 3j – 1 – 3j
 Hence analysis of closed loop poles is considered to be an
important factor in design of closed loop control system. : :
 These closed loop poles move in the ‘s’ plane if some system : : :
parameter (like gain ‘k’) is varied. : : :
 Root locus is locus of closed loop poles in s-plane as given : : :
system parameter (gain) is varied. f –1+ fj –1– fj
 This root locus technique was introduced by W.R. Evans in
1948. From the above table we can conclude that as we vary the
 Study of movements of poles helps in analysis and design of value of k the value of closed loop poles also changes. Following
stability and transient response of the system.
observation can be made from the above table.
 It also gives us information regarding complete dynamic
response of the system. 1. When 0 d k d 1 the roots are real and unequal.
 In this chapter we are going to study the concept and
2. When k = 1 roots are real and equal.
construction of Root Locus.
3. When k > 1 roots are complex conjugate with real part ‘– 1’.
  %QPEGRVQH4QQV.QEWU When we mark all these poles and join them the graph
obtained is called root locus.
To understand the concept of root locus consider a unity
feedback system having gain ‘k’ which can be controlled by the
designer.
k
G (s) = s (s + 2) ...(1)

Since unity feedback hence H (s) = 1

k
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2) ...(2)

From Equation (2) we can consider there are two open loop
poles at s = 0 and s = – 2

The characteristic equation is given by

1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 2) = 0
(1G1)Fig. 7.2.1 : Graph 1
s (s + 2) + k = 0
2
s + 2s + k = 0  From the above graph we can conclude that as value of ‘k’
Two roots are given by, increases the two poles move towards each other. At k = 1
2
– 2 r 4 – 4k – b r b – 4ac they overlap each other and after k > 1 they move towards
s1, s2 = 2 i.e. 2a
+ f and – f on the imaginary axis.
s1, s2 = –1r 1–k
 The direction of arrows in the graph indicate movement of the
s1 = – 1 + 1 – k and s2 = – 1 – 1 – k
poles. Hence directions of arrows is very important in root
s1 and s2 are the two closed loop poles. From the expression
of s1 and s2 it is clear that value of s1 and s2 depends on value of k. locus.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-3)
Let us check whether the point s = – 0.5 + j0 lies on root
  #PINGCPF/CIPKVWFG%QPFKVKQP locus.
k
G (s) H (s) = (– 0.5 + j0) (– 0.5 + 2 + j0)
The characteristic equation of closed loop system is given by, s = – 0.5 + j0
k
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 G (s) H (s) = (– 0.5 + j0) (+ 1.5 + j0)
s = – 0.5 + j0
Hence G (s) H (s) = – 1 k ‘ 0q
‘ G (s) H (s) =
Since ‘s’ plane contains both real and imaginary part (0.5 ‘ 180q) (1.5 ‘ 0q)
Therefore G (s) H (s) = – 1 + j0 0q
‘ G (s) H (s) =
(180q) (0q)
Any value of ‘s’ which is on the root locus must satisfy the
‘ G (s) H (s) = – 180q
above equation.
Hence we can conclude that point s = – 0.5 + j0 lies on root
From the above equation we can determine two conditions : locus.
(i) Angle condition
Note : In case of multiplication angles are added and in case of
(ii) Magnitude condition
division angles are subtracted.
 7.3.1 Angle Condition
 7.3.2 Magnitude Condition
The equation G (s) H (s) = – 1 + j0 is in rectangular form. To
Consider the same equation
calculate angle we need to convert the equation to polar form.
G (s) H (s) = – 1 + j0
Taking magnitude on both sides
| G (s) H (s) | = | – 1 + j0 | = 1
| G (s) H (s) | = 1
Any point which lies on root locus must satisfy the magnitude
condition and vice versa.

Note : If we know that point lies on root locus then using

magnitude condition we can determine value of ‘k’.
Consider the same example
k
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2)
Using angle condition we have already checked s = – 0.5 + j0
lies on root locus.
(1G2)Fig. 7.3.1 Let us calculate k using magnitude condition.
| G (s) H (s) | =1
From the above figure it is clear that angle traced by the point s = – 0.5 + j0

– 1 + j0 is r 180q or odd multiple of r 180q. Hence we can say that |k|

Hence |s| |s + 2| =1
s = – 0.5 + j0
‘G (s) H (s) = r 180q, r 540q, r 900q.....
k
In general we can write this as | – 0.5 + j0 | | – 0.5 + j0 + 2 | = 1
‘G (s) H (s) = r (2n + 1) 180q where n = 0, 1, 2,... k
| – 0.5| |1.5| = 1
= odd multiple of 180q
k = 0.75
Any point in ‘s’ plane which satisfies the angle condition
must lie on the root locus and vice versa. Note : Magnitudes are multiplied.

Note : Angle condition is used to check whether any point lies Hence from the above discussion of angle condition and
or does not lie on root locus. magnitude condition we can conclude that any point on
Consider the following example. root locus must satisfy the angle and magnitude condition
k and vice-versa.
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-4)

  )GPGTCN4WNGUHQT%QPUVTWEVKPI
 4QQV.QEWU
Rule 1 : The root locus is always symmetrical about real axis.
Rule 2 : The total number of branches is given by max (p, z)
where p = Number of open loop poles and z = number
of open loop zeros.
All branches of root locus start from open loop poles and
terminate at open loop zeros. Hence direction of branches is from
poles to zeros.
Consider the following two cases to understand Rule 2
Case I : p > z
If number of open loop poles are greater than number of open
loop zeros then
(i) Total number of branches (N) = p
(ii) z number of branches will terminate to open loop zeros and (1G3)Fig. 7.4.1
remaining (p – z) branches will approach toward infinity.
e.g. p = 3, z = 1 ? N = 3 Note : In this rule we are considering only open loop zeros and
Hence 1 branch will terminate at zero and p – z = 3 – 1 = 2 poles. We do not consider complex conjugate zeros or
branches will approach towards infinity.
poles as they always occur in pair and do not affect the
Case II : z > p
condition of sum.
If number of open loop zeros are greater than number of open
loop poles then Rule 4 : Calculation of angle of asymptotes
(i) Total number of branches (N) = z Asymptotes are straight lines along which branches approach
towards infinity. If p > z then p – z number of branches approach
(ii) ‘p’ number of branches will terminate at open loop zeros and
towards infinity .
(z – p) number of branches will originate from infinity.
The angle of asymptotes are given by,
e.g. z = 4, p = 2 ? N = 4 (2n + 1) 180q
2 branches will originate from poles and terminate to zeros T = p–z n = 0, 1, …. (p – z – 1)
and z – p = 2 branches will originate from infinity to terminate at Consider the following example
the remaining ‘two’ zeros. k (s + 4)
Rule 3 : G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 6)
Any point on real axis lies on root locus, if the sum of open Number of poles, p = 3
loop poles and zeros on real axis to the right hand side of the point Number of zeros, z = 1
is odd. Number of branches approaching towards infinity
To understand Rule 3 consider the following example. =p–z=3–1=2
k (s + 4) Angle of asymptotes
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 6)
(2n + 1) 180q
Let us calculate poles and zeros and plot the pole zero plot. T = p–z n = 0, 1 …. p – z – 1
One zero z1 at s = – 4 (2n + 1) 180q
3 poles p1 at s = 0, p2 at s = – 2, p3 at s = – 6 T = 2 n = 0, 1

(i) Consider any point ‘A’ in between ‘0’ and ‘– 2’. To the right 180q
T1 = 2 = 90q when n = 0
hand side of point there lies only one pole. Hence the entire
region between 0 and – 2 lies on root locus. This part is (2 u 1 + 1)180q
T2 = 2 = 270q when n = 1
indicated by RL and thick line on the graph.
(ii) Consider any point ‘B’ in between ‘– 2’ and ‘– 4’. To the Note : Asymptotes are always symmetrical to real axis.
right hand side of the point there lies two poles p1 and p2.
Hence the region between – 2 and – 4 is not part of root Rule 5 : Calculation of centroid
locus. Centroid is a point on real axis through which
(iii) Similarly region between ‘– 4’ and ‘– 6’ is part of root locus asymptotes pass. To locate the asymptotes knowledge
and beyond ‘– 6’ is not part of root locus. of centroid is essential. Centroid is denoted by V.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-5)

6 Real parts of poles – 6 Real parts of zeros Step III :

V = p–z dk
ds = 0
Example : 3 2
k (s + 4) – s – 8 s – 12s
G (s) H (s) = k = s+4
s (s + 2) (s + 6)
du dv
6 Real part of poles = 0 – 2 – 6 = – 8 v ˜ dx – u dx
u
6 Real part of zeros = – 4 = – 4 Using v rule , d ( vu ) =
v
2

Number of poles (p) = 3 3 2

– s – 8 s – 12s
k = s+4
Number of zeros (z) = 1
2 3 2
p–z = 3–1=2 dk (s + 4) (– 3s – 16 s – 12) – (– s – 8 s – 12s) ˜ 1
ds = (s + 4)
2 =0
– 8 – (– 4) – 4
V = 2 = 2 =–2
dk 3 2
ds = – 2s – 20 s – 64 s – 48 = 0
Note : Centroid may or may not be part of root locus.
s1 = – 1.068, s2 = – 4.46 + 1.585 j
Rule 6 : Calculation of breakaway point s3 = – 4.46 – 1.585 j
A breakaway point is point on root locus where two poles To check which breakaway points are valid
meet and then they split (i.e. move away from real axis). s1 = – 1.068
A breakaway point is also a point where multiple roots of Put in equation of k
characteristics equation occur of particular value of ‘k’. 3 2
– s – 8 s – 12s
k = s+4
Note : Breakaway point always lie on root locus.
3 2
– (– 1.068) – 8 (– 1.068) – 12 (– 1.068)
Following steps are used to calculate breakaway point. k = – 1.068 + 4
Step I : Write the characteristic equation 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 k = 1.674
Step II : Separate k from characteristic equation. Since k is positive s1 is valid breakaway point.
dk (i) Whenever we get complex breakaway point to check validity
Step III : Obtain ds and equate to ‘0’.
condition we must use angle condition. If the point satisfies
dk angle condition then it is valid.
The roots of the equation ds = 0 are the breakaway points.
s2 = – 4.46 + 1.585 j
If the breakaway point lies on the root locus then it is valid
k (s + 4)
breakaway point. G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 6)
Note : There is one more method to determine valid breakaway G (s) H (s)
point. Substitute value of breakaway point in equation of s = s2
‘k’ if we get k = positive value then breakaway point is k (– 4.46 + 1.585 j + 4)
= (– 4.46 + 1.585 j) (– 4.46 + 1.585 j + 2 ) (– 4.46 + 1.585 j + 6)
valid. If we get k = negative value then breakaway point
is invalid. G (s) H (s)
s = s2
e.g. : Consider k (– 0.46 + 1.585 j )
k (s + 4) = (– 4.46 + 1.585 j ) (– 2.46 + 1.585 j ) (1.54 + 1.585 j )
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 6) (0) (106.83)q
‘ G (s) H (s) =
Step I : The characteristic equation is given by, s = s2 (160.435q) (147.205q) (45.825q)

1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 106.83q

= = – 246.635q
k (s + 4) 353.465q
1 + s (s + 2) (s + 6) = 0
‘ G (s) H (s)
s = s2
Step II :
is not odd multiple of 180q. Hence s2 is not valid breakaway
s (s + 2) (s + 6) + k (s + 4) = 0
point.
3 2
s + 8s + 12s + k (s + 4) = 0 (i) Similarly for s3
3 2
k (s + 4) = – s – 8 s – 12s ‘ G (s) H (s) = 246.635q
3 2
– s – 8 s – 12 s s = s3
k = s+4 Hence s3 is not valid breakaway point.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-6)

(1G4)Fig. 7.4.2
s (s + 2) (s + 4) + k = 0
Note : General predictions about breakaway points : 3 2
s +6s +8s+k = 0
1. If there are two poles adjacently placed on real axis and Step II : Construction of Routh’s array
part between them lies on root locus then there exist s
3
1 8 0
minimum one breakaway point between them as in 2
s 6 k 0
Fig. 7.4.2(a) 1
s 48 – k 0 0
6
2. If there are two zeros adjacently placed on real axis and 0
s k
part between them lies on root locus then there exist
Step III : To determine value of kmarginal
minimum one breakaway point between them as shown
48 – kmar
in Fig. 7.4.2(b). = 0
6
3. If there is a zero on the real axis and there are no poles or kmar = 48
zeros to the left of the zero and entire axis lies on root Step IV : Auxiliary equation
locus then there exist at least one breakaway point as 2
6s + k = 0
shown in Fig. 7.4.2(c). 2
6s + 48 = 0
Step V : To obtain roots of auxiliary equation
Rule 7 : To determine intersection of root locus with 2 2 2
6s + 48 = 0 6s = – 48 s =–8
imaginary axis following steps are used.
s = r 2.828 j
Step I : Consider the characteristic equation
Hence the point of intersection with imaginary axis is
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 r 2.828 j.
Step II : Construct Routh’s array from the characteristic
Note : From the value of kmarginal we can determine nature of
equation
Step III : Determine value of ‘k’ which makes one of the row of root locus.
0
Routh’s array row of zeros, excepts s row. This value 1. If kmar is positive then root locus intersects imaginary axis.
of k is kmarginal. 2. If kmar is negative then root locus lies in left half of ‘s’ plane
Step IV : Construct auxiliary equation using the co-efficients just and does not intersect the imaginary axis.
above the row of zeros and substitute value of kmarginal
Rule 8 : Determination of angle of departure for complex
in that equation A(s) = 0.
poles or angle of arrival for complex zeros
Step V : Obtain roots of auxiliary equation, the roots are the
point of intersections with imaginary axis. Angle of departure is denoted by Id and is given by,
To understand Rule 7, let us consider the following examples. Id = 180 – I
Consider Angle of arrival is denoted by Ia and is given by,
k
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2) (s + 4) Ia = 180 + I

Step I : Characteristic equation is given by Where I = 6 Angle made by poles – 6 Angle made by zeros
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 Consider the following example
k k (s + 3)
1 + s (s + 2) (s + 4) = 0 G (s) H (s) = s (s + 1 + j) (s + 1 – j)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-7)
Here we have complex conjugate poles, hence we need to
calculate angle of departure
Poles at p1 at s = 0
p2 at s = – 1 – j
p3 at s = – 1 + j
Zeros at z1 at s = – 3
Hence the pole zero plot.

(3G8)Fig. 7.4.4 : Location of poles for various values of ‘[’

Steps to determine k
1. Draw the root locus.
–1
2. Calculate T = cos ([).
(1G5)Fig. 7.4.3
3. Draw a line from the origin having angle ‘T’ with respect to
negative real axis as shown in Fig. 7.4.5.
To calculate angle of departure at pole p2.
Let us first calculate I.
Ip = 135q
1

Ip = 90q
2

Iz1 = tan
–1
[12] = 26.56q
Calculation of Ip1 , Ip2 and Iz1 are from the graph.
I = [Ip1 + Ip2] – [ Iz1]

I = [ 135q + 90q ] – [ 26.56q]

I = 198.44q
Id = 180 – I
Id = – 18.44q
(3G9)Fig. 7.4.5
Since p2 and p3 are complex conjugate poles. Hence angle of
departure at p3 will be 18.44q. 4. This line intersects root locus at a point s = – x + jy
5. Substitute value of ‘s’ in magnitude condition
Note : In practice we often get complex poles. Hence we need to
|G (s) H (s)| = 1 to get value of ‘k’
calculate angle of departure more frequently as compared
to angle of arrival.
  5VGRUHQT%QPUVTWEVKPI4QQV
 7.4.1 Determination of Value of ‘k’ From  .QEWU
Damping Ratio ‘[’
Step 1 : Find open loop poles and zeros and calculate number of
We have seen position of poles depending on value of ‘[’. branches approaching towards infinity or coming from
From the Fig. 7.4.4. infinity using Rule 2.
[ Zn Step 2 : Draw the pole-zero plot and identify existence of root
–1
cos T = = [ ; Hence T = cos ([) locus on real axis using Rule 3.
Zn

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-8)
Step 3 : Calculate angle of asymptotes. (iii) n = 2
Step 4 : Calculate centroid. Mark the centroid and sketch the (2 u 2 + 1) 180q
asymptotes. T3 = 3 = 300q
Step 5 : Calculate the breakaway points and determine the valid
Step IV : To calculate centroid
breakaway point.
Step 6 : Calculate intersection of root locus with the imaginary 6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
axis. V = p–z
Step 7 : Calculate angle of departure or arrivals if needed. (0 – 1 – 3) – 0 – 4
Step 8 : Combine all the above steps and construct root locus. V = 3 = 3 = – 1.33
Step 9 : Predict stability and performance of the system from
Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid
the graph of root locus.
breakaway point
  'ZCORNGUQP4QQV.QEWU The characteristic equation is given by,
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
 7.6.1 Type I : 3 poles k
1 + s (s + 1) (s + 3) = 0

s (s + 1) (s + 3) + k = 0
3 2
s + 4s + 3s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 4s – 3s
dk 2
ds = – 3s – 8s – 3 = 0
(1G5A)
The two breakaway points are s1 = – 0.451 and s2 = – 2.215
Type [IA] : 3 real poles
Since point s1 = – 0.451 lies on root locus it is valid
Ex. 7.6.1 breakaway point and s2 = – 2.215 does not lie on root locus hence it
The loop transfer function of the system is is not valid breakaway point.
k
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 1) (s + 3). Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
Sketch the root locus of the system and determine the value of (a) Consider the characteristic equation
kmarginal stability.
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
 Soln. : 3 2
s + 4s + 3s + k = 0
Step I :
(a) Number of poles p = 3 (b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation
(b) Number of zeros z = 0 ; p > z a0 = 1, a1 = 4, a2 = 3, a4 = k
(c) Number of branches N = p = 3 3
s 1 3 0
(d) Number of branches approaching towards infinity
2
p–z=3–0=3 s 4 k 0
Step II : To draw the pole zero plot 1 12 – k
s 0 0
Pole p1 at s = 0 4
0
Pole p2 at s = –1 s k
Pole p3 at s = –3 (c) To calculate kmar
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes 12 – kmar
(2n + 1) 180q 4 = 0
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2, ... p – z – 1

(2n + 1) 180q kmar = 12

Hence T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2
(d) The auxiliary equation
(i) n=0 2
4s + 12 = 0
180
T1 = 3 = 60q 2
4s = – 12
(ii) n = 1 s
2
= –3
(2 + 1) 180q
T2 = 3 = 180q s = r 3 j = r 1.732 j

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-9)
Step VII : Since no complex poles or zeros hence no angle of (ii) n = 1
departure or arrival. Fig. Ex. 7.6.1 shows complete root (2 + 1) 180q
locus. T2 = 3 = 180q

(iii) n = 3
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z
(0 – 2 – 10) – 0 – 12
V = 3 = 3 =–4

Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid

breakaway point
The characteristic equation is given by
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s(s + 2) (s + 10) = 0

s (s + 2) (s + 10) + k = 0
2
s (s + 12s + 20) + k = 0
3 2
s + 12s + 20s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 12s – 20s
dk 2
ds = – 3s – 24s – 20 = 0

The two breakaway points are

s1 = – 0.944 and s2 = – 7.055
Since point – 0.944 lies on root locus.
(1G6)Fig. Ex. 7.6.1 Hence it is a valid breakaway point. Point s2 = – 7.055
UEx. 7.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 8 Marks) doesn’t lie on root locus hence it is not valid breakaway point.
Open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
k (a) 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
G(s) = s(s + 2) (s + 10)
k
Sketch the complete root locus and comment on the stability of 1 + s(s + 2) (s + 10) = 0
system. 3 2
s + 12s + 20s + k = 0
 Soln. : (b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation
Step I : a0 = 1, a1 = 12, a2 = 20, a3 = k
3
(a) No. of poles, p = 3 s 1 20 0
2
(b) No. of zeros, z = 0 ; p>z s 12 k 0
(c) No. of braches, N = p = 3 1
s 240 – k 0 0
(d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity 12
p–z=3–0=3 0
s k
Step II : To draw pole-zero plot (c) To calculate kmar
Pole p1 at s = 0 ; Pole p2 at s = – 2
240 – kmar
Pole p3 at s = – 10 = 0 kmar = 240
12
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
(d) The auxiliary equation
(2n + 1) 180q 2 2
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2,..., p – z – 1 12s + kmar = 0 12s + 240 = 0
2 2
(2n + 1) 180q 12s = – 240 s = – 20
Hence ,T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2
s = r – 20 j s = r 4.472 j
(i) n=0 Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros hence no
180q need of angel of arrival or departure.
T1 = 3 = 60q Fig. Ex. 7.1 shows complete root locus.

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(5G1)Fig. Ex. 7.1

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s (s + 2) (s + 6) + k = 0
UEx. 7.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 8 Marks)
2
Sketch the root locus of unity feedback system with open loop s(s + 8s + 12) + k = 0
transfer function 3 2
s + 8s + 12s + k = 0
k
G(s) = s(s + 2) (s + 6) k
3 2
= – s – 8s – 12s

 Soln. : dk
ds
2
= – 3s – 16s – 12 = 0

Step I : The two breakaway points are

(a) No. of poles, p = 3 s1 = – 0.902 and s2 = – 4.43
(b) No. of zeros, z = 0
Since point s1 = – 0.902 lies on root locus.
p>z
Hence it is a valid breakaway point.
(c) No. of braches, N = p = 3
and s2 does not lie on root locus, hence not valid breakaway
(d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity
point.
p–z=3–0=3
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
Step II : To draw pole-zero plot
(a) Consider the characteristic equation
Pole p1 at s = 0
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
Pole p2 at s = – 2 3 2
s +8s + 12s + k = 0
Pole p3 at s = – 6
(b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
a0 = 1, a1 = 8, a2 = 12, a3 = k
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2,...,p – z – 1 3
s 1 12 0
2
Hence , s 8 k 0
(2n + 1) 180q 1 96 – k
T = where n = 0, 1, 2 s 0 0
3 8
0
(i) n=0 s k
180q (c) To calculate kmar
T1 = 3 = 60q
96 – kmar
(ii) n = 1 8 = 0
(2 + 1) 180q
T2 = = 180q kmar = 96
3
(d) The auxiliary equation
(iii) n = 2
2
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q 8s + kmar = 0
T3 = 3 = 300q 2
8s + 96 = 0
Step IV : To calculate centroid 8s
2
= – 96
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros s
2
= – 12
V = p–z
s = r 12 j
(0 – 2 – 6) – 0 – 8
V = 3 = 3 = – 2.67
s = r 3.464 j
Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid Step VII :
breakaway point Since there are no complex poles or zeros. Hence no angle of
The characteristic equation is given by departure or arrival. Fig. Ex. 7.2 shows complete root locus.
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s(s + 2) (s + 6) = 0

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Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2,..., p – z – 1

Hence ,
(2n + 1) 180q
T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2,..., p – z – 1

(i) n=0
180q
T1 = 3 = 60q
(ii) n = 1
(2 + 1) 180q
T2 = 3 = 180q

(iii) n = 2
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z
(0 – 1 – 5) – 0 – 6
V = 3 = 3 =–2

Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check validity of

breakaway point
The characteristic equation is given by
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 1) (s + 5) = 0

s (s + 1) (s + 5) + k = 0
2
s (s + 6s + 5) + k = 0
3 2
s + 6s + 5s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 6s – 5s
dk 2
(5G2)Fig. Ex. 7.2 ds = – 3s – 12s – 5 = 0

The two breakaway points are

UEx. 7.3 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks) s1 = – 0.4724 and
For unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
s2 = – 3.527
k
G(s) = s(s + 1) (s + 5) sketch the root locus. Since s1 = – 0.4724 lies on root locus. It is a valid breakaway
point s2 = – 3.527 does not lie on root locus. Hence not valid
 Soln. : breakaway point.
Step I : Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) No. of poles, p = 3 (a) Consider the characteristic equation
(b) No. of zeros, z = 0 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
p>z 3
s + 6s + 5s + k = 0
2

(c) No. of branches, N = p = 3 (b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation
(d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 = 5, a3 = k
p–z=3–0=3
3
s 1 5 0
Step II : To draw pole-zero plot 2
s 6 k 0
1
Pole p1 at s = 0 s 30 – k 0
Pole p2 at s = – 1 6
0
Pole p3 at s = – 5 s k

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(c) To calculate kmar (c) No. of branches, N = p = 3
30 – kmar (d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity
6 = 0 kmar = 30 p–z=3–0=3
(d) The auxiliary equation is Step II : To draw pole-zero plot
2
6s + k =
2
0 6s + 30 = 0 Pole p1 at s = 0

6s
2
= – 30 s
2
= –5 Pole p2 at s = –1
Pole p3 at s = – 10
s = r 5j s = r 2.2360 j
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros, hence no
angle of departure or arrival. Fig. Ex. 7.3 shows complete root (2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2,..., p – z – 1
locus.
(2n + 1) 180q
Hence T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2

(i) n = 0
180q
T1 = 3 = 60q
(ii) n = 1
(2 + 1) 180q
T2 = 3 = 180q

(iii) n = 2
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z
(0 – 1 – 10) – 0 – 11
V = 3 = 3 = – 3.67

Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid

breakaway point
The characteristic equation is given by
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 1) (s + 10) = 0

s (s + 1) (s + 10) + k = 0
2
s (s + 11s + 10) + k = 0
3 2
s + 11s + 10s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 11s – 10s
dk 2
ds = – 3s – 22s – 10 = 0

The two breakaway points are

(5G3)Fig. Ex. 7.3
s1 = – 0.486 and s2 = – 6.84

UEx. 7.4 (SPPU - May 15, 8 Marks) Since point s1 = – 0.486 lies on root locus and s2 = – 6.84 does
k not lie on root locus. Hence s1 = – 0.486 is valid breakaway point.
If G(s) H(s) = s(s + 1) (s + 10) sketch complete root locus and
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
comment on the stability.
(a) Consider the characteristic equation
 Soln. : 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
Step I : 3 2
s + 11s + 10s + k = 0
(a) No. of poles, p = 3
(b) No. of zeros, z = 0
p>z

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(b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation (c) To calculate kmar
110 – kmar
a0 = 1, a1 = 11, a2 = 10, a3 = k = 0 kmar = 110
11
3
s 1 10 0
(d) The auxiliary equation is
2
s 11 k 0 2 2
11 s + kmar = 0 11 s + 110 = 0
1 110 – k
s 11 0 0 2
11 s = – 110
0 2
s k s = – 10 s = r 10 j s = r 3.162 j

Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros no angle of

departure or arrival. Fig. Ex. 7.4 shows complete root locus.

(5G4)Fig. Ex. 7.4

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UEx. 7.5 Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis

(SPPU - May 17, Dec. 18, May 19, Dec. 19, 8 Marks) (a) Consider the characteristic equation
Sketch the root locus of the system with open loop transfer 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
3 2
function s + 8s + 15s + k = 0
k k (b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation.
G(s) = s (s + 3) (s + 5) ; OR G(s) = 2
s (s + 8s + 15) a0 = 1, a1 = 8, a2 = 15, a3 = k
 Soln. :
3
s 1 15 0
2
Step I s 8 k 0
1
(a) Number of poles, p = 3 s 120 – k 0 0
(b) Number of zeros, z = 0 ; p > z 8
0
(c) Number of branches, N = p = 3 s k
(d) Number of branches approaching towards infinity (c) To calculate kmar
p–z=3–0=3 120 – kmar
Step II : To draw pole-zero plot 8 = 0 kmar = 120
Pole p1 at s = 0 (d) The auxiliary equation
Pole p2 at s = –3 2 2
8s + k = 0 8s + 120 = 0
Pole p3 at s = –5 2 2
8s = – 120 s = – 15
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes s = r 15 j = r 3.872 j
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2,...p – z – 1 Step VII : Since no complex poles or zeros hence no angle of

(2n + 1) 180q departure or arrival.

Hence T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2
Fig. Ex. 7.5 shows complete root locus.
180
(i) n = 0 T1 = 3 = 60q
(2 + 1) 180q
(ii) n = 1 T2 = 3 = 180q

(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
(iii) n = 3 T3 = 3 = 300q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z
(0 – 3 – 5) – 0 – 8
V = 3 = 3 = – 2.67

Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid

breakaway point
The characteristic equation is given by,
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s(s + 3)(s + 5) = 0

s(s + 3)(s + 5) + k = 0
2
s(s + 8s + 15) + k = 0
3 2
s + 8s + 15s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 8s – 15s
dk 2 2
ds = – 3s – 16s – 15 = 0 = – 3s – 16s – 15 = 0
The two breakaway points are
s1 = – 1.213 and s2 = – 4.11
Since point s1 = – 1.213 lies on root locus.
Hence it is valid breakaway point and s2 = – 4.11 does not lie (5G5)Fig. Ex. 7.5
on root locus. Hence s2 is not valid breakaway point.

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UEx. 7.6 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks) s(s + 2)(s + 8) + k = 0

2
Sketch the root locus of a system with open loop transfer function. s(s + 10s + 16) + k = 0
k 3 2
G(s) H(s) = s (s + 2)(s + 8) s + 10s + 16s + k = 0
3 2
 Soln. : k =
dk
– s – 10s – 16s
2
Step I : (a) No. of pole, p = 3 ds = – 3s – 20s – 16 = 0

(b) No. of zeros, z = 0 The two breakaway points are

p!z s1 = – 0.929 and s2 = – 5.737
(c) No. of branches, N = p = 3 Since point s1 = – 0.929 lies on the root locus, hence it is a
(d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity valid breakaway point and s2 = – 5.737 does not lie on root locus,
p–z=3–0=3 hence it is not valid breakaway point.
Step II : To draw pole zero plot Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) Pole p1 at s = 0 (a) Consider the characteristic equation
(b) Pole p2 at s = – 2 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
(c) Pole p3 at s = – 8 3 2
s + 10s + 16s + k = 0
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes (b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2.... p – z – 1 a0 = 1, a1 = 10, a2 = 16, a3 = k
3
Hence s 1 16 0
(2n + 1) 180q 2
T = where n = 0, 1, 2 s 10 k 0
3 1 160 – k
s 0 0
(i) n=0 10
0
180q s k
T1 = 3 = 60q
(c) To calculate kmar
(ii) n = 1 160 – kmar
(2 + 1) 180q 10 = 0
T2 = 3 = 180q
kmar = 160
(iii) n = 2
(d) Auxillary equation
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q 2
10s + kmar = 0
2
Step IV : To calculate centroid 10s + 160 = 0
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros 2
V = 10s = – 160
p–z
2
(0 – 2 – 8) – 0 – 10 s = – 16
V = 3 = 3 = – 3.33
s = r 4j
Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check validity of Step VII : Since no complex poles or zeros. Hence no angle of
breakaway point departure or arrival.
The characteristics equation is given by Fig. Ex. 7.6 shows complete root locus.
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 2)(s + 8) = 0

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(5G6)Fig. Ex. 7.6

(b) Pole p2 at s = – 1
UEx. 7.7 (SPPU - May 18, 8 Marks)
(c) Pole p3 at s = – 4
Sketch the root locus for the system with open loop transfer
k Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
function, G(s) = s (s + 1)(s + 4) (2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2.... p – z – 1
 Soln. : Hence
Step I : (a) No. of poles = 3
(2n + 1) 180q
(b) No. of zeros = 0 T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2
p ! z
(i) n=0
(c) No. of branches N = p = 3
180q
(d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity T1 = 3 = 60q
p–z=3–0=3
(ii) n = 1
Step II : To draw pole zero plot
(a) Pole p1 at s = 0 (2 + 1) 180q
T2 = 3 = 180q

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(iii) n = 2 s
2
= –4
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q s = r 2j

Step IV : To calculate centroid Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros. Hence no
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros angle of departure or arrival.
V = p–z Fig. Ex. 7.7 shows complete root locus.
(0 – 1 – 4) – 0 – 5
V = 3 = 3 = – 1.66 = – 1.67

Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid

breakaway point
The characteristic equation is given by
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 1)(s + 4) = 0

s (s + 1) (s + 4) + k = 0
2
s (s + 5s + 4) + k = 0
3 2
s + 5s + 4s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 5s – 4s
dk 2
ds = – 3s – 10s – 4 = 0

The two breakaway points are

s1 = – 0.464 and s2 = – 2.868
Since point s1 = – 0.464 lies on root locus. Hence it is valid
breakaway point and point s2 = – 2.868 does not lie on root locus,
hence it is not valid breakaway point.
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) Consider the characteristic equation
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
3 2
s + 5s + 4s + k = 0
(b) Constructing Routh’s array for the above equation
(5G7)Fig. Ex. 7.7
a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 4, a3 = k
3
s 1 4 0 UEx. 7.8 (SPPU - May 18, 8 Marks)
2
s 5 k 0 Sketch the root locus of the system with open loop transfer
1 20 – k k
s 0 0 function, G(s) = s (s + 2)(s + 3)
5
s
0
k  Soln. :
(c) To calculate kmar Step I : (a) No. of poles, p = 3
20 – kmar (b) No. of zeros, z = 0
5 = 0
p ! z
– kmar = – 20 (c) No. of branches, N = p = 3
kmar = 20 (d) No. of branches approaching towards infinity
(d) The auxillary equation Step II : To draw pole zero plot
2
5s + kmar = 0 (a) Pole p1 at s = 0
2
5s + 20 = 0 (b) Pole p2 at s = – 2

5s
2
= – 20 (c) Pole p3 at s = – 3

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3
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes s 1 6 0
(2n + 1) 180q 2
T = where n = 0, 1, 2.... p – z – 1 s 5 k 0
p–z 1 30 – k
s 0 0
Hence 5
0
(2n + 1) 180q s k
T = 3 where n = 0, 1, 2
(c) To calculate kmar
(i) n=0 30 – kmar
5 = 0
180q
T1 = 3 = 60q – kmar = – 30
(ii) n = 1 kmar = 30
(2 + 1) 180q
T2 = = 180q (d) To construct auxiliary equation
3 2
5s + kmar = 0
(iii) n = 2 2
5s + 30 = 0
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q 5s
2
= – 30
2
Step IV : To calculate centroid s = –6
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros s = r 2.44j
V = p–z
Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros, hence no
(0 – 2 – 3) – 0 – 5
V = 3 = 3 = – 1.66 need to calculate angle of departure or arrival.

Step V : To calculate breakaway point and check valid

breakaway point
The characteristic equation is given by
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 2)(s + 3) = 0

s (s + 2) (s + 3) + k = 0
2
s (s + 5s + 6) + k = 0
3 2
s + 5s + 6s + k = 0
3 2
k = – s – 5s – 6s
dk 2
ds = – 3s – 10s – 6 = 0

The two breakaway points are

s1 = – 0.784 and s2 = – 2.548
Since point s1 = – 0.784 lie on root locus. It is valid
breakaway point and point s2 = – 2.548 does not lie on root locus it
is not valid breakaway point.
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) Consider characteristic equation
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
3 2
s + 5s + 6s + k = 0
(5G9)Fig. Ex. 7.8
(b) To construct Routh’s array of the above equation
a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 6, a3 = k

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UEx. 7.9 (SPPU - May 17, 8 Marks) Step V : To calculate breakaway point
The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is given (a) Consider the characteristic equation
k
by, G (s) = s (s + 4) (s + 6) 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
Sketch root locus. 1+ = 0
s (s + 4) (s + 6)
 Soln. : s (s + 4) (s + 6) + k = 0
Step I : 3 2
s + 10s + 24s + k = 0
(a) Number of poles p = 3 3 2
k = – s – 10s – 24s
(b) Number of zeros z = 0 dk 2
(b) ds = – 3s – 20s – 24 = 0
? p>z
dk
(c) Number of branches N = p = 3 (c) Roots of ds = 0

(d) Number of branches approaching towards infinity s1 = – 1.56, s2 = – 5.097

p–z=3–0=3 Point s1 = – 1.56 lies on root locus. Hence it is a valid
Step II : breakaway point.
Pole p1 at s = 0 Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
Pole p2 at s = – 4 (a) Consider the characteristic equation,
Pole p3 at s = – 6 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes 3 2
s + 10s + 24s + k = 0
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2, ... p – z – 1 (b) Construct Routh’s array
3
(i) n=0 s 1 24 0
180q 2
T1 = s 10 k 0
3 = 60q 240 – k
1
s 0 0
(ii) n = 1 10
0
(2 u 1 + 1) 180q s k
T2 = 3 = 180q
(c) To calculate kmar
(iii) n = 2 240 – kmar
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q 10 = 0
T3 = 3 = 300q
kmar = 240
Step IV : To calculate centroid
(d) The auxiliary equation
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z
2
10 s + k = 0
(0 – 4 – 6) – (0) 2
10 s + 240 = 0
V = 3 = – 3.33
2
s = – 24
s = r 4.89 j

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Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros. No need of angle of departure or arrival.

(1G17)Fig. Ex. 7.9

Type [IB] : 1 real and 2 complex poles (d) Number of branches approaching towards f
p–z=3–0=3
Ex. 7.6.2 Step II : To draw the pole zero plot
Obtain root locus for the feedback system with open loop transfer Pole p1 at s = 0
k
function G (s) H (s) = 2 Pole p2 at s = – 3 + 4j
s (s + 6s + 25)
Pole p3 at s = – 3 – 4j
 Soln. : Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
Step I : (2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2, ... p – z – 1
(a) Number of poles p = 3
(b) Number of zeros z = 0 (i) n=0
Hence p > z 180q
T1 = 3 = 60q
(c) Number or branches N = p = 3

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(ii) n = 1 k
G (s) H (s) = ( – 2 + 2.081 j) ( 1 – 1.919 j) (1 + 6.081 j)
(2 + 1) u 180q
T2 = 3 = 180q
k ‘ 0°
‘ G (s) H (s) =
(iii) n = 2 (2.886 ‘ 133.86°) (2.16 ‘ – 62.475°) (6.16 ‘ 80.66°)
(2 u 2 + 1) u 180q 0q
T3 = 3 = 300q ‘ G (s) H (s) =
(133.86q) (– 62.475q) (80.66q)

‘ G (s) H (s) = – 152.045q

This angle is not odd multiple of 180q.
Hence this is not valid breakaway point.
Similarly for s2 = – 2 – 2.081 j we get,

‘ G (s) H (s) = 152.045q

Hence this is also not valid breakaway point.

Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) The given characteristic equation is
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
3 2
s + 6s + 25s + k = 0
(b) Constructing Routh’s array
(1G7)Fig. Ex. 7.6.2 3
s 1 25 0
Step IV : To calculate centroid s
2
6 k 0
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros s
1 150 – k
0 0
V = p–z 6
0
(0 – 3 – 3) – (0) – 6 s k
V = 3 = 3 =–2
(c) To determine kmar
Step V : To calculate breakaway point 150 – kmar
6 = 0
Consider the characteristic equation
1 + G (s) ˜ H (s) = 0 kmar = 150
k
1+ 2 = 0 (d) The auxiliary equation
s (s + 6s + 25) 2 2
6s + kmar = 0 6s + 150 = 0
2
s (s + 6s + 25) + k = 0 2 2
3 2
6s = – 150 s = – 25
s + 6s + 25s + k = 0
3 2
s = r5j
k = – s – 6s – 25s
Step VII : To calculate angles of departure since we have
dk 2
complex conjugate poles we need to calculate angle of
ds = – 3s – 12s – 25 = 0
departure.
s1 = – 2 + 2.081 j , s2 = – 2 – 2.081 j
To calculate angle of departure at p2
Since the breakaway points are complex. To check whether
they are valid or not we use angle condition.
Ip1 = 90q + tan
–1
[34] = 126.86q
k Ip2 = 90q
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 3 – 4j) (s + 3 + 4j)
I = Ip1 + Ip2 = 216.86q
G (s) H (s)
s = – 2 + 2.081 j Id1 = 180q –I= – 36.86q
k
= ( – 2 + 2.081 j) (– 2 + 2.081 j + 3 – 4j) (– 2 + 2.081 j + 3 + 4j) Since p3 is complex conjugate of p2. Hence angle of departure
at p3 is 36.86q.

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Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes

(2n + 1) 180q
T = p– z for n = 0, 1, 2 ...(p – z – 1)

(1) n=0
180q
T1 = 3 = 60q
(2) n=1
(2 + 1) u 180q
T2 = 3 = 180q

(3) n=2
(4 + 1) u 180q
T3 = 3 = 300q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p– z
(0 – 1 – 1) – (0)
V = 3
–2
V = 3 = – 0.6667
Step V : To calculate breakaway point consider the
characteristic equation
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
1+ 2 = 0
(1G8)Fig. Ex. 7.6.2(a) s (s + 2 s + 2)
2
s (s + 2 s + 2) + k = 0
Ex. 7.6.3 3 2
s +2s +2s+k = 0
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function k =
3
–s –2s –2s
2

k
G (s) H (s) = 2 dk 2
s (s + 2 s + 2) ds = –3s –4s–2

Sketch the root locus and determine limiting value of k for s1 = – 0.6667 + 0.47 j
stability.
s2 = – 0.6667 – 0.47 j
 Soln. : Since the breakaway points are complex. To check whether
they are valid or not we use angle condition.
Step I :
k
(a) No. of poles p = 3
G (s) H (s) = s (s +1 – j) (s + 1 + j) | s = – 0.667 + 0.47 j
(b) No. of zeros z = 0 k
= (– 0.667 + 0.47 j) (– 0.667 + 0.47 j + 1 – j) (– 0.667 + 0.47 j + 1 + j)
Hence p > z
k‘0
(c) No. of branches N = p = 3 =
(0.81 ‘ 144.82) (0.625 ‘ – 57.858) (1.50 ‘ 77.23)
(d) No. of branches approaching towards f ‘0
‘ G (s) H (s) | s = – 0.667 + 0.47 j =
‘ 164.2
p–z=3–0=3
‘ G (s) H (s) = – 164.2q
Step II : To draw the pole zero plot
Hence angle condition is not satisfied.
Pole p1 at s = 0 This is not valid breakaway point.
Pole p2 at s = – 1 + j Similarly

Pole p3 at s = – 1 – j ‘ G(s) H(s) | – 0.667 – 0.47 j = 164.2q

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This is also not valid breakaway point.

Hence we do not get any valid breakaway point.
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) The given characteristic equation is
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
3 2
s +2s +2s+k = 0
(b) Constructing Routh’s array,
3
s 1 2 0
2
s 2 k 0
1
s 4–k 0 0
2
0
s k 0 0

(c) To determine kmar

4 – kmar
2 = 0

kmar = 4

(d) The auxiliary equation is

2
2s +k = 0
2
2s +4 = 0
2 –4 (3G7)Fig. Ex. 7.6.3(a)
s = 2 =–2
s = r 1.414 j  7.6.2 Type II : 3 Real Poles and One
Step VII : To calculate angle of departure at p2
Zero

(1G5B)

Type [IIA] : 3 real poles and 1 zero

Ex. 7.6.4
(3G6)Fig. Ex. 7.6.3
k (s + 2)
If G (s) H (s) = s (s + 1) (s + 3). Construct root locus and comment
–1
Ip = 90q + tan (1/1) = 90q + 45q = 135q
1 on stability of system.
Ip
2
= 90q
 Soln. :
I = 135q + 90q = 225q Step I :
Id = 180q – I = 180q – 225q = – 45q (a) Number of poles p = 3
(b) Number of zeros z = 1 ? p > z
Since p3 is complex conjugate of p2. (c) Number of branches N = p = 3
Hence angle of departure at p3 is + 45q. (d) Number of branches approaching
towards ‘f’, p – z = 3 – 1 = 2

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Step II : To draw the pole-zero plot
(b) Construction of Routh’s array
Pole p1 at s = 0
3
Pole p2 at s = –1 s 1 3+k 0
Pole p3 at s = –3 2
s 4 2k 0
Zero z1 at s = –2 1 12 + 4k – 2k
s 4 0 0
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
(2n + 1) 180q s
0
2k 0 0
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2, ... p – z – 1

(i) n=0 (c) To calculate kmar

180q 12 + 4k – 2k
T1 = 2 = 90q = 0
4
(ii) n = 1 12 + 2k
4 = 0
(2 u 1 + 1) 180q
T2 = 2 = 270q
k = –6
Step IV : To calculate centroid
(d) Since k is negative there is no intersection with imaginary
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z axis.
(0 – 1 – 3) – (– 2) – 2 Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros. Hence no
V = 2 = 2 =–1
angle of departure or arrival.
Step V : To calculate breakaway point
Consider characteristic equation
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k (s + 2)
1 + s (s + 1) (s + 3) = 0

s (s + 1) (s + 3) + k (s + 2) = 0
3 2
s + 4s + 3s + k (s + 2) = 0
3 2
k (s + 2) = – s – 4s – 3s
3 2
– s – 4s – 3s
k = s+2
2 3 2
dk (s + 2) (– 3s – 8s – 3) – (– s – 4s – 3s)
ds = 2 =0
(s + 2)
dk 3 2 2 3 2
ds = – 3s – 8s – 3s – 6s – 16s – 6 + s + 4s + 3s = 0
dk 3 2
ds = – 2s – 10s – 16s – 6 = 0

s1 = – 0.5344 s2 = – 2.23 + 0.792 j

s3 = – 2.23 – 0.792 j
Since point s1 = – 0.5344 lies on root locus. It is valid
breakaway point.
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis

(a) Consider the characteristic equation

1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
s (s + 1) (s + 3) + k (s + 2) = 0 (1G9)Fig. Ex. 7.6.4
3 2
s + 4s + 3s + ks + 2k = 0
3 2
s + 4s + (3 + k) s + 2k = 0

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Type [IIB] : 1 real pole, 2 complex poles and 1 zero dk
ds = 0

Ex. 7.6.5 Hence

Sketch the root locus of the system having 3 2 2
– 3s – 14s – 19s – 6s – 28s – 38 + s + 7s + 19s + 13 = 0
3 2

k (s + 2) 3 2
G (s) H (s) = 2 – 2s – 13s – 28s – 25 = 0
(s + 1) (s + 6s + 13)
s1 = – 3.545 s2 = – 1.477 + 1.159 j
 Soln. : s3 = – 1.477 – 1.159 j
Step I : No breakaway points are valid.
(a) Number of poles p = 3 Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(b) Number of zeros z = 1 (a) The characteristic equation is given by,
3 2
p>z s + 7s + 19s + 13 + ks + 2k = 0
3 2
(c) Number of branches N = p = 3 s + 7s + (19 + k) s + (13 + 2k) = 0
(d) Number of branches approaching towards ‘f’ (b) Constructing Routh’s array
3
p–z=3–1=2 s 1 19 + k 0
2
Step II : s 7 13 + 2k 0
Pole p1 at s = –1 s
1 133 + 7k – 13 – 2k
7
Pole p2 at s = – 3 + 2j 0
s 13 + 2k
Pole p3 at s = – 3 – 2j (c) To calculate kmar
Zero z1 at s = –2 133 + 7k – 13 – 2k
7 = 0
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
120 + 5k = 0
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2, ... p – z – 1 5k = – 120
k = – 24
(i) n=0
(d) Since value of k is negative there is no intersection with
180q
T1 = imaginary axis.
2 = 90q
(ii) n = 1 Step VII : To calculate angle of departure
(2 u 1 + 1) 180q
T2 = 2 = 270q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zero
V = p–z
(– 1 – 3 – 3) – (– 2)
V = 2 = – 2.5

Step V : To calculate breakaway point

(a) The characteristic equation is given by,
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 (1G10)Fig. Ex. 7.6.5
k (s + 2)
1+ 2 =0 To calculate angle of departure at p2
(s + 1) (s + 6s + 13)

3 2
2
(s + 1) (s + 6s + 13) + k (s + 2) = 0 Ip1 = 90q + tan
–1
(22) = 135q
s + 7s + 19s + 13 + k (s + 2) = 0 Ip = 90q
3 2 2
– s – 7s – 19s – 13
k =

dk
s+2
2 3 2
(s + 2) (– 3s – 14s – 19) – (– s – 7s – 19s – 13)
Iz
1
= 90q + tan
–1
(12)
ds = 2 = 116.56
(s + 2)
I = Ip1 + Ip2 – Iz1

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I = 135q + 90q – 116.56q (c) Number of branches N = p = 4
I = 108.44q (d) Number of branches approaching towards ‘f’ = p – z = 4
Id = 180 – I = 71.56q Step II :
Pole p1 at s = 0
Since p3 is complex conjugate of p2 .
? Id at p3 is – 71.56q. Pole p2 at s = –1
Pole p3 at s = –3
Pole p4 at s = – 4.
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
(2n + 1) 180q
T = p–z where n = 0, 1, 2, ... p – z – 1

180q
(i) n=0 T1 = 4 = 45q
(2 u 1 + 1) 180q
(ii) n=1 T2 = 4 = 135q

(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
(iii) n = 2 T3 = 4 = 225q

(2 u 3 + 1) 180q
(iv) n = 3 T4 = 4 = 315q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z
(0 – 1 – 3 – 4) – 0
V = 4 =–2

Step V : To calculate breakaway point

(a) The characteristic equation is given by,
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
1 + s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 4) = 0

s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 4) + k = 0
4 3 2
s + 8s + 19s + 12s + k = 0
(1G11)Fig. Ex. 7.6.5(a) 4 3 2
k = – s – 8s – 19s – 12s


dk 3 2
7.6.3 Type III : 4 Poles ds = – 4s – 24s – 38s – 12 = 0
s1 = – 3.581, s2 = – 0.4186, s3 = – 2
s1 and s2 lie on the root locus. Hence they are valid
breakaway point.
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(a) Consider the characteristic equation
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
(1G5C) 4 3 2
s + 8s + 19s + 12s + k = 0
Type [IIIA] : 4 real poles (b) To construct the Routh’s array
4
UEx. 7.10 (SPPU - May 16, 8 Marks) s 1 19 k
Sketch the root locus for the unity feedback system having s
3
8 12 0
k 2
G (s) = s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 4) s 17.5 k 0
Plot the root loci. 1 210 – 8k
s 0 0
17.5
 Soln. : 0
s k
Step I :
(a) Number of poles p = 4 (b) Number of zeros z = 0; p > z

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(c) To calculate kmar (c) No. of branches N = p = 4

210 – 8 kmar (d) No. of branches approaching towards f
17.5 = 0
p–z=4
– 8 kmar = – 210
Step II :
kmar = 26.25
Pole p1 at s = 0
(d) To construct auxiliary equation
2 Pole p2 at s = – 1
17.5s + k = 0
2 Pole p3 at s = – 3
17.5s + 26.25 = 0
2 Pole p4 at s = – 5
17.5s = – 26.25
s
2
= – 1.5 Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
(2n + 1) 180q
s = r 1.224 j T =
p– z
Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros. No need to
where n = 0, 1, 2 ...(p – z – 1)
calculate angle of departure or arrival.
(a) n=0
180q
T1 = 4 = 45q

(b) n=1
(3) (180q)
T2 = 4 = 135q

(c) n=2
(5) (180)q
T3 = 4 = 225q

(d) n=3
(7) (180)q
T4 = 4 = 315q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p– z
(0 – 1 – 3 – 5) – 0
V = 4
–9
V = 4 = – 2.25

Step V : To calculate the breakaway point

The characteristic equation is given by

(1G12)Fig. Ex. 7.10
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
Ex. 7.6.6 1 + s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 5) = 0
Draw the root locus for a unity feedback system having
k s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 5) + k = 0
G(s) = s (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 5)
2 2
(s + s) (s + 5 s + 3 s + 15) + k = 0
 Soln. :
2 2
Step I : (s + s) (s + 8 s +15) + k = 0
(a) No. of poles p = 4 4 3 2 3
s + 8 s + 15 s + s + 8 s + 15 s + k = 0
2

(b) No. of zeros z = 0

4 3 2
p>z s + 9 s + 23 s + 15 s + k = 0

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k =
4 3 2
– s – 9 s – 23 s – 15 s = 0 (b) To construct the Routh’s array,
4
dk 3 2 s 1 23 k
ds = – 4 s – 27 s – 46 s – 15 = 0
3
s 9 15 0
2
s1 = – 4.253 s 21.333 k 0
s
1 319.95 – 9k 0 0
s2 = – 0.425
21.333
0
s3 = – 2.07 s k

 s1 and s2 lies on the root locus. Hence they are valid (c) To calculate kmar
319.995 – kmar
breakaway point. 21.333 = 0

Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis kmar = 319.995

(a) Consider the characteristic equation (d) To construct auxiliary equation
2
21.333 s + k = 0
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
2
4 3 2
21.333 s + 319.995 = 0
s + 9 s + 23 s + 15 s + k = 0 2 – 319.995
s = 21.333 = – 15
s = r 3.87 j

Step VII : Since there are no complex poles or zeros. No need to calculate angle of departure or arrival.

(3G5)Fig. Ex. 7.6.6

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Type [IIIB] : 4 poles (2 Real and 2 complex) 1. s1 = – 2.28 lies on root locus. Hence it is a valid breakaway
point.
Ex. 7.6.7
2. s2 and s3 are complex conjugates we use angle addition
Sketch the root locus for feedback control system with open loop
transfer function G (s) H (s)
k s = – 0.73 + 0.348 j
G (s) H (s) = 2
s (s + 3) (s + 2s + 2) k
= s(s + 3) (s + 1 + j) (s + 1 – j)
s = – 0.73 + 0.348 j
 Soln. :
Step I : G (s) H (s)
s = – 0.73 + 0.348 j
(a) Number of poles p = 4
k
(b) Number of zeros z = 0 = [(– 0.73 + 0.348 j) (– 0.73 + 0.348 j + 1 + j)
p>z (– 0.73 + 0.348 j + 3) (– 0.73 + 0.348j + 1 – j)]
(c) Number of branches N = p = 4
G (s) H (s)
(d) Number of branches approaching towards ‘f’ = p – z = 4 s = – 0.73 + 0.348 j
Step II : k
= [(– 0.73 + 0.348 j) (0.27 + 1.348 j )
Pole p1 at s = 0
Pole p2 at s = –3 (2.27 + 0.348 j) (0.27 – 0.652 j )]
Pole p3 at s = –1+j k‘0
‘ G (s) H (s) =
( ‘ 154.51q) (‘ 8.715q) (‘ 78.67q) (‘ – 67.505q)
Pole p4 at s = –1–j
0q
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes ‘ G (s) H (s) =
174.39q
(2n + 1) u 180q
T = p–z ‘ G (s) H (s) = – 174.39q
180q Angle condition not satisfied. Hence not a valid breakaway
(i) n=0 T1 = 4 = 45q
point.
(2 u 1 + 1) 180q
(ii) n=1 T2 = 4 = 135q 3. Similarly for s3 we get angle 174.39q. Hence not valid
(2 u 2 + 1) 180q breakaway point.
(iii) n = 2 T3 = 4 = 225q
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
(2 u 3 + 1) 180q
(iv) n = 3 T4 = 4 = 315q (a) Consider the characteristic equation
Step IV : To calculate centroid 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
4 3 2
s + 5s + 8s + 6s + k = 0
6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p–z (b) To construct Routh’s array
(0 – 3 – 1 – 1) – 0 4
V = = – 1.25 s 1 8 k
4 3
s 5 6 0
Step V : To calculate breakaway point
s 6.8 k
Consider characteristic equation
1 40.8 – 5k
s
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 6.8
k 0
1+ 2 =0 s k
s (s + 3) (s + 2s + 2)
2
(c) To calculate value kmar
s (s + 3) (s + 2s + 2) + k = 0
40.8 – 5k
4 3 2
6.8 = 0
s + 5s + 8s + 6s + k = 0
4 3 2
k = – s – 5s – 8s – 6s – 5k = – 40.8
dk 3 2 kmar = 8.16
ds = – 4s – 15s – 16s – 6 = 0
(d) To construct auxiliary equation
s1 = – 2.28, s2 = – 0.73 + 0.348 j 2
6.8 s + k = 0
2
s3 = – 0.73 – 0.348 j 6.8 s + 8.16 = 0
2
To check validity of breakaway point. s = – 1.2 s = r 1.0954 j

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Step VII : Since there are complex conjugate poles we need to Id = 180 – I = – 71.56q
calculate angle of departure. p4 is complex conjugate of p3. Hence angle of departure will
Consider the pole zero plot. To calculate angle at p3. be 71.56q. Fig. Ex. 7.6.7(a) shows complete root locus.

Ex. 7.6.8
Sketch the root locus plot for unity feedback system having open
k
loop transfer function, G(s) = 2
s (s + 3) (s + 3 s + 4.5)

 Soln. :
Step I :
(a) No. of poles p = 4
(b) No. of zeros z = 0
p>z
(c) No. of branches N = p = 4
(d) No. of branches approaching towards f
p–z=4
(1G13)Fig. Ex. 7.6.7 Step II :
Pole p1 at s = 0
Ip
1
= 90q + tan
–1
[11] = 90q + 45q = 135q Pole p 2 at s = – 3
1
Ip2 = tan
–1
[ ] = 26.56q
2
Pole p 3 at s = – 1.5 + 1.5 j

Ip3 = 90q Pole p 4 at s = – 1.5 – 1.5 j

Step III : To calculate angle of asymptotes
I = Ip + Ip + Ip = 251.56q
1 2 3 (2n + 1) u 180q
T = p– z
180q
(a) n=0 T1 = 4 = 45q
(2 u 1 + 1) 180q
(b) n=1 T2 = 4 = 135q

(2 u 2 + 1) 180q
(c) n=2 T3 = 4 = 225q

(2 u 3 + 1) 180q
(d) n=3 T4 = 4 = 315q

Step IV : To calculate centroid

6 Real part of poles – 6 Real part of zeros
V = p– z
(0 – 3 – 1.5 – 1.5) – 0 – 6
V = 4 = 4 = – 1.5

Step V : To calculate breakaway point

Consider the characteristic equation
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
1+ 2 = 0
s (s + 3) (s + 3 s + 4.5)
2
s (s + 3) (s + 3 s + 4.5) + k = 0
2 2
(s + 3 s) (s + 3 s + 4.5) + k = 0
4 3 2 3 2
s + 3 s + 4.5 s + 3 s + 9 s + 13.5 s + k = 0
(1G14)Fig. Ex. 7.6.7(a) 4 3 2
s + 6 s + 13.5 s + 13.5 s + k = 0

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-32)
4 3 2
? k =
dk
– s – 6 s – 13.5 s – 13.5 s
3 2
Ip1 = 90q + tan
–1
(1.5
1.5 ) = 90q + 45q= 135q
ds = – 4 s – 18 s – 27 s – 13.5

s1 = – 1.5 ; s2 = – 1.5 ; s3 = – 1.5

Ip2 = tan
–1
(1.5
1.5 ) = 45q

Here s1, s2 and s3 lies on root locus hence valid breakaway point. Ip4 = 90q
I = Ip1 + Ip2 + Ip4 = 270q
Step VI : To calculate intersection with imaginary axis
Id = 180q – I = – 90q
(a) Consider the characteristic equation
p4 is complex conjugate of p3, hence angle of departure will
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 be + 90q.
4 3 2
s + 6 s + 13.5 s + 13.5 s + k = 0
(b) To construct Routh’s array
4
s 1 13.5 k
3
s 6 13.5 0
2
s 11.25 k 0
1
s 151.875 – 6 k 0 0
11.25
0
s k 0 0
(c) To calculate value of kmar
151.875 – 6 kmar
11.25 = 0
151.875
kmar = 6 ? kmar = 25.3125

(d) To construct auxiliary equation

2
11.25 s + k = 0
2
11.25 s + 25.312s = 0
2
s = – 2.25
s = r 1.5 j
Step VII : Since there are complex conjugate poles we need to
calculate angle of departure consider the pole zero plot. (3G2)Fig. Ex. 7.6.8(a)
To calculate p3
 7.6.4 Miscellaneous Examples

Ex. 7.6.9
Sketch the root locus whose open loop transfer function is
(s + 3) k
G (s) H (s) = s (s + 2)

 Soln. :
Step I :
(a) Number of poles p = 2
(b) Number of zeros z = 1
p>z
(c) Number of branches N = p = 2
(d) Number of branches approaching towards infinity
p–z=2–1=1
(3G1)Fig. Ex. 7.6.8

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-33)

Step II : Step VII : There are no complex poles or zeros. Hence no angle of
Pole p1 at s = 0 departure of arrival.

Pole p2 at s = – 2
Zero z1 at s = – 3
Step III : To calculate angle of asymptote
(2n + 1) u 180q
T = p–z
(i) n=0
180q
T1 = 1 = 180q
Step IV : Since there is only one asymptote. Hence centroid is
not need.
Step V : To calculate breakaway points
Consider the characteristic equation
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
(s + 3) k
1+ = 0
s (s + 2)

s (s + 2) + (s + 3) k = 0
2
s + 2s + (s + 3) k = 0
2
– s – 2s
k = s+3
2
dk (s + 3) (– 2s – 2) – (– s – 2s)
ds = 2 =0
(s + 3) (1G15)Fig. Ex. 7.6.9
dk 2
ds = – s – 6s – 6 = 0
Ex. 7.6.10
s1 = – 1.26, s2 = – 4.73 A unity feedback system has the loop transfer function
k (s + 2)
G(s) = s (s + 1)
Both the breakaway points are on root locus. Hence both are
valid. (a) Find the breakaway and entry point on the real axis.
(b) Sketch the root locus.
Step VI : To find intersection with imaginary axis
(c) Determine the gain k when the two characteristic roots have a
(a) The characteristic equation is given by, [ = 0.707.
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0  Soln. :
2
s + 2s + (s + 3) k = 0 Step I :
2
s + 2s + sk + 3k = 0 (a) No. of poles p = 2
2
s + (2 + k) s + 3k = 0 (b) No. of zeros z = 1
(b) Constructing Routh’s array p>z
2
s 1 3k (c) No. of branches N = p = 2
1 (d) No. of branches approaching infinity
s 2+k 0
s
0
3k p–z=2–1=1

(c) To calculate kmar Step II :

2+k = 0 Pole p1 at s = 0
k = –2 Pole p2 at s = – 1
(d) Since kmar is negative. There is no intersection with imaginary
Zero z1 at s = – 2
axis.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Root Locus)….Page no. (7-34)

Step III : To calculate angle of asymptote (c) To calculate kmar

(2n + 1) u 180q
T = p– z 1+k = 0

(a) n=0 k = –1
180q (d) Since kmar is negative there is no intersection with imaginary
T1 = 1 = 180q
axis.
Step IV : Since there is only one asymptote. Hence centroid is
Step VII : There are no complex poles or zeros. Hence no angle of
not need.
departure or arrival.
Step V : To calculate breakaway point
Consider the characteristic equation Step VIII : To calculate k for [ = 0.707
–1
1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 T = cos ([)
k (s + 2) –1
1 + s (s + 1) = 0 T = cos (0.707) = 45q

Draw a line OA of 45q with negative real axis as reference.

s (s + 1) + k(s + 2) = 0
Thus line cuts the root locus at point – 1 + j.
2
s + s + ks + 2k = 0 k(s + 2)
| | ⎪ k ˜ (– 1 + j + 2) ⎪
2
–s –s s(s + 1) s = – 1 + j = 1 ; ⎪(– 1 + j) (– 1 + j + 1)⎪ = 1
? k = (s + 2)
2
dk (s + 2) (– 2 s – 1) – ( – s – s)
⎪ ⎪=1
2 2
=
|(–k(11 ++j)j)(j)| k 1 +1
2
ds (s + 2) = 1 ; ⎪k ⎪
dk
2
–2s –s–4s–2+s +s
2 ⎪ 2
(– 1) + (1) ˜
2
1 ⎪
2

= =0
⎪k ਋2 ⎪
2
ds (s + 2)
dk
2
–s –4s–2 ⎪ ⎪ = 1 ; k=1
ds = 2 =0 ⎪ ਋
2 ˜ 1⎪
(s + 2)
dk 2
ds = – s – 4s – 2 = 0

s1 = – 0.585
s2 = – 3.414

Both breakaway points are on root locus hence both are valid.
Step VI : To find intersection with imaginary axis

(a) The characteristic equation is given by

1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
2
s + s + k (s + 2) = 0
2
s +s+sk+2k = 0
2
s + (1 + k) s + 2 k = 0

(b) Constructing Routh’s array

2
s 1 2k
(3G4)Fig. Ex. 7.6.10
1
s 1+k 0
0
s 2k
Chapter Ends...


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 70+6IV (TGSWGPE[&QOCKP
#PCN[UKU
%*#26'4

Syllabus

Frequency response and frequency domain specifications, correlation between time domain and frequency domain
specifications.

8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 8-2

8.2 Frequency Response...................................................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2.1 Definition of Frequency Response ................................................................................................................ 8-2
8.2.2 Advantages of Frequency Domain Analysis ................................................................................................ 8-3
8.2.3 Disadvantages of Frequency Domain Analysis.......................................................................................... 8-3
8.3 Methods used in Frequency Domain Analysis ............................................................................................................... 8-3
8.4 Frequency Domain Specifications .................................................................................................................................. 8-3
8.5 Correlation between Time and Frequency Response Specifications ............................................................................. 8-4
8.5.1 Derivations of Mr and Zr ................................................................................................................................ 8-4
8.5.2 Derivation for Bandwidth (BW) ...................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.6 Solved Examples ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-6
UEx. 8.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 8-6
UEx. 8.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 8-7
UEx. 8.3 (SPPU - May 15, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 8-7
UEx. 8.4 (SPPU - May 16, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 8-8
UEx. 8.5 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 8-8
UEx. 8.6 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks) .............................................................................................................................. 8-8
UEx. 8.7 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 8-9
UEx. 8.8 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 8-9
UEx. 8.9 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................. 8-9
UEx. 8.10 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 8-9
UEx. 8.11 (SPPU - May 19, 4 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 8-10

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 8-10

Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-2)

Taking ILT
  +PVTQFWEVKQP – at – bt
y (t) = A1 e + A2 e + .... + B1 e
– jZt
+ B2 e
jZt
...(8.2.5)

In the previous chapters we have already studied the time Transient Steady state
domain analysis of the system. We have also seen system response Response Response
for various test input signals like ramp, step and parabolic. We Since we are concerned with only steady state response.
have also studied transient response, steady state response and their
Hence
time domain specifications and the various steady state errors. – jZt jZt
In this chapter we are going to study frequency response yss (t) = B1 e + B2 e …(8.2.6)
analysis of the system. Frequency response can be used to design Let us calculate the value of B1 and B2
the system and determine the stability of the system.
Frequency response analysis used to determine stability of the AZ
B1 = (s + jZ) ˜ G(s) ˜ 2 2
system is one of the most ancient method in control system. It was (s + Z )
s = – jZ
introduced and used even before root locus.
AZ
B1 = (––––––
s + jZ ) ˜ G(s) ˜
  (TGSWGPE[4GURQPUG (––––––
s + jZ ) (s – jZ)
s = – jZ

G (– jZ) ˜ A㧛
Z
 8.2.1 Definition of Frequency Response B1 =
– 2j㧛
Z
The steady state response of the system when subjected to
sinusoidal input is called frequency response of the system. A G (– jZ)
B1 = – 2j …(8.2.7)

AZ
Similarly B2 = (s – jZ) ˜ G(s) ˜ 2 2
s +Z
s = jZ
A G (jZ)
(1H1)Fig. 8.2.1 : System B2 = 2j …(8.2.8)

Consider a system as shown in the Fig. 8.2.1. G (jZ) is a complex quantity and value of G (jZ) can be
written as
x (t) ⇒ Sinusoidal input jI
G (jZ) = | G (jZ) | e
g (t) ⇒ Transfer characteristics
y (t) ⇒ Output function Where |G (jZ) | = 2
(Real part) + (Imaginary part)
2

I = tan ⎡ Real ⎤
Let x (t) = A sin (Zt) …(8.2.1) –1 Imj.
⎣ ⎦
Taking Laplace transform of x(t)
Similarly
AZ
X (s) = 2 2 …(8.2.2) G (– jZ) can be written as
s +Z – jI
G (– jZ) = | G (– jZ) |e
L [g (t)] = G (s) Substituting values of G (jZ) and G (– jZ) in
L [y (t)] = Y (s) Equations (8.2.7) and (8.2.8)
– jI
Here G (s) is the transfer function of the system A |G (– jZ) | e
B1 = – 2j …(8.2.9)
N (s) Y (s) k
Consider G (s) = D (s) = X (s) = (s + a) (s + b) … jI
A |G (jZ) | e
B2 = 2j …(8.2.10)
Y (s) = G (s) X (s) …(8.2.2(a))
k Substitute value of B1 and B2 from Equations (8.2.9) and
AZ
Y (s) = (s + a) (s + b) … u 2 2 …(8.2.3) (8.2.10) in Equation (8.2.6)
s +Z – jI
– A |G (– jZ) | e – jZt
To calculate y(t) we need to take ILT of Equation (8.2.3) yss (t) = e
2j
Expressing Equation (8.2.3) in partial fraction form jI
A1 A2 B1 B2 A |G ( jZ) | e jZt
Y (s) = s + a + s + b + …. + + …(8.2.4) + 2j e
(s + jZ) (s – jZ)
But | G (– jZ) | = | G (jZ) |

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-3)
Since we are considering magnitude
– jI – jZt jI jZt
 8.2.3 Disadvantages of Frequency
yss (t) = A | G (jZ) | ⎡ ⎤
–e e +e e Domain Analysis
⎣ 2j ⎦ …(8.2.11)

Re-arranging the terms in Equation (8.2.11) (1) Time consuming method.

j(Zt + I) – j (Zt + I) (2) Frequency response methods can be applied to only linear
yss (t) = A | G (jZ) | ⎡ ⎤
e –e
⎣ 2j ⎦ …(8.2.12) systems.
jT – jT (3) The methods used for obtaining frequency response are old
e –e
We know that = sin T and outdated as compared to modern digital computer
2j
simulation and modelling.
Hence Equation (8.2.12) becomes
  /GVJQFUWUGFKP(TGSWGPE[
yss (t) = A | G (jZ) | sin (Zt + I)
 &QOCKP#PCN[UKU
Hence we can conclude that whenever we subject a linear
Frequency response analysis consist of two plots.
time invariant system to sinusoidal input, the steady state output is
(1) Magnitude plot i.e. plot of magnitude versus frequency.
also sinusoidal with same frequency but different amplitude and
phase. (2) Phase plot i.e. plot of phase angle versus frequency.
Several methods used are :
(1) Bode plots
(2) Polar plots and Nyquist plots

  (TGSWGPE[&QOCKP5RGEKHKECVKQPU
(1) Resonance Peak (Mr)
Consider a closed loop system as shown in the Fig. 8.4.1.

(1H2)Fig. 8.2.2 : Relation between input and output

Note : From the above calculations we can conclude that

frequency domain transfer function can be obtained by (1H3)Fig. 8.4.1 : Closed loop system
substituting s = jZ
 The transfer function of the closed loop system is given by
G (jZ) = G (s)
s = jZ G (s)
M (s) = 1 + G (s) H (s) …(8.4.1)
 8.2.2 Advantages of Frequency Domain  To obtain transfer function in frequency domain replace s by
Analysis jZ
G (jZ)
(1) We can experimentally obtain frequency response of stable M(jZ) = …(8.4.2)
1 + G (jZ) H (jZ)
open loop system without the knowledge of transfer function.
(2) Design of systems in frequency domain is easier than time  The maximum value of M (jZ) as Z is varied is called
resonance peak Mr.
domain.
Significance of Mr
(3) Frequency Response tests are easy to perform and have a
good accuracy. (1) Mr indicates relative stability of closed loop system.
(4) Noise, disturbance etc. can be easily visualized in frequency (2) Larger value of Mr means large maximum overshoot in step
domain. response.
(5) Apparatus used for frequency response test is easy to use, (3) Acceptable value of Mr is 1.1 to 1.5.
simple and inexpensive. (2) Resonance Frequency (Zr)
(6) Even if there is some small or moderate non-linearity in the
The frequency at which peak resonance occurs is called
system it can be handled using an approximate transfer resonance frequency.
function.
(3) Bandwidth (BW)
(7) Frequency response can be easily applied to the system those
who do not have rational transfer function. The range of frequencies upto cut-off frequency Zc beyond
which magnitude ‘M’ drops by 3 dB below zero frequency level.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-4)
Here system is unity feedback, hence H (s) = 1
Hence
2
Zn
T (jZ) = 2 2
(jZ) + 2[Zn (jZ) + Zn

 8.5.1 Derivations of Mr and Zr

2
Zn
T (jZ) = 2 2 …(8.5.1)
(jZ) + 2[Zn (jZ) + Zn
2
(1H4)Fig 8.4.2 : Response of 1st order system Dividing Numerator and Denominator by Zn
1
Significance of Bandwidth T (jZ) = 2 …(8.5.2)
( jZ) 2[ (jZ)
(1) A large bandwidth indicates that higher frequencies can 2 + +1
Zn Zn
easily pass through the system. This indicates faster rise time,
2
hence bandwidth gives idea of transient response But j = – 1
characteristics. 1
(2) Noise filtering characteristics can be easily known from the Hence T (jZ) = 2 …(8.5.3)
Z 2[ Z
bandwidth. – 2+j +1
Zn Zn
(3) From the bandwidth we can determine parameter variations.
Re-arranging for real and imaginary part
(4) Cut-off rate
1
T (jZ) = 2 …(8.5.4)
It is slope of the log magnitude curve near the cut-off ⎡1 – Z2 ⎤ + j 2[ Z
frequency. ⎣ Zn ⎦ Zn
Significance For the sake of simplification,
It indicates system ability to distinguish a signal from noise. Z
Put = x
Zn
(5) Phase Margin (PM)
Hence Equation (8.5.4) becomes
It is the measure of relative stability. Let I1 be the phase angle
1
of a system at unity gain. The frequency at which gain is unity is T (jZ) = 2 …(8.5.5)
called gain cross over frequency (Zgc). (1 – x ) + j 2[ x

| G (jZ) H (jZ) |Z = Z = | 1 | ‘I1 Magnitude of T (jZ) is given by,

gc
1
PM = 180q + I1 M = 2 2 2 2 …(8.5.6)
(1 – x ) + 4 [ x
(6) Gain Margin (GM) To get maximum magnitude we use Maxima theorem
The frequency at which phase angle of transfer function is dM
i.e. dx = 0
– 180q is called phase crossover frequency (Zpc). The gain at this
frequency is | G (jZpc) H (jZpc) | and the gain margin is given by, dM d 2 2 2 2 – 1/2
dx = dx [ (1 – x ) + 4 [ x ]
1
GM = dM 1 2 2
| G ( jZpc) H ( jZpc) | 2 2 – 3/2
dx = – 2 [ (1 – x ) + 4 [ x ]
Note : The phase margin and gain margin indicate d 2 2 2 2
stability of the system. ˜ dx [ (1 – x ) + 4 [ x ]

dM 1 1
dx = – 2 ˜
  %QTTGNCVKQPDGVYGGP6KOGCPF [ (1 – x ) + 4 [2 x2] 3/2
2 2

2 2
 (TGSWGPE[4GURQPUG5RGEKHKECVKQPU ˜ 2 (1 – x ) x – 2x + 8[ x
3 2
dM 1 – 4x + 4x + 8[ x
Consider a standard second order system with closed loop dx = – 2 [ (1 – x2)2 + 4[2 x2]3/2
=0
transfer function as 3 2
2 – 4x + 4x + 8[ x = 0
Zn 2 2
T (s) = 2
4x [x + 2[ – 1] = 0
2
s + 2[Zns + Zn ? 4x = 0 or x + 2[ – 1 = 0
2 2

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-5)
Consider
2 2
x + 2[ – 1 = 0
2 2
x = 1 – 2[
x = 2
1 – 2[
Z 2
= 1 – 2[
Zn
Since this frequency maximizes ‘M’ hence it is Zr

Zr = Zn 2 …(8.5.7)
1 – 2[

This frequency is resonant frequency

Substitute value of ‘x’ in Equation (8.5.6) to get value of Mr (1H6)Fig. 8.5.2 : Time domain (Mp)
1 –[S/ 1 – [2
Mr = % MP = e u 100
2 2 2 2
[1 – ( 1 – 2[ ) ] + [4[ ( 2 2
1 – 2[ )] Zd = Zn 2
1–[
1
Mr = 2 Due to the similarities in the two Equations we can obtain
2 2 2
(1 – 1 + 2[ ) + 4[ (1 – 2[ ) specifications of one response from the other response.


1
Mr = 4 2 2 8.5.2 Derivation for Bandwidth (BW)
4[ + 4[ (1 – 2[ )
1 The second order system closed loop transfer function is
Mr = 2 2 2 given by
4[ ([ + 1 – 2[ ) 2
Zn
1
Mr = 2 …(8.5.8) T (s) = 2 2 …(8.5.9)
2[ 1–[ s + 2[ Zns + Zn
From Equations (8.5.7) and (8.5.8), To obtain transfer function in frequency domain replace s by jZ
We can conclude that 2
Zn
(a) As [ approaches towards zero, Mr approaches towards ‘f’ T( jZ) = 2 2 …(8.5.10)
and Zr approaches towards Zn. (jZ) + 2[ Zn (jZ) + Zn
2
(b) For 0 < [ < 0.707, Mr is greater than 1 and Zr < Zn. Dividing Numerator and Denominator by Zn
(c) For [ > 0.707 there is no resonant peak and maximum value 1
of Mr is 1 and Zr = 0 T (jZ) = …(8.5.11)
2 Z
We have just seen that resonance peak Mr depends on ‘[’ ⎛1 – Z ⎞ + j 2[
⎜ 2 ⎟ Zn
similarly in time domain peak overshoot Mp also depends on ‘[’. ⎝ Zn ⎠
Resonance frequency depends on Zn and ‘[’ similarly in time
To calculate magnitude of T (jZ)
domain damping frequency Zd depends on Zn and [. 1
| T (jZ) | = 2
…(8.5.12)
2
2 2 Z
+4[
⎛1 – Z ⎞ 2
Zn
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ Zn ⎠
Z
For simplicity put =x
Zn
Hence Equation (8.5.12) becomes
1
| T (jZ) | = 2 2 2 2 …(8.5.13)
(1 – x ) + 4[ x
Bandwidth is range of frequencies up to cut-off frequency
(Zc) after which magnitude drops by 3 dB.

(1H5)Fig. 8.5.1 : Frequency domain (Mr) Hence 20 log | T (jZ) | = – 3 …(8.5.14)

1 Note : ‘–’ sign indicates drop.

Mr = and Zr = Z 2
2 1 – 2[
2[ 1–[

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-6)
Substitute value of | T (jZ) | in Equation (8.5.14) Since unity feedback system hence H(s) = 1
1 100
20 log 2 2 2 2 = –3 C(s) s (s + 5)
(1 – x ) + 4[ x ? R(s) = 100
1 + s (s + 5) ˜ 1
– 20 log [ ]
2 2 2 2
(1 – x ) + 4[ x = –3
C(s) 100
log [ (1 – x ) + 4[ x ]
2 2 2 2
= 0.15
R(s) = 2
s + 5s + 100
Taking antilog on both sides
2 2 2 2 Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
(1 – x ) + 4[ x = 1.4125
second order transfer function
Squaring both sides 2
2 2 2 2 C(s) Zn
(1 – x ) + 4[ x = 1.9952  2 i.e. R(s) = 2 2
2 2 2 2 s + 2[ Zns + Zn
(1 – x ) + 4[ x = 2 2
2 4 2 2 Zn = 100
1 – 2x + x + 4[ x – 2 = 0
Re-arranging the terms Hence Zn = 10
4 2 2 2[ Zn = 5
x + 2 (2[ – 1) x – 1 = 0 …(8.5.15)
Calculating roots of Equation (8.5.15) Put Zn = 10
2 2 2 Hence [ = 0.25
2
– 2 (2[ – 1) r 4 (2[ – 1) + 4
x = 2 Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications

Let us consider only positive value (1) Resonance peak

2 4 2 1
2
– 4[ + 2 + 2 4[ – 4[ + 1 + 1 Mr =
x = 2 2[ 1–[
2

2
x = 1 – 2[ +
2
4 2 1
4[ – 4[ + 2 = 2
2 u 0.25 1 – (0.25)
2
x = 1 – 2[ + 4
4[ – 4[ + 2
2
Mr = 2.065
Z
But x =
Zn (2) Resonance frequency (Zr)
Z 2
= 1 – 2[ + 4
4[ – 4[ + 2
2 Zr = Zn 1 – 2[
2
Zn
2
1/2 Zr = 10 1 – 2 u (0.25)
2
Z = Zn 1 – 2[ + [ 4
4[ – 4[ + 2
2
]
This Z will be cut-off frequency Zc as we have considered Zr = 9.354 rad/sec
3 dB drop
Ex. 8.6.1
1/2
2
Zc = Zn 1 – 2[ + [ 4
4[ – 4[ + 2
2
] For the given diagram of unity feedback control system calculate
Zr and Mr
BW = 0 - Zc

i.e. range of frequencies from 0 to Zc.

  5QNXGF'ZCORNGU
(1H7)Fig. Ex. 8.6.1
UEx. 8.1 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 4 Marks)
100
For a unity feedback system with G (s) = s (s + 5) ; Determine
 Soln. :
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
(1) Resonance peak (2) Resonance frequency
C(s) G(s)
 Soln. : R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function From the Fig. Ex. 8.6.2, H(s) = 1
C(s) G(s)
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-7)
2
25 (i) Zn = 4
C(s) s (s + 6)
R(s) = 25 Zn = 2 rad/sec o undamped natural frequency
1 + s (s + 6)
(ii) 2[Zn = 2 2[ u 2 = 2
C(s) 25 2
[ = 4 = 0.5 [ = 0.5 o damping
R(s) = 2
s + 6s + 25
factor
Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with second
Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications
order transfer function
2
(i) Resonant peak
C(s) Zn 1 1
Mr = 2 =
R(s) = 2
s + 2[ Zns + Zn
2
2[ 1 – [ 2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5)
2

2 Mr = 1.154
Zn = 25
(ii) Resonant frequency
Zn = 5 Zr = Zn
2
1 – 2 u (0.5)
2
1 – 2[ = 2
2[ Zn = 6 Zr = 1.4142 rad/sec
2[ u 5 = 6
UEx. 8.3 (SPPU - May 15, 4 Marks)
[ = 0.6 1
If G(s) H(s) = s (s + 1) ,
Step III : To calculate frequency domain specifications
find resonance peak and resonance frequency.
(1) Resonance peak
1  Soln. :
Mr = 2
2[ 1–[ Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
1 1
= 2 C(s) G(s) s (s + 1)
2 u 0.6 1 – (0.6)
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) = 1
Mr = 1.041 1 + s (s + 1)

(2) Resonance frequency 1

C(s) s––––––
(s + 1) 1
Zr = Zn 1 – 2[
2
R(s) = s (s + 1) + 1 = s2 + s + 1
Zr = 2.645 rad/sec s––––––
(s + 1)
Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
UEx. 8.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 4 Marks)
second order transfer function
For an unity feedback system with open loop transfer function 2
4 C(s) Zn
G (s) = s (s + 2) . i.e. R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
Determine damping factor, undamped natural frequency, resonant 2
peak, resonant frequency. (i) Zn = 1 Zn = 1 rad/sec.

 Soln. : (ii) 2[Zn = 1 2u[u1 = 1

[ = 1/2 = 0.5
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
C(s) G(s) Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) 1. Resonant peak
Since unity feedback system, H(s) = 1. 1
Mr = 2
4 4 2[ 1 – [
C(s) s (s + 2) s––––––
(s + 2) 4 1
? R(s) = 4 = s (s + 2) + 4 = 2 =
1 + s (s + 2) s + 2s + 4 2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5)
2
s––––––
(s + 2)
Mr = 1.1547
Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
2. Resonant frequency Zr
second order transfer function
2 2 2
Zn Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 1 1 – 2 u (0.5)
C(s)
i. e. R(s) = 2 2
Zr = 0.7071 rad/sec.
s + 2[Zns + Zn

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-8)

UEx. 8.4 (SPPU - May 16, 4 Marks) Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
Fig. shows schematic diagram of unity feedback control system. second order transfer function
2
Calculate Zr and Mr. C(s) Zn
R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2

2
(i) Zn = k Zn = k
(ii) 2[Zn = 4

(5H1)Fig. Ex. 8.4 But [ = 0.5 and Zn = k

2 u 0.5 u k = 4 1u k = 4
 Soln. : Squaring both sides,
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function k = 16 ? Zn = 4
10 u 10
Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications
C(s) G(s) s (s + 8)
1. Resonant peak
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) = 10 u 10
1 + s (s + 8) 1 1
Mr = 2 = 2 = 1.154
100 2[ 1 – [ 2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5)
C(s) s––––––
(s + 8) 100 2. Resonant frequency Zr
R(s) = s (s + 8) + 100 = s2 + 8s + 100 2 2
s––––––
(s + 8) Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 4 1 – 2 u (0.5)
Zr = 2.828 rad/sec
Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
second order transfer function UEx. 8.6 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks)
2
C(s) Zn For the system with closed loop transfer function
R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2
GCL (s) = 2
9
s + 3s + 9
2
(i) Zn = 100 Zn = 10 Determine [, Zn, resonant peak and resonant frequency.
(ii) 2[Zn = 8 2 u [ u 10 = 8
 Soln. :
[ = 0.4
Step I : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications second order transfer function.
1. Resonant peak 2
C(s) Zn
1 1
Mr = 2 = 2
R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2

2[ 1 – [ 2 u 0.4 1 – (0.4)
2
Mr = 1.363 (i) Zn = 9
2. Resonant frequency Zn = 3 rad/sec.

Zr = Zn
2
1 – 2[ = 10 1 – 2 u (0.4)
2 (ii) 2[Zn = 3

Zr = 8.246 rad/sec 2u3u[ = 3

3
UEx. 8.5 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks) [ = 6 = 0.5
Determine the value of ‘k’ if damping factor is [ = 0.5 for the unity Step II : Calculating frequency domain specifications
feedback system with open loop transfer function
1. Resonant peak
k
G(s) = s (s + 4). Also determine resonant peak and resonant 1
Mr = 2
frequency. 2[ 1 – [

 Soln. : =
1
2
2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5)
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
Mr = 1.154
k k
C(s) s (s + 4) s––––––
(s + 4) k 2. Resonant frequency Zr
? R(s) = k = s (s + 4) + k = 2 2 2
1 + s (s + 4) s + 4s + k Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 3 1 – 2 u (0.5)
s––––––
(s + 4)
Zr = 2.121 rad/sec

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Frequency Domain Analysis)….Page no. (8-9)
2
UEx. 8.7 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) (i) Zn = 9 Zn = 3
Determine damping factor, undamped natural frequency, resonant
(ii) 2[Zn = 4 2[ u 3 = 4
peak, resonant frequency for the system with closed loop transfer
function. 4
[ = 6 = 0.67
36
G(s) = 2
s + 6s + 36
Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications
 Soln. : 1. Resonant peak
Step I : Comparing the given closed loop transfer function with 1 1
Mr = 2 = 2
standard second order transfer function. 2[ 1–[ 2 u 0.67 1 – (0.67)
2
C(s) Zn
Mr = 1.005
R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2

2 2. Resonant frequency Zr
(i) Zn = 36 Zn = 6 rad/sec
2 2
Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 3 1 – 2 u (0.67)
(ii) 2[Zn = 6 2u[u6 = 6
[ = 0.5 Zr = 0.9590 rad/sec

UEx. 8.9 (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks)

Step II : Calculating frequency domain specifications Determine damping factor, undamped natural frequency, resonant
1. Resonant peak peak and resonant frequency for the system with closed loop
1 1 transfer function
Mr = 2 = 2 100
2[ 1 – [ 2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5) G(s) = 2
s + 10s + 100
Mr = 1.154
2. Resonant frequency Zr
 Soln. :
2 2 Step I : Comparing the given closed loop transfer function with
Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 6 1 – 2 u (0.5)
standard second order transfer function
Zr = 6 1 – 0.5 2
C(s) Zn
Zr = 4.242 rad/sec R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2

UEx. 8.8 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 4 Marks) 2

(i) Zn = 100 Zn = 10
Determine resonant peak (Mr) and resonant frequency (Zr) for
(ii) 2[Zn = 10 2 u [ u 10 = 10
unity feedback system with open loop transfer function.
9 [ = 0.5
G(s) = s (s + 4)
Step II : To calculate frequency domain specifications
 Soln. : 1. Resonant peak
1 1
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function Mr = 2 = 2
2u[ 1–[ 2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5)
C(s) G(s)
Mr = 1.154
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
2. Resonant frequency Zr
Since unity feedback system, H(s) = 1 2 2
Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 10 1 – 2 u (0.5)
9 9
C(s) s (s + 4) s––––––
(s + 4) Zr = 7.0710 rad/sec
? R(s) = 9 = s (s + 4) + 9
1 + s (s + 4) u 1 s––––––
(s + 4) UEx. 8.10 (SPPU - May 18, 4 Marks)
For the system with closed loop transfer function
C(s) 9
R(s) = 2
s + 4s + 9 GCL (s) = 2
400
s + 20s + 400
Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard Determine resonant peak, resonant frequency, damping factor and
natural frequency.
second order transfer function
C(s) Zn
2  Soln. :
R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2
Step I : Comparing the given closed loop transfer function with
standard second order transfer function

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2
C(s) Zn 100 100
R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2 C(s)
? R(s) =
s (s + 9) s––––––
(s + 9)
= s (s + 9) + 100
100
2 1 + s (s + 9) ˜ 1 s––––––
(s + 9)
(i) Zn = 400 ? Zn = 20 rad/sec
(ii) 2[Zn = 20 2 u [ u 20 = 20 C(s) 100
R(s) = = s2 + 9s + 100
[ = 0.5
Step II : Comparing obtained transfer function with standard
Step II : Calculating frequency domain specifications
1. Resonant peak second order transfer function
2
1 1 C(s) Zn
Mr = 2 =
2[ 1 – [ 2 u 0.5 1 – (0.5)
2 R(s) = 2
s + 2[Zns + Zn
2

Mr = 1.154 2
(i) Zn = 100 Hence Zn = 10
2. Resonant frequency
(ii) 2 [ Zn = 9 2 u [ u 10 = 9
2 2
Zr = Zn 1 – 2[ = 20 1 – 2 u (0.5) 9
[ = 20 = 0.45
Zr = 14.142 rad/sec

UEx. 8.11 (SPPU - May 19, 4 Marks) Step III : Calculating frequency domain specifications
(i) Resonant peak
For an unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
100 1 1
G (s) = s (s + 9) . Mr = 2 = 2
2[ 1 – [ 2 u 0.45 1 – (0.45)
Determine damping factor, undamped natural frequency, resonant Mr = 1.244
peak, resonant frequency.
(ii) Resonant frequency Z r
 Soln. : Zr = Z n
2
1 – 2 u (0.45)
2
1 – 2[ = 10
Step I : To calculate closed loop transfer function
Zr = 7.713 rad/sec
C(s) G(s)
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
Since unity feedback system, H(s) = 1.
Chapter Ends


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 70+6IV
$QFG2NQVU
%*#26'4

Syllabus
Construction of Bode plot, determination of frequency domain specifications and stability analysis using Bode plot.

9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9-2

9.2 Log Scales ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9-2
9.3 Semilog Paper ................................................................................................................................................................ 9-2
9.3.1 Scale Marking on Semilog Paper .................................................................................................................. 9-4
9.4 Standard Form of GH(jZ) ................................................................................................................................................ 9-4
9.5 Bode Plot of Standard Factors ....................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5.1 Bode Gain k1 / Constant Factor ..................................................................................................................... 9-5
1 k
9.5.2 Poles at Origin ⎛ ⎞ ..................................................................................................................................... 9-6
⎝jZ⎠
Zeros at Origin [jZ] ....................................................................................................................................... 9-7
p
9.5.3
First Order Poles ⎛ ⎞ ........................................................................................................................... 9-8
1
9.5.4
⎜1 + jZ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠
9.5.5
⎛ jZ⎞
First Order Zeros 1 + z ......................................................................................................................... 9-10
⎝ 1⎠

9.5.6 Second Order Poles .................................................................................................................................... 9-11

9.5.7 Second Order Zeros .................................................................................................................................... 9-13
9.6 Frequency Domain Specifications ................................................................................................................................ 9-15
9.7 Relative Stability Analysis from Bode Plot .................................................................................................................. 9-16
UQ. 9.7.1 Explain how stability analysis is done using Bode Plot. (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) ................................ 9-16
9.8 Summary of Bode Magnitude and Phase Plots ............................................................................................................ 9-17
9.9 Solved Examples .......................................................................................................................................................... 9-17
9.10 Advantages of Bode Plots ............................................................................................................................................ 9-21
9.11 Steps for Solving Bode Plots ........................................................................................................................................ 9-21
9.12 Examples on Bode Plot ................................................................................................................................................ 9-21
UEx. 9.1 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 9-24
UEx. 9.2 (SPPU - May 17, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 9-26
UEx. 9.3 (SPPU - May 18, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 9-30
UEx. 9.4 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 9-32
UEx. 9.5 (SPPU - May 18, Dec. 19, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................... 9-34
UEx. 9.6 (SPPU - May 19, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 9-36
UEx. 9.7 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 9-38
UEx. 9.8 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................... 9-40
UEx. 9.9 (SPPU - May 15, 8 Marks) ............................................................................................................................ 9-42
UEx. 9.10 (SPPU - May 16, 8 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 9-44

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................... 9-47
Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-2)

 On Y-axis, magnitude GH(jZ), the open loop transfer

  +PVTQFWEVKQP function is plotted in decibels. On X-axis, frequency ‘Z’ is
plotted.
The frequency response method is one of the powerful,
conventional method used for analysis and design of the system.  On X-axis logarithmic scale is used. So magnitude plot is
The frequency response of any linear system involves two plots. graph of | GH(jZ) | versus log Z
1. Magnitude plot, i.e., plot of magnitude versus frequency :  Phase plot : Phase plot is plot of phase angle (I) in degrees
2. Phase plot, i.e., plot of phase versus frequency. on Y-axis and log Z on X-axis.
Both these plots form bode plots. Logarithmic representation i.eIversus log Z
is used in bode plot due to which multiplication and division
operation can be expressed in terms of addition and subtraction.
Bode plots are plotted on a special graph sheet known as
semilog graph sheet. We can determine absolute as well as relative
stability of the system using Bode plot.
Bode plots are useful to determine transfer function of the
system specially when calculation of transfer function by analytical
method is difficult.
In this chapter we are going to study procedure to plot Bode
plots, various frequency domain specifications and stability
determination using Bode plot.
(1I2)Fig. 9.1.2 : Phase plot
 Logarithm
Note : Both magnitude plot and phase plot are plotted on
 The logarithm of a complex number is itself a complex semilog paper.
number. We use “log” abbreviation which means logarithm to
the base ‘10’.
jI(Z) jI(Z)
  .QI5ECNGU
log | G (jZ) | e = log | G (jZ) | + log e
(I) Use of log scales on X- axis
= log | G (jZ) | + j0.434 I(Z)
 Consider GH(jZ) having values 2, 10, 20 dB at frequencies
 Here the real part is logarithm of magnitude whereas
10, 200, 900 rad/sec.
imaginary part is proportional to phase. In Bode plot, we use
only I(Z) neglecting “0.434”.  If linear scale is used on X-axis and 1 cm = 10 rad/sec, then
to express 900 we will require 90 cm which is not feasible.
 Decibels  Hence to compress the scale we use logarithmic scale on
X-axis. Now if we consider value (900), then this value can
 Decibels unit is most commonly used as logarithm of
be easily expressed on semilog paper on logarithmic scale.
magnitude. It’s notation is (dB).
(X-axis)
 The logarithm of magnitude of a transfer function G(jZ)
expressed in decibels is 20 log | G(jZ) | dB. (II) What are log scales ?
 This quantity is called ‘log magnitude’ abbreviated as  Log scales use the principle which is whenever the ratio
‘‘ m’. Since transfer function is a function of frequency, between two points is same, the two points will be separated
‘ m is also function of frequency. equally.
 For example, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000 etc.
 Magnitude plot
100 1000 10000 0.01
 Magnitude plot is a graph of magnitude in decibels versus 10 = 100 = 1000 = 0.001 etc
frequency ‘Z’.  Hence we can conclude that (0.001 and 0.01) or (10,100) or
(100, 1000) or (1000, 10,000) will be separated equally.

  5GOKNQI2CRGT
 The commercially available semilog paper is shown in the
Fig. 9.3.1. We can observe that at the top left hand side
numbers are written 1, 2, 3....... 9 and again 1. These 1 to 9
numbers form one cycle.
 As shown in the Figure 3 cycles are available. Sometimes
5 cycles are available. Y-axis is normal scale, i.e., equally
spaced scale.
 We have to plot magnitude and phase plot on same paper,
(1I1)Fig. 9.1.1 : Magnitude plot hence select scale properly.

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(1I3)Fig. 9.3.1 : Commercially available semilog paper

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-4)

 9.3.1 Scale Marking on Semilog Paper

(1I4)Fig. 9.3.2 : Scale marking on semilog paper

(1) Consider the leftmost ‘1’ as 0.1 rad/sec. Then to get values of where z1, z2 .... are the zeros and p1, p2 … are the poles.
that cycle, multiply (1 to 9) by 0.1  Converting equation (2) in time constant form,

k1 s ⎛1 + z ⎞ ⎛1 + z ⎞ ......
For Ex. : On ‘3’ the cycle value will be, p s s
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
3 u 0.1 = 0.3 rad/sec GH(s) = …(3)
⎛1 + p ⎞ ⎛1 + p ⎞.......
s s
On ‘7’ the value will be, ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

7 u 0.1 = 0.7 rad / sec  To convert the transfer function into frequency domain,
(2) To calculate value of next ‘1’, multiply previous ‘1’ value by substitute s = jZ
‘10’, i.e., next one ‘1’ value will be 0.1 u 10 = 1. Again
k1 (jZ)
⎛1 + jZ⎞ ⎛1 + jZ⎞
p
similar calculation for the cycle (1 to 9). In this cycle on ‘3’ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z2 ⎠
GH(jZ) = …(4)
we will get value, ⎛1 + jZ⎞ ⎛1 + jZ⎞
3 u 1 = 3 rad/sec ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p 2⎠
Value on ‘7’ will be,  Here K1 is called the gain constant / Bode gain and

7 u 1 = 7 rad /sec Equation (4) represents standard form or Bode form of given
transfer function.
(3) To calculate value on next ‘1’,
Possible factors of GH(jZ)
1 u 10 = 10
Similarly value on ‘3’ for this cycle will be, 1. Bode gain k1 or constant factor
1
3 u 10 = 30 rad/sec 2. Poles at origin k of order k
(jZ)
and so on the scale proceeds. p
3. Zeros at origin (jZ) of order ‘p’
Note : The selection of leftmost ‘1’ is according to our 1
4. First order poles
requirement of frequency range. jZ
1+ p
1

  5VCPFCTF(QTOQH)* LZ  5. First order zero

⎛1 +
jZ⎞
⎝
z1 ⎠
 The transfer function G(s) can be written as ratio of two 1
6. Second order poles 2
polynomials. 1 + j2[Z – Z
m m–1 m–2 
N(s) a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + ..... 7. Second order zeros (1 + j2[Z – Z )
GH(s) = D(s) = n n–1 n–2 …(1)
b0 s + b1 s + b2 s + .....
Equation (1) can be written as,
p
N(s) k1 s (s + z1)(s + z2) ....
GH(s) = D(s) = (s + p1)(s + p2)….. …(2)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-5)


For Ex., k1 = 30
 $QFG2NQVQH5VCPFCTF(CEVQTU
? 20 log (30) = 29.5424 dB

 9.5.1 Bode Gain k1 / Constant Factor

(b) Phase plot
k1 is constant, it is written as
(a) Magnitude plot
GH(jZ) = k1 + j0
 Constant k1 is independent of frequency. To find angle,
Let GH(s) = k1 –1⎡ Imj.⎤
I = tan
⎣Real⎦
 To convert to frequency domain, Put
tan ⎡k ⎤ = 0q
–1 0
I =
s = jZ ⎣ 1⎦
GH(jZ) = k1 Conclusion
 Let us calculate magnitude in decibels (dB). 1. For positive value of k1, the phase is zero. Hence positive
i.e., 20 log GH(jZ) = 20 log k1 value of k1 has no effect on phase.
= M(dB) 2. For negative value of k1, the phase is – 180q for all values
 This indicates a straight line on Y-axis parallel to X-axis of ‘Z’.

(1I5)Fig. 9.5.1 : Magnitude and phase plot for k1

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-6)

 Poles at Origin ⎛ ⎞
1 k
9.5.2
⎝jZ⎠ (1) If k = 1, straight line passes through (0 dB, Z = 1)

(a) Magnitude plot at slope = – 20 dB/decade.

1 (2) If k = 2 the straight line passes through (0 dB, Z = 1) at
GH(s) = k …(1) slope = – 40 dB / decade and so on.
s
 To convert into frequency domain, substitute s = jZ (b) Phase plot
1 –k
1 –k
GH(jZ) = GH(s) = k =s …(1)
k = (jZ) …(2) s
(jZ)
 Converting into decibels To convert into frequency domain,
20log | GH(jZ) | = 20 log | jZ |
–k 1 –k
GH(jZ) = k = (jZ)
20 log | GH(jZ) | = – 20k log ( jZ ) …(3) (jZ)

For k = 1, arg GH(jZ) = arg ⎡ ⎤

Put log (jZ) = X 1
 Hence Equation (3) becomes, ⎣ 0 + jZ⎦
–1
20 log| GH(jZ) | = – 20 k X …(4) tan [0/1] 0q
= –1 = = – 90q
tan [Z/0] 90q
 Comparing with standard Y = MX
Hence the slope of the line is – 20 k. It is a straight line Similarly for k = 2,
arg GH(jZ) = arg ⎡ ⎤
passing through origin. 1 1
X = 0; Y = 0 ⎣ 0 + jZ ˜ 0 + jZ⎦ = – 90q – 90q = – 180q
X = log (jZ) = 0 ?Z=1 Similarly for k = 3,
arg GH(jZ) = – 270q and so on.

k
(1I6)Fig. 9.5.2 : Magnitude and phase plot for (1/jZ) factor

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-7)

 p (1) For p = 1, the straight line passes through (0 dB, Z = 1) at

9.5.3 Zeros at Origin [jZ]
slope 20 dB / decade.
(a) Magnitude plot
(2) For p = 2, the straight line passes through (0 dB, Z = 1) at
p
GH(s) = s slope 40 dB / decade.

To convert into frequency domain, (3) For p = 3, the straight line passes through (0 dB, Z = 1) at
slope 60 dB / decade and so on.
Put s = jZ

?GH(jZ) = (jZ)
P (b) Phase plot
P p
20 log GH(jZ) = 20 log (jZ) GH(jZ) = (jZ)
20 log GH(jZ) = 20 p log (jZ) (i) for p = 1, arg GH(jZ) = arg (0 + jZ)
–1
Put log (jZ) = X = tan [Z/0] = 90q
2
?20 log GH(jZ) = 20 pX ii  For p = 2, arg GH(jZ)
Compare Y = MX = arg [(0 + jZ) (0 + jZ)]
Hence slope of the line is 20 p dB / dec. = 90q + 90q q
3
iii Similarly for p = 3, arg GH(jZ) = 270q

(1I7)Fig. 9.5.3 : Magnitude and phase plot for zeros at origin

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-8)

 First Order Poles ⎛⎜ ⎞

1 Y = – 20X …(5)
9.5.4
jZ⎟  Hence we will get slope of line of – 20 dB. Hence we can
⎜1 + ⎟ conclude that at Z = p1, slope of the line changes from
⎝ p1 ⎠
0 dB to – 20 dB / decade.
(a) Magnitude plot
Conclusions
Consider,
1 1. Slope of the graph = 0 dB for Z d p1
GH(jZ) = …(1)
jZ 2. Slope of the graph = – 20 dB for Z!p1
1+ p
1 Z
3. Change of frequency occurs at p = 1
 To calculate magnitude in decibels 1

1 i.e., Z = p1
20 log GH(jZ) = 20 log
jZ
1+ p Error while doing approximation
1

1  In the above calculations we have neglected 1 from

= 20 log 2 (magnitude)
Z 2
2
1 + 2 Z
1 + 2 . If we consider this ‘1’ and do the calculations,
p p
1 1
–1
then at Z = p1
= 20 log ⎡
Z⎤
2
2
⎢ 1 +
p1⎥
2 2
⎣ ⎦ p
1
Y = – 20 log 1+ 2 = – 20 log 2 = – 3.010
– 20 log ⎡ 1 + 2⎤
2
Z2 p1
= ⎢ p⎥
…(2)
⎣ ⎦ 1
 Here the line must pass from – 3.010 which we approximate
 Hence the quantity to be plotted on Y-axis is as follows to ‘0’.

– 20 log ⎡ 1 + 2⎤
2
2 Z
Y = ⎢ p⎥
dB …(3) (b) Phase plot
⎣ ⎦ 1
1 1 + 0j
 Consider two different ranges of p1 : Let GH(jZ) = =
1 + j ⎛p ⎞
jZ Z
(i) Z << p1 (ii) Z >> p1 1+ p
1
⎝ 1⎠
Z –1
(i) For Z < < p1, we get p << 1 tan (0/1)
1 arg GH(jZ) = ‘ GH (jZ) =
tan ⎛p ⎞
Z
–1

Y = – 20 log [1] = 0 dB ⎝ 1⎠
Z 0q
(ii) For Z> > p1, we get p > > 1 =
1
tan
–1 ⎛ Z⎞
⎝ p1⎠
Neglecting ‘1’ from Equation (3),
–1 ⎛ Z⎞
Y = – 20 log ⎡ p ⎤ dB
Z ‘GH (jZ) = – tan
…(4) ⎝ p1⎠
⎣ 1⎦
Now our original X-axis is log ‘Z’. Note : As Z becomes larger, phase angle value approaches
towards 90q
If we change X = log ⎡ p ⎤ ,
Z
⎣ 1⎦
then our Equation (4) becomes,

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-9)

9.5.4 : Magnitude plot for a simple pole ⎡ ⎤

1
(1I8)Fig.
⎢1+ ⎛ jZ⎞
⎥
⎣ ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎦

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⎛ jZ⎞
 9.5.5 First Order Zeros ⎜1 + z ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
Error in magnitude approximations
2
z1
(a) Magnitude plot At Z = z1 , | GH(jZ) | = 1+ 2 = 2
z1
 We have already done analysis of first order poles. The
analysis of first order zeros follows the same steps. Hence we  Converting into decibels,
can directly write conclusions. 20 log 2 = + 3dB
 Hence we can conclude that error at
Note : [Slope of zero is + 20 dB / dec] Z = z1 is + 3 dB
Conclusions (b) Phase plot
1. Slope of the graph is 0 dB for Z d z1
arg GH(jZ) = tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
2. Slope of the graph is 20 dB for Z!z1 ⎝ z1⎠
Z  Substitute various values of Z to plot the phase plot.
3. The graph changes slope at z = 1
1
i.e., Z = z1

(1I9)Fig.
⎛ jZ⎞
9.5.5 : Magnitude plot for simple zero 1 + z
⎝ 1⎠

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-11)

 9.5.6 Second Order Poles  Hence we can conclude that error depends on value of
damping factor [.
 Let us consider the standard expression of transfer function
 For under-damped system value of [ is,
for second order system.
2 0 < [<1
Z
n
GH(s) = 2 2 …(1)  Hence let us consider some values of ‘[’ and calculate the
s + 2 [Zns + Z
n
errors.
 To convert to frequency domain substitute
[ | GH (jZ) | in dB
s = jZ in Equation (1) …(1)
2
Z 0.1 13.97 (dB)
n
GH(jZ) =  2 …(2)
(jZ + 2 [Zn(jZ) + Z 0.2 7.95 (dB)
n
2
 Dividing Numerator and denominator of Equation (2) by Z
n
0.3 4.43 dB
and re-arranging the terms, 0.4 1.93 dB
1
GH(jZ) = 0.5 0
1–⎛
Z ⎞2 Z
+ j2[
⎝Zn⎠ Zn
0.6 – 1.58 dB
(a) Magnitude plot
0.7 – 2.92 dB
1
Magnitude | GH(jZ) | = 2 2 2 0.8 – 4.08 dB
⎡1 – ⎛ Z ⎞ ⎤ + ⎛2[
Z⎞
⎣ ⎝Zn⎠ ⎦ ⎝ Zn⎠ 0.9 – 5.10 dB
 As | GH (jZ) | is a second order pole. 1 – 6.02 dB
Following conclusions can be derived :
 The graph shown in Fig. 9.5.6 is for all values of [.
1. Slope of the graph is 0 dB for Z d Zn
(b) Phase plot
2. Slope of the graph is – 40 dB/dec for Z > Zn
3. Slope of the graph changes at Z = Zn
arg | GH(jZ) | =
tan
–1
(01)
⎛ 2[ Z ⎞
Z
Error in approximation
⎜1 – ⎛ Z ⎞ ⎟
–1 n
tan 2
To calculate error, put Z = Zn in | GH(jZ) |.
Hence
⎝ ⎝Z ⎠ ⎠ n

| GH (jZ) | =
1 arg | GH (jZ) | = – tan
–1 ⎡2[(Z / Zn2) ⎤
2 2
(1 – (1) ) + (2[ ˜ 1)
2 ⎢ 1 – ⎛Z⎞ ⎥
1
⎣ ⎝Zn⎠ ⎦
| GH (jZ) | = 2
4[
2
 In decibel we have – 20 log 4[ dB.

 NOTES 

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9.5.6 : Magnitude curve for second order pole ⎡ ⎤

1
(1I10)Fig.
⎢ 1 – (Z/Zn)2 + j 2[ Z ⎥
⎣ Zn ⎦

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 9.5.7 Second Order Zeros [ | GH (jZ) | dB

GH(jZ) = 1 – ⎛
Z⎞ 2
Z
+ j 2[
⎝Zn⎠ Zn 0.1 – 13.97 dB

(a) Magnitude curve

0.2 – 7.95 dB
2
⎡1 – ⎛ Z ⎞ ⎤ + ⎡4 [ ⎡ ⎤ ⎤
2
2 Z 2
| GH (jZ) | =
⎣ ⎝Zn⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎣Zn⎦ ⎦ 0.3 – 4.43 dB

 Since we are dealing with zeros, slope is positive.

0.4 – 1.93 dB
 Hence the conclusions are :
0.5 0
1. Slope is 0 dB for Z < Zn 2. Slope is 40 dB/dec for Z > Zn

3. Slope change occurs at Z = Zn 0.6 1.58

Errors in approximation
0.7 2.92
 To calculate error, substitute Z = Zn in the magnitude plot.
0.8 4.08
2
| GH (jZ) | = 4[ = 2[

 To convert magnitude in decibels, 0.9 5.10

| GH (jZ) | = 20 log (2[) 1.0 6.02

 Hence we can conclude that error depends on value of ‘[’

(b) Phase plot
 For under-damped system, 0 < [ < 1.
⎡ 2[ Z ⎤
Z

⎢1 – ⎛ Z ⎞ ⎥
–1 n
 Let us consider some values of [ to calculate error and plot arg GH(jZ) = tan 2

the magnitude plot for the same. ⎣ ⎝Z ⎠ ⎦

n

NOTES

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Fig. 9.5.7 : Magnitude plot for second order zero ⎛1 – ⎛ ⎞

Z 2
Z ⎞
+ j2 [
⎝ ⎝Zn ⎠ Zn ⎠
(1I11)

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  (TGSWGPE[&QOCKP5RGEKHKECVKQPU  Graphically PM can be computed by drawing a vertical line

downwards on phase plot from Zgc as shown in the Fig. 9.6.2.

(1) Gain crossover frequency (Zgc)

 The frequency value at which magnitude is unity,
i.e., 0 dB is called ‘gain crossover frequency.’
 It is denoted by Zgc.

Note : In simple words, it is the frequency at which

magnitude plot crosses 0 dB.

(2) Phase crossover frequency (Zpc)

The frequency value at which phase of GH (jZ) is
– 180qis called ‘phase crossover frequency.’ It is denoted by
Zpc

(3) Gain Margin [GM]

 Gain margin, a measure of relative stability, is defined as
(1I13)Fig. 9.6.2 : Graphical computation of PM
magnitude of the reciprocal of open loop transfer function,
evaluated at the phase crossover frequency Zpc
Note : Gain margin is measured in decibels (dB) and phase
1
G.M. = margin is measured in degrees.
GH(jZpc)
(5) Bandwidth
where ‘ GH(jZpc) = – 180q
 The bandwidth is defined as range of frequencies over which
 Graphically gain margin can be computed by drawing a the system responds satisfactorily.
vertical line upwards on magnitude plot from Zpc as shown in  It is the range of frequencies over which magnitude ratio does
the Fig. 9.6.1. not differ by more than – 3 dB from its value at specified
frequency.
 For many control systems, this frequency is ‘0’. Hence
Bandwidth becomes equal to Zc, i.e., cut off frequency.
(6) Cut-off frequency (Zc)
The frequency at which magnitude of closed loop response is
3 dB below its zero frequency is called ‘cut-off frequency’.
(7) Cut-off rate
 The cut-off rate is the frequency rate at which the magnitude
ratio decreases beyond the cut-off frequency Zc .
 It is nothing but slope of log magnitude curve near cut-off
frequency.
(8) Resonance peak [Mp]
The resonance peak Mp, a measure of relative stability, is the
maximum value of magnitude of closed loop frequency
response.
(9) Resonant frequency (Zp)
(1I12)Fig. 9.6.1 : Graphical computation of GM
The frequency at which Mp occurs is called ‘resonant
(4) Phase Margin (P.M) frequency’ (Zp).
Phase margin, a measure of relative stability is defined as
(10) Phase margin angle (J)
180q plus the phase angle Iof open loop transfer function at
This is 180q plus the negative trigonometrically considered
unity gain.
angle of transfer function at gain crossover point.
PM = [180q + arg GH (jZgc)] degrees

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  4GNCVKXG5VCDKNKV[#PCN[UKUHTQO
(3) Zgc = Zpc
 $QFG2NQV

UQ. 9.7.1 Explain how stability analysis is done

using Bode Plot. (SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks)

 We can determine the relative stability of the system from

gain margin [GM] and phase margin [PM].
 For stable system, Zgc < Zpc GM and PM = positive.
 For unstable system, Zgc > Zpc GM and PM = negative
Let us consider the following cases
  Zgc < Zpc

(1I16)Fig. 9.7.1(c) : Zgc = Zpc, system is marginally stable

GM = PM = 0

(4) Zpc o f

Zpc o f

PM o + ve

GM o + f

System is inherently stable.

(1I14) (a) GM and PM positive

Hence system is stable
(2) Zgc > Zpc

(d) Zpc o f, PM o + ve, GM o + f

(1I17)Fig. 9.7.1 : Stability determination using GM and PM

(1I15)(b) GM and PM both are negative. System is unstable.

Fig. 9.7.1 contd...

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  5WOOCT[QH$QFG/CIPKVWFGCPF2JCUG2NQVU

Sr. Factor Magnitude (M) Phase (I

No.

1. Constant k 20 log | k | I = 0q for k > 0 = – 180q

for k < 0
n
Poles at origin ⎛ ⎞
1
2. Straight line – 20 n dB/dec and passes through I = 90qn
⎝ jZ ⎠
(Z d%) point
n
3. Zeros at origin (jZ) Straight line + 20n dB/dec and passes through I = + 90q n
[Z = 1, 0 dB] point

4. First order poles

1
(1) 0 dB / dec for Z d p1 I = – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
jZ
1+p
⎝p1⎠
1 (2) – 20 dB/dec for Z > p1

5.
jZ (1) 0 dB / dec for Z d z1 I = tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
First order zeros 1 + z
1
⎝z1⎠
(2) 20 dB / dec for Z > z1

⎡ 2[ Z ⎤
(1) 0 dB/ dec for ZdZn Z
6. Second order poles
1
⎢1 – ⎛ Z ⎞ ⎥
–1 n
(2) – 40 dB / dec for Z!Zn I – tan 2
1 – ⎛ ⎞ + j2[ Zn ⎣ ⎝Z⎠ ⎦
Z 2

⎝Zn⎠ n

⎡ 2[ Z ⎤
(1) 0 dB / dec for Z d Zn Z
7. Second order zeros
⎢1 – ⎛ Z ⎞ ⎥
n
Z 2 –1
1 – ⎛ ⎞ + j2[
Z (2) 40 dB / dec for Z > Zn I tan 2
⎝ Zn⎠ Zn
⎣ ⎝Z⎠ ⎦ n

  5QNXGF'ZCORNGU

 How to draw lines of 20, 40, 60 dB / dec on semilog paper.

 Let us consider few examples to understand how to draw lines r 20, rrd%dec.

Ex. 9.9.1
Draw a + 20 dB / dec line passing through Z = 1 and 10 dB.
 Soln. :
Steps to solve :
(1) Mark the frequencies 0.1, 1 , 10, .... on log Zscale, i.e., X-axis and Magnitude in dB on Y-axis.
(2) At Z = 1 take magnitude 10 dB and mark it as point ‘A’.
(3) Since it is decade, next point at
Z = 10 and point (10 + 20 dB) = 30 dB, i.e., point B.
(4) Draw a line joining point A and B, i.e., a line of slope + 20 dB/dec.

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(1I18)Fig. Ex. 9.9.1 : Line with slope 20 dB/dec

Ex. 9.9.2
Draw a graph with a line of slope – 40 dB/dec from Z = 10 at 0 dB to Z = 100.
 Soln. :
(1) Mark the frequencies 0.1, 1, 10, ...... on X-axis and mark the magnitude on Y-axis in decibels (dB).
(2) At Z = 10 point is at 0 dB.
Mark point A.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-19)
(3) At Z = 100, since it is a decade point (0 + (– 40 dB) = – 40 dB
Mark point ‘B’
(4) Join points A and B. The line so obtained is a line with slope – 40 dB.

(1I19)Fig. Ex. 9.9.2 : Line with slope – 40 dB / dec

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 Simple way to draw various lines on semilog paper

 Mark the values as 0.1, 1, 10 on X- axis and 20 dB, 40 dB, ..... and – 20 dB, – 40 dB ..... on Y- axis, draw faint lines showing the
slope – 20 dB/dec, – 40 dB/dec, – 60 dB/dec, 20 dB/dec, 40 dB/dec ... etc. Use roller scale and shift these lines wherever needed.

(1I20)Fig. 9.9.1 : Reference lines

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  #FXCPVCIGUQH$QFG2NQVU
  'ZCORNGUQP$QFG2NQV
1. In Bode Plots, gain margin and phase margin can be obtained
Ex. 9.12.1
with minimum computational efforts.
24
2. Bode plots are also useful to construct polar plots and If G(s) H(s) = s(s + 2)(s + 12) , construct the Bode Plot and
Nyquist plots of complex transfer function. calculate the gain crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency,
3. Frequency domain specification can be obtained easily gain margin and phase margin and comment on stability.
through Bode Plots.  Soln :
4. In Bode Plots, the product term in G(jZ) becomes the additive
Step I : Convert G(s) H(s) into standard time constant form.
term since logarithms are used.
਋
24
5. Stability of the open loop transfer function can be determined G(s) H(s) =
by using Bode Plots. su਋
2 u਋
12 (1 + 2s) (1 + 12s )
6. Bode plots also indicate clear relative stability of the system.
1
7. Transfer function of the system can be obtained from Bode G(s) H(s) =
Plots. s ( ) (1 + 12s )
s
1+2
8. Logarithms of very small numbers get eliminated as we use
Step II : Converting G(s) H(s) to frequency domain.
semilog graph paper to draw Bode Plots.
1
9. In Bode Plots, semilog graph paper expands the low G(jZ) H(jZ) =
⎛ jZ⎞ ⎛ jZ⎞
jZ  2   12
frequency range which is of great importance. ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
10. They can be constructed with ease using asymptotic
Step III : The transfer function has following factors :
approximations also.
(1) Constant k = 1
11. Bode Plots are also useful to show low and high frequency 1
characteristics of transfer function in one diagram. (2) Pole at origin =
jZ
1
  5VGRUHQT5QNXKPI$QFG2NQVU
(3) First order pole =
1+ 2
jZ

Step I : Convert the given transfer function into time constant 1

(4) First order pole =
jZ
form. 1 + 12
Step II : Convert the transfer function to frequency domain by Step IV : Table of factors
replacing ‘s’ by jZ
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve
Step III : Arrange all the factors present with respect to No.
ascending order of the cut-off frequencies. 1. k=1 Straight line at I=0
Step IV : Prepare factor table showing magnitude curve and 20 log k = 0 dB
phase curve. 2. 1 Straight line of slope I –q
jZ – 20 dB passing
Step V : Prepare magnitude plot table.
Step VI : Prepare phase angle table by considering various through [Z = 1, 0 dB]
3. 1 Lines are –1
I – tan ⎛Z⎞
frequency values in between 0.1 to 1000. jZ
(1) 0 dB for Z d 2
⎝2⎠
Step VII : Draw the magnitude plot and phase plot. 1+ 2
(2) – 20 dB for Z> 2
Step VIII : Mark the values of Zgc and Zpc. Calculate values of
4. 1 (i) 0 dB for Z d 12 –1
I – tan ⎛Z⎞ 
gain margin and phase margin. jZ
(ii) 20 dB for Z > 12
⎝12⎠
1 + 12
Step IX : Determine stability from the values of GM and PM.

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Step V : Using the factor table prepare the final table for –1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal (Z)
Z 1/jZ – tan (Z/2) – tan
⎝12⎠
magnitude plot.
300 – 90q – 89.61q – 87.709q – 267.319q
Sr. Factor Resultant slope Start End
No. point point 500 – 90q – 89.77q – 88.625q – 268.397q
(Z) (Z)
800 – 90q – 89.85q – 89.14q – 268.99q
1. k=1 0 dB 0.1 f
1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 89.31q – 269.19q
1
2. – 20 dB/dec 0.1 2
jZ Step VII : Magnitude and phase plot are plotted on the graph.
1 From 0.1 to 2 o slope is – 20 dB / dec
3. (– 20 dB/dec) + (– 20 dB/dec) 2 12
jZ
1+ 2 2 to 12 o slope is – 40 dB /dec
= – 40 dB / dec

1 12 to f o slope is – 60 dB / dec
4. (– 40 dB/dec) + (– 20 dB/dec) 12 f
jZ
1 + 12  To draw these lines, we use reference lines as discussed
= – 60 dB /dec.
earlier.
Step VI : Phase angle table :  Various phase angles (Itotal) are plotted and joined to form
The total resultant is, phase plot.

Itotal (Z) = – 90q – tan ⎛ 2 ⎞ – tan ⎛12⎞

–1 Z –1 Z
Step VIII : Determination of GM and PM
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Let us first find Zgc and Zpc .
–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal (Z)
Z 1/jZ – tan (Z/2) – tan
⎝12⎠ Zgc = 1 rad / sec from graph

Zpc = 5 rad / sec from graph

0.1 – 90q – 2.86q – 0.477q – 93.337q
 Extend Zgc line on phase plot to get PM.
0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 2.385q – 106.41q
 Extend Zpc line on magnitude plot to get GM.
1 – 90q – 26.56q – 4.76q – 121.32q GM = 0 dB – (– 23 dB) = 23 dB

5 – 90q – 68.198q – 22.619q – 180.81q PM = 180q + (– 120q) = 60q

Step IX : To determine stability

10 – 90q – 78.69q – 39.80q – 208.49q
 Since both GM and PM are positive, system is stable.
50 – 90q – 87.70q – 76.50q – 254.2q

100 – 90q – 88.85q – 83.157q – 262.00q

 NOTES 

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(1I21)Fig. Ex. 9.12.1

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UEx. 9.1 .SPPU - Dec. 16, 8 Marks. Step V : To prepare the magnitude table
Draw Bode Plot of a system with open loop transfer function Sr. Start End
100 Factor Resultant slope
G(s) = s (s + 2) (s + 5) . Determine gain margin, phase margin, gain No. point point
1. k = 10 20 dB 0.1 f
crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency and comment on
stability. 1
2. – 20 dB/dec 0.1 2
jZ
 Soln. : 1
jZ [– 20 dB/dec + – 20 dB/dec]
Step I : Convert the given transfer function to time constant 3. 2 5
1+ 2 = – 40 dB/dec
form
1
100 [– 40 dB/dec + – 20 dB/dec]
G(s) = 4. jZ 5 f
s s
su2 ( )u5 ( )
1+2 1+5 1+ 5 = – 60 dB/dec

10 Step VI : To calculate phase angles

G(s) =
s s
s ( )( )
1+2 1+5 Resultant phase angle

`⎛ 2 ⎞ – tan ⎛ 5 ⎞
Z –1 Z
Itotal = – 90q – tan
–1

Step II : Converting the transfer function to frequency domain ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

put s = jZ Z
1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
jZ – tan
⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝5⎠
10
G(jZ) =
⎛ jZ⎞ ⎛ jZ⎞ 0.1 – 90q – 2.86q – 1.14q – 94q
⎝
jZ 1 + 2 ⎠⎝ 1 + 5⎠ 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 5.71q – 109.74q
Step III : The transfer function has following factors 1 – 90q – 26.56q – 11.30q – 127.86q
1. k = 10 5 – 90q – 68.19q – 45q – 203.19q
1
2. Pole at origin =
jZ 10 – 90q – 78.69q – 63.43q – 232.12q
1 50 – 90q – 87.70q – 84.28q – 261.98q
3. Simple first order pole =
jZ
1+ 2 100 – 90q – 88.85q – 87.13q – 265.98q

1 500 – 90q – 89.77q – 89.42q – 269.19q

4. Simple first order pole =
jZ
1+ 5 1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 89.71q – 269.59q

Step VII : To plot the magnitude curve and phase curve.

Step IV : Prepare table of factor
Here first we will draw magnitude plot for k = 1 and then
Sr.
Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve shift k = 10 i.e. 20 dB/dec
No.
Phase plot is drawn considering various phase angles for
1. k = 10 Straight line of I = 0q various of Z.
20 log k = 20 dB
Step VIII : To determine GM and PM
1
2. jZ Slope of – 20 dB/dec passing I = – 90q Zgc = 4.2 rad/sec
through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec]
Zpc = 3.2 rad/sec
1 Z
3. jZ
1+ 2
Slopes I = – tan– 1 ()
2 GM = – 6 dB
1. 0 dB/dec Zd2
PM = – 10 dB
2. – 20 dB/dec. Z>2
1 Z Step IX : To determine stability
4.
1+ 5
jZ Slopes I = – tan– 1 ()
5
Since GM and PM both are negative system is unstable.
1. 0 dB/dec Zd5

2. – 20 dB/dec Z>5

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Bode Plots)….Page no. (9-25)

(5I2)Fig. Ex. 9.1

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Step V : Magnitude plot table

UEx. 9.2 .SPPU - May 17, 8 Marks.
Draw Bode Plot of the system with open loop transfer function: Sr. No. Factor Resultant slope Start point End point
8
G(s) = s (s + 2) (s + 4) 1. k=1 0 dB 0.1 f
1
Determine stability margins (gain and phase) and corresponding 2. – 20 dB/dec 0.1 2
jZ
frequencies. Comment on stability.
1
 Soln. : 3.
jZ [– 20 dB/dec + (– 20 dB/dec)]
2 4
1+ 2 = – 40 dB/dec
Step I : Convert G(s) H(s) into time constant form
8 1
G(s) = [– 40 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec]
s s jZ
su2u4 1+2 ( )( )
1+4 4.
1+ 4 = – 60 dB/dec
4 f

1
G(s) = Step VI : Phase angle table
s ( ) (1 + 4s)
s
1+2
Itotal = – 90q – tan ⎛ 2 ⎞ – tan ⎛ 4 ⎞
–1 Z
⎝ ⎠
–1 Z
⎝ ⎠
Step II : Converting G(s)H(s) into frequency domain
Z
1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
put s = jZ jZ – tan
⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝4⎠
1 0.1 – 90q – 2.86q – 1.432q – 94.29q
G(jZ) =
⎛ jZ⎞ ⎛1 + jZ⎞
⎝
jZ 1 + 2
⎠⎝ 4 ⎠ 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 7.125q – 111.15q
1 – 90q – 26.56q – 14.036q – 130.596q
Step III : Transfer function has following factors
5 – 90q – 68.198q – 51.34q – 209.538q
1. Constant k = 1
1 10 – 90q – 78.69q – 68.19q – 236.88q
2. Pole at origin =
jZ
50 – 90q – 87.70q – 85.42q – 263.12q
1
3. First order pole =
jZ 100 – 90q – 88.85q – 87.70q – 266.55q
1+ 2
500 – 90q – 89.77q – 89.54q – 269.31
1
4. First order pole = 1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 89.77q – 269.65q
jZ
1+ 4
Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot
Step IV : Table of factors Now in this case we have k = 1.

Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve

Hence no shift is required for magnitude plot. Phase angle
plot is drawn considering various values of ‘Z’.
No.
Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM
1. k=1 Straight line at 20 log k = 0 dB I=0
1 From the graph
2. jZ Straight line of – 20 dB/dec passing I = – 90q
Zgc = 1 rad/sec
through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec]
1 Zpc = 2.9 rad/sec
Z
3.
jZ
1+ 2
Lines I = – tan– 1 ()
2
GM = 12 dB
(i) 0 dB/dec Zd2
PM = 50q
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z>2
1 Z Step IX : To determine stability
4.
jZ
1+ 4
Lines I = tan– 1 ()4
Since GM and PM both are positive. System is stable.
(i) 0 dB/dec Zd4

(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z>4

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(5I4)Fig. Ex. 9.2

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Ex. 9.12.2 Step V : Magnitude plot Table

Draw the bode plot for a system having Sr. Factor Resultant slope Start Stop
100
G(s) = s(1 + 0.5s)(1 + 0.1s) ; H(s) = 1 No. point point

 Soln. : (Z) (Z)

1. k = 100 40dB straight line 0.1 f
Step 1 : Convert G(s) H(s) into standard time constant form. 1
2. – 20 dB /dec 0.1 2
100 jZ
G(s)H(s) = s(1 + 0.5s)(1 + 0.1s) 1
3. [– 20 dB/dec + (– 20dB/dec)] 2 10
jZ
100 1+ 2 = – 40 dB / dec
G(s)H(s) =
s s
( )(
s 1+2 1 + 10 ) 4.
1
[– 40 dB/dec + [– 20 dB/dec]] 10 f
jZ
1 + 10 = – 60 dB/dec
Step II : Convert G(s) H(s) into frequency domain

Put s = jZ Step VI : Phase angle table

100 Itotal = – 90q – tan

–1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞
G(jZ) H(jZ) = ⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
( jZ) 1 + 2 ⎞ ⎛1 + 10⎞
⎛ jZ jZ
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ Z 1/jZ –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
– tan
⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
Step III : The transfer function has following factors
0.1 – 90q – 2.86q – 0.57q – 93.43q
(1) Constant k = 100 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 2.86q – 106.89q

(2) Pole at origin = 1/jZ 1 – 90q – 26.56q – 5.71q – 122.27q

1 5 – 90q – 68.19q – 26.56q – 184.75q

(3) First order pole =
jZ 10 – 90q – 78.69q – 45q – 213.69q
1+ 2
50 – 90q – 87.70q – 78.69q – 256.39q
1
(4) First order pole = 100 – 90q – 88.85q – 84.28q – 263.13q
jZ
1 + 10
500 – 90q – 89.77q – 88.85q – 268.62q

Step IV : Table of factors 1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 89.42q – 269.3q

Step VII : To draw the magnitude and phase plot
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve
First draw resultant magnitude plot for k = 1 and then shift
No.
for k = 100, i.e., 40 dB. Phase plot is drawn considering
1. k = 100 straight line at 20 log k = 40 I = 0q
various phase angles for various values of Z.
1
2. jZ straight line of – 20 dB passing I = – 90q Step VIII : To determine GM and PM
through
Zgc = 12 rad / sec
(Z = 1, 0 dB)
Zpc = 4.4 rad /sec
1 Z
3. jZ
1+ 2
Lines
()
– tan– 1 2
GM = – 18 dB
(i) 0 dB Zd2
PM = – 39q
(ii) – 20 dB Z>2
Step IX : To determine stability
1 Z
4.
1 + 10
jZ Lines
()
– tan– 1 10 Since GM and PM both are negative, system is unstable.
(i) 0 dB Z d 10

(ii) – 20 dB Z > 10

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(3I2)Fig. Ex. 9.12.2

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UEx. 9.3 .SPPU - May 18, 8 Marks. Step V : Magnitude plot table
Sketch the Bode Plot of the system with open loop transfer Sr. No. Factor Resultant slope Start point End point

function : 1. k=1 0 dB 0.1 f

20 1
G(s) = s (s + 2) (s + 10) 2. – 20 dB/dec. 0.1 2
jZ

and determine gain crossover frequency, phase crossover 1

jZ [– 20 dB/dec (– 20 dB/dec)]
frequency, gain margin, phase margin. Also comment on stability. 3. 2 10
1+ 2 = – 40 dB/dec
 Soln. : 1
jZ [– 40 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec]
Step I : Convert G(s) H(s) into standard time constant form 4.
1 + 10 10 f
= – 60 dB/dec
20
G(s) H(s) =
s s
s u 2 u 10 1 + 2 ( )( 1 + 10 ) Step VI : Phase angle table

Itotal = – 90q – tan ⎛ 2 ⎞ – tan ⎛10⎞

–1 Z –1 Z
1 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
G(s) H(s) =
s ( ) (1 + 10s )
s
1+2 Z
1
jZ – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝2⎠ – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝10⎠
Itotal

Step II : Converting G(s)H(s) into frequency domain 0.1 – 90q – 2.86q – 0.57q – 93.43q
put s = jZ 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 2.86q – 106.89q
1
G(jZ) H(jZ) = 1 – 90q – 26.56q – 5.71q – 122.27q
⎛ jZ ⎞ ⎛1 + jZ⎞
⎝
(jZ) 1 + 2
⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠ 5 – 90q – 68.198q – 26.56q – 184.758q

Step III : The transfer function has following factors 10 – 90q – 78.69q – 45q – 213.69q

1. Constant k = 1 50 – 90q – 87.70q – 78.69q – 256.39q

1 100 – 90q – 88.85q – 84.28q – 263.13q
2. Pole at origin =
jZ
1 500 – 90q – 89.77q – 88.85q – 268.62q
3. First order pole =
jZ 1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 89.42q – 269.30q
1+ 2
Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot
1
4. First order pole =
jZ Now in this case we have k = 1.
1 + 10
? 20 log10 1 = 0 dB. Hence no shifting is needed for
Step IV : Table of factors magnitude plot. Phase angle plot is drawn considering various

Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve values of ‘Z’.

No. Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM

1. k=1 Straight line at 20 log k = 0 dB I = 0q From the graph

1 Zgc = 1 rad/sec
2. Straight line of – 20 dB/dec passing I = – 90q
jZ
through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec] Zpc = 4.5 rad/sec
1 Z
3. jZ
1+ 2
Lines I = – tan– 1 ()
2
GM = 20 dB
(i) 0 dB/dec Zd2 PM = 58q
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z>2
Step IX : To determine stability
1 Z
4. jZ
1 + 10
Lines I = – tan –1
()
10
Since GM and PM both are positive. System is stable.
(i) 0 dB/dec Z d 10

(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 10

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(5I5)Fig. Ex. 9.3

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UEx. 9.4 .SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks. Step V : Magnitude plot table
For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function : Sr. No. Factor Resultant slope Start point End point
50
G(s) = s (s + 2) (s + 10) sketch bode plot. 1. k = 2.5 7.95 dB straight line 0.1 f
Determine gain crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency, 1
gain margin, phase margin. Also investigate stability. 2. jZ – 20 dB/dec. 0.1 2
1
 Soln. : jZ [– 20 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec]
3. 1+ 2 2 10
Step I : Convert G(s) H(s) into standard form = – 40 dB/dec
1
50 [– 40 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec]
G(s) = jZ
s s 4. 10 f
s u 2 u 10 u 1 + 2 ( )( 1 + 10 ) 1 + 10
= – 60 dB/dec

2.5 Step VI : Phase angle table

G(s) =
Itotal = – 90q – tan ⎛ 2 ⎞ – tan ⎛10⎞
s s –1 Z –1 Z
s ( )(
1+2 1 + 10 ) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Z
1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
Step II : Converting G(s)H(s) into frequency domain jZ – tan
⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
put s = jZ
0.1 – 90q – 2.86q – 0.57q – 93.43q
2.5
G(jZ) =
⎛ jZ⎞ ⎛ jZ⎞ 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 2.86q – 106.89q
⎝
jZ 1 + 2
⎠⎝ 1 + 10
⎠ 1 – 90q – 26.56q – 5.71q – 122.27q

Step III : The transfer function has following factors 5 – 90q – 68.198q – 26.56q – 184.158q

1. Constant k = 2.5 10 – 90q – 78.69q – 45q – 213.69q

1
2. Pole at origin =
jZ 50 – 90q – 87.70q – 78.69q – 256.39q

3. First order pole =

1 100 – 90q – 88.85q – 84.28q – 263.13q
jZ
1+ 2 500 – 90q – 89.77q – 88.85q – 268.62q
1 1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 89.42q – 269.30q
4. First order pole =
jZ
1 + 10 Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot
Now in this case we have k = 2.5.
Step IV : Table of factors
20 log 2.5 = 7.95 dB. First we will draw magnitude plot
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve
considering k = 1 and then shift by 7.95 dB. Phase angle plot is
No. drawn considering various values of ‘Z’.
1. k = 2.5 Straight line at 20 log k = 7.95 dB I = 0q Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM
1
2. jZ Straight line of – 20 dB/dec passing I = – 90q From the Fig. Ex. 9.4.

through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec] Zgc = 2 rad/sec

1 Z
3.
1+ 2
jZ Lines I = – tan– 1 ()
2
Zpc = 4.4 rad/sec

(i) 0 dB/dec Zd2 GM = 12 dB

(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z>2 PM = 33q

1 Z
4.
1 + 10
jZ Lines I = – tan– 1 10() Step IX : To determine stability
Since GM and PM both are positive. System is stable.
(i) 0 dB/dec Z d 10

(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 10

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(5I6)Fig. Ex. 9.4

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UEx. 9.5 .SPPU - May 18, Dec. 19, 8 Marks. Step V : Magnitude plot table
Draw Bode plot of the system with open loop transfer function
Sr. Factor Resultant slope Start point End point
50
G(s) = s(s + 5) (s + 10) and determine Zgc, Zpc, gain margin and
No.
phase margin.
1. k=1 0 dB straight line 0.1 f
 Soln. : 1
2. jZ – 20 dB / dec. 0.1 5
Step I : Converting G(s) in time constant form
50 1
G(s) = 3. jZ – 20 dB / dec – 20 dB/dec 5 10
s s
s u 10 u 5 1 + 5 ( )( 1 + 10 ) 1+ 5
= – 40 dB/dec

1 1
G(s) = 4. jZ – 40 dB / dec – 20 dB/dec 10 f
s s
( )(
s 1+5 1 + 10) 1 + 10
= – 60 dB/dec

Step II : Converting G(s) into frequency domain Step VI : Phase angle table
G(jZ) =
1
Itotal = – 90q – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞
jZ ⎛1 + 5 ⎞ ⎛1 + 10⎞
jZ jZ ⎝5⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Z
1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
Step III : The transfer function has following factors jZ – tan
⎝5⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
(1) Constant k = 1 0.1 – 90q – 1.14q – 0.57q – 91.71q
1
(2) Pole at origin = jZ 0.5 – 90q – 5.71q – 2.86q – 98.57q
1
(3) First order pole =
jZ 1 – 90q – 11.30q – 5.71q – 107.01q
1+ 5
5 – 90q – 45q – 26.56q – 161.56q
1
(4) First order pole =
jZ 10 – 90q – 63.43q – 45q – 198.43q
1 + 10
50 – 90q – 84.28q – 78.69q – 252.97q
Step IV : Table of factors
100 – 90q – 87.13q – 84.28q – 261.41q
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve
500 – 90q – 89.42q – 88.85q – 268.27q
No.
1000 – 90q – 89.71q – 89.42q – 269.13q
1. Constant Straight line at 20 log k = 0 dB I = 0q
Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot
k=1
Now in this case k = 1. Here no shifting of magnitude plot.
1 Phase plot is drawn considering various values of Z.
2. jZ Straight line of – 20 dB/dec passing I = – 90q
Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM
through [Z = 1, 0 dB]
From the Fig. Ex. 9.5.
1 Z
3. jZ
1+ 5
Lines I = – tan– 1 ()
5 Zgc = 1 rad/sec
(i) 0 dB/dec Zd5 Zpc = 7 rad/sec

(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z>5 GM = 20 dB

1 Z
4.
1 + 10
jZ Lines I = – tan– 1 10() PM = 72q

Step IX : To determine stability

(i) 0 dB/dec Z d 10
Since GM and PM both are positive. System is stable.
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 10

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(5I8)Fig. Ex. 9.5

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UEx. 9.6 .SPPU - May 19, 8 Marks. Step V : Magnitude plot table

Draw Bode plot of the system with open loop transfer function Sr. Factor Resultant slope Start End
40 No. point point
G(s) = s(s + 2) (s + 20)
1. k=1 0 dB straight line 0.1 f
Also determine gain crossover frequency, phase crossover 1
2. jZ – 20 dB / dec. 0.2 2
frequency, gain margin, phase margin. Also comment on stability.
1
 Soln. : 3. jZ – 20 dB /dec – 20 dB / dec 2 20
1+ 2
= – 40 dB / dec
Step I : To convert G(s) in standard form
1
40 4. – 40 dB / dec – 20 dB/dec 20 f
G(s) = jZ
s u 2 u 20 1 + 2
s
( ) (1 + 20s ) 1 + 20 = – 60 dB/dec

1 Step VI : To calculate phase plot

G(s) =
s s
( )(
s 1+2 1 + 20 ) Itotal = – 90q – tan
–1 Z
( ) – tan ( )
2
–1 Z
20

Z
1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
Step II : Converting G(s) into frequency domain jZ – tan
⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝20⎠
1
G(jZ) = – 90q – 2.86q – 0.28q – 93.14q
jZ ⎛1 + 2 ⎞ ⎛1 + 20⎞
jZ jZ 0.1
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
0.5 – 90q – 14.03q – 1.43q – 105.46q
Step III : The transfer function has following factors 1 – 90q – 26.56q – 2.86q – 119.42q

(1) Constant k = 1 (2) Pole at origin = 1/jZ 5 – 90q – 68.19q – 14.03q – 172.22q
1 1
(3) First order pole =
jZ
(4) First order pole =
jZ 10 – 90q – 78.69q – 26.56q – 195.25q
1+ 2 1 + 20
50 – 90q – 87.70q – 68.19q – 245.89q

Step IV : Table of factors 100 – 90q – 88.85q – 78.69q – 257.54q

500 – 90q – 89.77q – 87.70q – 267.47q

Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve
1000 – 90q – 89.88q – 88.85q – 268.73q
No.
Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase angle plot.
1. Constant k = 1 Straight line at 20 log k = 0 dB I = 0q Now in this case k = 1. Hence no need to shift magnitude
1
2. jZ Straight line of – 20 dB/dec I = – 90q
plot. Phase angle plot is drawn considering various values of ‘Z’.
Step VIII : To determine GM and PM
passing through [Z = 1, 0 dB]
1 Z Zgc = 1 rad/sec
3.
1+ 2
jZ Lines I = – tan– 1 ()
2
Zpc = 6.2 rad/sec
(i) 0 dB/dec Zd2
GM = 26 dB
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 2
1 PM = 60q
Z
4.
1 + 20
jZ Lines I = – tan– 1 20() Step IX : To determine stability of system. Since GM and PM
(i) 0 dB/dec Z d 20 both are positive, system is stable.

(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 20

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(5I9)Fig. Ex. 9.6

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Step V : Magnitude plot table

UEx. 9.7 .SPPU - Dec. 18, 8 Marks.
Draw Bode Plot of the system with open loop transfer function : Sr. No. Factor Resultant slope Start point End point
20 (s + 5)
G(s) = s (s + 10) 1. k = 10 20 dB straight line 0.1 f
1
and determine gain margin, phase margin. Also comment on 2. jZ – 20 dB/dec 0.1 5
stability.
jZ
 Soln. : 3. 1+ 5
– 20 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec
5 10
= 0 dB/dec
Step I : To convert G(s) into standard form 1
jZ 0 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec
s

G(s) =
( )
20 u 5 1 + 5 4. 1 + 10
= – 20 dB/dec
10 f

s
( )
s u 10 1 + 10 Step VI : Phase angle table

Itotal = – 90q + tan ⎛ 5 ⎞ – tan ⎛10⎞

–1 Z –1 Z
s
10 (1 + 5)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
G(s) = Z
1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ Itotal
s
s (1 + 10)
jZ tan
⎝5⎠ tan
⎝10⎠
0.1 – 90q 1.14q – 0.57q – 89.43q
Step II : Converting G(s) into frequency domain put s = jZ
0.5 – 90q 5.71q – 2.86q – 87.15q
⎛ jZ⎞ – 90q 11.30q – 5.71q – 84.41q
⎝
10 1 + 5
⎠ 1
G(jZ) =
⎛ jZ ⎞ 5 – 90q 45q – 26.56q – 71.56q
⎝
jZ 1 + 10
⎠ 10 – 90q 63.43q – 45q – 71.57q
Step III : The transfer function has following factors 50 – 90q 84.28q – 78.69q – 84.41q
1. Constant k = 10
100 – 90q 87.13q – 84.28q – 87.15q
1
2. Pole at origin =
jZ 500 – 90q 89.42q – 88.85q – 89.43q
jZ 1000 – 90q 89.71q – 89.42q – 89.71q
3. First order zero = 1 + 5
1 Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot
4. First order pole =
jZ Now in this case we having k = 10.
1 + 10
20 log k = 20 dB/dec. Initially we draw resultant magnitude
Step IV : Table of factors plot considering k = 1 i.e. 0 dB and then shift plot by 20 dB.
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve Phase plot is drawn considering values of ‘Z’.
No. Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM
1. k = 10 Straight line at 20 log k = 20 dB I = 0q From the Fig. Ex. 9.7.
1 Zgc = 15 rad/sec
2. Straight line of – 20 dB/dec passing I = – 90q
jZ
through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec] Zpc = f
jZ Z
3. 1+ 5 Lines I = tan– 1 ()
5 GM = f
(i) 0 dB Zd5
PM = 109q
(ii) 20 dB/dec Z>5
Step IX : To determine stability
1 Z
4.
1 + 10
jZ Lines
()
I = – tan– 1 10 Since GM is f and PM is positive. System is inherently
stable.
(i) 0 dB Z d 10
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 10

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(5I7)Fig. Ex. 9.7

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UEx. 9.8 .SPPU - Dec. 15, 8 Marks. Step V : Using the factor table prepare final table for magnitude
Construct Bode Plot and calculate GM, PM, Zgc and Zpc if plot
200 (s + 20) Sr. Factor Resultant slope Start End
G(s) = s (2s + 1) (s + 40) and H(s) = 1
No. point point
 Soln. : 1. k = 100 40 dB 0.1 f
2. 1 – 20 dB / dec. 0.1 0.5
Step I : Convert G(s) H(s) into standard form
jZ
200 (s + 20)
G(s) = 3. 1 – 20 – 20 = – 40 dB / dec. 0.5 20
1
( )
2 u s s + 2 (s + 40)
1 + 0.5
jZ

G(s) =
100 u 20 (1 + 20s ) 4. jZ
1 + 20
– 40 + 20 = – 20 dB / dec. 20 40

s s
0.5 u 40 u s (1 + 0.5) (1 + 40) 5. 1 – 20 – 20 = – 40 dB / dec. 40 f
jZ
1 + 40
s
100 (1 + 20)
Step VI :
G(s) =
s s
s (1 + 0.5) (1 + 40) Phase angle table

Itotal (Z) = – 90q – tan

–1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛ Z ⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛ Z ⎞
Step II : Converting G(s) H(s) to frequency domain ⎝0.5⎠ + tan
⎝20⎠ ⎝40⎠
Z 1 1 jZ 1 Resultant
100 ⎛1 + 20⎞
jZ jZ jZ
i.e. 1 + 20 i.e. jZ
i.e.
⎝ ⎠ 1 + 0.5 1 + 40 Itotal (Z)
G(jZ) = Z
jZ ⎛1 + 0.5⎞ ⎛1 + 40⎞
⎝
jZ
⎠⎝
jZ
⎠ Z
tan
–1
()
20 Z
– tan
–1
( ) 0.5 – tan
–1
( )
40
Step III : The transfer function has following factors
0.1 – 90q – 11.309 0.286 – 0.143 – 101.166
1
1. Constant k = 100 2. Pole at origin = 0.5 – 90q – 45 1.432 – 0.716 – 134.284
jZ
jZ 1 – 90q – 63.434 2.862 – 1.432 – 152.004
1
3. First order pole = 4. First order zero = 1 + 20 5 – 90q – 84.137 14.036 – 7.125 – 167.378
jZ
1 + 0.5
10 – 90q – 87.137 26.565 – 14.036 – 164.61
1 50 – 90q – 89.427 68.198 – 51.34 – 162.57
5. First order pole =
jZ
1 + 40 100 – 90q – 89.713 78.69 – 68.198 – 169.21
500 – 90q – 89.942 87.709 – 85.426 – 177.66
Step IV : Table of factors
1000 – 90q – 89.971 88.854 – 87.70 – 178.82
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot
No. Now in this case we are having k = 100
1. k = 100 Straight line at 20 log k = 40 dB I=0 20 log10 100 = 40 dB
1 Initially we draw resultant magnitude plot considering k = 1
2. Straight line of slope – 20 dB/dec I = – 90q i.e. 0 dB and then shift plot by 20 dB.
jZ
passing through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec] Phase angle plot is also drawn considering various values of ‘Z’.
1 Z Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM
3.
1 + 0.5
jZ
Lines are
(i) 0 dB/dec
( )
I = – tan– 1 0.5
From the Fig. Ex. 9.8.
Zgc = 7 rad/sec
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 0.5
jZ Zpc = f
Z
4.
1 + 20
Lines are
(i) 0 dB/dec Z d 20
()
I = tan– 1 20
GM = f
PM = 14q (180q + (– 166q))
(ii) 20 dB/dec Z > 20
1
Step IX : To determine stability
Z
5.
1 + 40
jZ
Lines are
(i) 0 dB/dec Z d 40
()
I = – tan– 1 40 Since PM is positive and GM is + f then system is inherently
stable.
(ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 40

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(5I1)Fig. Ex. 9.8

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UEx. 9.9 .SPPU - May 15, 8 Marks. Step V : Magnitude plot table
Draw Bode Plot and obtain gain margin, phase margin, gain Sr. Start End
Factor Resultant slope
crossover frequency and phase crossover frequency if, No. point (Z) point (Z)
50000 (s + 10) 1. k = 1000 60 dB straight line 0.1 f
G(s) H(s) = s (s + 1) (s + 500)
1
2. – 20 dB/dec. 0.1 1
 Soln. :
jZ
1
Step I : Convert G(s) H(s) into standard time constant form jZ [– 20 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec]
3. 1 10
1+ 1 = – 40 dB/dec
s

G(s) H(s) =
50000 u 10 ( 1 + 10) 4.
jZ [– 40 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec]
10 500
s s 1 + 10
s ( ) u 500 ( )
1+1 1 + 500
1
= – 20 dB/dec

jZ – 20 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec
s 5. 500 f
1000 (1 + 10) 1 + 500 = – 40 dB/dec
G(s) H(s) =
s s Step VI : Phase angle table
s (1 + 1) (1 + 500)
Itotal = – 90q – tan ⎛ 1 ⎞ + tan ⎛10⎞ – tan ⎛500⎞
–1 Z –1 Z –1 Z
Step II : Converting G(s) H(s) into frequency domain put s = jZ
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Z 1 Z Z Z Itotal
⎛ jZ⎞
⎝
1000 1 + 10
⎠
jZ – tan– 1 ()
1 ()
tan– 1 10 ( )
– tan– 1 500

G(jZ) H(jZ) = 0.1 – 90q – 5.71q 0.57q – 0.011q – 95.15q

⎛ jZ ⎞ ⎛1 + jZ ⎞
⎝
jZ 1 + 1
⎠ ⎝ 500⎠ 0.5 – 90q – 26.56q 2.86q – 0.057q – 113.75q
1 – 90q – 45q 5.71q – 0.11q – 129.4q
Step III : The transfer function has following factors
1. Constant k = 1000 5 – 90q – 78.69q 26.56q – 0.57q – 142.7q
1 10 – 90q – 84.28q 45q – 1.14q – 130.42q
2. Pole at origin =
jZ 50 – 90q – 88.85q 78.69q – 5.71q – 105.87q
1
3. Simple first order pole = 100 – 90q – 89.42q 84.28q – 11.30q – 106.44q
jZ
1+ 1 500 – 90q – 89.88q 88.85q – 45q – 136.03q
1000 – 90q – 89.94q 89.42q – 63.43q – 153.95q
jZ
4. First order zero = 1 + 10 Step VII : To plot magnitude and phase plot.
Now in this case we have k = 1000
1
5. First order pole = 20 log10 1000 = 60 dB/dec. Initially we draw resultant
jZ
1 + 500 magnitude plot considering k = 1 i.e. 0 dB and then shift plot by
60 dB phase angle plot is drawn considering various values of Z.
Step IV : Table of factor Step VIII : To determine value of GM and PM
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve From the graph
No. Zgc = 17 rad/sec
1. k = 1000 Straight line at 20 log k = 60 dB I = 0q
Zpc = f
2. 1 Straight line of – 20 dB/dec I = – 90q
jZ GM = f
passing through [Z = 1, 0 dB/dec]
3. 1 (i) 0 dB/dec Zd1 Z
PM = 75q

1+ 1
jZ (ii) – 20 dB/dec Z>1
I = – tan– 1 ()
1 Step IX :
To determine stability
4. jZ (i) 0 dB/dec Z d 10 Z Since GM is ‘f’ and PM is positive. System is inherently
1 + 10
(ii) 20 dB/dec Z > 10 ()
I = tan– 1 10 stable.
5. 1 (i) 0 dB/dec. Z d 500 Z

1 + 500
jZ (ii) – 20 dB/dec Z > 500 ( )
I = – tan– 1 500

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(5I3)Fig. Ex. 9.9

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UEx. 9.10 (SPPU - May 16, 8 Marks) 5. 1 1. 0 dB for Z d 10

I = – tan
–1⎛Z⎞
For a unity feedback system, the open loop transfer function is jZ 2. – 20 dB for Z> 10 ⎝10⎠
1+
40(s + 5) 
G(s) = s(s + 10)(s + 2) ; H(s) = 1. Draw bode plot and determine
gain margin, phase margin, Zgc and Zpc. Step V : To prepare the magnitude table
 Soln : Sr. Factor Resultant slope Start End
Step I : Convert the given transfer function to time constant No. point point
form (Z) (Z)
s 1. k = 10 20 dB  f

G(s) =
( )
40 u 5 1 + 5
2. 1 – 20 dB/dec  
s s jZ
( )( )
10 u 2 u s 1 + 10 1+2
3. 1 [– 20 dB/dec + 2 5
s jZ
10 (1 + 5) 1+
(– 20 dB/dec)]
G(s) =  = – 40 dB/dec
s s
s(1 + 10) (1 + 2) 4. jZ [– 40 dB/dec + 20dB/dec] 5 10
1+ 5
= – 20 dB/dec
Step II : Converting the transfer function to frequency domain
Put s = jZ 5. 1 [– 20 dB/dec – 20 dB/dec] 10 f
jZ = – 40 dB/dec
⎛ jZ⎞
10 1 +
1+

⎝ ⎠
G(jZ) =
⎛ jZ⎞ ⎛1 + jZ⎞
jZ 1 +
Step VI : To calculate the phase angles
⎝  ⎠ ⎝  ⎠ Resultant phase angle

Step III : The transfer function has following factors : Itotal = – 90q – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝2⎠ + tan
⎝5⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
1. Constant k = 10 2. Pole at origin = 1/jZ
–1 –1 –1
1 Z 1/jZ – tan tan – tan Itotal
3. Simple First order pole =
⎛1 + jZ⎞ ⎛Z⎞ ⎛Z⎞ ⎛Z⎞
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎝10⎠
⎛ jZ⎞ 0.1 – 90q – 2.86q 1.14q – 0.57q – 92.29q
4.
⎝
Simple first order zero = 1 + 5
⎠ 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q 5. 71q – 2.86q – 101.18q
1
5. Simple first order pole = 1 – 90q – 26.56q 11.30q – 5.71q – 110.97q
⎛1 + jZ⎞
⎝ 10 ⎠ 5 – 90q – 68.19q 45q – 26.56q – 139.75q
Step IV : Prepare table of factors 10 – 90q – 78.69q 63.43q – 45q –150.26q
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve 50 – 90q –87.70q 84.28q – 78.69q – 172.11q
No.
100 – 90q – 88.85q 87.13q – 84.28q – 176q
1. k = 10 Straight line of I = 0q
500 – 90q – 89.77q 89.42q – 88.85q – 179.2q
20 log k = 20 dB
2. 1 Slope of – 20 dB/dec I = – 90q 1000 – 90q – 89.88q 89.71q – 89.42q – 179.59q
jZ passing through Step VII : To plot the magnitude curve and phase curve.
[Z = 1, 0 dB]  Here first we will draw magnitude plot for k = 1 and then
3. 1 Slopes
I – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ shift it for k = 10, i.e., 20 dB.
jZ 1. 0 dB for Z d 2 ⎝2⎠  Phase plot is drawn considering various phase angles for
1+ various values of Z
 2. – 20 dB/dec for Z> 2
Step VIII : To determine GM and PM
4. jZ Slopes
I  tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
1+
 1. 0 dB for Z d 5 ⎝5⎠ Zgc = 4 rad / sec, Zpc = f, GM = f
2. 20 dB/dec for Z> 5 PM = 180q + (– 135q) = 45q
Step IX : To determine stability
 Since GM is + f and PM is positive, system is inherently
stable.

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(1I23)Fig. Ex. 9.10

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Ex. 9.12.3 Step V : To prepare resultant magnitude table

Draw the bode plot for the given transfer function with unity Sr. Factor Resultant magnitude Start End
feedback.
No. point (Z point (Z
0.75(1 + 0.2s)
G(s) = s(1 + 0.5s)(1 + 0.1s) 1. k= – 2.5 dB Straight line  f
Calculate gain margin, phase margin and comment on the stability. 0.75

 Soln. : 2. 1
jZ
– 20 dB / dec  
Step I : The given transfer function is already in time constant
form. 3. 1 (– 20 dB / dec)  
0.75(1 + 0.2s) jZ
1+ + (– 20 dB / dec )
G(s) = s(1 + 0.5s)(1 + 0.1s) 
= – 40 dB / dec
s

G(s) =
( )
0.75 1 + 5 4.
1+
jZ – 40 dB / dec + 20 dB / dec
 = – 20 dB / dec
 

s s
( )( )
s 1+2 1 + 10 5. 1
jZ
(– 20 dB / dec)  f
Step II : To convert the given transfer function into frequency 1+ + (– 20 dB / dec)

domain. = – 40 dB / dec
Put s = jZ Step VI : Table for phase angle plot
⎛ jZ⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝
0.75 1 + 5
⎠ Itotal = – 90q – tan
⎝2⎠ ⎝5⎠ – tan
⎝10⎠
G(jZ) =
jZ ⎛ jZ⎞
jZ ⎛1 + 2 ⎞ 1 + 10 Z Z
–1

⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Z 1/jZ – tan
Z
tan
–1
()
5 – tan ()
–1
10
Itotal

Step III : The factors of given transfer function are () 2

1
(1) Constant k = 0.75 (2) Pole at origin o 0.1 – 90q – 2.86q 1.14q – 0.57q – 92.29q
jZ
jZ 0.5 – 90q – 14.03q 5. 71q – 2.86q – 101.18q
1
(3) First order pole o (4) First order zero o 1 + 5 1 – 90q – 26.56q 11.30q – 5.71q – 110.97q
jZ
1+ 2 5 – 90q – 68.19q 45q – 26.56q – 139.75q
1 10 – 90q – 78.69q 63.43q – 45q –150.26q
(5) First order pole o
jZ
1 + 10 50 – 90q – 87.70q 84.28q – 78.69q – 172.11q
100 – 90q – 88.85q 87.13q – 84.28q – 176q
Step IV : To prepare factor table
Sr. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve 500 – 90q – 89.77q 89.42q – 88.85q – 179.2q
No. 1000 – 90q – 89.88q 89.71q – 89.42q – 179.59q
1. Constant Straight line of 0q Step VII : To plot the magnitude and phase plot
k = 0.75 20 log k = 20 log 0.75
= – 2.49 | – 2.5 dB
 First we plot magnitude plot considering k = 1 and then shift

2. 1 Line with slope –20 dB/dec – 90q by – 2.5 dB for k = 0.75. Phase angle plot is drawn
jZ passing through point considering various values of ‘Z’.
(Z = 1, 0 dB) Step VIII : To determine the values of GM and PM
3. 1 Lines are
– tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ From the graph
jZ 1. 0 dB for Z d 2 ⎝2⎠
1+ Zgc = 0.78 rad/sec
 2. – 20 dB for Z> 2
Zpc = f
4. jZ Lines are
 tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
1+
 1. 0 dB for Z d 5 ⎝5⎠ GM = + f
2. 20 dB for Z> 5
PM = 75q
5. 1 Lines are –1 ⎛Z⎞ 
jZ (i) 0 dB for Z d 10
– tan
⎝10⎠ Step IX : To determine stability of the system.
1+ Since GM is + f and PM is also positive, system is inherently
 (ii) – 20 dB for Z> 10
stable.

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(1I26)Fig. Ex. 9.12.3

Chapter Ends


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 70+6IV
2QNCTCPF0[SWKUV2NQVU
%*#26'4

Syllabus

Polar plot, Nyquist stability criterion and construction of Nyquist plot, determination of frequency domain specifications
and stability analysis using Nyquist plot.

10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 10-2

10.2 Polar plot....................................................................................................................................................................... 10-2
10.2.1 Advantages of Polar Plots ........................................................................................................................... 10-2
10.2.2 Disadvantages of Polar Plots ...................................................................................................................... 10-2
10.3 Procedure to Draw Polar Plot ....................................................................................................................................... 10-2
10.4 Effect of Adding More Poles to the Polar Plot .............................................................................................................. 10-3
10.5 Determination of Zgc and Zpc in Polar Plots ................................................................................................................... 10-7
10.6 Examples on Polar Plots............................................................................................................................................... 10-7
10.7 Simple Method to Check Stability using Polar Plots ................................................................................................... 10-11
10.8 Nyquist Plots ............................................................................................................................................................... 10-12
10.8.1 Nyquist Point of View Pole-Zero Configuration ........................................................................................ 10-12
10.8.2 Encirclement and Counting of Encirclement ............................................................................................ 10-12
10.8.3 Mapping Theorem ..................................................................................................................................... 10-13
10.9 Nyquist Stability Criterion............................................................................................................................................ 10-14
10.9.1 Modified Nyquist Contour .......................................................................................................................... 10-14
10.9.2 Advantages of Nyquist Plot ....................................................................................................................... 10-14
10.10 Examples on Nyquist Plots ......................................................................................................................................... 10-15
UEx. 10.1(SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 10-19
UEx. 10.2(SPPU - May 17, 8 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 10-20

 Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................. 10-22

Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Polar and Nyquist Plots)….Page no. (10-2)

  +PVTQFWEVKQP  Let us mark the following points :

A o 5‘ 0q E o 5‘ – 45q
 In the previous section we have already studied Bode plot. In
Bode plot we have seen that to convert the transfer function B o 04 ‘ 135q
to frequency domain we replace s by jZ. In Bode plot we
C o 5 ‘ + 45q
draw two plots magnitude plot and phase plot on a special
graph paper called semilog paper. D o 3 ‘ 90q
 In this topic we are going to study Polar and Nyquist plots.  Take magnitude as radius and plot the point of that value on
In these plots we plot magnitude and phase using polar the line indicating the required angle.
co-ordinates. Nyquist plots are more accurate and determine
the exact stability of the system. To study Nyquist plot we Note : Angles marked in anticlockwise direction are positive
need to know the concept of polar plot first. So let us start the
chapter first by understanding polar plot. whereas angles marked in clockwise direction are
negative.
  2QNCTRNQV
 10.2.1 Advantages of Polar Plots
 The transfer function G(s) H(s) is converted to frequency
1. Polar plots gives the frequency response characteristics of a
domain by replacing ‘s’ by ‘jZ'. Consider unity feedback
system over entire frequency range in one plot.
system, H(s) = 1
2. Stability of the system can be easily determined.
 Converting to frequency domain we get G (jZ). Express
3. Easier to determine Zgc and Zpc .
G(jZ) in terms of magnitude and phase.
G(jZ) = | G (jZ) | ‘ G(jZ)
 10.2.2 Disadvantages of Polar Plots
Let | G (jZ) | = M
‘ G(jZ) = I 1. Polar plot does not indicate contribution of individual factor.
2. It is difficult to judge stability from polar plots where we
G(jZ) = M ‘ I
have complex transfer function having multiple crossings on
 To draw the polar plot consider various values of Z from – f real and imaginary axis.
to f. Calculate magnitude and phase for each value.
 Mark these angles on graph paper and magnitude
corresponding to those angles.
  2TQEGFWTGVQ&TCY2QNCT2NQV
 Join all the points to get polar plot. Let us see how to draw
polar co-ordinates on graph. 1. Consider different values of ‘Z’ from ‘0’ to ‘f’.
2. Calculate the magnitude and phase at each value of ‘Z’ and
mark various points.
3. Join these points together to form the required polar plot.

Note : By just taking two values Z = 0 and Z = f we can

roughly judge shape of the polar plot.

Let us draw polar plot for first order pole.

Ex. 10.3.1
Draw polar plot for the transfer function.
10
G(s) H(s) = s + 5

 Soln. :
One simple pole at s = – 5
(I) Convert into frequency domain by substituting

s = jZ
10 + 0j
 G jZ + jZ   
(1J1)Fig. 10.2.1 jZ + 5

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(II) Find magnitude and phase of GH (jZ) Step I : Convert G(s)H(s) to frequency domain
2 10
10 G(jZ) H (jZ) =
(a) | GH (jZ) | = 2 2 (jZ)(jZ)
Z +5
10 Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase
| GH (jZ) | = 2
Z + 25
(a) Magnitude
0

(b) ‘GH (jZ) =

tan
–1
10( )
= – tan ⎛ ⎞
–1 Z |G jZ + jZ _  10

– 1⎛Z⎞ ⎝⎠ 
Z + 25

Z +4
tan 5
⎝ ⎠
(b) Phase
(III) Consider various values of Z form ‘0’ to ‘f’
Z
0
| GH (jZ) |
2
‘ GH (jZ)
0q ‘ G jZ + jZ  
tan
–1
(100 ) 
–1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1⎛Z⎞
3 1.714 – 30.96q tan
⎝5⎠ ⎝2⎠
5 1.4142 – 45q
‘ G jZ + jZ   – tan ⎛ 5 ⎞ – tan ⎛ 2 ⎞
–1 Z –1 Z

10 0.894 – 63.43q ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
50 0.199 – 84.28q
Step III : To predict the nature of the polar plot let us consider
60 0.166 – 85.23q
two extreme values.
100 0.099 – 87.13q
 (1) Z=0 
f 0 – 90q
(a) Magnitude
Step IV : Plot the graph on the graph paper. 10
|G jZ + jZ _  =5 10
u 2
=1
( 0 + 25 ( 0 + 4))

(b) Phase

‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – tan [0/5] – tan

–1 –1
[02] = 0q

(1J2)Fig. Ex. 10.3.1 : Polar plot

  'HHGEVQH#FFKPI/QTG2QNGUVQ
 6JG2QNCT2NQV
(1J3)Fig. 10.4.1 : Polar plot
(I) Let us add only simple poles and see the effect.

(1) Two simple poles

10
Consider G(s)H(s) = (s + 5)(s + 2)

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(2) Z=f From the above examples we can conclude that as we
increase the number of simple poles the graph shifts by – 90q.
(a) Magnitude
1. For one pole graph is 0q to – 90q
10 10
| G (jZ) H (jZ) | = ( f + 25)( f + 4)
2 2
=
f
=0 2. For two poles graph is 0q to – 180q
 For three poles graph is 0q to – 270q
and so on.
(b) Phase Note : All the graphs just indicate shape of the polar plots.
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – tan
–1 ⎛f⎞ –1 ⎡f⎤
⎝5⎠ – tan
⎣2⎦ (I) Let us add poles at origin along with simple pole and see the
effect.
= – 90q – 90q= – 180q (1) One pole at origin and one simple pole
(2) Three simple poles Consider the following transfer function
Consider the following example 1
G(s) = s (s + 5)
10
G(s) H(s) = Step I : Convert the given transfer function to frequency
(s) (s) (s)
domain by substituting s = jZ
Step I : Convert the given transfer function to frequency 1
domain substitute s = jZ G(jZ) =
jZ jZ + 5)
10 Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase
G(jZ) H(jZ) =
(jZ) (jZ) (jZ)
(a) Magnitude
Step II : To calculate the magnitude and phase 1
(a) Magnitude | G(jZ)| = 
Z Z + 25
10
| G(jZ) H(jZ) | =
( Z + 25)( Z + 4) ( Z + 1)
2 2 2 tan
–1
(01)
(b) Phase ‘ G(jZ) =
(b) Phase –1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞
tan
⎝0⎠ ⎝5⎠
tan
–1
(100 ) ‘ G(jZ) =
0q
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = ⎛Z⎞ –1
–1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞ 90q + tan
⎝5⎠
tan
⎝5⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝1⎠
– 90q – tan ⎛ 5 ⎞
–1 Z
‘ G(jZ) =
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ – tan – 1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛Z⎞ ⎝ ⎠
⎝5⎠ ⎝2⎠ – tan
⎝1⎠ Step III : Let us consider two extreme values of Z
Step III : Let us calculate magnitude and phase for two extreme (i) Z = 0 magnitude = f phase = – 90q
values of Z (ii) Z = f magnitude = 0 phase = – 180q
(a) Z = 0 magnitude = 1 ; phase = 0q Step IV : Let us plot the polar plot.
b  Z=f magnitude = 0 ; phase = – 270q
Step IV : Draw the polar plot.

(1J5)Fig. 10.4.3
(1J4)Fig. 10.4.2 : Polar plot

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Let us consider two poles at origin and a simple pole. Step IV : Let us plot the polar plot

Consider the following transfer function  From the above examples we can conclude that as we add
10 pole at origin graph starts from f and terminates
G(s) = 2 at ‘0’.
s (s + 5)

Step I : To convert the given transfer function to frequency  As we increase the number of poles at origin the graph shifts
domain replace s = jZ by – 90q.

10
G(jZ) = 2
(jZ) (jZ)

Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase

10
G(jZ) =
(jZ) (jZ) (jZ)

a) Magnitude
10
| G(jZ)| =
Z
 
Z + 25

b) Phase ‘ G(jZ) =
tan
–1
(100 )
–1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞
tan
⎝0⎠ ⎝0⎠ ⎝5⎠
0q (1J6)Fig. 10.4.4
=
–1 ⎛Z⎞
90q + 90q+ tan
⎝5⎠  From the above two cases and few examples we can construct
a table for polar charts.
Phase ‘G(jZ) = – 90q – 90q – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ = – 180q – tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝5⎠ ⎝5⎠
 This table gives us an idea of the shape of the polar charts for
Step III : Let us consider two extreme values of Z various cases.

(a) Z=0 magnitude = f phase = – 180q

(b) Z=f magnitude = 0 phase = – 270q

 NOTES 

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(1J7)Fig. 10.4.5 : Polar plots

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  &GVGTOKPCVKQPQHZIECPFZREKP   'ZCORNGUQP2QNCT2NQVU

 2QNCT2NQVU
Ex. 10.6.1

 We have already seen the concept of Zgc i.e. gain crossover Draw the polar plot for given transfer function
frequency and Zpc i.e. phase crossover frequency in Bode 10
G(s) = s + 2
plot. The frequency at which

| G(jZ) H (jZ) | = 0 dB is Zgc .

 Soln. :
Step I : Convert the given transfer function into frequency
 In polar plots we do not use decibels. Hence we can say that domain
|
frequency at which G(jZ) H (jZ) | = 1 is Z
gc in polar plots.
G(jZ) =
10
(jZ + 2)
 Locate the point of magnitude ‘1’. Draw a circle of radius ‘1’.
 The point where circle intersects polar plot is Zgc. Zpc is Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase
2
frequency at which 10
(a) | G(jZ) | = 2
‘ G(jZ) H (jZ) = – 180q. Z +4

 In polar plots the frequency where polar plot intersects – 180q 10

| G(jZ) | = 2
is Zpc . Z +4

 From Zgc and Zpc we can calculate GM and PM

1 1 (b) ‘ G(jZ) =
tan
–1
(100 )
GM = = X –1 ⎛Z⎞
| G(jZ) H (jZ) |Z Z tan
⎝2⎠
pc

‘ G(jZ) = – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝2⎠
Step III : To draw the polar plot we consider only two extreme
frequencies.
(1) Z=0 magnitude = 5 phase = 0q
(a) Magnitude
10
| G(jZ) | = =5
0+4

(b) Phase


(1J8)Fig. 10.5.1 : Zgc and Zpc in polar plots

‘G(jZ) = – tan
–1
(100 ) = 0q
(2) Z=f magnitude = 0 phase = – 90q
 System is stable only if X < 1
(a) Magnitude
PM = 180q + ‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) |Z = Z gc | G(jZ) | =
10
2 =0
f +4
 These values of Zgc and Zpc are determined from graph, but
(b) Phase
we do not plot polar plots using scale. Hence these values
‘G(jZ) = – tan
–1 ⎛ f ⎞ = – 90q
must be calculated mathematically. ⎝10⎠
 In examples of polar plot we will see how to calculate these
values mathematically.

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Step IV : To draw the polar plot. Step IV : To plot the polar plot
Step V : To calculate Zpc, Zgc , GM and PM
(a) To calculate Zpc

‘ G(jZ) H (jZ) = – 180q |Z = Z pc

–1 ⎛ Zpc⎞ –1
Hence – 180q = – 90q – tan
⎝ 2⎠
(Zpc) – tan

– 1 ⎛ pc⎞
–1
Z
– 90q = – tan (Zpc) – tan
⎝ 2⎠
– 1 ⎛ pc⎞
–1
Z
90q = tan (Zpc) + tan
⎝ 2⎠
Let
–1
tan (Zpc) = A
– 1 ⎛ pc⎞
Z
(1J18)Fig. Ex. 10.6.1 : Polar plot tan
⎝ 2⎠ = B
Ex. 10.6.2 90q = A + B
Draw polar plot for the given transfer function
12 Taking tan on both sides
GH(s) = s(s + 1)(s + 2)
tan (90q) = tan (A + B)
Hence determine if system is stable. Calculate its gain and phase tan A + tan B
margin. f = 1 – tan A tan B

 Soln. : Re-substitute values of ‘A’ and ‘B’

tan (tan– 1 Zpc) + tan ⎛tan– 1 ⎛ 2pc ⎞ ⎞

Z
Step I : Convert the transfer function into frequency domain by ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
f =
1 – tan (tan– 1 Zpc) tan ⎛tan– 1 ⎛ 2pc⎞⎞
putting s = jZ Z
12 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
GH(jZ) = Zpc
jZ(jZ + 1)( jZ + 2)
Zpc + 2
Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase f =
Zpc
1 – Zpc ˜ 2
(a) Magnitude
2
Zpc
12
| GH(jZ)| = 
Z Z + 1 ˜ Z +4

For LHS to be ‘f’, 1 – 2 =0
2
Zpc
(b) Phase 1 = 2
2

‘ GH(jZ) =
tan
–1
(120 ) Zpc = 2
Zpc = r 2
–1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞
tan
⎝0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝2⎠ As we consider only positive values of ZZpc = 2
0q (b) To calculate GM
‘ G(jZ) =
–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ | GH (jZ) |Z = Z
90q + tan (Z) + tan
⎝2⎠ pc
= X
12
‘ G(jZ) = – 90q – tan (Z) – tan
–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞ X =
⎝2⎠ Zpc
2
Z +1
pc
2
Z +4
pc

Step III : To draw polar plot let us consider two extreme values 12
X = =2
2 2+1˜ 2+4
of Z
1
GM = X = 0.5
Z=0 magnitude = f phase = – 90q
Z=f magnitude = 0 phase = – 270q

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(c) To calculate Zgc 10

| G(jZ) | = 2
Z Z2 + 4 ˜ Z + 25
| GH (jZ) |Z = Z gc
= 1 tan
–1
(0/10)
(b) ‘ G(jZ) =
12 –1 ⎛ ⎞ + tan 1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞
Z –

2 2 = 1 tan
⎝0⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝5⎠
Zgc Zgc + 1 Zgc + 4
0q
‘ G(jZ) =
Solve for Zgc –1 ⎛Z⎞ + tan – 1 ⎛Z⎞
90 + tan
⎝2⎠ ⎝5⎠
Note : Put directly equation on calculator.
‘ G(jZ) = – 90q– tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛Z⎞
Zgc = 1.95 rad/sec ⎝2⎠ ⎝5⎠
Step III : To draw polar plot we consider only two extreme
PM = 180q + ‘G(jZ) H(jZ) |Z = Z gc frequencies,
(1) Z = 0
= 180q⎡– 90q – tan (1.95) – tan (1.952)⎤⎦
–1 –1
PM
⎣ magnitude = f, phase = – 90q
10
 PM = – 17.12q (a) magnitude = 0 = f
 Value of X is less than 1 but PM is negative. Hence system is
(b) phase = – 90q
unstable.

(2) Z=f
magnitude = 0 phase = – 270q
10
(a) magnitude = =0
f
(b) phase = – 90q – 90q – 90q = – 270q
Step IV : To draw the polar plot

(1J9)Fig. Ex. 10.6.2 : Polar plot

Ex. 10.6.3
Draw polar plot considering unity feedback system with open loop
10
transfer function G(s) = s(s + 2)(s + 5)
(3J7)Fig. Ex. 10.6.3 : Polar plot
 Soln. :
Ex. 10.6.4
Step I : Convert the given transfer function into frequency
domain The feed forward transfer function of a closed loop system is
1 1
substitute s = jZ G(s) = s(s + 1) and feedback transfer function H(s) = s + 2
10
G(jZ) = (i) Draw polar plot of G(s) H(s)
jZ (jZ + 2) ( jZ + 5)
(ii) Find Z corresponding to ‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 180q
Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase
2
(iii) Find | G(jZ) H (jZ) | corresponding to frequency obtained
10
(a) | G(jZ) | = 2 2 2 2 in (ii).
Z Z +2 ˜ Z +5

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 Soln. : Z
Zpc + 2pc
Step I : The open loop transfer function f =
Z
1 1 – Zpc ˜ 2pc
G(s) H(s) = s(s + 1) (s + 2)
For LHS to be f
Convert the function into frequency domain by putting s = jZ 2 2
Z Zpc
GH(jZ) =
1 1 – 2pc = 0, 2 = 1
jZ( jZ + 1)( jZ + 2)
2
Zpc = 2, Zpc = r 2
Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase
(a) Magnitude Zpc is considered only positive

1 Zpc = 2
| G H(jZ) | = 2 2
Z Z +1+ Z +4 Step VI : To calculate | G(jZ) H (jZ) | Z = Z
pc

(b) Phase 1
| G(jZ) H (jZ) | = 2 2
0 Zpc Z +1˜ Z +4

‘GH(jZ) =
tan 1
–1
() 1
pc

1
pc

= =
tan ⎛ 0 ⎞ + tan ⎛ 1 ⎞ + + tan ⎛ 2 ⎞
–1 Z –1 Z –1 Z
2 2+1˜ 2+4 2˜ 3˜ 6
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1
0q | G(jZ) H (jZ) | = 6
‘GH(jZ) =
–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞
90 + tan (Z) + tan
⎝2⎠ Since | G(jZ) H (jZ) | < 1. Hence system is stable.

‘GH(jZ) = – 90q – tan

–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞
(Z) – tan
⎝2⎠
Step III : To draw polar plot let us consider two extreme values
of Z
Z=0 magnitude = f phase = – 90q
Z=f magnitude = 0 phase = – 270q
Step IV : To plot the polar plot.
Step V : To find value of Z corresponding to – 180q i.e. Zpc

‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 180 Z = Zpc |

–1 –1 ⎛ Zpc⎞
Hence – 180q = – 90 – tan (Zpc) – tan
⎝ 2⎠
–1 –1
– 90q = – tan (Zpc) – tan (Zpc /2)
–1 –1 (3J11)Fig. Ex. 10.6.4 : Polar plot
90 = tan (Zpc) + tan (Zpc /2)
–1
Let tan (Zpc) = A Ex. 10.6.5
tan
–1
(Zpc/2) = B The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given
1
90 = A + B by G(s) = s(s + 1)(2s + 1)
Taking tan on both sides Sketch the polar plot and determine gain margin. Comment on
tan 90 = tan (A + B) system stability.
tan A + tan B
f = 1 – tan A tan B  Soln. :
Step I : Convert the transfer function into frequency domain
Substituting values of A and B
by putting s = jZ
Zpc) + tan ⎛tan
⎛Zpc⎞⎞
–1 –1
1
tan (tan
⎝ 2 ⎠⎠⎝ G(jZ) =
jZ( jZ + 1)(2 jZ + 1)
f =
1 – tan (tan (Zpc)) tan ⎛tan ⎛ 2pc⎞⎞
–1 –1 Z
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠

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Step II : To calculate magnitude and phase 1

| G(jZ) H(jZ)|Z = Zpc = (0.7071)(1.224)(1.732)
(a) Magnitude
X = 0.66
1 Since X < 1 system is stable.
| G(jZ) | = 2 2
Z Z +1˜ 4Z + 1 1
GM = X = 1.499 | 1.5
(b) Phase
–1 GM in decibels = 20 log10 1.5 = 3.52 dB
tan (0/1)
‘G(jZ) =
tan 0 + tan ⎛ 1 ⎞ + tan ⎛ 1 ⎞
– 1⎛Z⎞ –1 Z – 1 2Z
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0q
‘G(jZ) = –1 –1
90q + tan (Z) + tan (2Z)
–1 –1
‘G(jZ) = – 90 – tan (Z) – tan (2Z)
Step III : To draw polar plot let us consider two extreme values
of Z
Z=0 magnitude = f phase = – 90
Z= f magnitude = 0 phase = – 270
Step IV : To plot polar plot
Step V : To calculate value of Zpc

|
‘G(jZ) H (jZ) Z = Zpc = – 180
Hence (3J15)Fig. Ex. 10.6.5 : Polar plot
–1 –1
– 180q = – 90 – tan (Zpc) – tan (2Zpc)
– 90 = – tan
–1
(Zpc) – tan
–1
(2Zpc)   5KORNG/GVJQFVQ%JGEM
–1
90 = tan (Zpc) + tan
–1
(2Zpc)  5VCDKNKV[WUKPI2QNCT2NQVU
–1
Let tan (Zpc) = A
–1  There is one simple method to ckeck stability using polar
tan (2Zpc) = B
plots.
90 = A + B
Taking tan on both sides
tan 90 = tan (A + B)
tan A + tan B
f = 1 – tan A + tan B

Re-substitute A and B
–1 –1
tan (tan Zpc) + tan (tan 2Zpc)
f = –1 –1
1 – tan (tan Zpc) tan (tan 2Zpc)
Zpc + 2Zpc
f =
1 – Zpc ˜ 2Zpc
For LHS to be f
2 2
1 – 2Zpc = 0 – 2Zpc = –1
2 1 1
Zpc = 2 Zpc =
2
Step VI : To calculate G.M.
Let us calculate | G(jZ) H(jZ) |Z = Zpc
1
| G(jZ) H(jZ) |Z = Zpc =
1 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 4 ˜ 2 + 1⎞
1 1 (1J10)Fig. 10.7.1 : Polar plots
2⎝ 2 + 1⎠ ⎝ ⎠
 Consider yourself walking on polar plot from Z = 0 to Z = f.
The entire area to your right side up to infinite radius is

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enclosed by the polar plot. A system is stable if the point  Hence open loop poles o s = 0 and s = – 5 closed loop
(– 1, 0) is not enclosed by the polar plot. transfer function.
 Let us consider a few examples of polar plots. 10
G(s) H(s) s(s + 5)
 If Fig. 10.7.1(a) and (d) point (– 1, 0) is not enclosed. Hence 1 + G(s) H(s) = 10
1 + s(s + 5)
systems are stable whereas in Fig. 10.7.1(b) and (c), (– 1, 0)
10 Roots of equation
point is enclosed. Hence systems are unstable. = o
s + 5s + 10 are closed loop poles.
2

  0[SWKUV2NQVU  Now consider only,

10 s(s + 5) + 10
1 + G(s) H(s) = 1 + s(s + 5) = s(s + 5)
 We have already studied polar plots which form the base of 2
s + 5s + 10 closed loop poles
Nyquist plot. 1 + G(s) H(s) = s(s + 5) o open loop poles
 Now we will study analysis of Nyquist. To understand
Hence now our conclusion :
Nyquist plot we need to understand some concepts related to
 The zeros of characteristic equation are closed loop poles and
Nyquist plots.
poles of characteristic equation are open loop poles.
 10.8.1 Nyquist Point of View Pole-Zero  Hence according to Nyquist for the system to be stable all the
Configuration zeros of 1 + G(s) H(s) i.e. closed loop poles must be in the

 We have already studied the open loop transfer function is left hand side of the ‘s’ plane.
given by G(s) H(s). This G(s) H(s) expressed as ratio of two
polynomials.
 10.8.2 Encirclement and Counting of
N(s)
Encirclement
G(s) H(s) = D(s)
 Any point is said to be encircle if it less inside the closed
 The roots of numerator polynomial are called open loop zeros
path.
and roots of denominator polynomial are called open loop
poles.
 Now let us consider closed loop transfer function
C(s) G(s)
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)
 Here 1 + G(s) H(s) is characteristic equation. The roots of
characteristic equations are called closed loop poles.
 Consider a function F(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s). Hence we can also
express F(s) as the ratio of two polynomials
P(s)
F(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) = Q(s)

 Here roots of P(s) are zeros and roots of Q(s) are poles.
 Whenever we think about the numerator and Denominator. (1J11)Fig. 10.8.1 : Encircled points
Numerator = 1 + G(s)H(s)
 Here points P1 and O are encircled points. By mere inspection
and Denominator = G(s)H(s)
we can say that encirclement at point P1 and ‘O’ is in
 Hence we can conclude that poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are open
loop poles where as zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are closed loop anticlockwise direction.
poles.  But always it is not so easy to determine encirclement.
 To understand this concept, let us consider the following Note : Anticlockwise encirclements are positive and
example.
clockwise encirclements are negative. Let us consider
10
G(s) H(s) = s(s + 5) o open loop poles few examples to understand encirclement.

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(i) (iv)

(1J12)Fig. 10.8.2
(1J15)Fig. 10.8.5
Here we have drawn vector from A towards the point outside
the circle and marked direction of vector. The number of points the  Vector cuts two points. But the direction is opposite. Hence
vector cuts the curve is number of encirclement. they cancel each other.
(ii)
 10.8.3 Mapping Theorem
 Before studying mapping theorem let us first define analytic
function.
 Any mathematical function is said to be analytic at a point in
a plane if its value and its derivative are finite at that point.
 Any function F(s) is said to be single valued if for separate
values of ‘s’, F(s) has only one value.
 Consider a function Q(s) which is single valued, analytic
function for all points in ‘s’ plane except a few.
 These few points of Q(s) are not analytic.
 Let us consider a closed path in s plane denoted by T(s) such
(1J13)Fig. 10.8.3 that Q(s) is analytic at every point.
 The points where function is non-analytic are called
 Since vector cuts at two points and of same direction i.e. singularities.
clockwise.  Now precaution must be taken that T(s) is not passing
(iii) through singularities. From the previous discussion it is clear
that points where function is analytic are zeros and
singularities are poles.
Let
P = Number of poles of Q(s) encircled by T(s)
Z = Number of zeros of Q(s) encircled by T(s)
 This T(s) can be mapped to get another closed path T1(s)
 The mapping theorem states that the locus T1(s) encircles the
origin ‘N’ times

where N = Z–P
 This statement is called principle of argument of mapping.
We can consider three different cases of mapping.
1. P > Z, encirclement in clockwise direction. ? N = – 1
(1J14)Fig. 10.8.4
2. P < Z, encirclement in anticlockwise direction. ? N = 1
 Since vector cuts the two points and the points have same 3. P = Z, encirclement ‘0’. ? N = 0
direction i.e. anticlockwise.

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  0[SWKUV5VCDKNKV[%TKVGTKQP  10.9.1 Modified Nyquist Contour

 Already we have studied Nyquist path. If poles are present at
 We have already studied that poles of 1 + G(s) H(s) are open origin or imaginary axis, they are encircled by small path
jT
loop poles and zeros of 1+ G(s) H(s) are closed loop poles. with radius e where o 0.
 For system to be stable the zeros of 1 + G(s) H(s) should lie
in left Half of ‘s’ plane.
 Nyquist suggested that instead of checking whether all zeros
of 1 + G(s) H(s) lie in left half plane let us check the presence
of any one zero of 1 + G(s) H(s) in right hand plane making
system unstable.
 Hence Nyquist selected entire right hand plane as closed loop
path T(s). This path starts from jf to – jf and is a semicircle
of ‘f’ radius.
 This path is called Nyquist path and it should not be changed
only modified according to requirement.

(1J17)Fig. 10.9.2 : Modified Nyquist contour

Note : If we consider flow of Nyquist path in opposite

direction then the condition becomes.
Z = 0 and N = P
For opposite directionN = P – Z
then
(1) P > Z, encirclement in anticlockwise direction.
? N= 1
(2) P < Z, encirclement in clockwise direction.
(1J16)Fig. 10.9.1 : Nyquist path ? N=–1
(3) P = Z, encirclement ‘0’. ?N = 0
 Poles of G(s)H(s) are poles of 1 + G(s) H(s) are encircled by
the Nyquist path. Map all the points of T(s) to get Tc(s).  10.9.2 Advantages of Nyquist Plot
 The mapped locus of T(s) i.e. Tc(s) is called Nyquist plot.
1. Nyquist plot is useful for determining the stability of the
According to mapping theorem closed loop system from open loop transfer function without
N = Z–P knowing the roots of characteristic equation.

N = No. of encirclements 2. Nyquist plot gives same information about stability as

provided by Routh’s criterion.
 From this we can find values of ‘Z’. Z is number of zeros
3. It also indicates relative stability giving the values of G.M.
encircled by Nyquist path i.e. right hand plane and for
and P.M.
stability Z = 0
4. It also gives information regarding frequency response.
Hence N = – P 5. It also helps the manner in which system should be
 Since point (– 1 + j0) is critical point compensated to yield desired response.
 N is considered to be encirclement of critical point 6. It is very much useful for analyzing conditionally stable
(– 1+ j0). systems.

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For Z = 0
  'ZCORNGUQP0[SWKUV2NQVU | G(jZ) H(jZ) | = 2
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 180q
Ex. 10.10.1
For Z = f
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system
| G(jZ) H(jZ) | = 0
is given by
s+2 ‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 180q + 90q = – 90q
G(s) H(s) = (s + 1)(s – 1) Polar plot is shown in the Fig. Ex. 10.10.1(a).
Determine the closed loop system stability by applying Nyquist (ii) For path b-c-d
jT
criterion. s = Re
 Soln. : lim
Rof
jT
Re + 2
Step I : The given transfer function is G(s)H(s) = lim =0
Rof
(RejT + 1) (RejT – 1)
s+2
G(s) H(s) = (s + 1)(s – 1)
Hence b, c, d are same points
The Nyquist contour for the transfer function is as shown in (iii) For path d-e
Fig. Ex. 10.10.1. s = – jZ
Path d-e is mirror image of a-d.
Step III : To determine stability
There is one pole in RHP
Hence P = 1
Encirclement in anticlockwise direction
N=1 Z = P – N, Z = 0
Since Z = 0 means no closed loop poles in RHP
System is stable.

(3J12)Fig. Ex. 10.10.1 : Nyquist contour

Step II :
(i) For path a-b
s = jZ
(jZ + 2)
G(jZ) H (jZ) =
( jZ + 1) (jZ –1)
2
Z +4
| G(jZ) H (jZ) | = (3J13)Fig. Ex. 10.10.1(a) : Polar plot
( Z + 1) ( Z + 1)
2 2

–1 ⎛Z⎞
tan
⎝2⎠
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) =
⎛Z⎞ +
–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞
tan
⎝1⎠ tan
⎝– 1⎠
Since the real part is negative.

Hence tan ⎛– 1⎞ is 180q – tan ⎛ 1 ⎞

–1 Z –1 Z
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Hence,
⎛ Z⎞
–1
tan
⎝ 2⎠
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = –1 –1
tan (Z) + 180q – tan (Z)
–1
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 180q + tan (Z/2)
(3J14)Fig. Ex. 10.10.1(b) : Nyquist plot

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Ex. 10.10.2 50
G(s) H(s) = lim jT jT
The loop transfer function of the system (R e + 1) (R e + 2)
Ro∞
50
G(s) H(s) = (s + 1) (s + 2) using Nyquist criterion, examine closed |G(s) H(s)| = 0
loop stability of the system. Hence point b, c, d are the same point.
 Soln. : (iii) For path d-a
50 s = – jZ
Step I : The given transfer function is (s + 1) (s + 2)
This path is exact mirror image of path a-b.
The Nyquist contour is as shown in Fig. Ex. 10.10.2.
Step III :
From Nyquist plot we can see there is no encirclement to
point – 1 + j0.
Hence N = 0
From transfer function we can conclude that all the poles are
in LHP and no pole in RHP
Hence, P = 0
N = P–Z
Hence Z = 0
This indicates no zeros i.e. closed loop poles in RHP which
makes system stable.

(3J1)Fig. Ex. 10.10.2 : Nyquist contour

Step II :
(i) For path a-b
50
G(s) H(s) = (s + 1) (s+ 2)

Substitute s = jZ (from Nyquist contour)

50
G(jZ) H(jZ) =
(jZ + 1) (jZ + 2)
50 (3J2)Fig. Ex. 10.10.2(a) : Polar plot
| G(jZ) H(jZ) | =
( Z + 1) ˜ ( Z + 4)
2 2

–1
tan (0/50)
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) =
– 1 ⎛Z⎞ – 1 ⎛Z⎞
tan
⎝ 1 ⎠ + tan ⎝ 2 ⎠
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – tan
–1 –1 ⎛Z⎞
(Z) – tan
⎝2⎠
50
At Z = 0; | G(jZ) H(jZ) | = 2 = 25

‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = 0q
50
At Z = f;| G(jZ) H(jZ) | = = 0
f
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 90 – 90 = – 180q
Hence the polar plot is shown in the Fig. Ex. 10.10.2(a).
(ii) For path b-c-d
lim jT
(3J3)Fig. Ex. 10.10.2(b) : Nuquist plot
s = Ro∞
Re

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Ex. 10.10.3 (ii) For path b-c-d
1 lim jT
Draw the Nyquist plot for G(s) = s (s – 1) and comment on system s = R of
Re
stability. 1
G(s) = lim
 Soln. :
jT jT
R of
Re (Re – 1)
1
Step I : The given transfer function G(s) = s(s – 1) G(s) = 0

There is a pole at origin. Hence we use modified Nyquist Hence points b, c, and d are one and the same.
contour. (iii) For path d-e
It is mirror image of path a-b.
(iv) For path e-f-a
lim jT
s =  o0
e – 90q d T d 90q
1
G(s) H(s) = lim jT jT
e (e – 1)
 o0
– jT
G(s) H(s) = – f e
lim jT
Since e – 1 = – 1
 o0
Magnitude is negative which is made positive by introducing
(3J4)Fig. Ex. 10.10.3 a phase shift of r 180q
– j (T + 180q)
G(s) H(s) = fe
Step II :
The magnitude is f let us consider various values of T from
(i) For path a-b
– 90q to 90q.
s = jZ
(a) T = – 90q
1
Hence G(jZ) = – j (– 90 + 180) – j(90)
jZ (jZ – 1) G(s) H(s) = f e =fe
1 (b) T = 0q
| G(jZ) | = 2
Z Z +1 – j 180
G(s) H(s) = fe
0

‘ G (jZ) =
tan
–1
( ) 1 At T = 90q
– j (90 + 180) – 270 j
–1 ⎛ Z ⎞ + ⎡180q – tan– 1 ⎛ Z ⎞⎤ G(s) H(s) = f e =e
tan
⎝0⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎦ Hence plot will be from – 90q to – 270q with magnitude ‘f’.
Note : Since real part is negative hence we use Step III :

180q – tan ⎛ 1 ⎞
–1 Z To determine stability
⎝ ⎠ P = 1; as one pole on right hand side
0q N = – 1; as encirclement in clockwise direction
‘ G (jZ) =
–1 ⎛Z⎞
90q + 180q – tan
⎝1⎠ N = P–Z
Z = P–N
‘ G (jZ) = – 270q + tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
⎝1⎠ Z = 1 – (– 1) = 2

At Z = 0 | G(jZ ) | = f Since Z = 0. Hence the given system is unstable.

‘ G (jZ) = – 270q

At Z = f | G (jZ) | = 0

‘G (jZ) = – 270q + 90q = – 180q

Polar plot is shown in the Fig. Ex.10.10.3(a).

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This can be written as,

5
G(s)H(s) =
1
( )
s s+5

Since there is pole at origin.

The Nyquist contour modified is as shown in
Fig. Ex. 10.10.4.

(3J5)Fig. Ex. 10.10.3(a) : Polar plot

(3J8)Fig. Ex. 10.10.4 : Modified Nyquist contour

Step II :
(i) For path a-b
s = jZ
1
G(jZ) H(jZ) =
1
(
jZ jZ + 5 )
1
G(jZ) H(jZ) =
jZ( jZ + 0.2)
1
| G(jZ) H (jZ) | = 2
Z Z + 0.04
–1
tan (0/1)
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) =
– 1 ⎛Z⎞ –1 ⎛ Z ⎞
tan
⎝ 0 ⎠ + tan ⎝0.2⎠
0q
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) =
–1 ⎛Z⎞
90q + tan
⎝0.2⎠
(3J6)Fig. Ex. 10.10.3(b) : Nyquist plot
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 90q – tan
–1 ⎛Z⎞
Ex. 10.10.4
⎝0.2⎠
Investigate stability of closed loop system whose open loop For Z = 0
5 1
transfer function is G(s) H(s) = (1 + 5s) using Nyquist stability | G(jZ) H (jZ) | = 0 = f
criterion. ‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 90q
 Soln. : Z = f
Step I : The given transfer function | G(jZ) H(jZ) | = 0
5
G(s)H(s) = s(1 + 5s) ‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 90q – 90q = – 180q
The polar plot is shown in the Fig. Ex. 10.10.4(a).

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(ii) For path b-c-d

1
G(s)H(s) = lim jT jT
Rof
Re ( Re + 0.2)

G(s)H(s) = 0
Since magnitude is 0. b, c, d are the same points.
(iii) For path d-e
This path is mirror image of path a-b
(iv) For path e-f-a
1
G(s) H(s) = lim 0
jT jT
e (e + 0.2)
o0
– jT
G(s) H(s) = f e – 90q d T d 90q
Let us substitute various values of T,
(a) T = – 90q (3J10)Fig. Ex. 10.10.4(b) : Nyquist plot
– j90
G(s)H(s) = f e ? Magnitude = f; T = – 90
UEx. 10.1 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 8 Marks)
(b) T = 0q
0 Sketch Nyquist plot and investigate the stability of a system with
G(s)H(s) = f e Magnitude = f; T = 0
(c) T = 90q open loop transfer function
j90 50
G(s)H(s) = f e ? Magnitude = f, T = 90q G(s) H(s) = (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 5)
Step III : To determine stability
 Soln. :
No pole in RHP
Step I : Position of poles
Hence P = 0
at s = – 1, s = – 2, s = – 5
No encirclement to point – 1 + j0
There are no poles in RHS.
Hence N = 0
? For stability N = 0
N = P–Z Step II : The Nyquist contour is as shown in Fig. Ex. 10.1.
Hence Z = 0
Hence there are no zeros i.e. closed loop poles in RHS. Hence
system is stable.

(5J1)Fig. Ex. 10.1 : Nyquist contour

The Nyquist contour paths are

(i) Path a - b, s = jZ
lim jT
(ii) Path b - c - d, s = Re
Rof
(3J9)Fig. Ex. 10.10.4(a) : Polar plot (iii) Path d - a, s = – jZ

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Step III : For path a - b 50

X =
50 ( 2
(4.13) + 1 )( 2
(4.13) + 4 )( 2
(4.13) + 25 )
G(s) H(s) = (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 5) 50
X =
put s = jZ 4.249 u 4.588 u 6.485
50 X = 0.395
G(jZ) H(jZ) =
(jZ + 1) (jZ + 2) (jZ + 5)
There is no encirclement to point – 1 + j0. Hence, N = 0.
50
| G(jZ) H(jZ) | = Hence, system is stable.
( 2
Z +1 )( 2
Z +4 )( 2
Z + 25 )
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) =
–1 ⎛Z ⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛Z ⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛Z ⎞
– tan
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠
(i) At Z = 0
50
| G(jZ) H(jZ) | = =5
1u2u5
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = 0q
(ii) At Z = f
| G(jZ) H(jZ) | = 0
‘G(jZ) H(jZ) = – 90 – 90 – 90
(5J2)Fig. Ex. 10.1(a) : Polar plot
= – 270q
The polar plot is shown in the graph.
Step IV : For path b - c - d
lim jT
s = Re
Rof
50
| G(s) H(s) | = lim jT jT jT
(Re + 1) (Re + 2) (Re + 5)
Rof
| G(s) H(s) | = 0
Step V : For path d - a
s = – jZ
(5J3)Fig. Ex. 10.1(b) : Nyquist plot
This is mirror image of path a - b. The entire plot is shown in
the Fig. UEx. 10.2 (SPPU - May 17, 8 Marks)
Step VI : To check the stability For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function
20
Let us calculate value of X G(s) = s(s + 1) (s + 10)
‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) |Z = Z = – 180q
pc Sketch Nyquist plot and investigate stability.
–1 ⎛Z ⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛Z ⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛Z ⎞ = – 180q  Soln. :
– tan
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠
Using trial and error method by substituting various values of Step I : Position of poles
Z from Z = 1, s = 0 , s = – 1 and s = – 10
we get Zpc = 4.13 There are no poles in RHS.
Hence for stability , N = 0.
At Z = 4.13 we get – 180.10
Hence approximately Zpc = 4.13

Now consider magnitude condition

| G(jZ) H(jZ) | = X
Z = Zpc

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Step II : The Nyquist contour is as shown in Fig. Ex. 10.2. A + B = 90q

Taking tan on both sides,
tan (A + B) = tan 90q
tan A + tan B
1 – tan A tan B = f
For answer to be ‘f’,
1 – tan A tan B = 0
tan A tan B = 1
The polar plot is shown in the Fig.
Step IV : For path b - c - d
lim jT
s = Re
(5J4)Fig. Ex. 10.2 : Nyquist contour Rof
20
G(s) = lim
Step III : For path a - b jT jT jT
Re (Re + 1) (Re + 2)
Rof
Substitute s = jZ.
20 G(s) = 0
G(jZ) =
jZ (jZ + 1) (jZ + 10) Hence b, c, d are same points.
20
| G(jZ) | = We need not calculate angle.
Z 2 2
Z +1 Z + 100
Step V : For path d - e
0

‘G(jZ) =
tan 1
–1
() s = – jZ

tan ⎛ 0 ⎞ + tan ⎛ 1 ⎞ + tan ⎛10 ⎞

–1 Z –1 Z –1 Z Path d - e is mirror image of path a - b
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ Step VI : For path e - f - a
‘G(jZ) = – 90 – tan
–1 ⎛Z ⎞ – tan– 1 ⎛ Z ⎞ lim
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝10 ⎠
jT
s = e
o0
(i) At Z = 0 lim 20
G(s) =
20  o 0 ejT (ejT + 1) (ejT + 10)
| G(jZ) | = 0 =f
G(s) = f
‘G(jZ) = – 90 – 0 – 0 = – 90 Semicircle of ‘f’ radius from e to a.
(ii) At Z = f Re-substituting value of A and B,

(Z)) ˜ tan ⎛tan ⎛Z ⎞ ⎞

| G(jZ) | = 0 –1 –1
tan (tan
⎝ ⎝10 ⎠ ⎠ = 1
‘G(jZ) = – 90 – 90 – 90
Z 2
= – 270q Z ˜ 10 = 1 Z = 10

Step VII : To check stability we need to calculate ‘X’ Z = r 10 Z = r 3.166

‘ G(jZ) H(jZ) |Z = Z = – 180q
pc Since frequency is always positive,
–1 –1 ⎛ Z ⎞ = – 180q Z = + 3.166
– 90 – tan (Z) – tan
⎝10 ⎠
Using magnitude condition,
–1 –1 ⎛Z ⎞
– tan (Z) – tan
⎝10 ⎠ = – 90q | G(jZ) |Z = Z
pc
= X
–1 –1 ⎛Z ⎞ = 20
tan (Z) + tan
⎝10 ⎠ 90q X =
3.166 2
(3.166) + 1
2
(3.166) + 100
–1
Let tan (Z) = A 20
X =
3.166 u 3.320 u 10.489
–1 ⎛Z ⎞ = B
tan
⎝10 ⎠
X = 0.181

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X  1
Hence no encirclement to point – 1 + j0
? N = 0
Hence, system is stable.

(5J5)Fig. Ex. 10.2(a) : Polar plot

(5J6)Fig. Ex. 10.2(b) : Nyquist plot

Chapter Ends


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 70+6V 5VCVG5RCEG
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Syllabus

State space advantages and representation, Transfer function from State space, physical variable form, phase variable
forms : controllable canonical form, observable canonical form, Solution of homogeneous state equations, state
transition matrix and its properties, computation of state transition matrix by Laplace transform method only.

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 11-3

11.1.1 Advantages of Conventional Control Theory .............................................................................................. 11-3
11.1.2 Disadvantages of Conventional Control Theory.......................................................................................... 11-3
11.1.3 Advantages of Modern Control, i.e., State Variable Approach.................................................................... 11-3
11.1.4 Disadvantages of Modern Control Theory .................................................................................................. 11-3
11.2 Concepts of State, State Variable and State Model ..................................................................................................... 11-3
11.2.1 Concept of State.......................................................................................................................................... 11-3
11.2.2 Definition of State, State Variables, State Vectors and State Space ........................................................ 11-4
UQ. 11.2.1 Define the following : (i) State (ii) State variables (iii) State vector (iv) State space.
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 11-4
11.3 State Variable Representation of Control System ...................................................................................................... 11-4
11.4 State Model of Linear System ...................................................................................................................................... 11-5
11.5 State Diagram Representation ..................................................................................................................................... 11-6
11.6 Non-uniqueness of State Variable ................................................................................................................................ 11-6
11.7 State Space Representation by Specific Type of State Variables .............................................................................. 11-7
11.7.1 Forming State Models by Physical Variables .............................................................................................. 11-7
UEx. 11.1 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 7 Marks) ......................................................................................................................... 11-8
UEx. 11.2 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 11-8
UEx. 11.3 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) .......................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.7.2 Forming State Model by Phase Variables ................................................................................................. 11-10
UQ. 11.7.1 With the help of general equation, explain concept of controllable canonical and observable
canonical form of state space. (SPPU - May 15, 7 Marks) ................................................................. 11-10
11.7.2(A) State Space Representation using Phase Variable in Observable Controllable Form ............................ 11-10
11.7.3 State Variable Model by Phase Variables Using Differential Equation ..................................................... 11-11
11.7.3(A) Disadvantages of Phase Variable Formulation ......................................................................................... 11-12
11.7.3(B) Special Form of Matrix A ........................................................................................................................... 11-12
11.7.4 To Obtain Transfer Function From State Model........................................................................................ 11-12
UEx. 11.4 (SPPU - May 16, Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................ 11-13
UEx. 11.5 (SPPU - May 17, 7 Marks) ....................................................................................................................... 11-13
UEx. 11.6 (SPPU - May 18, 7 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 11-14
UEx. 11.7 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ....................................................................................................................... 11-14
UEx. 11.7.2 (SPPU - Dec.19, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-15
UEx. 11.8 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) ........................................................................................................................ 11-15
11.7.5 To Obtain State Variable from the Transfer Function ............................................................................... 11-16
UEx. 11.9 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks) ....................................................................................................................... 11-17
UEx. 11.10 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-18
Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-2)
UEx. 11.11 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-18
UEx. 11.12 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-19
UEx. 11.13 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-20
UEx. 11.14 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 11-20
UEx. 11.15 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-21
UEx. 11.16 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-21
UEx. 11.17 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-23
11.7.6 Canonical form of State Variable Model .................................................................................................... 11-24
11.8 Diagonalization ........................................................................................................................................................... 11-25
11.9 Solution of LTI State Equations .................................................................................................................................. 11-25
11.9.1 Homogenous State Equation .................................................................................................................... 11-25
UQ. 11.9.1 Write a short note on ‘State transition matrix’. (SPPU - Dec. 15, May 16, 3 Marks) ........................... 11-25
UQ. 11.9.2 Derive the expression for state transition matrix by Laplace transform method.
(SPPU - Dec 16, May 18, 4 Marks) ..................................................................................................... 11-25
UQ. 11.9.3 Derive formula of state transition matrix. (SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks) ................................................. 11-25
11.9.1(A) Properties of State Transition Matrix ......................................................................................................... 11-26
UQ. 11.9.4 State properties of state transition matrix.
(SPPU - Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 16, May 17, May 18, 3 Marks) ......................................................... 11-26
11.9.2 Examples on State Transition Matrix ........................................................................................................... 11-26
11.9.3 Solution of Non-Homogenous State Equation ............................................................................................... 11-28
11.9.4 Another Way of Solution of LTI Solution Equation ......................................................................................... 11-28
11.9.4(A) Various Methods of Computing the State Transition Matrix ....................................................................... 11-28
11.9.5 Solution using Laplace Transform ................................................................................................................. 11-29
UQ. 11.9.5 Derive the formula for obtaining transfer function from state model. (SPPU - Dec. 17, 3 Marks) ....... 11-29
UEx. 11.18 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-30
UEx. 11.19 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-30
UEx. 11.20 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-31
UEx. 11.21 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-32
UEx. 11.22 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-32
UEx. 11.23 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-33
UEx. 11.24 (SPPU - Dec. 17, May 18, 7 Marks) ....................................................................................................... 11-33
UEx. 11.9.4 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ................................................................................................................... 11-34
UEx. 11.25 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-35
UEx. 11.26 (SPPU - May 19, 7 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-35
11.10 Concept of Controllability and Observability ........................................................................................................... 11-36
UQ. 11.10.1 Define the following : (i) State controllability (ii) State observability.
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 2 Marks) .................................................................................................................. 11-36
11.10.1 Controllability ............................................................................................................................................. 11-36
11.10.2 Observability.............................................................................................................................................. 11-36
UEx. 11.27 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-36
UEx. 11.28 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-37
UEx. 11.29 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-37
UEx. 11.30 (SPPU - May 15, Dec. 19, 7 Marks) ......................................................................................................... 11-38
UEx. 11.31 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-38
UEx. 11.32 (SPPU - May 18, 7 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-39
UEx. 11.33 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-40
UEx. 11.34 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-40
UEx. 11.35 (SPPU - May 17, 7 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 11-41
UEx. 11.36 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 7 Marks) ..................................................................................................................... 11-42
Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................. 11-44

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-3)

  +PVTQFWEVKQP  11.1.4 Disadvantages of Modern Control

We have already studied the transfer function approach of Theory
control system using block diagram reduction, signal flow graph, 1. Complex techniques involved.
mathematical modelling, etc. The transfer function gives relation
2. Lot of computational work is required.
between input and output variables. In this chapter we are going to
study a new approach, that is, state variable approach.
State variable approach helps us to study the timely behaviour   %QPEGRVUQH5VCVG5VCVG
of internal variables of the model. These variables are useful to  8CTKCDNGCPF5VCVG/QFGN
determine behaviour of a signal in any internal part of the system
and also helps in determining the output variables of the system.
The conventional approach of control system is generally  11.2.1 Concept of State
used for linear, time-invariant systems and in these systems the
most common approach is to consider initial conditions zero. The  To understand the meaning of state, let us consider the
modern approach of control system can be used for linear as well following R-C circuit.
as non-linear systems, time-variant as well as time-invariant
systems.
Hence, let us now study the state variable model and method
of solutions of state equations.

 11.1.1 Advantages of Conventional

Control Theory (1l1)Fig. 11.2.1
1. Simple techniques are used.
 The capacitor gets charged by current i(t) and the voltage at
2. Requires less computation.
capacitor is v(t). The current through capacitor is i(t) and
3. Provides good physical insight into the system. voltage is v(t).
4. Various types of inputs can be used to design the system. dv(t)
i = C dt
 11.1.2 Disadvantages of Conventional 1
Control Theory dv(t) = C i dt

1. Very useful for Single Input Single Output [SISO] System.  Integrating both sides,
1
2. For Multiple Input Multiple Output [MIMO] system
conventional approach is very complex.
∫ ∫
dv(t) = C i dt

3. They are useful for linear time-invariant systems and cannot t

be used for non-linear, time varying systems.
1
∫
v(t) = C i dt + vo(t)
4. It is difficult to understand internal state of the system t0
parameters.
 Here, vo(t) is the initial condition. It is value at t = 0.
5. Trial-and-error approach is used, which is not a optimal
 Applying KVL to the above current we get,
method.
t
 11.1.3 Advantages of Modern Control,
1
∫
V1 = R1 i(t) + C i dt + vo(t)
i.e., State Variable Approach t0
1. This method considers effect of all initial conditions. where vo(t) is the initial condition.
2. This method can be applied to non-linear systems as well as  Now it is very important to note that the knowledge of vo(t) is
time-varying systems. also very important.
3. This approach can be easily applied to multiple input multiple  Hence initial voltage in the capacitor forms state variable.
output system.  &GHKPKVKQPQHUVCVGXCTKCDNG
4. Any type of input can be considered while designing the
+VKUVJGUOCNNGUVUGVQHXCTKCDNGUYJKEJFGVGTOKPGUUVCVGQH
system.
F[PCOKEU[UVGO
5. This method involves matrix algebra, hence can be adopted
for digital computers.  If ‘n’ variables x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), … xn(t) are needed
6. State variable selected need not be physical quantity of the completely to describe the system behavior, then once the
system. inputs are given to the system for t > t0 and initial conditions
7. Vector matrix notation simplifies mathematical representation of state are specified, then it is easy to determine the future
of the system. state of system completely.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-4)
 Hence such n variables x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), … xn(t) are set of If we try to represent in matrix form,
state variables. These state variables need not be measureable ⎡ x· 1 ⎤
⎢ · ⎥ = ⎡⎣ 0 0 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ x ⎤+
0 1 x1
or observable quantities.
⎣ x2 ⎦ 2 ⎦ [M1 ] r
 11.2.2 Definition of State, State where r = F(t)
Variables, State Vectors and
State Space In state variable theory input is defined as r(t).
For the desired output,
UQ. 11.2.1 Define the following : ⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [0 1]
(i) State (ii) State variables ⎣ x2 ⎦
In this system only two variables are involved, x1 and x2. x1 is
(iii) State vector (iv) State space
related to position and x2 is related to velocity.
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 4 Marks) The state equation and output equations can be compressed
as,
1. State : The state of dynamic system is defined as minimum
set of variables such that knowledge of these variables at ·
x = Ax + r o State equation
t = t0 together with knowledge of these variables for t t t0 y = Cc x o Output equation
completely determines the behaviour of the system for t > t0. where A = matrix, x = vector
2. State variables : The variables that are involved
Cc = vector transposer
in determining the state of dynamic system x(t),
i.e., x1(t), x2(t), … xn(t) are called ‘state variables’. These are r and y = scalar values
normally energy storing elements present in the system. 5. State trajectory : It is defined as locus of types of state
vectors with time as implicit variables.
3. State vector : The n state variables which are necessary to
describe complete behaviour of the system can be determined
as components of vector x(t). Such vectors are called ‘state   5VCVG8CTKCDNG4GRTGUGPVCVKQP
vectors’.
4. State space : The n-dimensional space whose
 QH%QPVTQN5[UVGO
co-ordinate axis consists of x1 axis, x2 axis …, xn axis is
called ‘state space’. Any state can be represented by a point in Consider a Multiple Input Multiple Output system (MIMO).
state space.
Consider a following mechanical system :

(1l2)Fig. 11.2.2 : Mechanical system

In this system mass ‘m’ is acted by force F(t). This system is

characterized by following relations : (1l3)Fig. 11.3.1 : Structure of general control system
d 1
dt v(t) = M F(t) …(11.2.1)
m = number of inputs
d n = number of state variables
dt x(t) = v(t) …(11.2.2)
p = number of outputs
Let variable x1 = x i.e. position For the n state variables, the first order differential equations are :
x2 = v i.e. velocity dx1 ·
d
x2 = dt x1 dt = x1 = f1 (x1, x2, ... xn; u1, u2, ... um) ...(11.3.1)
dx2 ·
· ·
x1 = x1 i.e. x dt = x2 = f2 (x1, x2, ... xn; u1, u2, ... um) ...(11.3.2)
From the above two equations we can conclude, dxn ·
·
x 1 = x2 ...(11.2.3) dt = xn = fn (x1, x2, ... xn; u1, u2, ... um) ...(11.3.3)

· · 1
x2 = v = M F(t) …(11.2.4)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-5)
The n-differential equation can be represented in vector  The state variables x1, x2, ... xn from ‘n’ dimensional space is
notation as,
called ‘state space’.
·
x(t) = f (x(t), u(t)) …(11.3.4)
 The state equation and output equation together is called
For time varying system, ‘t’ also becomes parameter.
‘state model of the system’.
·
x(t) = f (x(t), u(t), t) …(11.3.5)
Similarly we can also express relationship for outputs,
  5VCVG/QFGNQH.KPGCT5[UVGO
y1 = g1 (x1, x2, ... xn; u1, u2, ... um) …(11.3.6)

y2 = g2 (x1, x2, ... xn; u1, u2, ... um) …(11.3.7) In case of linear time invariant system,
·
x1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn + b11 u1 + b12 u2 + ...+ b1m um
yp = gp (x1, x2, ... xn; u1, u2, ... um) …(11.3.8)
·
The equations in vector notation is, x2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn + b21 u1 + b22 u2 + ... + b2m um
y(t) = g (x(t), u(t)) ...(11.3.9) ‫ڭ‬
For time-varying case, ‫ڭ‬
y(t) = g (x(t), u(t), t) ...(11.3.10) ·
xn = an1 x1 + an2 x2 + ... + ann xn + bn1 u1 + bn2 u2 + ... bnm um
To represent these equations in matrix form,
 Vector notation ˜

⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡
a11 a12 a13 }}} a1n

⎤⎡
x1(t)

⎤
⎢ ⎥
x1(t)
⎡ ⎤ ˜
⎢ a21 a22 a23 }}} a2n
⎥⎢ x2(t)
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x2(t) x2(t)
=
State vector, x(t) =
⎢⎥ ⎢

⎥ ⎢ 
⎥⎢ 
⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
an1 an2 an3 }}} ann xn(t)
˜
xn(t) xn(t)
}}} u1(t)

⎡
b11 b12 b13 b1n

⎤⎡ ⎤
u1(t)
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ b21 b22 b23 }}} b2n
⎥⎢ u2(t)
⎥
⎢ ⎥
u2(t)
+
Input vector, u(t) =
⎢⎥ ⎢ 
⎥⎢ 
⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
bn1 bn2 bn3 }}} bnn um(t)
um(t) ·
i.e. x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
y1(t)
⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 a13 }}}
⎡ ⎤
a1n

⎢ ⎥
y2(t)
where A =
⎢ a21 a22 a23 }}} a2n
⎥
⎢ ⎥
Output vector, y(t) =
⎢⎥ 

⎣ ⎦yp(t)
⎣
an1 an2 an3 }}} ann ⎦
Function f and g, = system matrix (n u n) matrix
b11 b12 b13 }}} b1m
⎡ ⎤
f1 g1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
f2
⎢ ⎥
g2
B =
⎢ b21 b22 b23 }}} b2m
⎥
f=
⎢⎥
, g=
⎢⎥ ⎢ 
⎥
⎣ ⎦fn ⎣ ⎦ gp
⎣
bn1 bn2 bn3 }}} bnm ⎦
= Input matrix (n u m) matrix
 Equations (11.3.4) and (11.3.5) represent state equations x(t) = State vector o n u 1 ; u(t) = Input vector o m u 1
whereas Equations (11.3.9) and (11.3.10) represent output
equations.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-6)

 Output equation
y1(t) = c11 x1(t) + c12 x2(t) + ... + c1n xn(t) + d11 u1(t)
+ d12 u2(t) + ... d1m um(t)
y2(t) = c21 x1(t) + c22 x2(t) + ... + c2n xn(t) + d21 u1(t)
+ d22 u2(t) + ... d2m um(t)
yp(t) = cp1 x1(t) + cp2 x2(t) + ... + cpn xn(t) + dp1 u1(t)
+ dp2 u2(t) + ... dpm um(t)
Hence we can write, y(t) = C x(t) + D u(t)
c11 c12 }}} c1n
⎡ ⎤ (1l6)Fig. 11.5.1

where C =
⎢ c21 c22 }}} c2n
⎥ Using these interconnection blocks, let us draw diagram for
MIMO system and SISO system.
⎢ 
⎥
⎣ cp1 cp2 }}} cpn ⎦
= Output matrix (p u n)
d11 d12 }}} d1m
⎡ ⎤
D =
⎢ d21 d22 }}} d2m
⎥ (1l7)Fig. 11.5.2 : MIMO system

⎢ 
⎥
⎣dp1 dp2 }}} dpm ⎦
D = Transmission matrix (p u m)
Hence the state model for linear time invariant system,
·
x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)
(1l8)Fig. 11.5.3 : SISO system
· dx
Note : The output of integrator for input x = dt , i.e., x(t).
MIMO o Multiple Input Multiple Output
SISO o Single Input Single Output

  0QPWPKSWGPGUUQH5VCVG
 8CTKCDNG

For a given system, we try to build the state equation based

on state variables of the system and formulate the state model.
(1l4)Fig. 11.4.1 : A linear MIMO system
But these state models developed are not unique. For a given
Here, system alternate representations are possible.
Consider a system given by,
(1l5)Fig. 11.4.2
X = Ax + Bu …(11.6.1)

  5VCVG&KCITCO4GRTGUGPVCVKQP Y = Cx + Du …(11.6.2)

Let the transformation be
For pictorial representation of state model derived for the x = Mz
given system, we can use three different units for interconnection :
1. Scalers 2. Adders 3. Integrators where M is a non-singular constant matrix.
x = Mz
Scalers are nothing but amplifiers having required gain.
X = Ax + Bu, i.e., X = AMz + Bu

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-7)

If we substitute the value in output equation,   5VCVG5RCEG4GRTGUGPVCVKQPD[

Y = Cx + Du = CMz + Du  5RGEKHKE6[RGQH5VCVG8CTKCDNGU
The two Equations (11.6.1) and (11.6.2) are transformed into
equation consisting of variable ‘z’.
X = AMz + Bu = Mz
AMz Bu
Z = M +M
–1 –1
= AM Mz + BM u
–1 –1
? Let P = M AM, Q = M B
? Z = Pz + Qu
Similarly we can write, (1l10)Fig. 11.7.1
Y = CMz + Du = Rz + Du
These two equations are of the same system with different  11.7.1 Forming State Models by Physical
variables and hence different state models can be developed. This
Variables
shows given state models are not unique.
Ex. 11.7.1
 Explanation with example Obtain state model for the given circuit

Consider a simple example.

(1l9)Fig. 11.6.1 (1l11)Fig. Ex. 11.7.1

If x = e(t) o capacitor voltage at any instant  Soln. :

dx · The storage elements in the above circuits are L1, L2 and C.
i(t) = C dt = Cx
Current through L1 = i1(t) = x1(t)
· 1 Current through L2 = i2(t) = x2(t)
? x = C i(t)
Voltage across capacitor C = v(t) = x3(t)
If input current i(t) is denoted as r(t) in state variable theory Applying KVL to loop I,
then d i1(t)
· 1 – R1 i1(t) – L1 dt – v(t) + ei(t) = 0
x = C r(t) d i1(t)
If we choose ‘q’ as state variable instead of voltage then ei(t) = R1 i1(t) + L1 dt + v(t)

x = q d i1(t)
· · L dt = – R1 i1(t) – v(t) + ei(t)
x = q=i
dq d i1(t) – R1 1 1
∵ dt = i dt = L1 i1(t) – L1 v(t) + L1 ei(t)
· Hence we can now write the above equation in terms of state
x = r
variables,
The above two equations are different with different state – R1
· 1 1
variable considerations. Hence we get different state variable x1(t) = L1 x1(t) – L1 x3(t) + L1 ei(t) ...(1)
model. This points out, the state variable model of system is not Applying KVL to loop II,
unique. d i2(t)
– L2 dt – R2 i2(t) – v(t) = 0
State variable model of an LTI system is not unique.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-8)
d i2(t)
L2 = – R2 i2(t) – v(t) Applying KVL to the loop,
dt
d
d i2(t) – R2 1 vi(t) = R i(t) + L dt i(t) + vo(t)
dt = L2 i2(t) – L2 v(t) d i(t)
L dt = – R i(t) – vo(t) + vi(t)
· – R2 1
X2(t) = L2 x2(t) – L2 x3(t) ...(2) d i(t) –R 1 1
dt = L i(t) – L vo(t) + L vi(t)
Voltage across capacitor,
1 · –R 1 1
∫
v(t) = C [i1(t) – i2(t)] dt x1(t) = L x1(t) – L x2(t) + L u(t) …(1)

Cv(t) = ∫ [i (t) – i (t)] dt

1 2
Voltage across the capacitor is given by,
1
dv(t)
C dt = i1(t) – i2(t)
vo(t) = C i(t) dt ∫
d vo(t) 1
d 1 1 = C i(t)
dt v(t) = C i1(t) – C i2(t) dt
· 1 1 Now vo(t) = x2(t), i(t) = x1(t)
X3(t) = C x1(t) – C x2(t) ...(3)
· 1
Output equation, Hence x2(t) = C x1(t) ...(2)
eo(t) = R2i2 (t) = R2x2(t) ...(4)
From Equations (1), (2) and (3) we can write Hence from Equations (1) and (2) we can write,

⎡ ⎤
– R1 –1 –R –1

⎡
·
⎤ ⎡ L 0 L1 ⎤ ⎡
1
⎤
⎡ ·x1 (t) ⎤
⎢
L L ⎡ x1 (t)
⎥ ⎤ ⎡ L1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢· ⎥= ⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
x1 (t) 1
⎡ x1 (t) ⎤ + u(t)
⎢ · ⎥ =
– R2 – 1 ⎢ x2 (t) ⎥ +
⎢
L1
⎥ e (t) ⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ ⎣
1
0 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
x2 (t) C
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 L2 L2 0 i

⎣ ⎦ ⎣ x3 (t) ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
· 0 The output equation,
xn (t) 1 –1
C C 0
y(t) = vo(t) = x2(t)
From Equation (4)
⎡ x1 (t) ⎤ + 0 u(t)
⎡ x1 (t)
⎤ Hence y(t) = [0 1]
⎣ x2 (t) ⎦
eo(t) = [0 R2 0] ⎢ x2 (t) ⎥ + 0 e (t)
⎢ ⎥ i

⎣ x3 (t) ⎦ UEx. 11.2 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks)

Here ei(t) can be represented by u(t). Find state model of following electrical network

UEx. 11.1 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 7 Marks)

Determine state model of the system shown in the Fig. Ex. 11.1.

(5k2)Fig. Ex. 11.2

 Soln. :
Consider
(1l12)Fig. Ex. 11.1

 Soln. :
There are two storage elements in the above circuit ‘L’
and ‘C’. Hence there are two state variables.
Let x1(t) and x2(t) be the two state variables.
Input variables is represented as u(t). So,
u(t) = vi(t) (5k3)Fig. Ex. 11.2(a)
x1(t) = i(t)
Applying KVL to Loop I
x2(t) = vo(t) vin(t) – R1 i1(t) – v1(t) = 0
vin (t) – v1(t) = R1 i1 (t)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-9)
vin (t) – v1 (t) UEx. 11.3 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)
i1(t) = R1 ...(1)
Obtain physical variable state model of system shown in
Applying KVL to loop II
Fig. Ex. 11.3.
– R2 i2 (t) – v2(t) + v1(t) = 0
v1(t) – v2(t) = R2 i2 (t)
v1(t) – v2(t)
i2(t) = R2 ...(2)

Current through capacitor

∫ i1(t) – i2(t) = C1 v1(t)
d (5k4)Fig. Ex. 11.3
i1(t) – i2 (t) = C1 dt v1(t) ...(3)
d
i2(t) = C2 dt v2(t) ...(4)  Soln. :
Step I : Applying KVL to loop I
Substituting from Equations (1) and (2) in Equations (3) and (4)
d i1(t)
vin(t) – v1(t) v1(t) – v2(t) d – R1 i1 (t) – L1 dt – R2 (i1 (t) – i2 (t)) + vin (t) = 0
R1 – R2 = C1 dt v1(t)
d i1(t)
d v1(t) 1 1 ? L1 dt = – R1 i1 (t) – R2 i1 (t) + R2 i2 (t) + vin (t)
dt = R C [vin(t) – v1(t)] – R C [v1(t) – v2(t)]
1 1 2 1 d i1(t) – R1 R2 R2
Let R1 C1 = R2 C1 = 1 dt = L1 i1 (t) – L1 i1 (t) + L1 i2 (t) + vin (t)
˜ Let i1 (t) = x1 (t)
v1(t) = vin (t) – v1(t) – v1(t) + v2(t)
i2 (t) = x2 (t)
Let v1(t) = x1(t) ; vin(t) = u(t)
– R1 – R2 R
v2(t) = x2(t) x˜1 (t) = L1 [i1(t)] + L2 i2 (t) + vin (t)
1
˜
x1(t) = – 2x1(t) + x2(t) + u(t) ...(5) ˜ – R1 – R2 R2
x1 (t) = L1 x1 (t) + L x2 (t) + vin (t) ...(1)
v1(t) – v2(t) d 1
R2 = C2 dt v2 (t)
Step II : Applying KVL to loop II
v1(t) – v2(t) d d i2(t)
= dt v2(t) – L2 dt – R3 i2 (t) + R2 i1 (t) – i2 (t)) = 0
R2 C2
R2 C2 = 1 d i2(t)
L2 dt = – R3 i2 (t) + R2 i1 (t) – R2 i2 (t)
d
v1(t) – v2(t) = dt v2(t) d i2(t)
L2 dt = R2 i1 (t) – R2i2 (t) – R3 i2 (t)
˜
x2(t) = x1(t) – x2(t) ...(6) d i2(t)
The state equation is given by L2 dt = R2 i1 (t) + (– R2 – R3) i2 (t)

⎡ ˜ ⎤ d i2(t) R
= L2 i1 (t) +
(– R2 – R3)
⎢ x1(t)
⎥ = ⎡ –2 1
⎤⎡ x1(t)
⎤+⎡ 1
⎤ u (t) dt L2 i2 (t)
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2
⎢ ˜ ⎥ 1 –1 x2(t) 0
⎣ x2(t) ⎦ R
x˜2(t) = L2 x1 (t) +
(–R2 – R3)
x2 (t) ....(2)
2 L2
The output equation
⎡ ⎤
– R1 – R2 R2
vo (t) = v2(t) ⎡ x˜1 (t) ⎤ L1 L1
⎡ x1(t) ⎤
vo (t) = x2(t) ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ x˜2 (t) ⎦
⎢ R2 – R2 – R3 ⎥ ⎣ x2(t) ⎦
y(t) = x2(t) ⎣ L2 L2 ⎦
+ ⎡ ⎤ v (t)
1
y(t) = [0 1]
⎡ x1(t)
⎤ + [0] ⎣ 0 ⎦ in
..State equation.
⎣ x2(t) ⎦
Step III : Consider the output side
The required state model is vo(t) = R3 i2 (t)
⎡ ˜ ⎤ vo(t) = R3 x2 (t)
⎢ x1 (t)
⎥ ⎡ –2 1
⎤⎡ x1(t)
⎤+⎡ 1
⎤ u (t)
⎢ ˜ ⎥
=
⎣ 1 –1 ⎦⎣ x2(t) ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎡ x1(t) ⎤ ...Output equation.
⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ vo(t) = [0 R3]
⎣ x2(t) ⎦
y(t) = [0 1]
⎡ x1(t)
⎤ + [0]
⎣ x2(t) ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-10)

 11.7.2 Forming State Model by Phase Combining both the state diagram,
Variables

UQ. 11.7.1 With the help of general equation,

explain concept of controllable
canonical and observable canonical
form of state space.
(SPPU - May 15, 7 Marks)
3 2
Y(s) b0s + b1s + b2s + b3
U(s) = T(s) = 3 2
s + a1s + a2s + a3
3
Dividing numerator and denominator by highest power i.e. s .
–1 –2 –3
Y(s) b0 + b1s + b2s + b3 s (1l15)Fig. 11.7.4 : Total phase variable controllable
U(s) = T(s) = –1 –2 –3 ...(11.7.1) canonical form
1+a s +a s +a s
1 2 3

Introduce a dummy variable X(s).  Relations

Hence, ·
x1 = x2 ...(11.7.6)
–1 –2 –3
Y(s) b0 + b1s + b2s + b3 s X(s) ·
= – 3 ˜ X(s) ...(11.7.2) x2 = x3 ...(11.7.7)
U(s) –1 –2
1 + a1s + a2 s + a3 s ·
x3 = U(s) – a1x3 – a2x2 – a3x1 ...(11.7.8)
Hence two equation becomes,
⎡ ⎤
·
x1
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤⎡ x1
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
Y(s) = (b0 + b1s– 1 + b2s– 2 + b3 s– 3) X(s) ...(11.7.3)
⎢ ·x ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎢ x2 ⎥+⎢ 0 ⎥ [u] ...(11.7.9)
U(s) = (1 + a1s– 1 + a2 s– 2 + a3 s– 3) X(s) ...(11.7.4)
⎢· 2
⎥ ⎢
⎣ – a3
⎥⎢
– a1 ⎦ ⎣
⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣
⎥
⎦
Converting Equation (11.7.4) in terms of X(s),
⎣x 3
⎦ – a2 x3 1

–1 –2 –3 ·
X(s) = U(s) – (a1s + a2 s + a3 s ) X(s) ...(11.7.5) Y(s) = b3x1 + b2x2 + b1x3 + b0 x3 ...(11.7.10)
= b3x1 + b2x2 + b1x3 + b0 (u – a1x3 – a2x3
Let us draw SFG for the above two equations, i.e., – a2x2 – a3x1) ...(11.7.11)
Equation (11.7.3) and (11.7.5), = (b3 – b0 a3) x1 + (b2 – b0a2) x2
+ (b1 – b0 a1) x1 + b0u ...(11.7.12)
Hence,
[Y] = [(b3 – b0 a3) (b2 – b0a2) (b1 – b0 a1)]
x1
⎡ ⎤
⎢ x2 ⎥ + [b ] [u] ...(11.7.13)
⎢ ⎥ 0
x3 ⎣ ⎦
Normally degree of numerator is less than denominator so
that xn is absent making equation easy.
(1l13)Fig. 11.7.2 : SFG for X and U Equations (11.7.9) and (11.7.13) represent state model in
phase variable form.

 11.7.2(A) State Space Representation

using Phase Variable in
Observable Controllable Form
Consider
–1 –2 – (n – 1) –n
Y(s) b1 s + b2 s + .... bn – 1 s + bn s
U(s) = 1 + a s– 1 + a s– 2 + .... + a s– (n – 1) + a s– n
1 2 n–1 n

(1l14)Fig. 11.7.3 : SFG for Y and X

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-11)
–1 –2 – (n – 1) –n
Y(s) (1 + a1s + a2 s + .... + an – 1 s + an s ) Here state variables are assigned increasingly from left to
–1 –2 – (n – 1) –n
right.
= (b1 s + b2 s + .... + bn – 1 s + bn s ) U(s) ·
x1 = – an xn + bn u
...(11.7.14) ·
x2 = x1 – an – 1 xn + bn – 1 u
This is the basic state equation.
·
Now partly consider U(s) and Y(s). x3 = x2 – an – 2 xn + bn – 2 u
·
x4 = x3 – an – 3 xn + bn – 3 u
‫ڭ‬
‫ڭ‬
·
xn – 1 = xn – 2 – a2 xn + b2 u
·
xn = xn – 1 – a1 xn + b1 u
·
(1l16)Fig. 11.7.5 : SFG partly for y and u ⎡ ⎤x1

⎡
0 0 }}} – an
⎤
⎢ ⎥
· x1
⎡ ⎤
x2
Y(s) = (b1 s
–1
+ b2 s
–2
+ .... bn – 1 s
– (n – 1) –n
+ bn s ) U(s)
⎢ ⎥
·
x3 ⎢ 1 0 }}} – an – 1
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x2
...(11.7.15)

⎢ ⎥
·
x4
=
⎢ 0 1 }}} – an – 2
⎥ ⎢⎥
x3

⎢ ⎥
gives SFG as shown in Fig. 11.7.5.
–1 –2 – (n – 1) –n

⎢⎥
  
⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
Y(s) = (a1s + a2 s + .... + an – 1 s + an s ) Y(s) xn
...(11.7.16)
⎣ ⎦·
xn 0 0 }}} – a1

Adding a branch from xn corresponding to s power bn

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
bn – 1
bn – 2
+
⎢  ⎥ [u]

⎢  ⎥
(1l17)Fig. 11.7.6 : SFG partly for y and u
⎣ b1 ⎦
y = xn

⎡x ⎤
The complete diagram represents the observable controllable x1
form.
[y] = [0 0 ……. 1]
⎢ ⎥ + [0] [u]
2

⎢⎥
⎣x ⎦ n

 11.7.3 State Variable Model by Phase

Variables Using Differential
Equation
A general nth order differential equation of system is given by,
n n–1
dy d y dy(t)
n + a1 n–1 + ... + an – 1 dt + an y (t) = br (t)
dt dt
...(11.7.17)
Hence we can illustrate the method by simple case where no
(1l18)Fig. 11.7.7 derivatives of input are present.
x1 (t) = y

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-12)
dy(t) · The form of matrix ‘A’ is known as Bush form or companion
x2 (t) = dt = x1 (t) form or phase controllable companion form.
2
d y(t)
x3 (t) =
dt
2
·
= x2 (t)  11.7.3(A) Disadvantages of Phase Variable
Formulation

 These variables in general are not physical variables and are
d
n–1
y(t) not directly available for measurement and control.
·
xn (t) = = xn – 1(t)
 11.7.3(B) Special Form of Matrix A
n–1
dt
n
· d y(t)
and xn (t) = n (1) It has all ones in upper half diagonal.
dt
Hence Equation (11.7.17) can be written as, (2) It has last row comprised of negative co-efficient of original
differential equation and all other elements are zero.
˜
x (t) + a1 xn (t) + ... + an – 1 x2 (t) + an x1 (t) + br(t) ...(11.7.18)
n
The block diagram form of the above equation can be
represented in Bush form or CCF, i.e., controllable companion
Equation (11.7.18) shows that the state variable equation is form.
reduced to first order differential equation. Based on
Equation (11.7.18) the differential equations are written as,
·
x1 (t) = x2 (t)
·
x2 (t) = x3 (t)

·
xn (t) = – an x1 (t) – an –1 x2 (t) .... – a1 xn(t) + br(t)
...(11.7.19)
Thus above all equations are differential equations of first
(1l19)Fig. 11.7.8
order. These equations can be written in matrix form to represent
state variable model. In arriving at transformed state variables if transformed
matrix is selected suitably,
It uses phase variables x1(t), x2(t) .... xn(t) which cannot be
a
measured directly. A = PAP
· can be brought into diagonal form,

⎡ x1 (t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
0 1 0  0
⎤
a
X = P x
–1
·
⎢ ‫ڮڮ‬ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
x2 (t) 0 1 0 The corresponding state variables are canonical state
=
∶ ⎢ ∶ ⎥ variables or canonical variables.

⎣ ·
xn (t) ⎦ ⎣ –a n – an –1 – an –2 ‫ – ڮڮ‬a1 ⎦
⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
x1 (t) 0

⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ r(t)
2

⎢ ∶ ⎥ ⎢∶⎥
⎣ x (t) ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦
n

˜
i.e., x (t) = Ax(t) + Br (t) ...(11.7.20)
The output equation can be written as, (1l20)Fig. 11.7.9 : SFG for Bush form
y(t) = x1(t) …(11.7.21)

⎡ x (t) ⎤
x1 (t) 11.7.4 To Obtain Transfer Function From

y(t) = [1, 0, ... 0]

⎢ ⎥ 2
State Model

⎢ ∶ ⎥ Apart from internal state behaviour, the state variable model

⎣ x (t) ⎦ n
yields with the input output behaviour, as well. Hence we can
convert state variable to transfer function and vice-versa.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-13)
Consider a single input single output system with the
| sI – A | = ⎪ s+2 3
⎪
equation, ⎪ –4 s–2 ⎪
· 2 2 2
x (t) = Ax(t) + Br(t) …(11.7.22) = (s – 4) – (– 12) = s – 4 + 12 = s + 8
y(t) = Cx(t) + Dr(t) …(11.7.23) –1 1
[sI – A] = |sI – A| Adj [sI – A]
To obtain transfer function, we take Laplace transform,
s X (s) – x(t0) = A X (s) + BR(s)
=
1 ⎡
s–2 –3
⎤
s +8⎣ 4 ⎦
2
where x (t0) indicates initial conditions. s+2
Assuming initial condition ‘0’,
⎡ ⎤
s–2 –3
2 2
s X (s) = A X (s) + BR(s) s +8 s +8
(sI – A) X (s) = BR(s) [sI – A]
–1
= ⎢ s+2 ⎥
⎣ s +8 ⎦
–1
4
X (s) = (sI – A) BR(s) …(11.7.24) 2
s +8
2

Laplace transform of Equation (11.7.23), Step III : To calculate transfer function

Y(s) = CX (s) + DR(s) …(11.7.25) –1
T.F. = C [sI – A] B + D
Substitute value of X(s) from Equation (11.7.24) in
⎡ ⎤⎡ 3 ⎤
s–2 –3
Equation (11.7.25) 2
s +8 s +8
2

⎢ ⎥⎣ 5 ⎦+0
–1
Y(s) = C [sI – A] BR(s) + DR(s) T. F. = [1 1]
⎣ ⎦
= [C [sI – A]–1 B + D] R(s) 4 s+2
2 2
Y(s) s +8 s +8
–1
Transfer function T(s) = R(s) = C [(sI – A) B] + D
⎡ ⎤
3(s – 2) – 15
2
s +8
⎢ ⎥
If we equate denominator to zero, R(s) = 0, then we have
T. F. = [1 1]
characteristic equation and roots of characteristic equation are
⎣ ⎦
12 + 5 (s + 2)
nothing but poles of the system. 2
s +8
Transfer function is unique model of the system and state 3s – 6 – 15 + 12 + 5s + 10
variable model is non-unique. T.F. = 2
s +8
UEx. 11.4 (SPPU - May 16, Dec. 19, 6 Marks) 8s + 1
T. F. = 2 ...Ans.
s +8
Consider a system having state model
UEx. 11.5 (SPPU - May 17, 7 Marks)
⎡ x˜1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = ⎡ – 2 – 3 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ + ⎡ 3 ⎤u Determine transfer function if
⎢ ˜ ⎥ ⎣ 4 2 ⎦ ⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦
⎣ x2 ⎦ A=⎡
–1 0
⎤ , B = ⎡ 0 ⎤ , C = [1, 2] , D = [0]
⎣ 1 –1 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
⎡ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎤ with D = 0
y = [1 1]
⎣ ⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎦  Soln. :
Obtain its transfer function. The transfer function is given by
–1
T. F. = C [sI – A] B + D
 Soln. :
sI – A = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ –1 0 ⎤
1 0
Step I : Comparing with standard state equation ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 –1 ⎦
We get,
= ⎡ ⎤–⎡ –1 0 ⎤
s 0
A= ⎡ ⎤ , B = ⎡ 3 ⎤ , C = [1 1] , D = 0
–2 –3
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ 1 –1 ⎦
⎣ 4 2 ⎦ ⎣5⎦
= ⎡ ⎤
s+1 0
The transfer function is given by,
–1
T. F. = C [sI – A] B + D
⎣ –1 s+1 ⎦
2 2
| sI – A | = (s + 1) – 0 = s + 2s + 1
sI – A = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ –2 –3 ⎤
1 0
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+1 0
⎣0 1⎦ ⎣ 4 2 ⎦
⎣ 1 s+1 ⎦
= ⎡ ⎤–⎡ –2 –3 ⎤
s 0
1
⎣0 s⎦ ⎣ 4 2 ⎦
–1
[sI – A] = | sI – A | u Adj [sI – A]

= ⎡ ⎤
s+2 3
⎣ –4 s–2 ⎦ [sI – A]
–1
=
1 ⎡ s+1 0
⎤
Step II : To calculate [sI – A]
–1 (s + 1)
2
⎣ 1 s+1 ⎦
To calculate Adjoint matrix [sI – A]

Adjoint matrix [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤

s–2 –3
⎣ 4 s+2 ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-14)

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 s+8 1
s+1 0 2 2

⎢ 1 ⎥
s + 8s + 3 s + 8s + 3
⎢ ⎥
–1 –1
[sI – A] = [sI – A] =
⎣ s+1 ⎦
1 –3 s
(s + 1)
2
⎣ 2
s + 8s + 3 s + 8s + 3 ⎦
2

–1
T.F. = C [sI – A] B+D T.F = C[sI – A]
–1
B+D

⎡ ⎤
s+8 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤
1
s+1 0 2 2
s + 8s + 3 s + 8s + 3
[1 2] ⎢
1 ⎥⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
T. F. = + [0] T.F = [3 4]
⎣ s+1 ⎦
1 –3 s
(s + 1)
2
⎣ 2
s + 8s + 3 s + 8s + 3 ⎦
2

⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ + [0]
T. F. = [1 2] ⎢ 1 ⎥=
2
s+1
⎣ 1 ⎦
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
s+1 1
2
2 s + 8s + 3
Hence required transfer function is s + 1 . T.F = [3 4] ⎢ s ⎥
UEx. 11.6 (SPPU - May 18, 7 Marks) ⎣ s + 8s + 3 ⎦
2

3 4s 4s + 3
Obtain transfer function of the system with state model T.F = 2 + 2 = 2
s + 8s + 3 s + 8s + 3 s + 8s + 3
x˜ = ⎡ ⎤x+⎡ ⎤u
0 1 0
4s + 3
⎣ –3 –8 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ T.F. = 2
s + 8s + 3
y = [3 4] x
UEx. 11.7 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
 Soln. :
Derive the formula for obtaining transfer function from state model
Compare the given state model with standard state model. and use it to find transfer function of a system with state model

x˜ = ⎡ ⎤ x + ⎡ 0 ⎤ u, y = [2 3] x
0 1
A=⎡ ⎤,B= ⎡ ⎤ , C = [3
0 1 0
⎣ –3 –8 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
4] , D = [0] ⎣ –4 –7 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
The transfer function is given by  Soln. :
–1 Compare the given state model with standard state model
T.F. = C[sI – A] B + D
A=⎡ ⎤ , B = ⎡ 0 ⎤ , C = [2 3] , D = [ 0 ]
0 1
–1
To calculate [sI – A] ⎣ –4 –7 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
The transfer function is given by
s⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 1
[sI – A] = – –1
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –3 –8 ⎦ T.F = C [sI – A] B + D

s⎡ ⎤– ⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 1
= ⎡ s 0
⎤ – ⎡ 0 1
⎤ [sI – A] =
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –3 –8 ⎦ 0 1 –4 –7

⎡ s 0
⎤ ⎡ 0 1
⎤
[sI – A] = ⎡ s –1
⎤ =
⎣ 0 s ⎦
–
⎣ –4 –7 ⎦
⎣ 3 s+8 ⎦
= ⎡ s –1
⎤
| sI – A | = ⎪ s –1
⎪ ⎣ 4 s+7 ⎦
⎪ 3 s+8 ⎪
| sI – A | = ⎪ s –1
⎪
= s(s + 8) – (– 3) ⎪ 4 s+7 ⎪
2 2
| sI – A | = s + 8s + 3 = s(s + 7) – (– 4) = s + 7s + 4
1
[sI – A]
–1
= | sI – A | Adjoint of [sI – A] Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ s+7 1
⎤
⎣ –4 s ⎦
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+8 1
–1 1
⎣ –3 s ⎦ [sI – A] = | sI – A | Adjoint of [sI – A]

[sI – A]
–1
=
1 ⎡ s+8 1
⎤ =
1 ⎡ s+7 1
⎤
2
s + 8s + 3 ⎣ –3 s ⎦ 2
s + 7s + 4 ⎣ –4 s ⎦

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⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤
s+ 7 1 1 0 0
2
s + 7s + 4
2
s + 7s + 4 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ Qc = 2 1 0
⎢ ⎥
–1
[sI – A] =
⎣ ⎦
⎣ s + 7s + 4 ⎦
–4 s 0 0 0
2 2
s + 7s + 4
| Qc | = 0
–1
T.F. = C[sI – A] B + D Since | Qc | = 0 Rank of Qc  3

⎡ ⎤⎡0⎤
s+ 7 1
2 2 Hence system is not controllable.
s + 7s + 4 s + 7s + 4
T.F. = [2 3] ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 1 ⎦+[0] Step III : To check observability of system, construct composite
⎣ s + 7s + 4 ⎦
–4 s
2
s + 7s + 4
2 matrix Qo
T T T T n–1 T
Qo = [C : A C : ........ (A ) C ]
⎡ ⎤
1
2 T T T T 2 T
s + 7s + 4
⎢ ⎥
Qo = [C : A C : ........ (A ) C ] since n = 3
T.F. = [2 3]
⎡ 0
⎤
⎣ s + 7s + 4 ⎦
s
2
C =
T ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
T.F. = 2
2
+ 2
3s ⎣ 1 ⎦
s + 7s + 4 s + 7s + 4
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤
3s + 2 A =
T ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥
T.F. = 2 ...Ans. ⎢ ⎥
s + 7s + 4 ⎣ –3 –4 –1 ⎦
UEx. 11.7.2 (SPPU - Dec.19, 7 Marks) ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
Investigate the complete state controllability and observability of
T
A C =
T ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
the system with state model : ⎣ –3 –4 –1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –1 ⎦
· ⎡ ⎤ ⎡1⎤
0 0 –3
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡0⎤
x= 1 0 –4 ⎥x+⎢ 2 ⎥u
⎢ T 2 T ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (A ) C =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 –1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ –3 –4 –1 ⎦ ⎣ –1 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
y=[0 0 1]x ⎡ 0 0 0
⎤
⎢ ⎥
 Soln. : Qo =
⎢
0 0 0
⎥
Step I : Comparing the given state model with standard state ⎣ 1 –1 1 ⎦
model | Qo | = 0
0 0 –3
⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ ⎤
A = ⎢ 1 0 –4 ⎥ , B = ⎢ 2 ⎥ Since | Qo | = 0 Hence Rank of Qo  3
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 –1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ Hence system is not observable.

C = [0 0 1] UEx. 11.8 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks)

Step II : To check the controllability, construct composite matrix Obtain transfer function of state model if
Qc. ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ 0
⎡ ⎤
A=⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥,B=⎢ 0 ⎥ , C = [1 0 0], D = [0]
Qc = [B : AB : A B .... : A
2 n–1
B] ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2
⎣ – 6 – 11 – 6 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
Qc = [B : AB : A B] as n = 3
 Soln. :
⎡ 1
⎤
[B] = ⎢ 2 ⎥ Step I : The transfer function is given by
⎢ ⎥ –1
T. F. = C [sI – A] B + D
⎣ 0 ⎦ 1 0 0
⎡0
⎤ ⎡ 1 0
⎤
⎡ 0 0 –3
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎢
s 0 1 0 – ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢ 1 0 –4 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ =⎢ 1 ⎥
[sI – A] =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
[AB] =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ – 6 – 11 – 6 ⎦
⎣ 0 0 –1 ⎦ 0⎣ ⎦ ⎣0⎦
⎡s 0 0⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤
⎡ 0 0 –3
⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ = ⎢ 0 s 0 ⎥–⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥
2 ⎢ –4 ⎥⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
AB = A [AB] =
⎢
1 0
⎥⎢ ⎥
=
⎢
0
⎥ ⎣ 0 0 s ⎦ ⎣ – 6 – 11 – 6 ⎦
⎣ 0 0 –1 ⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-16)

⎡
⎢
s –1 0
⎤
⎥  11.7.5 To Obtain State Variable from the
[sI – A] = 0 s –1 Transfer Function
⎢ ⎥
6 11 s + 6 ⎣ ⎦
–1
Step II : To calculate [sI – A] Consider the Transfer Function,
1 3 2
[sI – A]
–1
= | sI – A | u Adj [sI – A] Y(s) b0s + b1s + b2s + b3
T(s) = R(s) = 3 2 …(11.7.26)
s + a1s + a2s + a3
s –1 0
⎪ ⎪
| sI – A | = ⎪ 0 s –1 ⎪ Equation (11.7.26) can be expressed as,
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 6 11 s + 6 ⎪ Y(s) X1(s) Y(s)
= s [s (s + 6) – (– 11)] + 1 (0 – (– 6)) + 0 R(s) = R(s) ˜ X1(s)
2
= s[s + 6s + 11] + 6 X1(s) 1
3 2 where R(s) = 3 2 …(11.7.27)
| sI – A | = s + 6s + 11s + 6 s + a1s + a2s + a3
Y(s)
⎡ s (s + 6) + 11 –6 – 6s
⎤ X1(s) =
3 2
b0 s + b1 s + b2 s + b3 …(11.7.28)
Co-factor of matrix [sI – A] = ⎢ s+6 s (s + 6) – 11s – 6 ⎥
⎣ 1 s s2 ⎦ Equations (11.7.27) and (11.7.28) represent poles and zeros of the
2
⎡ s + 6s + 11 s+6 1
⎤ system separately.
Adjoint of matrix [sI – A] = ⎢ ⎥
2
–6 s + 6s s 3 2
⎢ ⎥ X1(s) [s + a1s + a2s + a3] = R(s)
⎣ – 6s – 11s – 6 s
2
⎦ 3 2
2
s X1(s) + a1 s X1(s) + a2 s X1(s) + a3 X1(s) = R(s) ...(11.7.29)
⎡ s + 6s + 11 s+6 1 ⎤
[sI – A]
–1
=
1 ⎢ –6
2
s + 6s s ⎥ Taking ILT of Equation (11.7.29),
s + 6s + 11s + 6 ⎢ ⎥
3 2
··· ·· ·
⎣ – 6s – 11s – 6 s
2
⎦ x 1 (t) + a1 x1 (t) + a2 x1 (t) + a3 x1 (t) = r(t) …(11.7.30)
·
Let x1 (t) = x2 (t)
s2 + 6s + 11
⎡ ⎤
s+6 1
s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 · ··
x2 (t) = x3 (t) = x1 (t)
=⎢ ⎥
2
–1 –6 s + 6s s · ···
[sI – A]
⎢ ⎥
s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 x3 (t) = x 1 (t)

⎣ – 6s
s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6
– 11s – 6
s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6
s2
s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 ⎦ Hence now Equation (11.7.30) can be expressed as,
·
Step III x3 (t) + a1 x3 (t) + a2 x2 (t) + a3 x1 (t) = r(t)
–1
T.F. = C [sI – A] B+D ·
? x3 (t) = – a3 x1 (t) – a2 x2 (t) – a3 x3 (t) + r(t) …(11.7.31)
s2 + 6s + 11
⎡ ⎤
s+6 1
Hence we have three equations,
s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6

T.F. = [1 0 0] ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
·
s2 + 6s x1 (t) 0 ⎡ x1 (t) ⎤
–6 s
⎡0 1
⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6
⎥ ⎢ ·
⎥
x2 (t) = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 (t)⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥ r (t)
⎣– a3 – a2 – a1⎦ ⎣ x3 (t)⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎣ – 6s
s + 6s2 + 11s + 6
3
– 11s – 6
s + 6s2 + 11s + 6
3 3
s2
2
s + 6s + 11s + 6 ⎦ ⎣ ·
x3 (t) ⎦
Similarly Equation (11.7.28) can also be expressed as,
⎡ 0
⎤
u ⎢ 0 ⎥ + [0]
y (t) = (b3 – a3 b0) x1(t) + (b2 – a2 b0) x2(t)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ + (b1 – a1 b0) x3(t) + b0 r(t) …(11.7.32)
1
⎡ 3 2
s + 6s + 11s + 6 ⎤ Hence matrix form,

T. F. = [1 0 0]
⎢ s ⎥ + [0]
⎡ x1(t) ⎤
y (t) = [b3 – a3 b0, b2 – a2 b0, b1 – a1 b0] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + b0 r(t)

⎢ ⎥
3 2
s + 6s + 11s + 6 ⎣ x3(t) ⎦

⎣ ⎦
2
s Hence the signal flow graph for Equations (11.7.31) and (11.7.32)
3 2
s + 6s + 11s + 6 is as follows
1
T. F. = 3 2 ...Ans.
s + 6s + 11s + 6

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-17)
Y(s) 2
Consider X1(s) = s + 3s + 3
2
Y(s) = s X1(s) + 3s X1(s) + 3 X1(s)
2
d d
Taking ILT, y(t) = 2 x (t) + 3
dt x1(t) + 3 x1(t)
dt 1
·· ·
= x 1(t) + 3 x1(t) + 3 x1(t)
y(t) = x3(t) + 3 x2(t) + 3 x1(t)
y(t) = 3 x1(t) + 3 x2(t) + x3(t)
⎡ x1(t) ⎤
y(t) = [3 3 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥
(1l21) Fig. 11.7.10 ⎣ x3(t) ⎦
UEx. 11.9 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks)
Ex. 11.7.3
Obtain a state space representation in controllable and observable
Obtain state model of the Transfer function, s+3
2 canonical form for a system G(s) = 2
s + 3s + 3 s + 3s + 2
T(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 1
 Soln. :
 Soln. : Y(s)
Step I : The transfer function G(s) is represented as R(s)
The given transfer function is,
2
Y(s) s + 3s + 3 Y(s) s+3
= 3 2 Hence R(s) = 2
R(s) s + 2s + 3s + 1 s + 3s + 2
Adjust Y(s) X1(s) s+3
Y(s) X1(s)
2
s + 3s + 3 X1(s) ˜ R(s) = 2
s + 3s + 2
X1(s) ˜ R(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 1 Y(s)
X1(s) = s+3 ...(1)
Hence now we get,
X1(s) 1 X1(s) 1
R(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 1
…(1) R(s) = 2
s + 3s + 2
...(2)
Y(s) 2 Step II : Consider Equation (2)
X1(s) = s + 3s + 3 …(2)
X1(s) 1
X1(s) 1 R(s) = s2 + 3s + 2
Consider, R(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 1 2
s X1(s) + 3 sX1(s) + 2 X1(s) = R(s)
3 2
s X1(s) + 2s X1(s) + 3s X1(s) + X1 (s) = R(s) Taking Inverse Laplace transform
2
d d
2 x1(t) + 3
Taking Inverse Laplace transform,
3 2 dt dt x1(t) + 2x1(t) = r(t)
d d d
3 x1(t) + 2 2 x (t) + 3 ˜
dt dt 1 dt x1(t) + x1(t) = r(t) …(3)
x˜˜1(t) + 3x˜1(t) + 2x1(t) = r(t) ...(3)
·
x1(t) = x2(t) …(4) But x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2 ...(4)
· ··
x2(t) = x3(t) = x1(t) …(5) x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t) ...(5)
· ·· ··· Substitute values from Equation (4) and (5) in Equation (3)
x3(t) = x2(t) = x 1(t) …(6)
x˜ (t) + 3x (t) + 2x (t) = r(t)
2 2 1
Substituting Equations (4), (5), (6) in Equation (3),
· x˜ 2(t) = – 2x1(t) – 3 x2(t) + r(t)
x3(t) + 2 x3(t) + 3 x2(t) + x1(t) = r(t)
Hence required equations are
Hence,
x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2

⎡ ⎤
·
x1 (t)
⎡ 00 10 01 ⎤ ⎡ x 1 (t)⎤ ⎡ 00 ⎤
x (t) x˜ 2(t) = – 2 x1(t) – 3 x2(t) + r(t)
⎢ ·
x2 (t) ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ r (t)
⎣– 1 – 3 – 2⎦ ⎣ x3 (t)⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎡ x˜1 (t) ⎤
⎣ ·
x3 (t) ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎡
⎣
0 1
⎤⎡
⎦⎣
x1(t)
⎤+⎡
⎦ ⎣
0
⎤ r(t)
⎦
...(6)
⎣ x˜2 (t) ⎦ –2 –3 x2(t) 1

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-18)
This is required state equation. x˜ 1(t) = x2(t)
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
Y(s) x˜ 2(t) = x3(t)
X1(s) = s + 3 x˜ (t) = – 4x1(t) – 7x2(t) – 5x3(t) + u(t)
3
Y(s) = s ˜ X1(s) + 3 X1(s)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform ⎡ x˜1 (t)
⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤⎡
x1 (t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
d
y(t) = dt x1(t) + 3 x1(t) ⎢ x˜2 (t)⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎢
⎥⎢
x2 (t) ⎥+⎢
⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥ u(t)
⎥
⎣ –4 ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
y(t) = x˜ (t) + 3 x (t)
1 1 ...(7) ⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦
3
–7 –5 x3 (t) 1

This is state equation.

But x˜ 1(t) = x2(t)
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
Hence Equation (7) becomes Y(s) 2
y(t) = 3x1(t) + x2(t) X1(s) = 2s + 3s + 1

y(t) = [3 1]
⎡ x1(t) ⎤ + [0] r(t) 2
Y(s) = 2s X1(s) + 3sX1(s) + X1(s)
⎣ x2(t) ⎦ Taking Inverse Laplace transform
2
This is required output equation. 2d x1(t) 3dx1(t)
y(t) = 2 + dt + x1(t)
UEx. 11.10 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) dt

For the system with given transfer function y(t) = 2x˜˜1(t) + 3x˜ 1(t) + x1(t)
2
2s + 3s + 1 y(t) = 2x3(t) + 3x2(t) + x1(t)
G(s) = 3 2 y(t) = x1(t) + 3x2(t) + 2x3(t)
s + 5s + 7s + 4
Determine state model in controllable canonical and observable ⎡ x1(t)
⎤
y(t) = [1 3 2] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [0] u(t)
canonical form. ⎢ ⎥
 Soln. : ⎣ x3(t) ⎦
This is output equation.
Step I : The transfer function
2
Y(s) 2s + 3s + 1 UEx. 11.11 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)
G(s) = U(s) = s3 + 5s2 + 7s + 4
2
For the system with transfer function
Y(s) X1(s) 2s + 3s + 1 2
s + 3s + 4
X1(s) ˜ U(s) = 3 2
s + 5s + 7s + 4 G(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 7s + 3
Y(s) 2
X1(s) = 2s + 3s + 1 ...(1) Obtain the state space representation in controllable canonical form
X1(s) 1 and observable canonical form.
= ...(2)
U(s) 3 2
s + 5s + 7s + 4  Soln. :
Step II : Consider Equation (2) Step I : The given transfer function G(s) is represented as
X1(s) 1 Y(s)
2
s + 3s + 4
U(s) = s3 + 5s2 + 7s + 4 G(s) = U(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 7s + 3
3 2 2
s X1(s) + 5s X1(s) + 7sX1(s) + 4X1(s) = U(s) Y(s) X1(s) s + 3s + 4
Taking Inverse Laplace transform X1(s) ˜ U(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 7s + 3
3 2
d x1(t) 5d x1(t) 7dx1(t) Y(s) 2
3 + + dt + 4x1(t) = u(t)
X1(s) = s + 3s + 4 ...(1)
2
dt dt
˜˜˜ X1(s) 1
x1 (t) + 5x˜˜1(t) + 7x˜ 1(t) + 4x1(t) = u(t) ...(3)
U(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 7s + 3 ...(2)

1x˜ (t) = x (t)

2 Step II : Consider Equation (2)
x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t) X1(s) 1
˜˜˜ U(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 7s + 3
x1 (t) = x˜˜2(t) = x˜ 3(t) 3 2
s X1(s) + 2s X1(s) + 7sX1(s) + 3X1(s) = U(s)
Hence Equation (3) becomes
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
x˜ (t) + 5x (t) +7x (t) + 4x (t) = u(t)
3 3 2 1
3 2
d x1(t) 2d x1(t) 7dx1(t)
3 + + dt + 3x1(t) = u(t)
x˜ 3(t) = – 4x1(t) – 7x2(t) – 5 x3(t) + u(t)
2
dt dt
Now the three equations are ˜˜˜
x1 (t) + 2x˜˜1(t) + 7x˜1(t) + 3x1(t) = u(t) ...(3)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-19)
X1(s)
x˜1(t) = x2(t) =
1
...(2)
U(s) 3 2
s + 4s +11s + 3
x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t)
˜˜˜ Step II : Consider Equation (2)
x (t) =
1 x˜˜ (t) = x˜ (t)
2 3
X1(s) 1
Equation (3) becomes
U(s) = 3 2
s + 4s + 11s + 3
x˜3(t) + 2x3(t) +7x2(t) + 3x1(t) = u(t)
3 2
s X1 (s) + 4s X1(s) + 11s X1(s) + 3X1(s) = U(s)
x˜3(t) = – 3x1(t) – 7x2(t) – 2x3(t) + u(t)
Now the three equations are Taking Inverse Laplace transform
3 2
d x1(t) dx1(t)
x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2
d x1(t)
3 +4 2 + 11 dt + 3x1 (t) = u(t)
dt dt
x˜ 2(t) = x3(t)
x1 (t) + 4x˜˜1 (t) + 11x˜ 1(t) + 3x1 (t) = u(t)
˜˜˜ ...(3)
x˜ 3(t) = – 3x1(t) – 7x2(t) – 2x3(t) + u(t)
Hence state equation is
x˜ 1 (t) =
⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0
˜ x2 (t)
⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡
x1(t)
1 1 0 0
⎤
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0
2
0 1 ⎥⎢
⎥⎢
x2(t) ⎥+⎢
⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥ u(t)
⎥
x˜˜1 (t) = x˜ 2 (t) = x3 (t)

⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 3
3
–7 –2 ⎦⎣ x3(t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ˜˜˜
x1 (t) = x˜˜2 (t) = x˜ 3 (t)
Hence Equation (3) becomes
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
Y(s) 2 x˜3 (t) + 4x3 (t) + 11 x2(t) + 3x1(t) = u(t)
X1(s) = s + 3s + 4
x˜3 (t) = – 3x1(t) – 11 x2(t) – 4x3(t) + u(t)
2
Y(s) = s X1(s) + 3sX1(s) + 4X1(s)
Hence the three equations are
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
2 x˜ 1(t) = x2(t)
d x1(t) 3dx1(t)
y(t) =
dt
2 +
dt + 4x1(t) x˜2(t) = x3(t)

y(t) = x˜˜1(t) + 3x˜ 1(t) + 4x1(t) x˜3 (t) = – 3x1(t) – 11x2(t) – 4x3(t) + u(t)

⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0
y(t) = x3(t) + 3x2(t) + 4x1(t) ˜
1 1 0
⎤ ⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
y(t) = 4x1(t) + 3x2(t) + x3(t)
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0
2
0 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢
x2(t) ⎥+
⎥
⎢
⎢
0 ⎥ u(t)
⎥
⎡ ⎤
⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
x1(t) – 11 –4 1
x3(t)
y(t) = [4 3 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [0] u(t) ...Output equation. 3
⎢ ⎥ ...State equation
⎣ x3(t) ⎦
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
UEx. 11.12 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) Y(s) 2
Obtain the controllable canonical and observable canonical state X1(s) = s + 5s + 2
model for the system with transfer function 2
Y(s) = s X1(s) + 5s X1(s) + 2X1(s)
2
s + 5s + 2
G(s) = 3 2 Taking Inverse Laplace transform
s + 4s + 11s + 3
d
2 5dx1(t)
 Soln. : y(t) =
dt
2 x1 (t) + dt + 2x1(t)
Step I : The given transfer function is
Y(s) 2 y(t) = x˜˜1(t) + 5x˜1 (t) + 2x1(t)
s + 5s + 2
G(s) = U(s) = 3 2 y(t) = x3(t) + 5 x2(t) + 2x1(t)
s + 4s + 11s + 3
Y(s) X (s) 2
s + 5s + 2 y(t) = 2x1(t) + 5x2(t) + x3(t)
1
X1(s) ˜ U(s) = 3 2
s + 4s + 11s + 3 ⎡ x1(t)
⎤
Y(s) y(t) = [2 5 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [ 0 ] u (t)
⎢ ⎥
2
X1(s) = s + 5s + 2 ...(1)
⎣ x3(t) ⎦
...Output equation

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UEx. 11.13 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) y(t) = x˜˜1(t) + 7x˜ 1(t) + 2x1(t)
Obtain controllable canonical and observable canonical state model y(t) = 2 x1(t) + 7x2(t) + x3(t)
2
system with transfer function G(s) = 3
s + 7s + 2 ⎡x1(t)
⎤
2
s + 9s + 2s + 3 y(t) = [271] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [0] u(t)
⎢ ⎥
 Soln. : ⎣ x3(t) ⎦
Step I : The given transfer function This is output equation.
Y(s) 2
s + 7s + 2
G(s) = U(s) = 3 UEx. 11.14 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks)
2
s + 9 s + 2s + 3
Obtain controllable canonical and observable canonical state model
Y(s) X1(s) 2
s + 7s + 2
˜ = of the system with transfer function
X1(s) U(s) 3 2
s + 9 s + 2s + 3 2
s + 7s + 9
Y(s) G(s) = 3 2
2 s + 6s + 4s + 3
X1(s) = s + 7s + 2 ...(1)
X1(s)  Soln. :
1
U(s) = 3 2 ...(2) Step I : The given transfer function is
s + 9s + 2s + 3 2
Y(s) s + 7s + 9
Step II : Consider Equation (2) G(s) = U(s) = 3 2
X1(s) s + 6s + 4s + 3
1 2
U(s) = s3 + 9s2 + 2s + 3 G(s) =
Y(s) X1(s)
˜ =
s + 7s + 9
3 2 X1(s) U(s) 3 2
s + 6s + 4s + 3
s X1(s) + 9s X1(s) + 2s X1(s) + 3 X1(s) = U(s)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform Y(s) 2
3 2 X1(s) = s + 7s + 9 ...(1)
d x1(t) 9d x1(t) dx1(t)
3 + 2 + 2 dt + 3x1(t) = u(t) X1(s) 1
dt dt = 3 2 ...(2)
U(s) s + 6s + 4s + 3
x1 (t) + 9 x˜˜1 (t) + 2x˜ 1(t) + 3x1(t) = u(t)
˜˜˜ ...(3) Step II : Consider Equation (2)
X1(s)
x˜ (t) = x (t) 1
1 2
U(s) = s3 + 6s2 + 4s + 3
x˜˜1(t) = x˜ 2(t) = x3(t) 3 2
s X1(s) + 6s X1(s)+ 4s X1(s) + 3 X1(s) = U(s)
x1 (t) = x˜˜2(t) = x˜ 3(t)
˜˜˜ Taking Inverse Laplace transform
Substituting Equation (3) becomes x˜˜˜ (t) + 6x˜˜ (t) + 4x˜ (t) + 3x (t) = u(t)
1 1 1 1 ...(3)
x˜ (t) + 9x (t) + 2x (t) + 3x (t) = u(t)
3 3 2 1 x˜1(t) = x2(t)
x˜ 3(t) = – 3x1(t) – 2x2(t) – 9x3(t) + u(t) x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3 (t)
The required equations are
x˜˜˜ (t) = x˜˜ (t) = x˜ (t)
x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2 3
1 2
x˜3(t) + 6x3(t) + 4 x2(t) + 3x1(t) = u(t)
x˜2(t) = x3(t)
x˜3(t) = – 3x1(t) – 4x2(t) – 6x3(t) + u(t)
x˜3(t) = – 3x1(t) – 2 x2(t) – 9x3(t) + u(t)

⎡ x˜1 (t)
⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
The required three equations are
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ u(t) x˜ (t) = x (t)
⎢ x (t) ⎥ =
˜
2
⎢
0 1
⎥ ⎢
x2(t)
⎥ ⎢
0
⎥
1 2

⎣ –3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ x˜2(t) =
⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦
–2 –9 ⎣ x3(t) ⎦ 1 x3(t)
x˜3(t) =
3
– 3x1(t) – 4x2(t) – 6x3(t) + u(t)
This is state equation.

⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0
Step III : Consider the Equation (1) ˜
1 1 0
⎤ ⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ u(t)
Y(s) 2
0 1 x2(t) 0
X1(s) = s + 7s + 2 2
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2
Y(s) = s X1(s) + 7s X1(s) + 2X1(s) ⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 3
3
–4 –6 ⎦ ⎣ x3(t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
Taking Inverse Laplace transform This is state equation.
2
d x1(t) 7d x1(t) Step III : Consider Equation (1)
y(t) = 2 + dt + 2x1(t)
dt Y(s) 2
X1(s) = s + 7s + 9

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2
Y(s) = s X1(s) (s) + 7s X1(s) + 9 X1(s) This is state equation.
Taking Inverse Laplace transform Step III : Consider Equation (1)
Y(s)
y(t) = x˜˜ (t) + 7x˜ (t) + 9x (t) 2
1 1 1 X1(s) = s + 3s + 5
y(t) = x3(t) + 7 x2(t) + 9x1(t) 2
Y(s) = s X1(s) + 3s X1(s) + 5 X1(s)
y(t) = 9x1(t) + 7 x2(t) + x3(t)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
⎡
x1(t)
⎤ y(t) = x˜˜ (t) + 3x˜ (t) + 5x (t)
[9 7 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [ 0 ] u(t) 1 1 1
y(t) =
⎢ ⎥ y(t) = x3 (t) + 3x2 (t) + 5x1(t)
⎣ x3(t) ⎦ y(t) = 5x1 (t) + 3x2 (t) + x3(t)
This is output equation. ⎡
x1(t)
⎤
y(t) = [5 3 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [ 0 ] u(t)
UEx. 11.15 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ⎢ ⎥
Obtain controllable canonical and observable canonical state ⎣ x3(t) ⎦
models for the system with transfer function This is output equation.
2
s + 3s + 5 UEx. 11.16 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks)
G(s) = 3 2
s + 5s + 2s + 9
Obtain the controllable canonical and observable canonical state
 Soln. : models for the system with transfer function
2
Step I : Consider the transfer function s +s+9
2 G(s) = 3 2
Y(s) s + 3s + 5 s + 4 s + 11s + 3
G(s) = U(s) = 3 2
s + 5s + 2s + 9
Y(s) X1(s) 2  Soln. :
s + 3s + 5
G(s) = X (s) ˜ U(s) = 3 2 Step I : The given transfer function
1 s + 5s + 2s + 9
Y(s) 2
s +s+9
Y(s) 2 G(s) = U(s) = 3 2
X1(s) = s + 3s + 5 ...(1) s + 4 s + 11s + 3
2
X1(s) Y(s) X1(s) s +s+9
1
U(s) = s3 + 5s2 + 2s + 9 ...(2) X1(s) ˜ U(s) = s3 + 4 s2 + 11s + 3
Y(s) 2
Step II : Consider Equation (2) X1(s) = s + s + 9 ...(1)
X1(s) 1 X1(s) 1
U(s) = s3 + 5s2 + 2s + 9
U(s) = s3 + 4s2 + 11s + 3 ...(2)
3 2
s X1 (s) + 5 s X1 (s) + 2s X1 (s) + 9X1 (s) = U(s) Step II : Consider Equation (2)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform X1(s) 1
˜˜˜ U(s) = s3 + 4s2 + 11s + 3
x (t) + 5 x˜˜ (t) + 2x˜ (t) + 9x (t) = u(t)
1 1 1 1 ...(3) 3 2
s X1(s) + 4s X1(s) + 11s X1(s) + 3X1(s) = U(s)
x˜ 1(t) = x2(t) Taking Inverse Laplace transform
x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t) x (t) + 4x˜˜ (t) + 11x˜ (t) + 3x (t) = u(t)
˜˜˜ ...(3)
1 1 1 1
˜˜˜ x˜˜ (t) = x˜ (t)
x (t) =
1 2 3 x˜ 1(t) = x2(t)
Equation (3) becomes
x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t)
x˜ 3 (t) + 5x3(t) + 2x2(t) + 9x1(t) = u(t) ˜˜˜
x (t) =
1 x˜˜ (t) = x˜ (t)
2 3
x˜ 3 (t) = – 9x1(t) – 2x2(t) – 5x3(t) + u(t)
x˜ 3 (t) + 4x3(t) + 11x2(t) + 3x1(t) = u(t)
The required equations are
x˜ 3 (t) = – 3x1(t) – 11x2(t) – 4x3(t) + u(t)
x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2
Hence the required equations are
x˜ 2(t) = x3(t)
x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2
x˜ 3(t) = – 9x1(t) – 2x2(t) – 5x3(t) + u(t)
x˜ 2(t) = x3(t)
⎡ x˜ 1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ x˜ 3(t) = – 3x1(t) – 11 x2(t) – 4 x3(t) + u(t)
⎢ x˜ 2(t)⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢
x2(t) ⎥+
⎥
⎢
⎢
0 ⎥ u(t)
⎥
⎣ –9 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦
3
–2 –5 ⎣ x3(t) ⎦ 1

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⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0
˜ x˜3(t) = –x1(t) – 3 x2(t) – 2x3(t) + u(t)
1 1 0
⎤ ⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0
2
0 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢
x2(t) ⎥+
⎥
⎢
⎢
0 ⎥ u(t)
⎥ ⎡ x˜1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ u(t)
⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 3 – 11 –4 ⎦ ⎣ x3(t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ =
2
⎢
0 1
⎥ ⎢
x2(t)
⎥ ⎢
0
⎥
⎣ –1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
3
This is state equation. ⎣ x (t) ⎦
˜
3
–3 –2 ⎣ x3(t) ⎦ 1
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
State equation
Y(s) 2
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
X1(s) = s + s + 9
2
Y(s) 2
Y(s) = s X1(s) + s X1(s) + 9X1(s) X1(s) = s + 3s + 3
Taking Inverse Laplace transform 2
Y(s) = s X1 (s) + 3s X1 (s) + 3X1(s)
y(t) = x˜˜ (t) + x˜ (t) + 9x (t)
1 1 1 Taking Inverse Laplace transform
y(t) = 9x1(t) + x2 (t) + x3 (t)
y(t) = x˜˜ (t) + 3x˜ (t) + 3x (t)
1 1 1
x1(t)
⎡ ⎤ y(t) = 3x1(t) + 3x2(t) + x3(t)
⎢ x2(t) ⎥
y(t) = [9 1 1]
⎢ ⎥
+ [ 0 ] u(t)...Output equation. ⎡
x1(t)
⎤
⎣ x3(t) ⎦ y(t) = [3 3 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ = [ 0 ] u(t)
⎢ ⎥
UEx. 11.17 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks) ⎣ x3(t) ⎦
...Output equation.
For a system with transfer function
2
s + 3s + 3
G(s) = 3 2 Ex. 11.7.4
s + 2s + 3s + 1
Obtain state-space representation of the system
Determine state model in controllable canonical and observable
canonical form.
Soln. :
Step I : The given transfer function
2
Y(s) s + 3s + 3
G(s) = U(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 1
2
Y(s) X1(s) s + 3s + 3 (1l24)Fig. Ex. 11.7.4
X1(s) ˜ U(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 1
Y(s) 2  Soln. :
X1(s) = s + 3s + 3 ...(1)
To find the transfer function,
X1(s) 1 10
U(s) = s3 + 2 s2 + 3s + 1 ...(2) G (s) = s (s + 5)

Step II : Consider Equation (2) 1

H (s) = s + 1
X1(s) 1
U(s) = s3 + 2 s2 + 3s + 1 G(s)
3 2
T.F = 1 + G(s) H(s)
s X1(s) + 2s X1(s) + 3s X1(s) + X1(s) = U(s)
10
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
s(s + 5)
x˜˜˜ (t) + 2x˜˜ (t) + 3x˜ (t) + x (t) = u (t)
1 1 1 1
= 10 1
1 + s(s + 5) ˜ s + 1
x˜1(t) = x2(t)
10
x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t) s(s + 5)
T.F = 10
x˜˜˜ (t) =
1 x˜˜ (t) = x˜ (t)
2 3 1 + s(s + 5) (s + 1)
x˜3 (t) + 2x3(t) + 3x2(t) + x1(t) = u(t) 10
s(s
––––––
+ 5)
x˜3 (t) = –x1(t) – 3x2(t) – 2x3(t) + u(t) T.F = s(s + 5) (s + 1) + 10
Hence the required equations are s(s
––––––
+ 5) (s + 1)
x˜ (t) = x (t)
1 2 10(s + 1)
T.F = s(s + 5) (s + 1) + 10
x˜2(t) = x3(t)

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10s + 10
T.F = 2 Ex. 11.7.5
s(s + 6s + 5) + 10
10s + 10 Determine state model of the system shown in the Fig. Ex. 11.7.5.
T.F = 3 2
s + 6s + 5s + 10
Hence we can write,
Y(s) 10s + 10
U(s) = 3 2
s + 6s + 5s + 10
X1(s) Y(s) 10s + 10
U(s) ˜ X1(s) = 3 2
s + 6s + 5s + 10
(1l25)Fig. Ex. 11.7.5
X1(s) 1
U(s) = 3 2 ...(1)
Y(s)
s + 6s + 5s + 10
 Soln. :
X1(s) = 10s + 10 ...(2) To calculate transfer function,
2s + 3
Consider Equation (1), G(s) = 2
3 2 s
s X1(s) + 6s X1(s) + 5s X1(s) + 10 X1(s) = U(s)
H(s) = 1
Taking ILT,
G(s)
... .. . Transfer function = 1 + G(s) H(s)
x1 (t) + 6 x1 (t) + 5 x1 (t) + 10 x1(t) = u(t) ...(3)
2s + 3
2
. s
x1 (t) = x2(t) Transfer function = 2s + 3
.. . 1+ 2 ˜1
s
x1 (t) = x2 (t) = x3 (t)
2s + 3
... .
x1 (t) = x3 (t) /
s
2

T.F = 2
Hence Equation (3) becomes, s + 2s + 3
. s/
2
x3 (t) + 6 x3(t) + 5 x2(t) + 10 x1(t) = u(t)
. Hence the transfer function,
x3 (t) = –10 x1(t) – 5 x2(t) – 6x3(t) + u(t) Y(s) 2s + 3
Hence the equations are, U(s) = 2
s + 2s + 3
.
x1 (t) = x2(t) X1(s) Y(s) 2s + 3
. U(s) ˜ X1(s) = 2
s + 2s + 3
x2 (t) = x3(t)
X1(s) 1
. = 2 ...(1)
x3 (t) = – 10 x1(t) – 5x2(t) – 6x3(t) + u(t) U(s) s + 2s + 3

⎡ ⎤
· Y(s)
x1 (t) ⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ = 2s + 3 ...(2)
⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 (t) ⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥ u (t) X1(s)
⎢ ·
⎥
x2 (t) =
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ·
x3 (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 10 – 5 – 6 ⎦ ⎣ x3 (t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ Consider Equation (1)
X1(s) 1
... State equation U(s) = 2
s + 2s + 3
The Equation (2) is, 2
s X1(s) + 2s X1(s) + 3 X1(s) = U(s)
Y(s)
= 10s + 10 Taking Inverse Laplace transform,
X1(s)
.. .
Y(s) = 10s X1(s) + 10 X1(s) x1 (t) + 2 x1 (t) + 3 x1 (t) = u(t) ...(3)

. .
y(t) = 10 x1 (t) + 10 x1(t) x1 (t) = x2(t)
.. .
y(t) = 10 x2(t) + 10 x1 (t) x1 (t) = x2 (t) = x3(t)
y(t) = 10 x1(t) + 10 x2 (t) Substituting in equation,
·
[10 10] ⎡ x1(t) ⎤ + 0
x (t) x2 (t) + 2 x2 (t) + 3 x1 (t) = u(t)
[y (t)] =
⎣ 2 ⎦ ... Output equation
·
x2 (t) = – 3 x1 (t) – 2 x2 (t) + u(t)

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Hence the two equations are, s Xi (s) = Pi Xi (s) + R(s)

If we take ILT of above equation,
·
x1 (t) = x2 (t) ·
x1 (t) = P1 x1 (t) + r (t)
· ·
x2 (t) = – 3 x1 (t) – 2 x2 (t) + u(t) x2 (t) = P2 x2 (t) + r (t)
⎡ ·
⎤ ∶
⎢
x1(t)
⎥ = ⎡⎣
0 1
⎤⎡ x1 (t)
⎤+⎡ 0
⎤ u(t) …State equation ·
⎣ ·
x2 (t) ⎦ –3 –2 ⎦⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ xn (t) = Pn xn (t) + r (t)
From above Equations we can write,
·
⎡ ⎤
Consider Equation (2) x1 (t) 
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ x (t) ⎤
P1 0 0 x1 (t)

⎢ ⎥
Y(s)
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
= 2s + 3 ·
X1 (s) x2 (t) 0 P2 ‫ڮڮ‬ 0 2
=
Y(s) = 2s X1(s) + 3 X1(s)
⎢ ∶
⎥ ⎢
⎣
∶ ∶ ⎥⎢ ∶ ⎥
⎦ ⎣ x (t) ⎦
y(t) =
·
x1 (t) + 3 x1(t) ⎣ ·
xn (t) ⎦ 0 0 ‫ ڮڮ‬Pn n

⎡1⎤
y(t) = 3 x1(t) + x2(t) 1

⎡ x1 (t)
⎤ +
⎢ ⎥ r(t) …(11.7.36)
⎢∶⎥
y(t) = [3 1] …Output equation
⎣ x2 (t) ⎦
⎣1⎦
 11.7.6 Canonical form of State Variable Similarly we can write the output equation,
Model Y(s) = k1 X1 (s) + k2 X2 (s) + … + kn Xn (s)
Taking ILT,
Consider the transfer function, y (t) = k1 x1 (t) + k2 x2 (t) + … + kn xn (t)
Y(s)
⎡ x (t) ⎤
T(s) = R(s) x1 (t)
m
bm s + bm – 1 s
m–1
+ …. + b1 s + b0
y(t) = [k1 k …k ]
⎢ ⎥ 2
…(11.7.37)
T(s) =
⎢ ∶ ⎥
2 n
n n–1
s + an – 1 s + …. + a1 s + a0
mdn ⎣ x (t) ⎦ n
This case has two possibilities : Equation (11.7.36) represents state equation in canonical
form and Equation (11.7.37) represents state variable model in
Case I : Denominator with distinct poles (Non-Repeated) canonical form.
Let us express the transfer function in partial fraction form, Case II : Repeated poles
Y(s) k1 k2 kn Consider simple transfer function
R(s) = +
s – P1 s – P2 + … + s – Pn …(11.7.33) Y (s) k
k1 R(s) k2 R(s) kn R(s) R (s) = (s – p )3
i
Y(s) = s – P + s – P + … + s – P Expanding using partial fraction form,
1 2 n
Y (s) ku kv kw
Y(s) = k1 X1 (s) + k2 X2 (s) + … + kn Xn (s) …(11.7.34) = + +
R (s) 3 2 1
where, (s – Pi ) (s – Pi ) (s – Pi )
X1 (s) 1 ku R(s) kv R(s) kw R(s)
= Y(s) = 3+ 2+ 1
R (s) s – P1 (s – Pi ) (s – Pi ) (s – Pi )
X2 (s) 1 Y (s) = ku Xi1 (s) + kv Xi2 (s) + kw Xi3 (s)
R (s) = s – P2 R (s)
where Xi1 (s) = 3
‫׷‬ (s – Pi )
Xn (s) 1 R (s)
R (s) = s – Pn Xi2 (s) = 2
(s – Pi )
In general we can write as, R (s)
R (s) Xi3 (s) =
Xi (s) = s – P where i = 1, 2, … n …(11.7.35) s – Pi
i
The above equations can be written as,
Xi (s) [s – Pi] = R(s)
s Xi (s) – Pi X (s) = R(s) (s – Pi ) Xi3 (s) = R (s)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-25)

· a
(s – Pi ) Xi2 (s) = Xi3 (s) z (t) = Vz (t) + B r(t) …(11.8.4)
Substituting x(t) in Equation (11.8.2),
(s – Pi ) Xi1 (s) = Xi2 (s)
a
Simplifying above equation, y(t) = CMz (t) + Dr (t) where C = CM
S Xi3 (s) = Pi Xi3 (s) + R (s) a
y(t) = C z (t) + D r(t)
S Xi2 (s) = Pi Xi2 (s) + Xi3 (s)
S Xi (s) = Pi Xi1 (s) + Xi2 (s)
Taking ILT we get,   5QNWVKQPQH.6+5VCVG
·
xi3 (t) = Pi xi3 (t) + r (t)  'SWCVKQPU
·
xi (t) = Pi x12 (t) + xi3 (t)
2
·
xi (t) = Pi xi1 (t) + xi2 (t)
1
Hence equations can be written,

⎡ ⎤
·
xi1 (t)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡⎢ 0 ⎤⎥
xi1 (t)
⎡ Pi 1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ 0 Pi 1 ⎥
⎥⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥ r (t)
· xi (t)
xi2 (t)
⎢· ⎥ ⎢ 2

⎣ ⎦⎣ x (t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎣x i3 (t) ⎦
0 0 Pi i3
(1l22)Fig. 11.9.1
The output equation is written as,
 11.9.1 Homogenous State Equation
Y (s) = ku Xi1 (s) + kv Xi2 (s) + kw Xi3 (s)
UQ. 11.9.1 Write a short note on ‘State transition
y(t) = ku xi1 (t) + kv xi2 (t) + kw xi3 (t)
matrix’. SPPU - Dec. 15, May 16, 3 Marks)
Hence,
UQ. 11.9.2 Derive the expression for state
⎡ xi1
⎤
y (t) = [ku kv kw] ⎢ xi2 ⎥ transition matrix by Laplace
⎢ ⎥ transform method.
⎣ xi3 ⎦
SPPU - Dec 16, May 18, 4 Marks)
  &KCIQPCNK\CVKQP UQ. 11.9.3 Derive formula of state transition
matrix. SPPU - May 17, 4 Marks)
We have defined state variable model by following equations :
· In case of homogenous equations ‘u’ terms are not
x (t) = Ax (t) + Br (t) …(11.8.1)
y (t) = Cx (t) + Dr (t) …(11.8.2) considered. Consider a scaler differential equation,
Hence we are trying to define another state variable model x· = ax …(11.9.1)
such that matrix A can have diagonal form. Let us assume some solution for x.
Let us define new state vector such that, 2 k
Let x = b0 + b1 t + b2 t + … + bk t + …
x(t) = M z(t) …(11.9.2)
where M is non singular matrix transformation | M | z 0
? x· =
2
b1 + 2b2 t + 3b3 t + … …(11.9.3)
Hence Equation (1) can be written as,
· Substituting values in Equation (11.9.1) we get,
M z (t) = AMz (t) + Br (t)
· –1 –1
LHS = x·
z (t) = M AMz (t) + M B r(t) …(11.8.3) RHS =
2
ab0 + ab1 t + ab2 t + … …(11.9.4)
–1
Here matrix M is selected such that M AM is diagonal
For a true solution we must get,
matrix
where M is called Modal Matrix LHS = RHS
–1
Let V = M be diagonal matrix Comparing Equations (11.9.3) and (11.9.4), we can write
a –1
b1 = ab0 …(11.9.5)
B = M B 1 1 1 2
Hence Equation (11.8.3) becomes, b2 = 2 ab1 = 2 a (ab0) = 2 a b0 …(11.9.6)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-26)
1
b3 = 3 ab2 =
1 3
3u2
a b0 …(11.9.7)  11.9.2 Examples on State Transition
Matrix
∶
1 k Ex. 11.9.1
bk = k! a b0 …(11.9.8)
Find transition matrix I (t)
For t = 0
⎡ x· 1 ⎤ ⎡ x1
⎤
⎢ · ⎥ = ⎡⎣ – 2 – 3 ⎤⎦
0 1
x(0) = b0
⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎣ x2 ⎦
But we have,
 Soln. :
x(t) = (1 + at + 2!1 a t + … + k!1 a t …) x(0)
2 2 k k
…(11.9.9)
⎡ ⎤, I=⎡ ⎤
0 1 1 0
A =
x(t) =
at
e x(0) …(11.9.10) ⎣ –2 –3 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
–1 –1
Similarly for vector matrix differential equation, I (t) = L [sI – A]

s⎡ ⎤–⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 1
x· = Ax [sI – A] =
At ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
x(t) = e x(0) …(11.9.11)
Now x· = Ax [sI – A] = ⎡ s –1
⎤
⎣ 2 s+3 ⎦
Taking Laplace transform of the matrices, To calculate [sI – A] ,
–1

sX(s) – X(0) = AX(s) …(11.9.12)

Co-factor = ⎡ s+3 –2
⎤
Take AX(s) on the LHS. ⎣ 1 s ⎦
Also sX(s) = sIX(s) where I is n u n identity matrix of same Transpose of co-factor = ⎡ s+3 1
⎤
⎣ –2 s ⎦
order as A. 2
| sI – A | = s (s + 3) – (– 1) (2) = s + 3s + 2
Hence, = (s + 1) (s + 2)
(sI – A) X(s) = x(0) [sI – A]
–1
=
1 ⎡ s+3 1 ⎤
(s + 2) (s + 1) ⎣ – 2 s ⎦
–1
X(s) = (sI – A) x(0)
⎡ (s + 2) (s + 1) ⎤
s+3 1
–1 –1 (s + 2) (s + 1)
⎢ –2 ⎥
x(t) = L [sI – A] x(0) …(11.9.13) –1
[sI – A] =
⎣ (s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 1) ⎦
Comparing, s
At –1 –1
e = L (sI – A) = I (t) –1
Taking L individually,
where I (t) is state transition matrix. s+3 A B
(s + 2) (s + 1) = s + 2 + s + 1
 11.9.1(A) Properties of State Transition
(s + 3)
Matrix A = (s + 2) ˜ (s
––––– –––––
+ 2) (s + 1)
s=–2
UQ. 11.9.4 State properties of state transition A = –1
Similarly B = 2
matrix. (SPPU - Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 16,
s+3
May 17, May 18, 3 Marks)
L
–1
[ (s + 2) (s + 1)] = L
–1
[s–+12 + s +2 1 ] = 2e –t
–e
– 2t

A0
Similarly,
(1) I (0) = e =I 1
(2)
At
I (t) = e = [I (– t)] , i.e., I
–1 –1
(t) = I (– t)
L
–1
[(s + 2) (s + 1) ] =
–t
e –e
– 2t

(3) I (t1 + t2) = e

n
A(t1 + t2)
=e
At1
˜e
At2
= I (t1) I (t2) L
–1
[(s + 2)– 2(s + 1) ] = 2e
– 2t
– 2e
–t

(4) [I (t)] = I (nt)

(5) I (t2 – t1) I (t1 – t0) = I (t2 – t0)
L
–1
[(s + 1)s(s + 2) ] = 2e
– 2t
–e
–t
–t

– 2t –t – 2t

The state transition matrix gives idea about the progress of I (t) =
⎡ 2e – e e –e ⎤
state from x(0). It gives the free response of the system.
⎣ 2e
– 2t
– 2e
–t
2e
– 2t
–e
–t
⎦

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Ex. 11.9.2
y(t) = [3 1]
⎡ x1(t)
+0
⎤ …Output equation
Obtain state-model and determine state transition matrix for a ⎣
x2(t) ⎦
C(s) s+3 To calculate state transition matrix,
system whose transfer function is given as R(s) = 2 `
s + 3s + 2 ⎡ x· 1 (t) ⎤
⎢ · ⎥ = ⎡⎣ – 2 – 3
0 1
⎤⎡ x1(t)
⎤
 Soln. : The transfer function can be written as,
⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ ⎦⎣ x2(t) ⎦
X1(s) C(s) s+3
T(s) = R(s) u X (s) = 2
A = ⎡ ⎤
0 1
1 s + 3s + 2
X1(s) 1
⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
Let R(s) = …(1) –1 –1
2
s + 3s + 2 I(t) = L [sI – A]

s⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 ⎤
C(s) 1 0 1
[sI – A] =
X1(s) = s + 3 …(2)
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
Consider Equation (1)
= ⎡ s 0 ⎤–⎡ 0 1
⎤
X1(s) 1 ⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
R(s) = s2 + 3s + 2
= ⎡ s –1
⎤
⎣ 2 s+3 ⎦
2
X1(s) [s + 3s + 2] = R(s)
2
s X1(s) + 3sX1(s) + 2X1(s) = R(s)
Co-factor = ⎡ s+3 –2
⎤
Taking inverse Laplace transform, ⎣ 1 s ⎦
2
d d
2 x1(t) + 3 dt x1(t) + 2 x1(t) = r(t) …(3) Transpose of co-factor = ⎡ s+3 1
⎤
dt ⎣ –2 s ⎦
We can write above equation as, |sI – A| = s (s + 3) – 2 u (– 1)
2
·· · = s + 3s + 2
x1(t) + 3 x1(t) + 2x1 (t) = r(t) …(4)
· = (s + 2) (s + 1)
Let x1 (t) = x2 (t) –1 Transpose of co-factor
[sI – A] =
· ·· '
x2 (t) = x3 (t) = x1 (t)
= (s + 2) (s + 1) ⎡ ⎤
1 s+3 1
Hence Equation (4) becomes,
· ⎣ –2 s ⎦
x2 (t) + 3x2(t) + 2x1(t) = r(t) …(5)
⎡ ⎤
s+3 1
Now the two equations are, (s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 1)
· [sI – A]
–1
= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (s + 2) (s + 1) ⎦
x2 (t) = – 2x1(t) – 3x2(t) + r(t) –2 s
· (s + 2) (s + 1)
x1 (t) = x2 (t)
Hence state equation, –1 –1 –1
L [sI – A] we should take L of all individual terms.
⎡ ·
⎤ A1 A2
⎢
x1 (t)
⎥ = ⎡⎣
0 1
⎤⎡ x1(t)
⎤+⎡ 0
⎤ r(t)
s+3
(s + 2) (s + 1) = s + 2 + s + 1
⎣ ·
x2 (t) ⎦ –2 –3 ⎦⎣ x2(t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
s+3
Y(s) A1 = (s + 2) ˜ (s
––––– –––––
+ 2) (s + 1)
X1(s) = s+3
s=–2
s X1( s)+ 3 X1( s)
Y(s) = 1
A1 = –1 =1
d
Taking ILT, y(t) = dt x1(t) + 3 x1 (t)
s+3
· A2 = (s + 1) ˜ (s + 2)–––––
––––– (s + 1)
y(t) = x1(t) + 3x1 (t) s=–1
y(t) = 3 x1(t) + x2 (t) 2
A2 = 1 =2
? y(t) = [3 1]
⎡ x1(t) ⎤ + 0 r (t)
⎣ x2(t) ⎦ (s + 3) –1 2
Hence the required state model is,
L
–1
(s + 2) (s + 1) = L
–1

t
[ s+2
–2t
+ s+1 ]
= 2 e – 2e
⎡ x1 (t) ⎤
·
⎥ = ⎡⎣ – 2 3 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ x (t) ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ 1 ⎤⎦ u(t)
0 1 x1(t) 0 Similarly,
⎢ · 1
⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ 2
L
–1
(s + 2) (s + 1) =
–t
e –e
– 2t

…State equation

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-28)

L
–1 –2
(s + 2) (s + 1) =
–2t
2e – 2e
–t
 11.9.3 Solution of Non-Homogenous
–1 s –2t –t
State Equation
L (s + 1) (s + 2) = 2e – e
–1 –1
In non-homogenous equation, u(t) is also considered.
I(t) = L [sI – A]
–t –2t –t –2t x· (t) = Ax (t) + Bu (t)
I(t) =
⎡ 2e – e e –e ⎤ y(t) = Cx (t) + Du (t)
⎣ 2e
–2t
– 2e
–t –2t
2e –e
–t
⎦ The notations u(t) or r(t) are used for input of state variable
model. We shall use Laplace transform.
Ex. 11.9.3 Taking Laplace transform,
Obtain the state transition matrix for the state model whose system [sX(s) – X(0)] = AX(s) + BU(s)

matrix is given by A = ⎡ ⎤
1 1 i.e., [sI – A] X(s) = X(0) + BU(s)
⎣ 0 1⎦ OR
–1 –1
X(s) = (sI – A) X(0) + (sI – A) BU(s)
 Soln. : Taking inverse,
The state transition matrix I(t) is given as, –1
L (sI – A) X(0) = I (t) X(0)
–1 –1
I(t) = L [ sI – A ] where I (t) is state transition matrix.

[sI – A] = s ⎡ ⎤ –⎡ 1 1 ⎤
1 0 Consider
⎣ 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ –1 –1
L (sI – A) BU(s)
–1 –1
If L F1 (s) = f1 (t) and L F2 (s) = f2 (t)
= ⎡ ⎤ –⎡ 1 1 ⎤
s 0
⎣ 0 s⎦ ⎣ 0 1⎦ Using convolution,
t
[sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s–1 –1
⎣ 0 s–1 ⎦ L
–1
F1 (s) F2 (s) = ∫ f1 (x) f2 (t – x) dx OR
0
| sI – A | = (s – 1) (s – 1) – 0 t

2
= ∫ f1 (t – x) f2 (x) dx
| sI – A | = (s – 1) 0
Adj [ sI – A ] = ⎡ s–1
⎤
0
Let L
–1
(sI – A)
–1
= I (t) = e
At

⎣ 1 s–1 ⎦ L
–1
[U(s)] = u(t)
[ sI – A ]
–1
=
1 ⎡ s–1
⎤0 t
(s – 1)
2
⎣ 1 s–1 ⎦ ?L
–1
(sI – A)
–1
BU(s) = ∫ e
A(t – x)
BU (x) dx

[ sI – A ]
–1
=
1 ⎡ s–1 0
⎤ 0
(s – 1)
2
⎣ 1 s–1 ⎦ t
e x(0) + ∫ e
At A(t – x)
? x(t) =
⎡ ⎤
1 BU (x) dx
s–1 0
0
⎢ ⎥
–1 –1 –1
L [ sI – A ] = L This is the non-homogenous solution.
1 1
⎣ (s – 1)
2
s – 1 ⎦ It consist of :
At
(1) Homogenous or free response term e x(0)
L
–1
[ s –11 ] = e
t
(2) Forced response or non homogenous term
t
–1
⎡ 1
⎤ –1
⎡ 1
⎤
L
⎣ (s – 1)
2
⎦
= L
⎣ (s – 1)
(1 + 1)
⎦ ∫ eA(t – x) BU (x) dx
0
= L
–1
⎡ 1!
⎤
⎣ (s – 1)
(1 + 1)
⎦ Note :
At
In e , replace t by t – x to get e
A(t – x)
.
–1
L ⎡ 1
⎤ =
1
t e = te
t t

⎣ ⎦
2
(s – 1)
n at n! L.T.
 11.9.4 Another Way of Solution of LTI
Formula use = t e m–––o n+1
Solution Equation
(s – a)
The solution of state equations can be obtained in time
Hence the required matrix, domain as well as Laplace transform.
t
⎡ e 0 ⎤
I(t) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ te
t
e
t
⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-29)

 Solution in time domain  11.9.4(A) Various Methods of Computing

the State Transition Matrix
Consider the following linear time-invariant state space
system equations :
x· (t) = Ax (t) + Br (t) …(11.9.14)
y(t) = Cx (t) + Dr (t) …(11.9.15)
– At
Multiplying both sides by e we get,
e x· (t) = e Ax (t) + e Br (t)
– At – At – At

x· (t) – e ˜ Ax(t) =
– At – At – At
? e e Br (t)
…(11.9.16)
d – At (1l23)Fig. 11.9.2
x· (t) – e ˜ Ax(t) = dt [ e x (t)]
– At – At
But e

…(11.9.16(a))  Computation by Taylor series expansion

Hence Equation (11.9.16) becomes, For scalar O the Taylor series is,
2 2 n n
d – At –At Ot O t O t
dt [ e x (t)] = e Br (t) …(11.9.17) e = 1 + O t + 2! + … + n! + …

Integrating Equation (11.9.18) from 0 to t, we get, It converges all finite ‘O’ and t. Similarly we can for state
t transition matrix.
f
∫ e– AW Br (W) dW
t
[ e– At x (t)]0 = 2

∑
At t 2 1 k k
0 e = I + tA + 2! A + … = k! t A
t k=0
e
– At
x (t) – x (0) = ∫ e– AW Br (W) dW This series involves matrix multiplications and additions.
0
t  11.9.5 Solution using Laplace Transform
x (0) + ∫ e
– At – AW
e x (t) = Br (W) dW
0 UQ. 11.9.5 Derive the formula for obtaining
t transfer function from state model.
e x (0) + ∫ e e
At At – AW
x(t) = Br (W) dW SPPU - Dec. 17, 3 Marks)
0
t Consider the equation

x(t) = e x (0) + ∫ e
At A (t – W)
Br (W) dW x· (t) = Ax (t) + Br (t)
0 Taking Laplace transform of above equation, we get
At
sX (s) – x (0) = AX (s) + BR (s)
According to these equations, the property of e is to take (sI – A) X(s) = x(0) + BR (s)
–1 –1
system from any state x(0) or x(t – t0) to state at ‘t’, i.e., x (t). X(s) = (sI – A) x(0) + (sI – A) BR (s)
Therefore it is known as state transition matrix and it is
Zero input Zero state
denoted by, response response OR
At A (t – t0)
I (t) = e , I (t0) = e forced response
Forced response is due to input r(t).
Putting value of x(t) in output equation we can get value of –1
Here (sI – A) is responsible for converting initial conditions
y(t) of the system. and input to output.
Hence, it is called ‘state transition matrix’.
 Properties of state transition method In time domain state transition matrix is,
–1 –1
0 I (t) = L [(sI – A) ]
(1) e =I
A (t1 + t2) At1 At2 It is also given by,
(2) e =e e I (t) = e
At
At – 1 – At
(3) [e ] =e The output equation is given as,
y(t) = Cx (t) + Dr (t)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-30)

⎡ ⎤
Using Laplace transform, s 1
2 2
Y(s) = CX (s) + DR (s) s +1 s +1
Substituting value of X(s) in the above equation, I (t) = L
–1
⎢ –1 s ⎥
Y(s) = C [(sI – A)
–1
x(0) + (sI – A)
–1
BR (s) ] + DR (s) ⎣ 2
s +1 s +1 ⎦
2

= C (sI – A)
–1
x(0) + [C (sI – A)
–1
B + D] R(s) I (t) = ⎡ cos t sin t
⎤
⎣ – sin t cos t ⎦
From the above equation we get,
(ii)
dx
= ⎡ 0 1
⎤x
⎣ 0 0 ⎦
–1
Y(s) = C [(sI – A) B + D] R(s) dt
Considering all initial condition zero,
A = ⎡ 0 1
⎤
Y (s) –1
? T(s) = R (s) = C (sI – A) B + D
⎣
0 0 ⎦
The state transition matrix I (t) is given by
–1 –1
Inverse Laplace transform gives output of system as solution I (t) = L [sI – A]

[sI –A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤

1 0
of state equations.
⎣0 1⎦ ⎣0 0⎦
UEx. 11.18 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks)
= ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤=⎡ s –1 ⎤
s 0
Obtain the state transition matrix if ⎣0 s⎦ ⎣0 0⎦ ⎣0 s ⎦
(i) dt = ⎡ ⎤x
dx 0 1 | sI – A | = s
2

⎣ –1 0 ⎦ To calculate [sI – A]
–1

(ii) dt = ⎡ ⎤x
dx 0 1 –1 1
[sI – A] = |sI – A| Adjoint of [sI – A]
⎣0 0 ⎦
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
using Laplace transform. s 1
⎣0 s⎦
 Soln. :
–1 1 ⎡ s 1 ⎤
(i)
dx
= ⎡ 0 1
⎤x [sI – A] = 2˜
s ⎣ 0 s ⎦
dt ⎣ –1 0 ⎦
⎡s ⎤
1 1
A = ⎡ 0 1
⎤ s
2
⎣ ⎦
–1 0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 ⎦
The state transition matrix I(t) is given by 1
–1
I(t) = L [sI –A]
–1 s
–1 –1
I (t) = L [sI – A]
[sI –A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
1 0
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –1 0 ⎦
⎡ ⎤
1 1
s s2
= ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
s 0 –1
= L
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –1 0 ⎦
⎣0 ⎦
1
s
[sI –A] = ⎡ ⎤
s –1
⎣1 s ⎦ ⎡ 1 t
⎤
I (t) =
To calculate [sI – A]
–1
⎣ 0 1 ⎦
–1 1
[sI – A] = |sI – A| ˜ Adjoint of [sI – A] UEx. 11.19 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 7 Marks)
2
| sI – A | = s + 1
Determine state transition matrix of A = ⎡
⎤ and obtain
0 1
⎦ ⎣
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s 1 –4 –5
⎣ –1 s ⎦ solution x(t) of state equation x˜ = Ax if initial state x(0) = ⎡ ⎤
1
⎣0⎦
˜⎡ ⎤
–1 1 s 1
[sI –A] =
s +1 ⎣ –1 s ⎦ 
2
Soln. :

⎡ ⎤
s 1
2 2 The state transition matrix is given by
s + 1 s +1 –1
[sI –A]
–1
= ⎢ ⎥ I(t) = L [sI – A]

[sI – A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
–1 s 1 0
⎣ 2
s +1 s +1
2
⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –4 –5 ⎦
–1 –1
I (t) = L [sI – A]
= ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
s 0
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –4 –5 ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-31)

[sI – A] = ⎡ s –1
⎤ x(t) =
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤⎡ 1 ⎤
4 s+5 – 1 – 4t 4 – t – 1 – 4t 1 – t
3 e +3e 3 e + 3e
| sI – A | = s (s + 5) – (– 4)
⎢ ⎥⎣ 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦
2
= s + 5s + 4 = (s + 4) (s + 1) 4 – 4t 4 – t 4 – 4t 1 – t
3e – 3e 3e – 3e
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ s+5 1
⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎡ ⎤
– 1 – 4t 4 – t
–4 s
3 e +3e
[sI – A]
–1
=
1
| sI – A | Adj [sI – A]
x(t) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
4 – 4t 4 – t
3e – 3e
=
1 ⎡ s+5 1 ⎤
(s + 4) (s + 1) ⎣ – 4 s ⎦ UEx. 11.20 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 7 Marks)

⎡ ⎤
s+5 1
Determine the state transition matrix A = ⎡ ⎤.
0 1
(s + 4) (s + 1) (s + 4) (s + 1)
[sI – A]
–1
= ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ –5 –6 ⎦
⎣ (s + 4) (s + 1) ⎦
–4 s
(s + 4) (s + 1)  Soln. :

⎡ ⎤
s+5 1 The state transition matrix
(s + 4) (s + 1) (s + 4) (s + 1) –1 –1
I(t) = L [sI – A]
I(t) = L
–1
⎢ ⎥
[sI –A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
1 0
⎣ (s + 4) (s + 1) ⎦
–4 s
(s + 4) (s + 1) ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –5 –6 ⎦
Consider
= ⎡ ⎤– ⎡ 0 1 ⎤
s 0

A1 A2
–1 4 ⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –5 –6 ⎦
s+5 3 3
= ⎡ ⎤
(i) s –1
(s + 4) (s + 1) = (s + 4) + s + 1 = s + 4 + s + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform ⎣ 5 s+6 ⎦
s+5 1 – 4t 4 – t –1 1
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 4) (s + 1) = – 3 e + 3 e
[sI – A] = | sI – A | Adj [sI – A]

| sI – A | = ⎪ ⎪
s –1

A1 A2
–1
3
1
3
⎪ 5 s+6 ⎪
1 2
(ii) (s + 4) (s + 1) = (s + 4) + s + 1 = s + 4 + s + 1 = s (s + 6) – (–5) = s + 6s + 5
= (s + 5) (s + 1)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
Adj [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+6 1
⎣ –5 s ⎦
L
–1
[ (s + 4)1(s + 1)] = –31 e – 4t 1 –t
+3e
[sI – A]
–1
= (s + 5) (s + 1) ⎡
1 s+6 1
⎤
4 –4 ⎣ –5 s ⎦
⎡ ⎤
–4 A1 A2 3 3 s+6 1
(iii) (s + 4) (s + 1) = (s + 4) + s + 1 = s + 4 + s + 1 (s + 5) (s + 1) (s + 5) (s + 1)
[sI – A]
–1
= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (s + 5) (s + 1) ⎦
4 – 4t 4 – t –5 s
= 3e –3e (s + 5) (s + 1)

⎡ (s + 5) (s + 1) ⎤
4 –1 s+6 1
(s + 5) (s + 1)
⎢ ⎥
s A1 A2 3 3 –1 –1 –1
(iv) L [sI – A] = L
(s + 4) (s + 1) = (s + 4) + s + 1 = s + 4 + s + 1
⎣ (s + 5) (s + 1) ⎦
–5 s
Taking Inverse Laplace transform (s + 5) (s + 1)
s 4 – 4t 1 – t –1 5
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 4) (s + 1) = 3 e – 3 e
(i)
s+6 A1 A2 4 4
(s + 5) (s + 1) = s + 5 + s + 1 = s + 5 + s + 1
Hence state transition matrix
I(t) = Taking Inverse Laplace transform
s+6 – 1 – 5t 5 – t
⎡ ⎤ [ ]
– 1 – 4t 4 – t – 1 – 4t 1 – t –1
L (s + 5) (s + 1) = 4 e + 4 e
3 e +3e 3 e + 3e
⎢ ⎥ –1 1
⎣ ⎦
4 – 4t 4 – t 4 – 4t 1 – t
A1 A2
3e – 3e 3e –3e 1 4 4
(ii) (s + 5) (s + 1) = s + 5 + s + 1 = s + 5 + s + 1
The solution x(t) is given by
x(t) = I(t) ˜ x(0)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-32)

⎡ ⎤
Taking Inverse Laplace transform s+2 1
(s + 11) (s + 1) (s + 11) (s + 1)
⎢ ⎥
1 – 1 – 5t 1 – t
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 5) (s + 1) = 4 e + 4 e
–1
I(t) = L [sI – A]
–1
= L
–1

⎣ (s + 11) (s + 1) ⎦
– 11 s
+5 –5 (s + 11) (s + 1)
–5 A1 A2 4 4 9 1
(iii) (s + 5) (s + 1) = (s + 5) + s + 1 = s + 5 + s + 1
s+2 A1 A2 10 10
(i) (s + 11) (s + 1) = s + 11 + s + 1 = s + 11 + s + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
–5 5 – 5t 5 – t Taking Inverse Laplace transform
L
–1
[
(s + 5) (s + 1) ]= 4e –4e
s+2 9 – 11t 1 – t

A1 A2
5 –1
L
–1
[ (s + 11) (s + 1) ] = 10 e + 10 e
s 4 4 –1 1
(iv) (s + 5) (s + 1) = (s + 5) + s + 1 = s + 5 + s + 1
1 A1 A2 10 10
(ii) (s + 11) (s + 1) = s + 11 + s + 1 = s + 11 + s + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
s 5 – 5t 1 – t Taking Inverse Laplace transform
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 5) (s + 1) = 4 e – 4 e 1 – 1 – 11t 1 – t

–1 –1
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 11) (s + 1) = 10 e + 10 e

I(t) = L [sI – A] + 11 – 11
– 11 A1 A2 10 10
⎡ ⎤
– 1 – 5t 5 – t – 1 – 5t 1 – t
(iii) (s + 11) (s + 1) = (s + 11) + s + 1 = s + 11 + s + 1
4 e +4e 4 e +4e
I(t) = ⎢ ⎥ Taking Inverse Laplace transform
⎣ ⎦
5 – 5t 5 – t 5 – 5t 1 – t
4e –4e 4e –4e – 11 11 – 11t 11 – t
L
–1
[ (s + 11) (s + 1) ]= 10 e – 10 e
UEx. 11.21 (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) + 11 –1
A1 A2 10 10
Obtain state transition matrix of x = ⎡ ⎤x
˜ 0 1 s
(iv) (s + 11) (s + 1) = (s + 11) + s + 1 = s + 11 + s + 1
⎣ – 11 – 12 ⎦
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
Using Laplace transformation.
s 11 – 11t 1 – t
 Soln. :
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 11) (s + 1) = 10 e – 10 e

⎡ ⎤
9 – 11t 1 – t – 1 – 11t 1 – t
A = ⎡ 0 1
⎤ 10 e + 10 e 10 e + 10 e
⎣
– 11 – 12 ⎦ ? I(t) = ⎢ ⎥ ...Ans.
⎣ ⎦
The transition matrix I(t) is given by 11 – 11t 11 – t 11 – 11t 1 – t
–1 –1 10 e – 10 e 10 e – 10 e
I(t) = L [sI – A]

[sI –A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 ⎤

1 0 1 UEx. 11.22 (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ – 11 – 12 ⎦
Determine state transition matrix of A = ⎡ 0 1
⎤
= ⎡ ⎤– ⎡ 0 ⎤
s 0 1
⎣ –3 –4 ⎦
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ – 11 – 12 ⎦
 Soln. : The state transition matrix
= ⎡ ⎤
s –1
–1 –1
I(t) = L [sI – A]
⎣ 11 s + 12 ⎦
[sI –A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
2 1 0
| sI – A | = s (s + 12) – (–11) = s + 12s + 11
= (s + 11) (s + 1) ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –3 –4 ⎦
[sI –A] = ⎡ ⎤– ⎡ 0 1 ⎤=⎡ s –1 ⎤
s 0
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+2 1
⎣ – 11 s ⎦ ⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –3 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 3 s+4 ⎦
| sI – A | = ⎪ ⎪
–1 1 s –1
[sI – A] = | sI – A | Adjoint of [sI – A]
⎪ 3 s+4 ⎪
2
= (s + 11) (s + 1) ⎡ ⎤
1 s+2 1 = s (s + 4) – (– 3) = s + 4s + 3
⎣ – 11 s ⎦ | sI – A | = (s + 3) (s + 1)

Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+4 1
⎡ ⎤
s+2 1
(s + 11) (s + 1) (s + 11) (s + 1) ⎣ –3 s ⎦
= ⎢ ⎥ 1
⎣ (s + 11) (s + 1) ⎦
– 11 s [sI – A]
–1
= | sI – A | Adj [sI – A]
(s + 11) (s + 1)

= (s + 3) (s + 1) ⎡ ⎤
–1 1 s+4 1
[sI – A]
⎣ –3 s ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-33)

⎡ ⎤
s+4 1 The state transition matrix
(s + 3) (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 1)
⎢ ⎥
–1 –1 –1
[sI – A] = I(t) = L [sI – A]

⎣ (s + 3) (s + 1) ⎦
–3 s
s⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
1 0
(s + 3) (s + 1) sI – A =
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 –2 ⎦
⎡ ⎤
s+4 1
(s + 3) (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 1) ⎡ s 0 ⎤–⎡ 0 1 ⎤
I(t) = L
–1
⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ 0 –2 ⎦
⎣ (s + 3) (s + 1) ⎦
–3 s
(s + 3) (s + 1)
= ⎡ s –1
⎤
s+4 A1 A2 ⎣0 s+2 ⎦
(i) (s + 3) (s + 1) = s + 3 + s + 1
| sI – A | = ⎪s –1
⎪
–1 3 ⎪0 s+2 ⎪
2 2 = s (s + 2) – 0 = s(s + 2)
=s+3+s+1
Adjoint matrix of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+2 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
⎣ 0 s ⎦
s+4 – 1 – 3t 3 – t
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 3) (s + 1) = 2 e + 2 e [sI – A]
–1
=
1
|sI – A| Adjoint of [sI – A]
1 A1 A2
(ii) (s + 3) (s + 1) = s + 3 + s + 1
=
1 ⎡ s+2 1
⎤
–1 1 s(s + 2) ⎣ 0 s ⎦
1 2 2
⎡ ⎤
1 1
(s + 3) (s + 1) = s + 3 + s + 1 s s(s + 2)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform [sI – A]
–1
= ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 ⎦
1
1 – 1 – 3t 1 – t
L
–1
[ (s + 3) (s + 1) ] = 2 e +2e
–1
s+2
–1
A1 A2 I(t) = L [sI – A]
–3
(iii) (s + 3) (s + 1) = (s + 3) + s + 1
⎡ ⎤
1 1
s s(s + 2)
⎢ ⎥
–3 –1
I(t) = L
2
⎣0 ⎦
–3 3 1
(s + 3) (s + 1) = = s + 3 + s + 1 s+2
Taking Inverse Laplace transform

L
–1
[ –3
(s + 3) (s + 1) ] = 3e –2e
– 3t 3 – t
(i) L
–1
[1s] = 1

1 A1 A2 1/2 – 1/2
3 –1 (ii) =
A1 A2 2 2 s(s + 2) s +s+2 = s +s+2
s
(iv) (s + 3) (s + 1) = s + 3 + s + 1 = s + 3 + s + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
Taking Inverse Laplace transform

L
–1
[ s
] 3 – 3t 1 – t
(s + 3) (s + 1) = 2 e – 2 e
L
–1
[s(s 1+ 2)] = 12 – 12 e – 2t

⎡
1 – 3t 3 – t
–2e +2e
1 – 3t 1 – t
–2e +2e
⎤
(iii) L
–1
[ (s 1+ 2)] = e – 2t

? I(t) = ⎢ ⎥ ...Ans.
⎡ 1 1 – 2t
⎤
⎣ – 3t 3 – t
⎦
3 – 3t 1 – t 1 2–2e
3e – 2 e 2 e – 2 e I(t) = ⎢ ⎥ ...Ans.
⎣ 0 e
– 2t
⎦
UEx. 11.23 (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks)
UEx. 11.24 (SPPU - Dec. 17, May 18, 7 Marks)
Obtain the state transition matrix for the system with state model
Determine state transition matrix of system with state equation
x˜ = ⎡ ⎤x
0 1
⎣ 0 –2 ⎦ x˜ = ⎡
0 1
⎤x
⎣ –8 –6 ⎦
 Soln. :
Compare the given state model with standard state model
 Soln. :
Compare the given state equation with standard
⎡ 0 1
⎤
A = ⎡ ⎤
0 1
A =
⎣ 0 –2 ⎦ ⎣ –8 –6 ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-34)

The state transition matrix is given by UEx. 11.9.4 (SPPU - Dec. 19, 6 Marks)
–1 –1 Obtain the state transition matrix for the system with state
I(t) = L [sI – A] .
equation : [ x ] = ⎡ ⎤ [x]
0 1
s⎡ ⎤–⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 1
[sI – A] =
⎣0 1⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ –8 –9 ⎦
–8 –6
Using Laplace transformation.
= ⎡ s 0 ⎤–⎡ 0 1
⎤
⎣ 0 s⎦ ⎣ –8 –6 ⎦  Soln. :
⎡ s –1
⎤
[sI – A] =
⎣ 8 s+ 6 ⎦ A = [–08 –19]
| sI – A | = ⎪ s –1
⎪ The state transition matrix I(t) is given as,
⎪ 8 s+ 6 ⎪
2 I(t) = L– 1 [sI – A]– 1
= s(s + 6) – (– 8) = s + 6s + 8
| sI – A | = (s + 4) (s + 2) [sI – A] = s [10 10] – [–08 –19]
To calculate Adjoint of [sI – A]
= [0s 0s] – [–08 –19]
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+6 1
⎣ –8 s ⎦
[sI – A]
–1 1
= | sI – A | Adjoint of [sI – A]
= [8s s–+19]
[sI – A]
–1
= (s + 4)(s + 2) ⎡
1 s+6 1
⎤
|sI – A| = |8s s–+19|
⎣ –8 s ⎦
= s (s + 9) – (– 1 u 8)
–1 –1
I(t) = L [sI – A] 2
= s + 9s + 8
⎡ ⎤
s+6 1

L
–1
= ⎢
(s + 4) (s + 2) (s + 4) (s + 2)
⎥ Adjoint [sI – A] = [s–+89 1s]
⎣ (s + 4) (s + 2) ⎦
–8 s
(s + 4) (s + 2) –1 1
[sI – A] = |sI – A| Adjoint of [sI – A]
s+6 A1 A2 –1 2
= s+4 +s+2 = s+4 +s+2 1
(s + 4)(s + 2)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
= (s + 8) (s + 1) [s–+89 1s]
s+6 ⎡(s + s8)+(s9 + 1) 1
⎤
L
–1
[
(s + 4)(s + 2) = – e
– 4t
]
+ 2e
– 2t
= ⎢
⎢ –8
(s + 8) (s + 1)⎥
s ⎥
(i)
1 A1 A2 – 1/2 1/2 ⎣(s + 8) (s + 1) (s + 8) (s + 1)⎦
(s + 4)(s + 2) = s + 4 + s + 2 = s + 4 + s + 2
–1 –1
I(t) = L [sI – A]
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
1 – 1 – 4t 1 – 2t ⎡ s+9 1
⎤
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 4)(s + 2) = 2 e + 2 e = L
– 1 ⎢(s + 8) (s + 1) (s + 8) (s + 1)⎥
⎢ –8 s ⎥
(ii)
–8 A1 A2 4 4 ⎣(s + 8) (s + 1) (s + 8) (s + 1)⎦
(s + 4)(s + 2) = s + 4 + s + 2 = s + 4 – s + 2
A1 A2
Taking Inverse Laplace transform (i) L
–1
[(s + s8)+(s9 + 1)] = s + 8 + s + 1
–8
[ ]
L– 1 (s + 4)(s + 2) = 4e – 4e
– 4t – 2t – 1/7 8/7
= s+8+s+1
s A A 2 –1
(iii) (s + 4)(s + 2) = s +14 + s +22 = s + 4 + s + 2 =
– 1 –8t 8 –t
7 e +7e
Taking Inverse Laplace transform A1 A2

L– 1 [ s
(s + 4)(s + 2) = 2e ]
– 4t
– e
– 2t
(ii) L
–1
[(s + 8)1(s + 1)] = +
s+8 s+1
– 1/7 1/7
= s+8+s+1
⎡ – e – 4t + 2e – 2t –21 e – 4t + 21 e – 2t ⎤
I(t) = ⎢ ⎥ ...Ans. – 1 –8t 1 –t
⎣ 4e
– 4t
– 4e
– 2t
2e
– 4t
–e
– 2t
⎦ = 7 e +7e

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-35)

⎡ ⎤
A1 A2 1 1
(iii) L
–1
[(s + 8)– (s8 + 1)] = s+8+s+1
I(t) = L
–1
⎢
s s(s + 4)
⎥
⎣ ⎦
8/7 – 8/7 1
= s+8+s+1 0 s+4
8 –8t 8 –t
= 7e –7e (i) L
–1
[1s] = 1

A1 A2 1 –1
s
(iv) L
–1
[ (s + 8) (s + 1) ] = s+8+s+1 (ii)
1 A1 A2 4 4
s(s + 4) = s + s + 4 = s + s + 4
8/7 – 1/7 Taking Inverse Laplace transform
= s+8+s+1
1 1 1 – 4t
8 –8t 1 –t
= 7e –7e
L
–1
[
s(s + 4) = 4 – 4 e ]
⎡– 17 e– 8t + 87 e– t –7e +7e ⎤
1 – 8t 1 – t (iii) L
–1
[ s 1+ 4] = e – 4t

I(t) = ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 1 – 4t
⎤
⎢ 8 e– 8t – 8 e– t 8 – 8t 1 – t ⎥
⎢
1 4–4e
⎥
⎣7 7 7e –7e ⎦ ? I(t) = ...Ans.
⎣ 0 e
– 4t
⎦
UEx. 11.25 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 7 Marks)
UEx. 11.26 (SPPU - May 19, 7 Marks)
Determine state transition matrix of the system with state equation
Obtain the state transition matrix for the following system
x˜ = ⎡ ⎤x
0 1
⎣ 0 –4 ⎦ ⎡ x˜1 ⎤ ⎡ 0
⎢ ⎥ = ⎣ – 2 – 3 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ x ⎤⎦
1 x1

Also determine solution of state equation if x(0) = ⎡ ⎤.

1
⎣ x˜2 ⎦ 2
⎣ 1⎦
 Soln. :
 Soln. :
Comparing the given state equation with standard state
Compare the given state equation with standard equation equation
A = ⎡ ⎤
0 1
⎡ 0 1
⎤
⎣ 0 –4 ⎦ A =
⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
The state transition matrix The state transition matrix is given by
–1 –1
I(t) = L [sI – A] –1
I(t) = L [sI – A]
–1

[sI – A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 ⎤
1 0 1
[sI – A] = s ⎡ ⎤ –⎡ 0 ⎤
1 0 1
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
[sI – A] = s ⎡ ⎤–⎡ 0 ⎤
1 0 1
[sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤– ⎡ 0 ⎤
s 0 1
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ –2 –3 ⎦
= ⎡ ⎤ –⎡ 0 ⎤
s 0 1
= ⎡ ⎤
s –1
⎣ 0 s ⎦ ⎣ 0 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 2 s+3 ⎦
[sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s –1
|sI – A| = ⎪ ⎪= s (s + 3) + 2
s –1
⎣ 0 s+4 ⎦ ⎪ 2 s+3 ⎪
| sI – A | = s(s + 4) 2
|sI – A| = s + 3s + 2
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+4 1 = (s + 2) (s + 1)
⎣ 0 s ⎦
Adjoint of [sI – A] = ⎡ ⎤
s+3 1
[sI – A]
–1 1
= | sI – A | Adjoint of [sI – A] ⎣ –2 s ⎦
–1 1
[sI – A] = | sI – A | Adjoint of [sI – A]
= s(s + 4) ⎡ ⎤
1 s+4 1
⎣ 0 s ⎦
= (s + 2)(s + 1) ⎡ ⎤
–1 1 s+3 1
[sI – A]
⎣ –2 s ⎦
⎡ ⎤
1 1
s s(s + 4)
[sI – A] =
–1
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ (s + 2)(s + 1)
s+3 1
⎤
⎣ ⎦
1 (s + 2)(s + 1)
0 s+4 [sI – A]
–1
= ⎢ –2 ⎥
⎣ (s + 2)(s + 1) ⎦
–1 –1
s
I(t) = L [sI – A] (s + 2)(s + 1)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-36)


–1 –1
I(t) = L [sI – A]
Kalman’s test for controllability
⎡ ⎤
s+3 1
th
(s + 2)(s + 1) (s + 2)(s + 1)  Consider n order multiple input LTI system which is
= L
–1
⎢ ⎥ represented by state equation
⎣ ⎦
–2 s
(s + 2)(s + 1) (s + 2)(s + 1) ˜
x = Ax (t) + Bu (t)
s+3 A1 A2
 Where matrix A is of order (n u n)
(s + 2)(s + 1) = s + 2 + s + 1
 To check whether system is controllable calculate a
–1 2 composite matrix Qc.
= s+2 + s+1
2 n–1
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ............ A B]
Taking Inverse Laplace transform 2 n – 1
 Where B, AB, A B ........ A B are various columns of
s+3
L
–1
[
(s + 2)(s + 1) = – 1e ] – 2t
+ 2e
–t


composite matrix.
If rank of composite matrix is ‘n’ then system is completely
1 A A –1 1 controllable.
(i) (s + 2)(s + 1) = s +12 + s +21 = s + 2 + s + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform  11.10.2 Observability
1
L [
–1
(s + 2)(s + 1)] = –e
– 2t
+ e
–t
Observability is related to identifying every state from the
output. A system is said to be completely observable if every state
–2 A A
(ii) (s + 2)(s + 1) = s +12 + s +21 can be completely identified from output y(t) for a finite time
duration.
2 –2
=s+2 + s+1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
 Kalman’s Test for observability
th
–2  Consider state equation of n order multiple output linear
L
–1
[ ]
(s + 2)(s + 1) = 2e
– 2t
– 2e
–t
time invariant system.
s A A ˜
(iii) (s + 2)(s + 1) = s +12 + s +21 x = Ax (t) + Bu (t)
y = Cx (t)
2 1
= s+2 – s+1  To check whether system is observable construct a composite
matrix.
Taking Inverse Laplace transform T T T T n–1 T
Qo = [C : A C ....... (A ) C ]
s
L
–1
[ (s + 2)(s + 1)] = 2e
– 2t
– e
–t

– 2t –t – 2t –t
T
C = Transpose of matrix C
T
A = Transpose of matrix A
I(t) =
⎡ –e + 2e –e + e ⎤
If Rank of Qo is ‘n’ then system is completely observable.
⎣ – 2t
2e – 2e
–t
2e
– 2t
– e
–t
⎦
UEx. 11.27 (SPPU - May 19, 6 Marks)
  %QPEGRVQH%QPVTQNNCDKNKV[ Investigate for complete state controllability and observability of
system with state model
  CPF1DUGTXCDKNKV[
A=⎡ ⎤ , B = ⎡ 0 ⎤ , C = [1 – 1]
–2 1
⎣ 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
UQ. 11.10.1 Define the following :
 Soln. :
(i) State controllability Step I : To check controllability
Construct composite matrix
(ii) State observability. 2 n–1
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ...... (A ) B]
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 2 Marks) Qc = [B : AB] as n = 2

B = ⎡ ⎤
In control system engineering it is important to find optimal 0
solution for control problem. Controllability and observability are ⎣ 1⎦
the two tools which help in finding this optimal solution.
AB = ⎡ ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤=⎡ 1 ⎤
–2 1

 11.10.1 Controllability
⎣ 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦
Qc = ⎡ ⎤
0 1
If any initial solution of the control system can be transferred ⎣ 1 –2 ⎦
to any required or desired solution then system is said to be
| Qc | = –1
completely controllable.
Since | Qc | z 0

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? Rank of Qc = 2 = n Step III : To check observability
Hence system is completely controllable.
To construct composite matrix
Step II : To check observability
T T T T n–1 T
Construct composite matrix Qo Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ]
T T T T 2 T T n–1 T T T T T 2 T
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C : .... (A ) C ] Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ] for n = 3
T T T
Qo = [C : A C ] for n = 2
⎡ 1
⎤
⎢ ⎥
C = ⎡ ⎤ A = ⎡ ⎤
T
1 T
–2 1 C
T
= 2
⎣ –1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 –2 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
A C = ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤= ⎡ –3 ⎤
T T
–2 1
⎣ 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ –1 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤
A
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –6 ⎥
Qo = ⎡
1 –3
⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 –8 ⎦
| Qo | = ⎪ ⎪ = 3 – (3) = 0
1 –3
⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ –4
⎤
⎪ –1 3 ⎪ T
A C
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –6 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ =⎢ –5 ⎥
Since | Qo | = 0 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 –8 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –6 ⎦
Hence Rank of Qo is less than 2 i.e. n
? System is not completely observable. (AT)2 CT =
T
A (A C )
T T

UEx. 11.28 (SPPU - Dec. 16, 6 Marks) ⎡ 0 0 –4

⎤ ⎡ –4
⎤ ⎡ 24
⎤
Investigate state controllability and state observability if
T 2
(A ) C
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –6 ⎥ ⎢ –5 ⎥=⎢ 32 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡
0
⎤ ⎣ 0 1 –8 ⎦ ⎣ –6 ⎦ ⎣ 43 ⎦
A=⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥,B=⎢ 0 ⎥ , C = [1 2 1]
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 – 4 24
⎤
⎣ –4 –6 –8 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ Qo = ⎢ 2 – 5 32 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
 Soln. : ⎣ 1 – 6 43 ⎦
Step I : To check state controllability | Qo | = 25 z 0
Let us calculate composite matrix
2 n–1 Rank of Qo = 3=n
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ....... A B]
Hence system is completely observable.
Here matrix A is of 3 u 3
Hence n = 3 UEx. 11.29 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
2 Investigate state controllability and state observability if
Qc = [B : AB : A B] since n = 3
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ 0
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ A=⎢ 0 ⎥,B=⎢ ⎥ , C = [1
0
0 1 0
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 1]
B =
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ –2 –3 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎣ 1 ⎦
 Soln. :
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
AB = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ 1 ⎥ Step I : To check controllability
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ Construct composite matrix Qc
⎣ –4 –6 –8 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –8 ⎦ 2
Qc = [B : AB : A B :........ A
n–1
B]
2
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ Qc = [B : AB : A B] as n = 3
A [AB] ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎡ ⎤
2 0
AB = 0 0 1 1 –8
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –4 –6 –8 ⎦ ⎣ –8 ⎦ ⎣ 58 ⎦ B = 0
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤
Qc = ⎢ 0 1 –8 ⎥ ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ 1 –8 58 ⎦ AB =
⎢
0 0 1
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –2 –3 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –4 ⎦
| Qc | = –1z0
⎡0 1 0
⎤⎡ 0 ⎤
A [AB] = ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
2
? Rank of Qc = 3 = n AB = 0 0
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
Hence system is completely controllable. ⎣ –2 –3 –4 ⎦ ⎣ –4 ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-38)

⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 1
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡2⎤
2
AB = ⎢ –4 ⎥ AB = ⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥=⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 13 ⎦ ⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦ 1 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣3⎦
⎡0 0 1
⎤ ⎡ 1 0 1
⎤⎡2⎤
Qc = ⎢0 1 –4 ⎥ 2
AB = A [AB] = ⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –4 13 ⎦ ⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦
⎪0 0 1
⎪ ⎡ 5
⎤
| Qc | = ⎪0 1 –4 ⎪=–1 2
AB = ⎢ 5 ⎥
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥
⎪ 1 –4 13 ⎪ ⎣ 7 ⎦
| Qc | z 0 ⎡ 1 2 5
⎤
? Rank of Qc = 3 = n Qc = ⎢ 1 2 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Hence given system is completely controllable. 1 3 7 ⎣ ⎦
Step II : To check observability | Qc | = 0 ? Rank of Qc  3
Construct composite matrix
T T T T n–1 T Since Rank of Qc z n
Qo = [C : A C : ..... (A ) C ]
T T T T 2 T Hence system is not controllable.
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ] since n = 3 Step II : To check observability
1
⎡ ⎤ To construct composite matrix
C
T
= ⎢ 2 ⎥ T T T T 2 T
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ..... (A )
T n–1 T
C ]
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ T T T T 2 T
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ] for n = 3
⎡ 0 0 –2
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ –2
⎤ 1
⎡ ⎤ 1 0 1
⎤⎡
T
A C
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –3 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ =⎢ –2 ⎥ C
T
= ⎢ 1 ⎥ A =⎢ 0 1 1
T ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 –4 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣1 1 1⎦
(AT)2 CT =
T T T
A [A C ] ⎡ 1 0 1
⎤⎡1⎤ ⎡2⎤
T T ⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎡ 0 0 –2
⎤⎡ –2
⎤ ⎡ 4
⎤ A C =
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(A ) T 2
C
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –3 ⎥⎢ –2 ⎥=⎢ 4 ⎥ ⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 –4 ⎦⎣ –2 ⎦ ⎣ 6 ⎦ ⎡ 1 0 1 ⎤⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 5
⎤
A (A C ) = ⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥=⎢ ⎥
T 2 T T T T
⎡ 1 –2 4
⎤ (A ) C =
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢
5
⎥
Qo = ⎢ 2 –2 4 ⎥ ⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 7 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
1 –2 6 ⎣ ⎦ ⎡1 2 5⎤
| Qo | = 4 z 0 Qo = ⎢1 2 5⎥
⎢ ⎥
Hence rank of matrix Qo = 3 = n ⎣1 3 7⎦
Hence system is completely observable. | Qo | = 0, Rank of Qo  3
UEx. 11.30 (SPPU - May 15, Dec. 19, 7 Marks) Since Rank of Qo z n
Hence system is not observable.
Find controllability and observability of state model
⎡ 1 0 1
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ UEx. 11.31 (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks)
A=⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥,B=⎢ 1 ⎥ , C = [1 1 1] , D = [0] Find controllability and observability of the system described by
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎡ x˜1 ⎤ 3 0
state equation ⎢ ⎥⎡ ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤+ ⎡ 0 ⎤ u
 Soln. : ⎢ ˜ ⎥ ⎣ 2 4 ⎦ ⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
Step I : To check controllability ⎣ x2 ⎦
Construct composite matrix Qc y = [ [1 0] x]
2 n–1
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ...... A
2
B]
 Soln. :
Qc = [B : AB : A B] since n = 3
Step I : Comparing the given state equation with standard state
1
⎡ ⎤ equation
B = ⎢ 1 ⎥ we get,
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
A = ⎡ ⎤ , B = ⎡ 0 ⎤ , C = [1 0]
1 3 0
⎣2 4⎦ ⎣1⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-39)
2
Step II : To check controllability Qc = [B : AB : A B] since n = 3
Let us construct composite matrix ⎡ 1
⎤
B = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
2 n–1
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ...... A B]
⎣ 1 ⎦
Qc = [B : AB] as n = 2
⎡ 1 0 1
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ 2
⎤
B = ⎡ ⎤
0
AB = ⎢ 2 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣1⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –1 ⎦
⎡ 3 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤=⎡ 0
⎤
AB =
⎣2 4⎦⎣1⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎡ 1 0 1
⎤
A [AB] = ⎢ 2 0 ⎥
4 2
AB = 1
⎡0 0⎤ ⎢ ⎥
Qc =
⎣1 4⎦ ⎣ –1 1 1 ⎦

⎪ 0 0 ⎪=0 ⎡ 2
⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
| Qc | = 2 ⎢ 2 ⎥=⎢ 6 ⎥
⎪1 4⎪ AB =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 ⎦ ⎣ –1 ⎦
Rank of Qc  2. Hence Rank of Qc = n
⎡ 1 2 1
⎤
Hence the system is not controllable.
Qc = ⎢ 0 2 6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Step III : To check observability ⎣ 1 –1 –1 ⎦
Construct composite matrix ⎡ 1 2 1
⎤
T T T T n–1 T | Qc | = ⎢ 0 2 6 ⎥ = 14
Qo = [C : A C : ..... (A ) C ]
⎢ ⎥
Qo =
T T T
[C : A C ] for n = 2
⎣ 1 –1 –1 ⎦
| Qc | = 14 z 0
C
T
= ⎡ 1
⎤
⎣ 0 ⎦ ? Rank of Qc = 3=n

A
T
= ⎡ 3 2
⎤ Hence system is completely controllable.
⎣ 0 4 ⎦
Step II : To check observability
T
A C
T
= ⎡ 3 2
⎤⎡ 1
⎤ =⎡ 3
⎤
⎣ 0 4 ⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ To construct composite matrix
T T T T n–1 T

Qo = ⎡ 1 3
⎤ Qo = [C : A C : ..... (A ) C ]
⎣ 0 0 ⎦ Qo =
T T
[C : A C : (A ) C ] as n = 3
T T 2 T

| Qo | = 0 Hence Rank of Qo  2 ⎡ 1
⎤1 2 –1
⎡ ⎤
C
T
= ⎢ 0 ⎥ , A =⎢ 0 1
T
1 ⎥
Since Rank of Qo z n
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Hence system is not observable.
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣1 0 1 ⎦
⎡ 1 2 –1
⎤⎡1⎤ ⎡ –1
⎤
Ex. 11.10.1
T
A C
T
= ⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥⎢0⎥ =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 0 1 ⎦⎣2⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦
Investigate for state controllability and state observability of the T 2 T T T T
(A ) C = A (A C )
system with state space model matrices
⎡ 1 0 1
⎤ ⎡1
⎤ ⎡1 2 –1
⎤ ⎡ –1
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
A=⎢ ⎥,B=⎢ ⎥ , C = [1
T 2 T
(A ) C = 0 1 1 2 5
⎢
2 1 0
⎥ ⎢
0
⎥
0 2] ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
–1 1 1 1
⎡ 1 –1 0
⎤
 Soln. :
Qo = ⎢ 0 2 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Step I : To check controllability ⎣ 2 3 2 ⎦
Construct composite matrix | Qo | = – 21 z 0
2 n–1
Qc = [B : AB : A B :........ A B] Rank of Qo = 3 = n
Hence n = 3 Hence system is completely observable.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-40)

UEx. 11.32 (SPPU - May 18, 7 Marks) ⎡ 2

⎤
C
T
= ⎢ 1 ⎥
Investigate the controllability and observability of the system with ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤
state model x˜ = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥u T ⎢ 1 0 –7 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ A =
⎢ ⎥
⎣ –4 –7 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦
y = [2 1 0] x
⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤ ⎡ 2
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
 Soln. :
T
A C
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –7 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥=⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Step I : Comparing the given state model with standard we have ⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
T 2 T T T T
(A ) C = A (A C )
A = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥,B= ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ –4
⎤
⎣
–4 –7 –2 1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ T 2 T ⎢ 1 0 –7 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥= ⎢ –7 ⎥
(A ) C =
C = [2 1 0] ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Step II : To check controllability
⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
Construct composite matrix Qc
⎡ 2 0 –4
⎤
2
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ...... A
n–1
B] Qo = ⎢ 1 2 –7 ⎥
2 ⎢ ⎥
Qc = [B : AB : A B] for n = 3 ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
⎡ 0
⎤ ⎪ 2 0 –4
⎪
B = ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎪ ⎪ = 10
⎢ ⎥ | Qo | =
⎪
1 2 –7
⎪
⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎪ ⎪
0 1 0
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
AB = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ 1 ⎥ | Qo | = 10 z 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –4 –7 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦ Hence rank of Qo = 3 = n
2 Hence system is completely observable.
AB = A[AB]

⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ UEx. 11.33 (SPPU - Dec. 17, 7 Marks)
= ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ Investigate for complete state controllability and state observability
⎣ –4 –7 –2 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦ of system with state space model matrices

⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
2
AB = ⎢ –2 ⎥ A=⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥,B=⎢ 0 ⎥ , C = [1 2 1]
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –3 ⎦ ⎣ –4 –5 –7 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤ Soln. :
Qc = ⎢ 0 1 –2 ⎥ Step I : To check controllability
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –2 –3 ⎦ To construct composite matrix
2 n–1
Qc = [B : AB : A B ..... A B]
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤ 2

| Qc | = ⎢ 0 1 –2 ⎥=–1 Qc = [B : AB : A B] as n = 3
⎢ ⎥ 0
⎡ ⎤
⎣ 1 –2 –3 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
B = 0
| Qc | z 0 ? Rank of Qc = 3 = n ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
Hence system is completely controllable.
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
Step III : To check observability AB = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Construct composite matrix ⎣ –4 –5 –7 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –7 ⎦
T T T T 2 T T n–1 T 0 1
⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
A[AB] = ⎢ 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C : .... (A ) C ] 2
A B = 0
T T T T 2 T ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ] since n = 3
⎣ –4 –5 –7 ⎦ ⎣ –7 ⎦

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-41)

⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ 0 2 1
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
A B =
2 ⎢ –7 ⎥ A=⎢ 1 0 3 ⎥,B = ⎢ 1 ⎥,C= [1 0 0]
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 44 ⎦ ⎣ 1 4 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤ Step II : To check the state controllability
Qc = ⎢ 0 1 –7 ⎥ 2
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ....(A)
n–1
B]
⎢ ⎥ 2
⎣ 1 –7 44 ⎦ Qc = [B : AB : A B] for n = 3

⎡ 0 0 1
⎤
0
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥=–1 B = ⎢ 1 ⎥
| Qc | =
⎢
0 1 –7
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 – 7 44 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
Since | Qc | z 0 ? Rank of Qc = 3 = n ⎡ 0 2 1
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡2 ⎤
Hence system is completely controllable AB = ⎢ 1 0 3 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ =⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Step II : To check observability ⎣ 1 4 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣4 ⎦
Construct composite matrix ⎡ 0 2 1
⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2
A [AB] ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
2
T T T T 2 T T n–1 T AB = 0 3
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C : ..... (A ) C ] ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
T T T T 2 T ⎣ 1 4 0 ⎦ ⎣4⎦
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ] since n = 3
⎡ 4
⎤
⎡ 1
⎤ 2 ⎢ 14 ⎥
C
T
= ⎢ 2 ⎥ AB =
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎣ 1 ⎦
⎡ 0 2 4
⎤
⎡ 0
⎤ 0 –4 ⎢ 1 0 14 ⎥
T ⎢ 1 0 –5 ⎥
Qc =
⎢ ⎥
A =
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 0 4 2 ⎦
⎣ 0 1 –7 ⎦
⎡ 0 2 4
⎤
⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ –4 ⎤ | Qc | = ⎢ 1 0 14 ⎥ = 12
T T ⎢ 1 0 –5 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ –4 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A C =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
2
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 0 4 2 ⎦
⎣ 0 1 –7 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –5 ⎦ | Qc | = 12 z 0
⎡ 0 0 –4
⎤ ⎡ –4 ⎤ ?Rank of Qc = 3=n
A (A C ) = ⎢ 1 –5 ⎥ ⎢ –4 ⎥
T 2 T T T T
(A ) C = 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ Hence system is completely controllable.
⎣ 0 1 –7 ⎦ ⎣ –5 ⎦
Step III : To check observability
⎡ ⎤ 20
T 2
(A ) C
T
= ⎢ 21 ⎥ Construct composite matrix
⎢ ⎥ Qo =
T T T
[C : A C : (A ) C : ...... (A )
T 2 T T n–1 T
C ]
⎣ 31 ⎦ T T T T 2 T
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ]
⎡ 1 – 4 20 ⎤
⎢ 2 – 4 21 ⎥ ⎡ 1
⎤
Qo =
⎢ ⎥
| Qo | = 25 z 0
C
T
= ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ 1 – 5 31 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
Rank of Qo is 3 = n
⎡ 0
⎤ 1 1
Hence system is completely observable. A
T
= ⎢ 2 ⎥ 0 4
⎢ ⎥
UEx. 11.34 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 7 Marks) ⎣ 1 3 0 ⎦
⎡ 0 1 1
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
For the system with state model T
A C
T
= ⎢ 2 0 4 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎡ 0 2 1⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x˜ = ⎢ 1 0 3 ⎥ x + ⎢ 1 ⎥ u
⎣ 1 3 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 0 1 1
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 3
⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
A [A C ] = ⎢ 4 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
1 4 0 0 T 2 T T T T
(A ) C = 2 0 2 4
y = [1 0 0]x ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 3 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ 6 ⎦
Investigate the state controllability and state observability.
⎡ 1 0 3
⎤
Soln. : Qo = ⎢ 0 2 4⎥
⎢ ⎥
Step I : Comparing the given state model standard state model ⎣ 0 1 6⎦
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⎡ 1 0 3
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤
| Qo | = ⎢ 0 2 4 ⎥ =8 C
T
= ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 6 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
| Qo | z 0 ⎡ 0 0 –5
⎤
Rank of Qo = 3=n A
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Hence system is completely observable. ⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦
UEx. 11.35 (SPPU - May 17, 7 Marks) ⎡ 0 0 –5
⎤⎡ 1
⎤ ⎡ – 10
⎤
T T
A C = ⎢ 1 0 –1 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥=⎢ –1 ⎥
Investigate complete state controllability and state observability of ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
the system with state space model matrices
⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ –4 ⎦
T 2 T T T T
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ 0
⎡ ⎤ (A ) C = A (A C )
A=⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥, B=⎢ 0 ⎥, C = [1 0 2] ⎡ 0 0 –5
⎤⎡ – 10
⎤ ⎡ 20
⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ –5 –1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ T 2
(A ) C
T
= 1 0 –1 –1 –6
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
 Soln. :
⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦⎣ –4 ⎦ ⎣ 7 ⎦
⎡ 1 – 10 20
⎤
Step I : To check controllability
Qo = ⎢ 0 –1 –6 ⎥
Construct composite matrix ⎢ ⎥
2 n–1
⎣ 2 –4 7 ⎦
Qc = [B : AB : A B : ...... A B]
⎪ 1 – 10 20
⎪
Qo = [B : AB : A B] as n = 3
2
| Qo | = ⎪ 0 –1 –6 ⎪ = 129
⎪ ⎪
⎡ 0
⎤ ⎪ 2 –4 7 ⎪
B = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ | Qo | z 0
⎣ 1 ⎦ ? Rank of Qo = 3 = n. Hence system is completely observable.
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
[AB] = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ UEx. 11.36 (SPPU - Dec. 15, 7 Marks)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –5 –1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦ Obtain the state space representation of system whose differential
2 equation is
A B = A[A B] 3 2 2
dy dy dy d u du
3+2 2+3 + 6y = 2– + 2u
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ ⎡ 1
⎤ dt dt dt dt dt
2
A B = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥=⎢ –2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ Also find controllability and observability of the system. Assume
⎣ –5 –1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ zero initial conditions.
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤ 
Qc = ⎢ 0 1 –2 ⎥ Soln. :
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –2 3 ⎦ Step I : Consider the differential equation
3 2 2
dy dy dy d u du
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤ 3+2 2+3
dt + 6y = 2– + 2u
| Qc | = ⎢ 0 1 –2 ⎥ =–1
dt dt dt dt
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –2 3 ⎦ Taking L. T. of the above equation.
3 2 2
| Qc | z 0 s Y(s) + 2s Y(s) + 3sY(s) + 6Y(s) = s U(s) – sU(s) + 2U(s)
3 2 2
Rank of Qc is 3 = n Y(s) [s + 2s + 3s + 6] = [s – s + 2] U(s)
2
Hence system is completely controllable. Y(s) s –s+2
U(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 6
Step II : To check observability 2
Y(s) X1(s) s –s+2
Construct composite matrix X1(s) ˜ U(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 6
T T T T 2 T T n–1 T
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C : ...... (A ) C ] Y(s) 2
T T T T 2 T X1(s) = s –s+2 ...(1)
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ]
X1(s) 1
U(s) = 3 2
s + 2s + 3s + 6
...(2)

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-43)

⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0
Step II : Consider Equation (2) ˜
⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡
x1(t)
1 1 0 0
⎤
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥ u(t)
X1(s) 1
0 1 x2(t) 0
U(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 6 2
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
3 2
s X1(s) + 2s X1(s) + 3sX1(s) + 6X1(s) = U(s) ⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 6
3
–3 –2 ⎦⎣ x3(t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦

Taking Inverse Laplace transform ⎡ x1(t)

⎤
3 2 y(t) = [2 – 1 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [0] u(t)
d x1(t) 2d x1(t) 3dx1(t) ⎢ ⎥
dt
3 +
dt
2 + dt + 6x1(t) = u(t) ⎣ x3(t) ⎦
˜˜˜
x1 (t) + 2 x˜˜1(t) + 3x˜ 1(t) + 6x1(t) = u(t) ...(3) Step IV : To check controllability

x˜ 1(t) = x2(t) Compare state model with standard state model equation
˜
x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
x˜˜1(t) = x˜2(t) = x3(t)
˜˜˜ y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)
x1 (t) = x˜˜2(t) = x˜3(t)
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
Substituting in Equation (3) A = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ B=⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x˜ 3(t) + 2x3(t) + 3x2(t) + 6x1(t) = u(t) ⎣ –6 –3 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
x˜ 3(t) = – 6x1(t) – 3x2(t) – 2x3(t) + u(t) C = [ 2 – 1 1] D = [0]

Hence required equations are n = 3

x˜ 1(t) = x2(t) To construct composite matrix

2 n–1
x˜ 2(t) = x3(t) Qc = [B : AB : A B ..... A B]
2
x˜ 3(t) = – 6x1(t) – 3x2(t) – 2x3(t) + u(t) Qc = [B : AB : A B] as n = 3

⎡ 0
⎤
⎡ x (t) ⎤ ⎡ 0
˜
1 1 0
⎤⎡
x1(t)
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤ B = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x˜ (t) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0
2
0 1 ⎥⎢
⎥⎢
x2(t) ⎥+⎢
⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥ u(t)
⎥ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎣ x˜ (t) ⎦ ⎣ – 6 –3 –2 ⎦⎣ x3(t) ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎡
⎢
0 1 0
⎤
⎥
⎡
⎢
0
⎤
⎥
⎡ 0
⎤
=⎢ ⎥
3
AB = 0 0 1 0 1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –6 –3 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦
This is state equation. 2
AB = A (AB)
Step III : Consider Equation (1)
⎡ 0 1 0
⎤ ⎡ 0
⎤
Y(s) 2 = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
X1(s) = s – s + 2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –6 –3 –2 ⎦ ⎣ –2 ⎦
2
Y(s) = s X1(s) – sX1(s) + 2X1(s)
⎡ 1
⎤
Taking Inverse Laplace transform AB =
2 ⎢ –2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
2
d x1(t) d ⎣ 1 ⎦
y(t) = 2 – dt x1(t) + 2x1(t)
dt ⎡ 0 0 1
⎤
Qc = ⎢ 0 1 –2 ⎥
y(t) = x˜˜1(t) – x˜1(t) + 2x1(t) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –2 1 ⎦
y(t) = x3(t) – x2(t) + 2x1(t)
⎡ 0 0 1
⎤
y(t) = 2x1(t) – x2(t) + x3(t) | Qc | = ⎢ 0 1 –2 ⎥=–1
⎢ ⎥
⎡ x1(t)
⎤ ⎣ 1 –2 1 ⎦
y(t) = [2 – 1 1] ⎢ x2(t) ⎥ + [0] u(t) ...Output equation
⎢ ⎥ Since | Qc | z 0 ? Rank of matrix Qc = 3
⎣ x3(t) ⎦ ? Rank of matrix Qc = n
State model
Hence system is completely controllable.

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Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (State Space Representation)….Page no. (11-44)
T 2 T T T T
Step V : To check observability (A ) C = A [A C ]
To construct composite matrix ⎡
0 0 –6
⎤ ⎡ –6
⎤ ⎡ 18
⎤
= ⎢ 1 0 –3 ⎥ ⎢ –1 ⎥ =⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
T T T T n–1 T
Qo = [C : A C : ..... (A ) C ]
T T T T 2 T
⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ –3 ⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦
Qo = [C : A C : (A ) C ] since n = 3
⎡ 2 – 6 18
⎤
⎡ 0 0 –6
⎤ ⎡ 2
⎤ Qo = ⎢ –1 –1 3 ⎥
T ⎢ ⎥ C =⎢
T ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A =
⎢
1 0 –3
⎥ ⎢
–1
⎥ ⎣ 1 –3 5 ⎦
⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
| Qo | = 32 z 0
⎡ 0 0 –6
⎤ ⎡ 2
⎤ ⎡ –6
⎤
T
A C
T
= ⎢ 1 0 –3 ⎥ ⎢ –1 ⎥ =⎢ –1 ⎥ ? Rank of Qo = 3
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 –2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ –3 ⎦ Rank of Qo = n

Hence system is completely observable.

Chapter Ends…


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%*#26'4

Syllabus

Concept of Controller, Basic ON-OFF Controller, Concept of Dead Zone, Introduction to P, I, D, PI, PD and PID
controller, OFFSET of Controller, Integral Reset, PID Characteristics. Concept of Zeigler - Nicholas method.
Concept of Industrial Automation, Need of IoT based Industrial Automation.

Part I : PID Controller

12.1 Control Actions ............................................................................................................................................................. 12-3
UQ. 12.1.1 Enlist various terms in PID controller with sketch of output of P, PI, PD and PID controller
for step input. (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) ................................................................................................ 12-3
UQ. 12.1.2 List different control actions and control modes of PID controller and explain all control
actions. (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) ......................................................................................................... 12-3
12.1.1 Discontinuous Control Action Mode ......................................................................................................... 12-3
12.1.1(A) ON-OFF Controllers / Two Position Controller ......................................................................................... 12-3
12.1.2 Continuous Control Action Mode .............................................................................................................. 12-4
12.1.2(A) Proportional Control Action Mode ............................................................................................................ 12-4
12.1.2(B) Integral Controller Action Mode ................................................................................................................ 12-6
12.1.2(C) Derivative Controller Action Mode ............................................................................................................ 12-7
12.2 Composite Control Action Mode ................................................................................................................................... 12-8
UQ. 12.2.1 Enlist various terms in PID controller with sketch of output of P, PI, PD and PID controller for
step input. (SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) ..................................................................................................... 12-8
UQ. 12.2.2 Write equation of PID controller and sketch the response of P, PI and PID controller
for step input. (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ............................................................................................. 12-8
UQ. 12.2.3  Sketch step and ramp responses of P, PI and PID control actions. (SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks) ............. 12-8
12.2.1 Proportional - Integral Controller Action Mode (PI) .................................................................................. 12-8
UQ. 12.2.4 Write controller equations, transfer functions and draw block diagrams of PI controller.
(SPPU - Dec. 18, 3 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 12-8
12.2.2 Proportional-Derivative Controller Action Mode ...................................................................................... 12-9
UQ. 12.2.5 Write controller equations, transfer functions and draw block diagrams of PD controller.
(SPPU - Dec. 18, 3 Marks) ...................................................................................................................... 12-9
12.2.3 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Action Mode [ PID ] ............................................................. 12-10
UQ. 12.2.6 Write short note on : PID controllers and its operational characteristics.
(SPPU - Dec. 15, 5 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 12-10
Control Systems (SPPU - Sem. 4 - E&TC) (Controllers and Digital Control Systems)….Page no. (12-2)

UQ. 12.2.7 Write short note on : PID controllers. (SPPU - May 16, Dec. 19, 6 Marks) ........................................... 12-10
UQ. 12.2.8 Sketch and explain block diagram of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
(SPPU - Dec. 16, 5 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 12-10
12.2.4 Comparison of P, I and D Control Actions .............................................................................................. 12-12
12.2.5 Comparison of P and PI Controller Action .............................................................................................. 12-12
12.2.6 Comparison of PI, PD and PID Controller .............................................................................................. 12-12
12.2.7 PID Tuning using Ziegler-Nichols Method ............................................................................................. 12-13
UQ.12.2.9 Explain Ziegler and Nichol PID tuning method. (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) .......................................... 12-13

Part II : Digital Control Systems

12.3 Introduction to Digital Control Systems .................................................................................................................... 12-14

12.3.1 Features of Digital Control System......................................................................................................... 12-14
UQ. 12.3.1 Write short note on : Advantages of digital control systems over analog control systems.
(SPPU - Dec. 15, 4 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 12-14
UQ. 12.3.2 Explain digital control system with its advantages. (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks) .................................... 12-14
12.3.2 Comparison between Digital and Analog Control System ..................................................................... 12-14
12.3.3 Block Diagram of Discrete Control System ............................................................................................ 12-14
UQ. 12.3.3 Explain the operation of digital control system with the help of block diagram.
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 12-14
UQ. 12.3.4 Draw and explain block diagram of digital control system.
(SPPU - May 18, Dec. 19, 7 Marks, May 19, 6 Marks) ........................................................................ 12-14
UEx. 12.3.1 (SPPU - May 15, Dec. 15, 6 Marks) ...................................................................................................... 12-16
UEx. 12.3.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, May 17, May 18, 7 Marks) ........................................................................................ 12-16
UEx. 12.3.3 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 7 Marks) .................................................................................................................... 12-17
UEx. 12.3.4 (SPPU - May 19, Dec. 19, 7 Marks) ...................................................................................................... 12-18
12.4 Concept of Industrial Automation ................................................................................................................................ 12-19
12.4.1 Need of Industrial Automation ................................................................................................................... 12-19

Ì Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................. 12-19

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Part I : PID Controller

 12.1.1(A) ON-OFF Controllers / Two
  %QPVTQN#EVKQPU Position Controller
 This is the most basic control mode in which controller
UQ. 12.1.1 Enlist various terms in PID controller switches between two fixed positions ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’.
with sketch of output of P, PI, PD and  It is one of the simplest and cheapest mode hence used in
industrial as well as domestic applications.
PID controller for step input.
 In this mode when the error signal is greater than set point the
(SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks) output is zero ‘0’ or ‘OFF’ and when error signal is less than
UQ. 12.1.2 List different control actions and the set point output is maximum i.e., ‘ON’ or 100 %.
 Mathematically it is given as
control modes of PID controller and
m(t) = 0 % (OFF) for e(t) > 0
explain all control actions.
= 100 % (ON) for e(t) < 0
(SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
Where m(t) is the output and e(t) is the error signal.
 To understand ON-OFF controller let us consider a simple
&GHKPKVKQPQH%QPVTQN#EVKQP example of air conditioner.
 Consider an air conditioner is set at a temperature 22qC.
6JG QWVRWV VJCV EQPVTQNNGT IGPGTCVGU KP CEEQTFCPEG VQ VJG

GTTQTUKIPCNKUECNNGFEQPVTQNCEVKQP

 Control actions are classified as

(I) Discontinuous control action mode
(II) Continuous control action mode
(III) Composite control action mode

(2D3)Fig. 12.1.2 : Waveform of ON/OFF control action

 That means the set point here is 22qC. As soon as the

temperature rises above 22qC the thermostat detects the
(2D2)Fig. 12.1.1
temperature and turns ON the compressor to start cooling.
P o Proportional mode, I o Integral mode  Now when the temperature of room goes below 22qC the
D o Derivative mode, PI o Proportional Integral mode thermostat senses it and turns “OFF” the compressor.
PD o Proportional Derivative mode  The thermostat sends signal to the compressor for ON-OFF
action.
PID o Proportional Integral Derivative mode
 Neutral zone
 12.1.1 Discontinuous Control Action
 Practically in the ON-OFF controller there is an overlap when
Mode
error signal increases from zero and decreases to zero.
 In certain operations controller operates in only two modes  In this span there is no change in controller output. This span
(i) ON (ii) OFF is called neutral zone.
 No other intermediate values are considered. Such control  Fig. 12.1.3 shows plot of output versus error signal. From the
actions are called discontinuous control actions and the figure we can determine that until the error signal reaches
modes are called discontinuous control action modes. + 'e(t) the output remains constant ‘0’. At + 'e(t) the output
changes from 0 % to 100 %.

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 The input signal and the output signal via R2 is given to
summing amplifier to produce the error signal.
 This error signal is further amplified using inverting
amplifier. The output of the inverter is compared with the set
point using comparator to produce the output which is either
‘V0’ or ‘0’ ,
 If Vin falls below ‘VL’ then comparator switches to ‘OFF’
state i.e. ‘0’ when V1 = Vsp then output switches to ‘ON’
state.

 Mathematical Equations
(2D4)Fig. 12.1.3 : Neutral zone ON/OFF controller (1) For ON state
 When the error signal reduces below 0 it remains in same VH = Vsp
state until – 'e(t) at – 'e(t) the output changes from 100 % to (2) For OFF state
0 %.
VL = Vsp – ⎛ R1 ⎞ V0
 The range from – 'e(t) to + 'e(t) is called neutral zone. ⎝ R2⎠
Neutral zone is also called differential gap.

 Advantages of ON/OFF controller

(1) ON-OFF controller is cheapest and simplest system.
(2) It has only two states ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’.

 Disadvantages of ON/OFF controller

(1) Response of ON-OFF controller is very slow.
(2) Not suitable for complex systems.

 Applications of ON/OFF controller

(2D6)Fig. 12.1.5 : Characteristic of ON/OFF controller
(1) Air conditioning system
(2) Room Heaters  The value of neutral zone can be adjusted by changing R2 .
(3) Liquid bath temperature controller
(4) Liquid level controller

 ON / OFF controller using OP-AMP / Electronic

 12.1.2 Continuous Control Action Mode
ON/OFF controller  In continuous control action mode the output of the controller
changes smoothly in response to input error or rate of change
of error.
 These modes are normally extensions of discontinuous mode.
In industrial process one mode or combination of modes are
used.
 There are three continuous control action mode.
(1) Proportional control action mode
(2) Integral control action mode
(3) Derivative control action mode

 12.1.2(A) Proportional Control Action

Mode
(2D5)Fig. 12.1.4 : ON/OFF controller using OP-AMP  In this mode a smooth, linear relationship exist between
controller output and input error signal. The output of the
 The ON-OFF controller using OP-AMP is combination of
controller is proportional to input error signal.
three circuits.
 The relationship between controller output and error signal is
(a) Summing amplifier determined by constant known as KP .
(b) Inverter
(c) Comparator

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(a) Mathematical Expression

m(t) = KP e(t) + m(0)

 Its Laplace transform is M(s) = KP E(s) + M(0)

m(t) is controller output.

e(t) is error.
KP is proportional gain constant

M(0) is controller output at “zero” error.

(b) Proportional controller block diagram

(2D8)Fig. 12.1.7 : Response of proportional mode controller

(2D7)Fig. 12.1.6 (d) Offset

2
Z  One of the important disadvantage of proportional mode
n
 Here is standard second order system using
s(s + 2[Zn) controller is offset.
block diagram reduction rules the transfer function of  To understand offset consider the following example of a
proportional controller is given as liquid level control system.
2
C(s) KP Zn / s(s + 2[ Zn)
R(s) = 2
KP Z
n
1+
s(s + 2[ Zn)
2
C(s) KP Z
n
R(s) = 2 2
s + 2[Zn s + KP Zn

(c) Response of proportional controller (2D9)Fig. 12.1.8

 The output of the controller changes linearly with respect to
 Ideally as soon as the valve B opens the liquid will flow out
error signal but the proportionality constant KP plays a major
of the tank, the level measurement sensor will sense the liquid
role in change in output.
level and give signal to the controller and the controller will
Case 1 : If KP is considered to be large then the controller output
open valve ‘A’ and liquid will be restored in the tank.
would be large for small values of error.
 But practically when valve ‘B’ opens and liquid flows out of
Case 2 : If KP is considered to be small then there will be small
the tank it takes some time for level measurement sensor to
change in controller output even for large errors.
sense the level.
 Small error signifies the narrow proportional band and large
 Then it informs the controller and gradually controller opens
error signifies the wide proportional band.
valve ’A’. Hence whenever system is restored to equilibrium
 From the response it is clear that increasing value of KP
the final level of the tank is always below the set point.
increases speed of the system.
 This difference between actual level and set point is offset.
 But increase in KP lowers the damping factor ‘[’ which can
 Offset can be reduce by increasing the gain KP but as we have
affect the stability of the system.
already discussed increasing KP may lead to unstability of the
 Hence value of KP should be chosen very carefully.
system.
 Hence offset is always present in proportional controller.

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R2
 Where Gp is the gain and value of GP = R , since R1 is
1
variable resistance by changing the value of R1 we can change
in the gain of the summing amplifier and indirectly change
gain of the controller.
 The output expression Vout can be compared with standard
equation of proportional controller.

(i) Proportional band

The range of error to cover 0 % to 100 % controller output is
called proportional band i.e. % error that results in 100 %
change in controller output.
(2D10)Fig. 12.1.9 : Offset in proportional mode controller
 12.1.2(B) Integral Controller Action Mode
(e) Advantages of proportional controller
 In this controller action mode the output of the controller is
(1) Simple in construction.
integration of input error signal.
(2) Good stability.
 Integral controller action mode eliminates the offset error
(3) Rapid response.
which is present in proportional controller action mode by
(4) High loop gain.
adapting to the external condition and changing the zero-error
(f) Disadvantages of proportional controller output.

(1) Produces constant steady state error. (a) Mathematical expression

(2) Cannot sustain to load change. t

(3) Less sensitive to parameter variation. m(t) = KI ∫ e(t) d(t) + m(0)

(4) High gain can make system unstable. 0
KI
(g) Characteristic of proportional mode  Its Laplace transform is M(s) = s E(s) + M(0)

(1) For zero error output is constant where KI is known as the integral gain M(0) is the output
(2) For every 1 % error a correction of KP in % is added or when integral action starts.
subtracted from the output.
(b) Response of integral control action mode
(h) Proportional controller using OP-AMP / Electronic
proportional controller

(2D11)Fig. 12.1.10 : Proportional controller using OP-AMP

(2D12)Fig. 12.1.11 : Integral controller output for constant error
 Input is given to the summing amplifier one signal is error
signal and other signal is output voltage with zero error.
From the above response we can conclude
 The output of the summing amplifier is given to the inverter
with unity gain. (1) If error is zero then there is no change in the controller
 Let GP be the gain of summing amplifier. output.
 Hence Vout = GP Ve + Vo (2) If error is positive then the controller output is ramp.
The rate of ramp is decided by the gain K1.

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(3) In the response output for gain K1 output is increasing  12.1.2(C) Derivative Controller Action
ramp till 100 % and then remains constant whereas for Mode
gain K2 it is just increasing ramp.
 In derivative controller action mode the output of the
(4) Integral action is provided by summing the error over
controller is proportional to derivative of input error signal.
time, multiplying by some gain and adding the result to
 Derivative controller action responds to rate of change of
controller output. error.
(c) Characteristic of integral mode (a) Mathematical expression
(1) If error is zero output remains constant at the value de (t)
m(t) = KD dt
where error become zero.
(2) If error is not zero then output will either increase or Its Laplace transform is M(s) = s KD E(s)
decrease at the rate of integral constant. Where, KD = derivative gain
e(t) = error input
(d) Advantages of integral mode m(t) = controller output
(1) Reduces the offset
(b) Response of derivative controller action mode
(2) Smooth output response
(3) It responds to continuous deviation

(e) Disadvantages of integral mode

(1) It cannot be used alone it is combined with proportional
mode.
(2) It has tendency to make system unstable.

(f) Integral controller using OP-AMP / Electronic Integral

controller

(2D14)Fig. 12.1.13 : Controller output for different error rates

From the above response following conclusions are derived

1. It is assumed that the controller output is 50 % when there is
no error.
2. When the error is having positive slope output increase to a
larger value.
(2D13)Fig. 12.1.12 : Integral controller using OP-AMP 3. When error is constant output returns back to 50 %.
4. When error is decreasing the output decreases to a lower
Integral controller using OP-AMP consist of OP-AMP value.
integrator and inverter. The output equation of the circuit is given
by (c) Characteristics of derivative mode
t
1. If error is zero, output is zero.
Vout = GI ∫ Ve (t) dt + Vout (0) 2. For constant error, there is no output.
0
3. A positive rate of change of error produces positive
Where, derivative mode output.
1. Vout is the output voltage 4. The derivative constant decides the change in output
1 with respect to change in error.
2. GI is integral gain and GI = RC
(d) Advantages of derivative mode
3. Ve (t) is error voltage
4. Vout (0) is initial output voltage 1. It has ability to overcome the overshoot and severe
The output of integrator can be adjusted by changing values cycling.
of R and C. 2. Rapid response for rapid change in errors.

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3. It also responds to the direction of deviation.  Hence various combination of modes are preferred. These
4. Increases system stability by initiating an early different combination actions are called composite control
corrective action. actions and such controllers are called composite controllers.
 The different composite controller action modes are
(e) Disadvantages of derivative mode 1. Proportional - Integral controller action mode (PI)
1. It cannot be used alone as it does not respond for zero 2. Proportional - Derivative controller action mode (PD)
error. 3. Proportional - Integral - derivative controller action
2. It cannot respond properly for slowly changing errors. mode (PID)
Hence causes drift.
3. It amplifies noise signal which can cause saturation in  12.2.1 Proportional - Integral Controller
system. Action Mode (PI)
4. It does not eliminate offset error.

(f) Derivative controller using OP-AMP / Electronic UQ. 12.2.4 Write controller equations, transfer

derivative controller functions and draw block diagrams

of PI controller. (SPPU - Dec. 18, 3 Marks)

 The proportional - Integral controller action is a combination

of proportional controller mode and integration controller
mode.

(a) Mathematical expression for output

t

m(t) = KP e(t) + Kp KI ∫ e(t) d(t) + m(0)

0
(2D15)Fig. 12.1.14 : Derivative controller using OP-AMP Kp KI
 Its Laplace transform is M(s) = Kp E(s) + s E(s) + M(0)
d Ve(t)
Vout = – RC dt Here,
t
Vout o output voltage
Ve(t) o error voltage Kp e(t) o Proportional output, KI ∫ e(t) dt o Integral output
0


m(0) = output for zero error input
 %QORQUKVG%QPVTQN#EVKQP
 /QFG
(b) Block diagram of P - I controller
2
UQ. 12.2.1 Enlist various terms in PID controller Z
n
 Here is standard second order system.
with sketch of output of P, PI, PD and s(s + 2[ Zn)

PID controller for step input.

(SPPU - May 15, 6 Marks)

UQ. 12.2.2 Write equation of PID controller
and sketch the response of P, PI
and PID controller for step input. (2D16)Fig. 12.2.1 : Block diagram of PI controller
(SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)
UQ. 12.2.3 Sketch step and ramp responses of P,
PI and PID control actions.

(SPPU - May 17, 6 Marks)

 As we have studied all the individual modes and we know

that we cannot get the desired result by using the mode (5l162)Fig. 12.2.2
individually.

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Converting to Laplace domain (f) P- I controller using OP-AMP / Electronic PI controller
 From the Fig. 12.2.5 it is clear that P-I controller is a simple
combination of proportional and integral controller.
 The output of the controller is given by
t

Vout = ⎛ R2⎞ R2
Ve(t) + R R C ∫ Ve (t) dt + Vout (0)
⎝ R1⎠ 1 2
0
t
(5l163)Fig. 12.2.3
Vout = ⎛ R2⎞ 1
Ve(t) + R C ∫ Ve (t) dt + Vout (0)
The transfer function is given by
⎝ R1⎠ 1
0
2
(Kp + Ki/s) Zn
C(s) G (s) s (s+ 2[ Zn)
R(s) = 1 + G (s) H (s) = 2
(Kp + Ki/s) Zn
1+
s (s + 2[ Zn)
2
C(s) (Kps + Ki) Zn
R(s) = 3 2 2
s + 2 [ Zn s + KpZns + Ki Zn

(c) Response of proportional - Integral action

(2D18)Fig. 12.2.5 : PI controller using OP-AMP

 12.2.2 Proportional-Derivative Controller

Action Mode

UQ. 12.2.5 Write controller equations, transfer

functions and draw block diagrams
of PD controller.
(SPPU - Dec. 18, 3 Marks)

 The proportional derivative controller action mode is

combination of proportional controller action mode and
(2D17)Fig. 12.2.4 : Response of P-I controller for different error
derivative controller action mode.
From the above response following conclusions are derived
(a) Mathematical expression
1. When error is zero, output maintains at fixed level that is
50 %. d
m(t) = KP e(t) + KP KD dt e(t) + m(0)
2. When error is not zero, the proportional term contributes
correction and integral term begins to increase or decrease.  It Laplace transform is given by
3. The output is combination of proportional and integral mode. M(s) = KPE(s) + sKPKD E(s) + M(0)
(d) Advantages of P- I mode KPe(t) o Proportional controller mode
1. Provides better stability. d
KD dt e(t) o Derivative controller mode
2. Eliminates offset.
3. Good transient response. m(0) o output of controller for zero error.
4. Stabilizes the controller gain.
5. Construction is simple. (b) Block diagram of P-D controller mode

(e) Disadvantages of P-I mode

1. Requires longer time to stabilize the controller gain as
compared to proportional controller.
2. Oscillations are induced by integral overshoot.
3. Stabilization issue when process contains many energy
elements or dead time. (2D19)Fig. 12.2.6 : P-D controller mode

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2
Z (e) Disadvantages of P-D mode
n
 Here is standard second order system.
s(s + 2[ Zn)
It cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controller.

(f) P-D controller using OP-AMP / Electronic P-D controller

(5l164)Fig. 12.2.7

Converting into Laplace domain

(2D21)Fig. 12.2.10 : Proportional derivative controller using

OP-AMP

 The first OP-AMP is combination of proportional and

derivative mode whereas the second OP-AMP in the figure is
(5l165)Fig. 12.2.8 adder.

= ⎛ R + R ⎞ Ve (t) + ⎛ R + R ⎞ R3 C dt + Vout (0)

R2 R2 dVe(t)
G (s) Vout
C(s)
= 1 + G (s) H (s) ⎝ 1 3⎠ ⎝ 1 3⎠
R(s)
2 R2
(Kp + sKd) Zn Here proportional gain GP = R + R
1 3
C(s) s (s + 2[ Zn)
R(s) = 2 Derivative gain GD = R3 C
(Kp + sKd) Zn
1+
s (s + 2[ Zn)  Vout (0) is output when error is zero.
2
(Kp + sKd) Zn
C(s)
R(s) = 2 2
s + (2 [ Zn + Kd Zn ) s + Kp Zn
2  12.2.3 Proportional-Integral-Derivative
Controller Action Mode [ PID ]
(c) Response of P-D controller action mode
UQ. 12.2.6 Write short note on : PID controllers
and its operational characteristics.
(SPPU - Dec. 15, 5 Marks)
UQ. 12.2.7 Write short note on : PID controllers.
(SPPU - May 16, Dec. 19, 6 Marks)
UQ. 12.2.8 Sketch and explain block diagram of
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
(SPPU - Dec. 16, 5 Marks)

 The proportional-Integral-Derivative controller action mode

is a combination of all three continuous action mode.

 It is most useful and powerful action mode.

(2D20)Fig. 12.2.9 : P-D controller output for different error (a) Mathematical expression for PID mode
t
(d) Advantages of P-D controller mode d
m(t) = KP e(t) + KP KI ∫ e(t) dt + KP KD dt e(t) +m(0)
1. It improves damping and reduces overshoot. 0
2. Response is fast for change in error.
3. It improves bandwidth of the system. Here KP e(t) o Proportional control action mode
4. It can compensate lag in process.
5. It increases the controller gain.

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t
(c) Response of PID controller
KP KI ∫ e(t) dt o Integral control action mode
0
d
KP KD dt e(t) o Derivative control action mode

m(0) o Controller output when zero error.

 KP, KD and KI are gain constants.
e(t) is error signal.
 The Laplace transform of above equation is given by
KP KI
M (s) = KP E(s) + s E(s) + sKP KD E(s) + M(0)

(b) Block diagram of P-I-D controller mode (2D23)Fig. 12.2.14 : PID controller output for error input

(d) Advantages of PID mode

1. It reduces the overshoot of integral action.

2. It counteracts on lag introduced by integral action.
3. It eliminates offset.
4. It stabilizes the gain of the controller.
(2D22)Fig. 12.2.11 : Block diagram of PID controller 5. It is more effective for the processes which contain more
2
Zn energy storing elements.
Here is standard second order system.
s (s + 2[ Zn) 6. It senses the rate of movement earlier than P / PI mode and
gives corrective action earlier than P / PI mode.

(e) Disadvantages of PID mode

1. PID controllers are not suited for non-linear plants.
2. PID controllers are not suitable for advance control
operations like robotics, defence etc.
(5l166)Fig.12.2.12
3. PID controller do not give the desired result for changing
Taking Laplace transform, environmental conditions.

(f) PID controller using OP-AMP / Electronic PID controller

(5l167)Fig. 12.2.13

C(s) G (s)
R(s) = 1 + G (s) H (s)
2
(Kp + sKd + Ki/s) Zn
C(s) s (s + 2[ Zn)
R(s) = 2
(Kp + sKd + Ki/s) Zn
1+
s (s + 2[ Zn)
2 2 2 2
C(s) s Kd Zn + s Kp Zn + Ki Zn
R(s) = 3 2 2 2 2 2
s + 2 [ Zn s + Kd Zn s + Kp Zn s + Ki Zn (2D24)Fig. 12.2.15 : PID controller using OP-AMP

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 Here first level controller is scale changer and in second level three OP-AMPS act as inverter, integrator, and differentiator and third
level is an adder circuit. The output expression
t

Vout = ⎛ R2⎞ Ve (t) + ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛R C ⎞ ∫

R2 1
Ve (t) dt + ⎛ R2⎞ RD CD
dVe (t)
+ Vout (0)
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 1⎠ 0 ⎝ R1 ⎠ dt
R2 1
Here R is proportional gain R1 C1 is integral gain
1
RD CD is derivative gain Vout (0) is output for zero error.

 12.2.4 Comparison of P, I and D Control Actions

Sr. Parameter Proportional Integral Derivative
No.
1. Nature of output Controller output is directly Controller output is integral of Controller output is derivative of
proportional to input error. input error. input error.
2. Output equation m(t) = KP e(t) + m(0) t d
m(t) = KD dt e(t)
m(t) = KI ∫ e(t) + m(0)
0
3. Offset It causes offset. It eliminates effect of offset. It causes offset.
4. Time dependent Independent Dependent Dependent.
5. Response for Output is constant. Output is non-zero. Output is also zero.
zero error
6. Application Liquid level control system. Flow control system, speed Not used alone always used in
control system. combination.

 12.2.5 Comparison of P and PI Controller Action

Sr. Parameter Proportional controller PI Controller
No.
1. Output Controller output is directly proportional to Controller output is combination of proportional and integral
input. action.
2. Expression m(t) = KP e(t) + m(0) t
m(t) = Kp e(t) + Kp KI ∫ e(t) dt + m(0)
0

3. Offset It causes offset. It eliminates offset.

4. Independent It can be used alone. It can be used in combination.
use
5. Application Liquid level control system. Power control in system.

 12.2.6 Comparison of PI, PD and PID Controller

Sr. Parameter PI Controller PD Controller PID Controller

No.
1. Output Controller output is combination of Controller output is combination of Controller output is combination
proportional and integral action. proportional and derivative action. of proportional, derivative and
integral action.
2. Expression t d t
m(t) = KP e(t) + KP KD d(t) e(t) + m(0)
m(t) = KP e(t) + KP KI ∫ e(t) dt m(t) = KP e(t) + KP KI ∫ e(t) dt
0 0
+ m(0) d
+ KP KD dt e(t) + m(0)

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Sr. Parameter PI Controller PD Controller PID Controller

No.
3. Advantages (i) Zero offset. (i) Bandwidth increases. (1) Eliminates offset.
(ii) Damping is improved. (ii) Settling time reduces. (2) Stabilizes the gain.
4. Application Power control application. Used in application where load change Widely used in variety of
is rapid. application like temperature
controller etc.

 12.2.7 PID Tuning using Ziegler-Nichols Ex. 12.2.1

Method
For the given system design a PID. Controller using Zeigler
Nichols tuning method. Assume a system with unity feedback.
UQ.12.2.9 Explain Ziegler and Nichol PID tuning
1
method. (SPPU - May 18, 6 Marks) G(s) = s (s + 1) (s + 2)

 We have already studied all the different controller i.e. P, PI,  Soln. :
PD, PID etc. It is very important to calculate the value of Kp, k
Ki, Kd correctly so that the system works efficiently. T.F. = 3 2
s + 3s + 2s + k
 This is called tuning of controller. One technique was
Constructing Routh’s array
developed in 1950’s which is popular till date. This is called
3
Ziegler Nichols tuning method. The Ziegler Nichols Method s 1 2
of tuning PID controller is extremely simple. s
2
3 Kp
 In this method the controller is set to proportional mode by 1 6 – Kp
turning off the integral and derivative mode. The proportional s 0
3
gain is slowly increased till system becomes marginally stable
0
and starts oscillating with constant amplitude. s Kp
 Note down the value of gain i.e. Kcritical. For system to be marginally stable
6 – Kp
3 = 0

Kp = 6 i.e. Kcritical
2
3s + 6 = 0
2
3s = –6
2
s = –2
s = r 2j
Step III :
(5l159)Fig. 12.2.16 : Marginally Stable System To calculate Tcritical
2S
 The tune period of oscillation is called Tcritical using Kcritical Z = T
critical
and Tcritical and Ziegler Nichols tuning chart we can calculate
values of Kp, Ki and Kd. 2S 2S
Tcritical = = = 4.44
Z 2
Kp = 0.6 u Kcritical
Ki = 1.2 u Kcritical/ Tcritical Step IV :
Kd = 0.6 u Kcritical u Tcritical/8 Using Zeigler - Nichols tuning chart
Kp = 0.6 Kcritical = 0.6 u 6 = 3.6
Steps to solve
1.2 u Kcritical 1.2 u 6
1. Obtain the closed loop transfer function. Ki = Tcritical = 4.44 = 1.62
2. Obtain the characteristic equation.
0.6 u Kcritical u Tcritical 0.6 u 6 u 4.44
3. Use Routh’s array to calculate Kcritical i.e. Kmar. Kd = =
8 8
4. Use Kcritical in auxiliary equation to obtain frequency of
sustained oscillations Z rad/sec. Kd = 1.998
5. Calculate Tcritical using Z.
6. Using Kcritical and Tcritical calculate Kp, Ki, KD

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Part II : Digital Control Systems  12.3.2 Comparison between Digital and

Analog Control System
  +PVTQFWEVKQPVQ&KIKVCN%QPVTQN Sr. Point of Digital control Analog control
 5[UVGOU No. Difference system system
1. Flexibility More flexible Less flexible
 Signal is a physical quantity which contains some
2. Accuracy High accuracy Low accuracy
information. Signals can be classified into various types
depending on the various parameters. But the very basic 3. Mathematical z-transform Laplace transform
classification of signals involve continuous time signal and tool used
discrete time signal. 4. Storage Easy to store Difficult to store
 The contains time signals are continuous with respect to time 5. Replication Easy to replicate Difficult to
and are represented using variable ‘t’ and mathematical tool replicate
used for continuos time signal is Laplace transform. 6. Upgradation Easy to upgrade Difficult to
 The discrete time signals are the signals present at particular and changes and make changes upgrade and make
time instant and are represented using variable ‘n’ and the due to use to more changes due to use
mathematical tool used for discrete time signal is ‘z’ software of more hardware
transform. 7. Complex Easy to implement Difficult to
 Continuous time signal can be converted to discrete time mathematical implement
signal using sampling. In all are previous chapter we are algorithm
dealing with continuous control system i.e. we are using
continuous time signals.
 12.3.3 Block Diagram of Discrete Control
 Using continuous time signal increase the system complexity, System
using analog controllers increase cost of the system as well as
it is difficult to store continuous time signals. Hence using
UQ. 12.3.3 Explain the operation of digital
digital controller is more beneficial in complex control
system. control system with the help of
block diagram. (SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
 12.3.1 Features of Digital Control System
UQ. 12.3.4 Draw and explain block diagram of
UQ. 12.3.1 Write short note on : Advantages of digital control system.
digital control systems over analog
(SPPU - May 18, Dec. 19, 7 Marks, May 19, 6 Marks)
control systems. (SPPU - Dec. 15, 4 Marks)

UQ. 12.3.2 Explain digital control system with its

advantages. (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks)

(1) Digital control system can perform complex operations.

(2) The accuracy of digital control system is high and constant
(5l25)Fig. 12.3.1 : Block diagram of discrete control system
throughout the operation.
(3) Digital control system are very flexible. We can easily make  Discrete control systems are often known as digital control
changes by just changing the instructions in the program. system and sampled data control system.
(4) Digital control system are more sensitive to noise.  The difference between the reference input r (t) and feedback
(5) z-transform is the mathematical tool used for digital control signal b (t) generates the error signal e (t).
system. (1) ADC [Analog to Digital Converter]
(6) Digital control system are more cost effective for complex
As the name suggests it converts analog signal to digital
control operations. signal. Following process are done to convert analog signal to
(7) Digital signals are easy to store and process. digital signal.
(8) Digital system can be easily replicated.

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 The DAC in the most simplest form is hold circuit. The
simplest hold circuit is called Zero order Hold (ZoH) circuit.
 The above waveforms represent the (ZOH).
(5l26)Fig. 12.3.2 : Block diagram of ADC  In this circuit the waveform retains the same value until the
next sample is received. The zero hold system is represent as
 Sampling 1–e
– Ts
Gno (s) = s in Laplace domain
 Sampling is the process of converting continuous time signal –1
and Gno (z) = 1 – z in z domain
to discrete time signal. Sampling can be considered as simple
Transfer function of sampled data system
switch which closes after every ‘T’ seconds.
Consider a continuous time system
 Along with sampling we used holding circuit also so the entre
circuit together is called sample and hold circuit. The hold
circuit holds the signal at a constant value for specified time
period.

(5l29)Fig. 12.3.5 : Continuous time system

In the above system the inputs and outputs are sampled as

shown in the Fig.

(5l27)Fig. 12.3.3 : Sampling

(5l30)Fig. 12.3.6 : Sampled system
(2) Digital control system Laplace transform are used for C.T. signals and z transform
The digital control system performs operation on discrete are used for D.T. signals.
input signal e (nT) and converts it to the respective output. If we apply Laplace transform directly to discrete signal the
result will be zero.
(3) DAC [Digital to Analog Converter] From the Fig. 12.3.6 we can write
 The discrete of digital output must be converted back to R(s) = L [r(t)] and R*(s) = L [r*(t)]
original form hence we use digital to analog converter. From the equation of Laplace transform we have

∫
R*(s) = r*(z) e dz
– sz

Since r*(t) is sampled version of r(t), we have

f
– snT
R*(s) = 6 r (nT) e …(1)
n=–f
where ‘T’ is sampling period
The z transform of signal is given by
f
–n
R(z) = 6 r (nT) z …(2)
n=–f
Comparing Equations (1) and (2) we have
R(z) = R*(s) | sT
e =z
sT
If we replace e by z we get z-transform.
Hence the sampled system is redrawn as

(5l31)Fig. 12.3.7 : Sampled system

G(s) is the transfer function and converted to G(z) which is

(5l28)Fig. 12.3.4 called pulse transfer function.

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–1
G(z) = z {L [G(s)] | } Step IV
t = nT
Steps to solve problem on pulse transfer functions Taking z transform
– Ts –1 z – 1
(1) Obtain g(t) from G(s) by using Inverse Laplace transform g(t) G1 (z) = z [1 – e ]=1–z = z
is known as impulse response. – nT
(2) Replace ‘t’ by nT to obtain g(nT) G2 (z) = z [u (nT)] – z [e u (nT)]
f f
(3) Obtain z transform of g(nT) which is G(z). G(z) is required –n – nT –n
pulse transfer function. G2 (z) = 6 u (nT) z – 6 e u (nT) z
n=–f n=–f
f f
UEx. 12.3.1 (SPPU - May 15, Dec. 15, 6 Marks) –1 n –T –1 n
Obtain pulse transfer function of the system shown in the G2 (z) = 6 (z ) – 6 (e z )
n=0 n=0
Fig. Ex. 12.3.1 with a = 1.
1 1
G2 (z) = –1 – –T –1
1–z 1–e z
z z
G2 (z) = z – 1 – z – e– T
(5l32)Fig. Ex. 12.3.1 But T = 1
z z
 Soln. : G2 (z) = z – 1 – z – e– 1
Step I : : The transfer function of zero order hold system is z z
– Ts G2 (z) = z – 1 – z – 0.367
Gho (s) = ⎡ s
1–e ⎤
⎣ ⎦ Step V
z–1
Hence
G(z) = G1 (z) ˜ G2 (z) = z [z –z 1 – z – 0.367
z
]
z–1
= 1 – z – 0.367

਋z – 0.367 – ਋z +1
(5l33)Fig. 12.3.1(a) G(z) = z – 0.367
1–e
– Ts
1 0.633
G(s) = ˜s+1 G(z) = z – 0.367 …Ans.
s
– Ts
1–e 1
G(s) = s ˜ s (s + 1) UEx. 12.3.2 (SPPU - Dec. 16, May 17, May 18, 7 Marks)
c (z)
Determine the closed loop pulse transfer function R(z) for the
G1(s) G2(s)
system shown in the Fig. Ex. 12.3.2.
Step II : Let us calculate inverse Laplace transform of G2(s)
1
G2 (s) = s (s + 1)
A1 A2
G2 (s) = s + s + 1
1
A1 = ਋ s ˜
਋
s (s + 1) |s=0
(5l34)Fig. Ex. 12.3.2
A1 = 1  Soln. :
1
A2 (s + 1) ˜ s ––––––
= –––––– (s + 1) | s=–1
Step I :
The transfer function of zero order hold system is
– Ts
A2 = – 1 1–e
Gho (s) = s
1 1
Hence G2 (s) = s – s + 1 – Ts
1–e 1
Hence G (s) = s ˜s+2
Taking ILT
–t
g2 (t) = u(t) – e u(t) – Ts 1
G(s) = 1 – e ˜ s (s + 2)
Step III
Replace t by nT in g2(t)
– nT G1 (s) G2 (s)
g2 (nT) = u (nT) – e u (nT)

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Step II : Let us calculate inverse Laplace transform of G2 (s) 0.4325
G(z) = z – 0.135 …Ans
1
G2 (s) = s (s + 2)
Hence block diagram becomes
A1 A2
G2 (s) = s + s + 2
1
A1 = ਋ s ˜
਋
s (s + 2) | s=0
1
A = 2 (5l35)Fig. Ex. 12.3.2(a)
1
(s + 2) ˜ s ––––––
A2 = –––––– (s + 2) | s=–2
UEx. 12.3.3 (SPPU - Dec. 18, 7 Marks)
Obtain pulse transfer function of the system shown in
–1
A2 = 2 Fig. Ex. 12.3.3 and determine its step response.
1 1
2 2
? G (s) = s – s + 2
Taking ICT
1 1 – 2t (5l41)Fig. Ex. 12.3.3
g2 (t) = 2 u(t) – 2 e u(t)
Step III : Replace t by nT in g2 (t)
 Soln. :
1 1 – 2nT Step I :
g2 (nT) = 2 u (nT) – 2 e u (nT) – sT
1–e 1
G(s) = s ˜s+2
Step IV
Taking z transform – ST 1
– Ts G(s) = 1 – e ˜ s(s + 2)
G1 (z) = z [1 – e ]
–1
= 1–z
z–1
= z G1(s) G2(s)
1 1 – 2nT
[
G2 (z) = z 2 u (nT) – 2 e ] [ u (nT) ] Step II : To calculate ILT for G2(s).
1
f f G2(s) = s (s + 2)
1 –n 1 – 2nT –n
= 2 6 u (nT) z –2 6 e u (nT) z
A1 A2
n=–f n=–f G2(s) = s + s + 2
f f
1 1 1
⎪
–1 n – 2T –1 n
= 2 6 (z ) – 2 6 (e z ) A1 = ਋
s ˜
s (s + 2) ⎪s = 0
਋
n=0 n=0
1 1 1 1 1
= 2 ˜ –1 – 2 ˜ – 2T – 1 A1 = 2
1–z 1–e z
1 z 1 z
= 2 ˜z–1–2 ˜ – 2T A2 = (s + ਋)
2 ˜
1
⎪
z–e s (s + 2) ⎪s = – 2
਋
But T = 1
1
1 z 1 z A2 = – 2
G2 (z) = 2 z – 1 – 2 –2
z–e
1 1
1 z 1 z 2 2
G2 (z) = 2 z – 1 – 2 z – 0.135
G(s) = s – s + 2
Step V
G(z) = G1 (z) ˜ G2 (z) Taking ILT
z–1 1 z 1 z 1 1 –2t
[
= z ˜ 2 z – 1 – 2 z – 0.135 ] g2(t) = 2 u(t) – 2 e u(t)

1 1 (z – 1) 1
= 2 – 2 z – 0.135 = 2[1 – z –z 0.135
–1
] Step III : Replace t by nT in g2(t)
1 ⎡਋z – 0.135 – ਋z +1⎤ 1 0.865
= 2
⎣ z – 0.135 ⎦ = 2 [z – 0.135 ] 1 1 – 2 nT
g2(nT) = 2 u (nT) – 2 e u (nT)

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Step IV : Taking z transform Step II : Let us calculate inverse Laplace transform of G2(s)
1
–Ts –1 z–1 G2(s) = s (s + 4)
G1(z) = z [1 – e ]=1–z = z
A1 A2
G2(z) = z [12 u (nT)] – z [12 e – 2 nT
u (nT)] G2(s) = s + s + 4

f f A1 = ਋ s ˜
1
⎪
਋s (s + 4) ⎪s = 0
1 1
–1 n –2T –1 n
G2(z) = 2 6 (z ) – 2 6 (e z ) 1
A1 = 4
n=0 n=0
1 1 1 1 1
G2(z) = 2 ˜
1–z
–1 – 2
1–e
–2T –1
z
A2 = (s ਋
+ 4) ˜ s (s
–––––––
+ 4) | s=–4
1 z 1 z 1
= 2z–1–2˜ –2T
A2 = – 4
z–e
1 1
But T = 0.5 4 –4
G2(s) = s ; s + 4
1 z 1 z 1 z 1 z
= 2 z–1–2 – 1 = 2 ˜ z – 1 – 2 z – 0.367
z–e Taking ILT of G2(s)
1 1 – 4t
Step V : G(z) = G1(z) G2(z) g2(t) = 4 u(t) – 4 e u (t)

z–1 Step III : Replace t by nT in Equation of g2(t)

= z ˜ [12 z –z 1 – 21 z – 0.367
z
] 1
g2(nT) = 4 u (nT) – 4 e
1 – 4nT
u (nT)
਋
z – 0.367 – ਋
]= 12 ⎡⎣
1 z + 1⎤ Step IV : Taking z transform
= 2 [1 – z –z 0.367
–1
z – 0.367 ⎦ G1(z) = z [1 – e ]
–1
– Ts

G1(z) = 1 – z
1 0.6321 0.316
G(z) = 2 [z – 0.367]= z – 0.367 z–1
= z
1 1 – 4nT
UEx. 12.3.4 (SPPU - May 19, Dec. 19, 7 Marks) G2(z) = 4 z [u (nT)] – 4 z [e u (nT)]
Determine the pulse transfer function of the system shown in the f f
Fig. Ex. 12.3.4. Assume T = 1 sec. 1 –1 n 1 – 4T – 1 n
G2(z) = 4 6 (z ) – 4 6 (e z )
n=0 n=0
1 z 1 z
G2(z) = 4 ˜ z – 1 – 4 ˜ – 4T
z–e
(5l45)Fig. Ex. 12.3.4 But T = 1
1 z 1 z
G2(z) = 4 z – 1 – 4 ˜
 Soln. : z–e
–4

1 z 1 z
Step I : The transfer function of zero order hold system is G2(z) = 4 z – 1 – 4 ˜
– Ts z – 0.018
1–e
Gho (s) = Step V : G(z) = G2(z) G2(z)
s
z–1 1 z 1 z
Hence [
G(z) = z ˜ 4 z – 1 – 4 z – 0.018 ]
1 z–1
G(z) = 4 [ ]
1 – z – 0.018

1 z – 0.018 – (z – 1)
G(z) = 4 [ z – 0.018 ]
(5l46)Fig. Ex. 12.3.4
1⎡਋ z – 0.018 – ਋ z +1⎤
⎣ ⎦
– Ts G(z) = 4
1–e 1 z – 0.018
G(s) = s ˜s+4
1 0.982
– Ts 1
G(s) = (1 – e ) s (s + 4)
G(z) = 4 [
z – 0.018 ]
0.2455
G(z) = z – 0.018 ...Ans.
G1(s) G2(s)

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function of control system in automation is to ensure that
  %QPEGRVQH+PFWUVTKCN output follows the set points.
 Industrial automation makes use of extensive information
 #WVQOCVKQP technologies like
1. Communication and networking
 To study the concept of industrial automation related to
2. Database
control system let us first focus on the words Industry and
Automation. 3. Real time computing.
 Industry can be defined as organized action that could be 4. Control and signal processing.
related with manufacture/service/Trade. 5. Simulation
6. Design analysis
#WVQOCVKQP 7. Optimization etc.
 The word automation means “self moving”. Automation  Industrial automation also involves significant amount of
involves all those technologies where machines are operated hardware technologies related to instrumentation and sensing,
without significant human beings and the performance of electronics for signal conditioning embedded etc.
machines is much superior than the human beings.
 The tasks which are not possible by human can be done using  12.4.1 Need of Industrial Automation
machines is also a part of automation. In short automation is
1. Lots production cost and time.
self governing machines of system.
2. Improving quality of good rather improving perfection.
 Industrial automation is definitely related to control system as
it is necessary to control all the set of technologies that 3. Producing larger volume of goods.
achieves the desired patterns of operational parameters and 4. Increasing sales and profit.
various sequence for machines and systems by providing 5. Multiple products can be manufactured simultaneously.
various input signals. 6. To support flexible manufacturing systems.
 It is very important to understand that automation may
include control system but reverse is not true. The main
Chapter Ends…


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 Sure Marks
Guide & University Paper Solutions

(1) Written, Edited by most experienced faculty.

(2) Chapterwise & Topicwise Paper Solutions.

(3) Most Likely question also included.

(4) Answers exactly as per the weightage of marks given in exam.

(5) All Latest Q. Papers included.