Building Material

Assignment

SUBMITTED BY-
Roshan Kumar Das
1905025
B.Arch., 2nd Sem
NIT Patna
 CONTENTS

 Cement
 Ceramic
 Concrete
 Mortar
 Paint
 Plywood
 CEMENT

Cement is most important material in building construction. The name

“cement” refers to the material manufactured from Lime Stone and
Clay and made available in powder form, which mixed with water can
set to hard durable mass even under water.

Function of Cement:
To bind the sand and coarse aggregate together to fill voids in
between sands and coarse aggregate particles to form a
compact mass.

Classification of Cement:
I) OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)
II) PPC (Portland Pozzolana Cement)
III)SRFC (Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement)
IV)BFSC (Blast Furnace Slag Cement)
V) RHPC (Rapid Hardening Portland Cement)
I) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
In usual construction work, ordinary Portland cement is widely used.
The composition of ordinary Portland cement is -
i) Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)
ii) Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement-

i) It is used for general construction purposes.
ii) It is used in most of the masonry works.

II) Portland Pozzolana Cement

Pozzolana are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in
reactive forms. It reacts with Calcium Hydroxide generated by hydrating
cement to form additional cementations materials when it is finely
divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana cement-
i) OPC clinker
ii) Gypsum
iii) Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, Volcanic ash and Calcined clay or Silica
fumes)
Uses of Portland pozzolana cement
i) PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures,
construction near the sea shore, dam construction etc.
ii) it is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
iii) As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art
structures.
iv) it is also used in the manufacturing of precast sewage pipes.

III) Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SFPC)

Sulphate resisting Portland cement is a special purpose cement used
where sulfates are present in concentrations that would damage
Normal Portland cement concrete or mortar.

Properties:
i) Applied at place where there is exposure to sulphate such as used in
concrete below ground.
ii) Higher content of Tetra calcium Aluminoferrite and reducing the
Tricalcium aluminate to aluminum.
iii) Has darker color than OPC
iv) SRPC is made by fusing together a precisely controlled blend of very
finely ground limestone, shale and iron oxide at high temperatures to
form cement clinker.
Advantages:
i) Long Term Strength Development
ii) High Strength Concrete
iii) Heat of Hydration
iv) Pure Water and Acid attack
v) Sulphate Attack
vi) Alkali Aggregate Reactivity

IV)Blast Furnace Slag Cement

GGBFS (Ground Granulated Blast Furnace) is used as a by-product in the
extraction of iron from its ore. The process of extraction of iron is the
blast furnace. The slag that is obtained on the iron ore is separated and
cooled down slowly, which results in the formation of non-reactive
crystalline material.
Uses of Blast Furnace Slag Cement
i) Used for structures meant for water retaining such as retaining wall,
rivers, ports, tunnels for improvement in impermeability.
ii) Used in mass concreting works such as dams, foundations which
requires low heat of hydration.
iii) Used in the places susceptible to chloride and sulphate attacks such
as sub-structure, bored piles, pre-case piles and marine structures.
Advantages of Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 The initial strength achieved is less than that of conventional
concrete, but higher ultimate strength gained is equal and
sometimes higher than conventional concrete.
 As the slag I grounded finely, it has the capacity to fill the pores
efficiently, workability is high and bleeding is low.
 Due to slow hydration process, the slump retention and initial
setting time is more.
 Great durability and reduced permeability due to fineness.
 The production cost is less when compared to OPC.
 The hydration process of slag is an exothermic process, thus the
generation of heat of hydration is low. Due to this property, this
type of cement can be used where the problem of thermal
cracking is foreseen.

V) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) is a special purpose
cement used in the concrete to ensure a higher rate to early age
strength development than that typically achieved using Normal
Portland Cement (NPC).
Properties:
 Similar chemical composition as OPC but different proportion.
 Causes to the increased rate of early hardening.
 Concrete made with RHPC develops in 7 days
Advantages:
 More finely grounded than OPC
 Allows formworks to be struck earlier
 Providing savings either the quality of formwork required in time
 Produce heat earlier than OPC, so it can be used in cold weather.

Physical Properties of Cement

 Fineness of Cement: The size of the particles of the cement is
its fineness.
 Soundness: Soundness refers to the ability of cements to not
shrink upon hardening.
 Consistency: The ability of the cement paste to flow is
consistency.
 Strength time: The time required for hardening of wet contents.
 Heat of hydration: When water is added to cement, the reaction
that takes place which generates heat.
 Loss of ignition: This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as
loss of ignition.
 CERAMIC

• The term ceramics represents both man-made and manufactured

non-metallic inorganic solid material.

• Ceramics are classified as inorganic and non-metallic materials that

are essential to our daily lifestyle.

• Chemically speaking, Ceramics are an inorganic, non-metallic solid

materials made up of oxides, bromides, silicates and carbides for which
the inter-atomic bonds are either totally ionic or predominantly ionic
having some covalent character

• Ceramics are a part of our daily lives without realizing it. We are
surrounded by them from domestic and industrial building products,
tableware, and art all the way up to medical devices and microchips.

• This category of material includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass
and toilets.

Properties
• The properties of ceramic materials like all materials are dictated by
the types of atoms present, the type of bonding between the atoms
and the way the atoms are packed together

• This is known as the atomic scale structure.

• Most ceramics are made up of two or more elements.

 • Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or
lightweight.

• Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness

properties; however, they are often brittle in nature.

Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically conductive material

or objects allowing electricity to pass through their mass, or insulators,
materials preventing the flow of electricity.

• Some ceramics, like superconductors also display magnetic

properties.

• The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond

namely, ionic and covalent bonds.

• For metals, the chemical bond is called the metallic bond.

• The bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic

bonding than in metallic.

• That is why, generally speaking, Metals are “ductile” and Ceramics

are “brittle”.

• Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for
multitude of applications.

In general, most of the Ceramic are-

▫ Hard, dense and strong

▫ Wear-resistant

▫ Higher stability and higher melting points due to presence of ionic

bond.
▫ Brittle

▫ Refractory

▫ Thermal insulators

▫ Electrical insulators

▫ Non-magnetic

▫ Oxidation resistant

▫ Prone to thermal shock, and

▫ Chemically stable

▫ They also withstand chemical erosion and high temperatures.

Industrial Ceramics
• Industrial ceramics are commonly understood to be all industrially
used materials that are inorganic, non-metallic solids.

• Usually they are metal oxides (compounds of metallic element and

oxygen), but many ceramics (specially advanced ceramics) are
compounds of metallic elements and carbon, nitrogen or Sulphur.

• In atomic structure they are most often crystalline, although they

may also contain a combination of glassy and crystalline phases.
• These structures and chemical ingredients, though various, result in
universally recognized ceramic like properties of enduring utility,
including the following:

▫ Mechanical strength in spite of brittleness.

▫ Chemical durability against the deteriorating effects of
oxygen, water, acids, bases, salts, and organic solvents;
▫ Hardness, contributing to resistance against wear;
▫ Thermal and electrical conductivity considerably lower than
that of metals; and an ability to take a decorative finish.

Uses of Ceramic
 Ceramics can be found in products like
 watches (quartz tuning forks-the time keeping devices in
watches),
 snow skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a
voltage is applied to them),
 automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in
racecars),
 phone lines,
 space shuttles,
 appliances (enamel coatings), airplanes (nose cones)
 Advanced ceramics can also be found in the
 medical,
 electrical, and
 electronics industries
  They were initially used to craft pottery objects like pots, and
other hollow utensils.
 We are surrounded by them from
 domestic and
 industrial building products,
 tableware, and
 art all the way up to
 medical devices and
 Microchips
 Ceramic products are hard, porous, and brittle.
 As a result, they are used to make
 pottery,
 tiles,
 cements,
 Glass.
 Ceramics are also used at many places in gas turbine engines.
 Bio-ceramics are used as dental implants and synthetic bones.

Uses of Porcelain
 Porcelain find application in
 spark plugs,
 electrical insulators,
 laboratory equipment,
 crucibles,
 dishes,
 and high-class potteries.
Uses of Clay
 Clay is the starting raw material for manufacturing
a) bricks,
b) tiles,
c) terracotta,
d) pottery,
e) Earthenware
f) sewer
g) drain pipes,
h) and covers for electrical cables.

Uses of Stoneware
 Stoneware are used for constructing
a. sanitary fixtures,
b. such as sinks and
c. bath tubs.
 Stoneware are also used in the construction of
 piping vessels,
▫ drainage pipes,
▫ underground cable sheathings,
▫ sewerage pipes, home pipes,
▫ absorption towers, valves,
▫ and pumps in the chemical industry.
 They are cheaper than many other construction materials but are
rather fragile and once broken, they have no resale value.
Uses of Glass
The main use of glass is to make

 household glassware,
 decorative items, and
 optical lenses.
 Glasses are used for heat insulation purposes, for example, in
ovens.
 Glass is used as an insulator in
 metal pipelines,
 in vacuum cleaners, and
 on the walls and roofs of houses.
 Glass is resistant to chemicals.
 As a result, it is used to filter corrosive liquids such as acids and
acid solutions.
 It is also used for sound insulation.
 Safety glass is used in aircraft, automobiles, helicopter, and
submarines.

Classification on basis of its properties

 The very existence of ceramics material having wide range of

properties is due to the reason that many combinations of
metallic and nonmetallic atoms, having a number of of different
structural arrangements are possible.
 Thus, ceramics are classified into these major classes:
 1. Clay Products
2. Refractories
3. Electrical Ceramics
4. Magnetic Ceramics
5. Abrasive Ceramics

1: Clay Products
 These contains silica, alumina and oxide of sodium, calcium,
magnesium and iron.
 Many common ceramics such as bricks and tiles are based
primarily on clay.
 These are pressed or extruded into shape while in a wet plastic
state and then dried and fired.
 Higher density clay products exhibit better mechanical properties
but at the same time have worse insulating properties (ability to
conduct heat).
 Increased vitrification (transformation of a substance into a glass
that is to say, a non-crystalline amorphous solid) leads to higher
densities and is achieved through finer original particle size and
increased firing temperature.
 These are used in many ceramics product as these are present in
plenty.
2: Refractories

 Because of their high heat resistance, ceramic materials are used

as refractories.
 These can retain their shape and size even on strong heating
 These don’t react chemically with slag or molten charge thus used
in coating of furnace, crucible.
 Refractory ceramics are insulating materials and are designed to
withstand high stresses and temperatures and must also resist the
effects of molten metals, abrasive particles and hot gases.
 Ceramics made of pure oxides are quite often the best
refractories, however, these are expensive and therefore mixtures
of ceramic compounds are often used.

3: Electrical Ceramics
 Ceramics can display a variety of useful electrical and magnetic
properties.
 Some ceramics are good conductors such as graphite while some
have high resistivity such as SiC which is used in heating elements.
 Unlike in metals, the conductivity of ceramics increases as
temperature increases. This is because conduction is based on the
movement of anions and cations. Mobility of the ions is only
possible when there is enough thermal heating to supply
sufficient energy.
4: Magnetic Ceramics
 Magnetic ceramics are divided into two categories – traditional
low conductivity magnets and superconducting magnets.
 Low conductivity magnets are used in applications where the
magnet is required to have some electrical insulating properties,
such as in transformers.
 Superconducting magnets are a special class of ceramics that are
able to conduct electricity with no resistance and therefore no
energy loss.
 This special property is limited, however, as it is only possible
below a critical magnetic field and a critical temperature, TC,
which is always very cold.

5: Abrasive Ceramics
 Abrasive ceramics are used to grind or cut away other softer
material.
 Primarily, when considering the design of a abrasive
material it is hardness and wear resistance that are of the
most importance.
 Toughness is also considered as a necessary requirement
so that the abrasive material does not shatter during
grinding.
 Abrasives can be either natural or synthetic. Common
examples include diamond, silicon carbide SiC, tungsten
carbide WC, or normal silica sand.
 Abrasives may generally be either bonded to grinding
wheels, coated on paper, or exist as loose grains
Glasses
 Glass, an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent
or translucent as well as hard and brittle.
 These are amorphous solids i.e. not true solids can be
understood as supercooled liquid with infinite viscosity, it
does not have high melting point.
 Contain magnesium or lithium ions
 They are hard and have high impact strength
 These are used in crockery, chemical apparatus, lenses,
blub etc.

Classification on basis of use

There are three main types of pottery/ceramic. These are

 Earthenware,
 Stoneware
 Porcelain.

Earthenware
 Earthenware is clay fired at relatively low temperatures of
between 1,000 to 1,150 degrees.
  This results in a hardened but brittle material which is slightly
porous (small holes through which liquid or air can go through),
therefore cannot be used to contain water.
 To remedy this, a glaze is used to cover the object before it is fired
in the kiln for a second time and rendered waterproof.

Stoneware
 Stoneware is made from a particular clay which is fired at a higher
temperature of 1,200°C. This results in a more durable material,
with a denser, stone-like quality.
 The finished product will be waterproof and unlike earthenware,
does not need to be glazed.

Porcelain
 Porcelain comes from a refined clay which is fired at very high
temperatures of approximately 1,200–1,450°C.
 The result is an extremely hard, shiny material often white and
translucent in appearance.
 The earliest forms of porcelain originated in China around 1600BC
and this association popularized the term 'fine china’, or bone
china when the porcelain has had ground animal bone added to
the clay, in order to create an even more durable material.
 These doesn’t react with chemical even at high temperature thus
use for lining of furnace.
 CONCRETE

 INTRODUCTION: The word concrete comes from Latin word

“concretes” meaning compact or condensed. Concrete is the
major building material and used in modern building
constructions. It’s a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, chemical admixtures and water. It is used in making
pavements, pipes, foundations, bridges motorways/roads,
architectural structures, bricks and footings for gates, fences and
pole.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE:
 High compressive strength and Free from corrosion
 No appreciable effect of atmospheric agents
 Hardens with age and the process of hardening continues
for a long time after the concrete has attained sufficient
strength
 More economical than steel
  Binds rapidly with steel and it is weak in tension. Steel
reinforcement is placed in cement concrete at suitable
places to take up the tensile stress and this is termed as RCC
 Has a tendency to shrink due to loss of water through forms,
absorption by surfaces of forms, etc
 Shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens
 Has a tendency to be porous due to the presence of voids
which are formed during and after its placing.
 It has a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion and
requires careful attention in manufacturing, placing and
curing.
 Final strength and quality depend entirely on local
conditions and persons handling it
 Concrete members like beams and columns are bigger and
heavier than steel members.
 To avoid porosity tendency there should be proper grading
and compaction of the aggregates

 TYPES OF CONCRETE:
A. Classification according to design of concrete:
1) Plain Cement concrete: The cement concrete in which no
reinforcement is provided is called plain cement concrete or mass
cement concrete. This type of concrete is strong in taking
compressive stresses but weak in taking tensile stresses. It is used
in for foundation work and flooring of buildings.
2) Reinforced Cement concrete: The cement concrete in which
reinforcement is embedded for taking tensile stress is called
 reinforced cement concrete. In this type of concrete, the steel
reinforcement is to be used generally in the form of round bars.
This concrete is equally strong in taking tensile, compressive and
shear stresses. Usual proportions of ingredients in a reinforced
concrete are 1part of cement: 1-2parts of sand: 2-4parts of
crushed stones or gravel. It is used in construction of slabs,
beams, columns, foundation, precast concrete.
3) Pre stressed Cement concrete: The cement concrete in which
high compressive stresses are artificially induced before their
actual use is called pre-stresses cement concrete. In this type of
cement concrete, the high compressive stresses are induced by
pre-tensioning the reinforcement before placing the concrete,
and the reinforcement is released when final setting of the
concrete take place. This concrete can take up high tensile and
compressive stresses without development of cracks. The
quantity of reinforcement can be considerably reduced by using
this concrete.

B.CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO BINDING

MATERIAL

 Lime Concrete
 Lime concrete uses Lime as the binding material. Lime
is usually mixed with sulky and khoa or stones in the
proportion 1:2:5 unless otherwise specified. The khoa
or stones are soaked in water before mixing. Lime
 concrete is used mainly in foundation and terrace
roofing.

 Cement Concrete
 Most engineering construction uses cement concrete
composites as the main building material. It consists of
cement, sand, brick chips or stone chips of the required
size. The usual proportion is 1:2:4 or 1:3:6. After mixing
the required amounts of materials, the concrete mix is
cured with water for 28 days for proper strength
building.

 WATER - CEMENT RATIO: In the preparation of

concrete the water cement ratio is very important. For normal
construction the water cement ratio is usually 0.5. Adding to
much water will reduce the strength of concrete and can cause
segregation. For different ratio of concrete, the amount of water
for 50kg of cement is Concrete ratio 1:3:6 with water quantity
30litre, Concrete ratio of 1:2:4 with water quantity 27litre.
 PROS AND CONS OF CONCRETE:
Advantages-
 1. Concrete is economical.
2. Concrete hardens at ambient temperature.
3. Ability to be cast into shape.
4. Energy efficiency in production.
5. Excellent water-resistant characteristics.
6. High-temperature resistance.
7. Ability to consume and recycle waste.
8. Application in reinforced concrete.
9. Low or zero maintenance required.

Disadvantages-
1. Concrete possess low tensile strength. Therefore, concrete is
required to be reinforced to avoid cracks.
2. In long structures, expansion joints are required to be provided if
there is large temperature variance in the area.
3. Due to drying shrinkage and moisture expansion concrete may
crack. Therefore, construction joints are provided to avoid these
types of cracks.
4. If soluble salt is present in concrete then it may lead to
efflorescence when comes in contact with moisture.
5. Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement, gets integrated in
the presence of Alkalies, sulphates etc.
6. Sustained loads develop creep in structures.
 MORTAR

 INTRODUCTION: Mortar is a material used in masonry construction

to fill the gaps between the bricks and blocks used in construction. Mortar
is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water and is
applied as a paste which then sets hard. The pyramids of Egypt have been
built with clay-gypsum, gypsum-lime and lime mortar. Monuments such as
Taj Mahal used lime mortars. In 1824, Portland cement was introduced,
which is considered to be strongest binding material for making mortar.

USES OF MORTAR:
(i) To bind the building units such as bricks, stones, etc. into a solid mass,

(ii) To carry out pointing and plaster work on exposed surfaces of masonry,
 (iii) To form an even and soft bedding layer for building units,

(iv) To form joints of pipes,

(v) To improve the general appearance of structure,

(vi) To prepare moulds for coping, corbels, cornice, etc.,

(vii) To serve as a matrix or cavity to hold coarse aggregates, etc.,

(viii) To distribute uniformly the super incumbent weight from upper layer to
lower layer of bricks or stones,

(ix) To hide the open joints of brickwork and stonework,

(x) To fill up the cracks detected in the structure during maintenance process,
etc.

 AN IDEAL MORTAR
 Adheres completely and durably to all the masonry unit to
provide stability.
 Remains workable long enough to enable the operative to
set the masonry unit right to line and level; this implies good
water retentivity.
 Stiffens sufficiently quickly to permit the laying of the units
to proceed smoothly, and provides rapid development of
strength and adequate strength when hardened.
 Is resistant to the action of environmental factors such as
frost and/or abrasion and the destructive effects of chemical
salts such as sulfate attack.
 Resists the penetration of rain.
 Accommodates movement of the structure.
  Accommodates irregularities in size of masonry units.
 Contributes to the overall aesthetic appearance.
 Is cost effective.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MORTAR:
 Mortar can be categorised based on the type of
application they will be used for:
 Bricklaying or stone-laying mortar: This type of mortar is
used to bond together stones or bricks.
 Finishing mortar: This type of mortar is used
for pointing and plastering works.
 Mortar can also be categorised according to the type of
binding material that is used, as this, along with quantities,
will determine the quality and strength of the mortar:
 Cement mortar: The binder is cement and the
fine aggregate is typically sand (ratio of 1:2 – 1:6). This
provides good strength and water resistance.
 Aerated cement mortar: Air-entraining agents are added
to cement mortar to increase its plasticity and workability.
 Lime mortar: The binder is lime, which is more
‘breathable’ than cement mortar, meaning that it is less
likely to trap moisture within the construction.
 Gypsum mortar: The binder is plaster. This type of
mortar has low durability in damp conditions.
 Gauged mortar: A composite of lime, cement and sand,
which combines the plasticity of lime with the strength
of cement.
 Surkhi mortar: The binder is lime and the fine aggregate is
surkhi (finely-powdered burnt clay). This provides more
strength than sand.
 Another way of categorising different types of mortar is
based on their bulk density in a dry state. These include:
  Heavy mortar: Bulk density of 15 kN/m3 or more.
Typically, heavy quartzes are added as adulterants.
 Lightweight mortar: Bulk density of less than 15 kN/m3.
Typically, light porous and soft sands are added as
adulterants.

 CHARATERISTICS OF MORTAR: Three important

characteristics of mortar are workability, bond, and compressive
strength.
 Workability: Workability is perhaps the most important property
of plastic (fresh and not yet hardened) mortar. Some indications
of workability are: The mortar spreads easily with the trowel; the
mortar supports the weight of the masonry units; the mortar
adheres to masonry surfaces (is sticky); and the mortar extrudes
readily from the joint when the mason applies pressure to the
unit.
 Bond: Bond is an important property of hardened mortar. Two
facets if bond critical to a masonry assembly's performance are
extent-of-bond and bond strength (known to structural engineers
as flexural tensile strength. Extent-of-bond is a measure of the
actual contact area at the interface of the mortar and masonry
unit. Bond strength is a measure of the tensile stress required to
break the bond between mortar and masonry unit.
 Compressive strength: Compressive strength is not as important
to the performance of the masonry assembly as workability and
bond. Architects and engineers single out compressive strength as
a selection criterion largely because it is easily measured.

 MORTAR TESTING: The mortars are tested for their quality

by crushing the strength, soundness, and initial and final setting
time tests.

The following tests are conducted on the prepared mortars to

ensure their quality:
1. Crushing Test
2. Tensile Strength Test
3. Adhesive Test.
1. Crushing Test: This test is carried out on a brick work with the
mortar. This brick work is crushed in a compression testing
machine and the load is noted down. Then the crushing strength
is obtained as load divided by cross-sectional area.

2. Tensile Strength Test: The mortar prepared is placed in a

mould of brick which has central cross-sectional area as 38 mm ×
38 mm. After curing the briquette is pulled under the grips of
tensile testing machine. The ultimate load noted. Then the tensile
strength of mortar is load divided by the
central cross-sectional area.

3. Adhesive Test: Two bricks are joined together with mortar to

be tested. The upper brick is suspended from an overhead
support. A board is hung from the lower brick. Then weights are
added to the board till the bricks separate. The adhesive strength
is the load divided by area of contact.
 MORTAR POINTING:

TYPES OF POINTING:

1. Flush Pointing: In this type, mortar is pressed hard in

the raked joints and by finishing off flush with the edge of
masonry units. The edges are neatly trimmed with trowel
and straight edge. It does not give good appearance. But
flush pointing is more durable because of resisting the
provision of space for dust, water etc., due to this reason,
this method is extensively used.

2. Recessed Pointing

In this case, mortar is pressing back by 5mm or more from

the edges. During placing of mortar, the face of the pointing
is kept vertical, by a suitable tool. This type gives very good
appearance.

3. Beaded Pointing

It is formed by a steel or ironed with a concave edge. It gives

good appearance, but it will damage easily when compared
to other types.
4. Struck Pointing

This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face the

pointing is kept inclined, with its upper edge pressed inside
the face by 10mm which drains water easily.

5. Rubbed, Keyed or Grooved Pointing

This is also a modification of flush pointing in which groove

is formed at its mid height, by a pointing tool. It gives good
appearance.

6. Tuck Pointing

In this case mortar is pressed in the raked joint first and

finishing flush with the face. While the pressed mortar is
green, groove or narrow channel is cut in the centre of
groove which is having 5mm width and 3mm depth. This
groove is then filled with white cement putty, kept
projecting beyond the face of the joint by 3 mm. if
projection is done in mortar, it is called bastard pointing or
half tuck pointing.

7. V- Pointing

This is formed by forming V-groove in the flush-finishing

face.

8. Weathered Pointing
 This is made by making a projection in the form of V-shape.

 GROUTING: Grout is a process in which dense fluid is used to

fill gaps or used as reinforcement in existing structures. Grout is a
mixture of water, cement, and sand and is employed in pressure
grouting, embedding rebar in masonry walls, connecting sections
of pre-cast concrete, filling voids, and sealing joints such as those
between tiles. It is commonly used in household include filling in
tiles of shower floors and kitchen tiles.

TYPES OF GROUTING:
01. Cementitious Grout:
This is the most common type of tile grout used for
grouting. Cementitious grout is mixture of cement, water
and other additive pigments.The water retentive agent in
cementitious grouts retards the drying time, allowing the
cement to slowly cure for maximum hardness.
Cementitious grouts come in a range of colors that let
you match or contrast with the tile.

02. Epoxy Grout:

Epoxy grout forms an impermeable layer for water to
penetrate beneath the grout; hence it can be effectively
used for wet areas such as bathrooms. They also have
resistance to chemicals and greases, so they are widely
used in industrial flooring. Epoxy grout has high
durability and is recommended for high traffic areas.

03. Furan Resin Grouts:

This is a type of grout that’s similar to epoxy with the
exception of it being composed of polymers of fortified
alcohols. This makes furan highly resistant to scratches,
stains and wear and tear. Furan is usually used in
industrial applications in places such as labs, factories
and commercial buildings.

PAINT
Paint is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or solid
composition that, after application to a substrate in a
thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly
used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects.
Paint is more than just the color though, it Is a colored
substance which is spread over a surface and is left to dry
to leave a thin decorative, colored & protective coating
film.

What is Paint Made Of:

a) Pigment
b)Resin
c) Solvent
d)Additives

Water Based Paints

Mixer of Pigments, Binder, Drier and mainly Water.
Widely used. lesser time than Oil Paints to dry. suitable
for interior as well as exterior walls. Maintains its original
color for longer period.
Types of Water Based Paints
 Distemper Paints
 Emulsion Paints
Distemper Paints
Paint made of water, chalk and pigment. used as a
cost-effective painting solution also for painting
exterior walls
 Types
1. ARCYLIC
2. SYNTHETIC.

Emulsion Paints
These are Superior Quality of Paints Formed by
Mixing Oil/Water
And an Emulsifying Agent. Have Much Better Ease of
Application, are Washable
  Oil Based Paints
▫ Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint, are more
durable but it changes its original color after the
year passes.
▫ Oil-based paint is very durable and more
resistant to low temperatures.
▫ It can be used on walls, ceilings, doors,
windows, mosquitoes mesh, Iron
frames/Furniture, Wooden frames etc.

Disadvantages of Oil Based Paints:

 Takes a long time to dry.
 Is very hard to clean up after painting

Characteristics of an Ideal Paint:

• When applied to the surface, paint should form a
thin film of uniform nature.
• It should be easily applicable with a brush or
spraying devices.
• It should have an attractive and pleasuring
appearance.
 • The surface of the paint should not show cracks after
drying.
• It should be elastic, i.e. must be able to withstand
change in temperature.
• It should have ideal resistance to corrosion.
• It should possess good spreading or covering power.
• Paint must not allow algae to grow on it.

Causes of Failure in Painting:

• Bad Workmanship
• Conditions for Painting
• Moisture
• Salts and Alkalies
• Unsuitable Surfaces
• Wrong choice of paint.
• Tools of painting
 PLYWOOD

What is Plywood?
• PANELS COMPRISING OF AT LEAST THREE LAYERS OF THIN WOOD
BONDED TOGETHER WITH AN ADHESIVE.
• EACH PLY UAUALLY ORIENTATED AT A RIGHT ANGLE TO THE
ADJACENT LAYER IN ORDER TO IMPROVE STRENGTH AND REDUCE
THE PROBABILITY OF SHRINKAGE.
• “FACE & BACK” ARE COMMANLY PREFERRED FOR OUTER LAYER
OF PLY AND GRADED ACCORDING TO THEIR QUALITY THE INNER
OR INTERMEDIATE LAYER ARE COLLECTIVE KNOWN AS “CORE”.
• IT IS FLEXIBLE, INEXPENSIVE, WORKABLE & RE-USABLE AND
USUALLY CAN BE MANUFACTURED LOCALLY.
• PLYWOOD IS RESISTANCE TO CRACKING, SPLITTING, SHRINKAGE,
TWISTING AND HAS HIGH STRENGTH.

PROCESS
• FIRST LOG IS SELECTED.
• THEN FROM 1” THK WOOD 32 CHIPS ARE REMOVED.
• LAYERS ARE STACK.
 • FIRSTLY, FACE IS PLACED THAN CORE IS KEPT ON IT AND ON IT
FALI IS KEPT THEN AGAIN CORE AND FACE IS KEPT THIS THINGS
ARE GLUED WITH THE HELP OF PHENOLIC RESIN AND UREA.
• THEY ARE PRESSED AT 1200 C.
• WHITE PART IS MADE OF SILVER OAK AND DRAK PART IS MADE
OF POPLAR.
• IF ONLY POPLAR IS USED PLYWOOD GETS SPLIT BY USING SILVER
OAK IT HELP IT GET PROTECTED WHILE NAILING.
• GURJAN AND HOLLONG WOOD ARE USED IN MAKING PLYWOOD.

TYPES OF PLYWOOD
• COMMERCIAL PLYWOOD
• WATERPROOF PLYWOOD
• FLEXO PLYWOOD
• MARINE PLYWOOD
• SOFTWOOD PLYWOOD
• HARDWOOD PLYWOOD
• TROPICAL PLYWOOD
• AIRCRAFT PLYWOOD
• DECORATIVE PLYWOOD

COMMERCIAL PLYWOOD
• GURJAT, HOLLOCK, SILVER OAK WOOD ARE USE IN COMMERCIAL
PLYWOOD.
• IT IS AN INTERIOR GRADE PLYWOOD FOR INDOOR USE.
 • IT HAS LIGHT COLOR SHADES.

WATERPROOF PLYWOOD
• WATERPROOF PLY IS MOSTLY USED IN MR GRADE
• (MOISTURE RESISTANT), IT REACTS WITH BOTH ALUMINIUM AND
MARINE PLYWOOD.
• IT HAS BLACK COLORED SHADES.
• DUE TO CHEMICAL USED IN IT, IT DON’T GET AFFECTED BY
TERMITE.
• BLACK COLOR IS ALSO DUE TO CHEMICAL USED.

FLEXO PLYWOOD
• IT IS FLEXIBLE AND IS USED FOR MAKING CURVED PAPTS.
• IN IT THE GRAINS ARE NOT ADJACENT AN SO IT BEND.
• AS ALL THE GRAINS GO IN ONE DIRECTION.

MARINE PLYWOOD
• IT IS A FORM OF PLYWOOD THAT HAS BEEN CONSTRUCTED USING
WATERPROOF TO MAKE IT SUITABLE FOR USE IN WET
ENVIORNMENTS INCLUDING A HOME BUILT BOAT, AND OTHER
STRUCTURES.
 • IT MAY SERVE AS UNDERLAYMENT OF YOUR BOAT VINYL DECK
COVER, THE WALL AND COMPARTMENT OVERHEAD PANELS ON
YOUR BOAT.

SOFTWOOD PLYWOOD
• SOFTWOOD PANEL IS USUALLY MADE EITHER OF CEDAR, PINE,
REDWOOD, AND IS USED FOR CONSTRUCTION AND INDUSTRIAL
PURPOSE.
• THE MOST COMMON DIMENSION IS 1.2 M * 2.4 M OR LARGE
IMPERIAL 4’ *8’.
• THICKNESS IS FROM 1.4 MM – 4.3 MM.

HARDWOOD PLYWOOD
• IT IS MADE FROM ANGIOSPERMS TREES AND IS USED FOR
DEMANDING END USES.
• IT IS CHARCTERIZED BY EXCELLENT STRENGTH, STIFFNESS.
• ESPECIALLY SUITABLE FOR HEAVY DUTY FLOOR AND WALL
STRUCTURES.
• IT HAS EXCELLENT SURFACE HARDNESS, DAMAGE AND WEAR
RESISTANCE.

TROPICAL PLYWOOD
 • TROPICAL PLYWOOD IS MADE FROM SPECIES OF TROPICAL
WOOD.
• TROPICAL PLYWOOD IS SUPERIOR TO SOFTWOOD PLYWOOD DUE
TO ITS STRENGTH, DENSITY AND HIGH QUALITY.

AIRCRAFT PLYWOOD
• HIGH STRENGTH PLYWOOD IS ALSO KNOWN AS AIRCRAFT
PLYWOOD.
• IT IS MADE FROM BIRCH AND MAHOGANYAND USES ADHESIVE
WITH INCREASED RESISTANCE YO HEAT AND HUMIDITY.
• IT IS USED FOR SEVERAL WORLD WAR TO FIGHTER AIRCRAFT.

DECORATIVE PLYWOOD
• USUALLY FACED WITH HARDWOOD INCLUDING ASH, OAK, RED
OAK, BIRCH, MAPLE, MAHOGANY, ROSE WOOD, TEAK AND LARGE
NUMBER OF OTHER WOODS.
• THIS PLYWOOD IS LOT EASIER TO DYE AND DRAW ON THAN ANY
OTHER PLYWOOD.
• FABRIC BONDED ARE ALSO ADDED ON TOP OF PLYWOOD AT
BOTH SIDE AS KIND OF READY FOR USE IN DECORATION FIELD.

TYPES OF PLYWOOD GRADE

• BWR: BOILING WATER RESISTANT
 • BWR: BOILING WATER PROOF

THIS GRADE IS MOSTLY USED IN KITCHENS.

• MR: MOISTURE RESISTANT

PLYWOOD SIZES

• 8FT * 4FT
• 7FT * 4FT
• 6FT * 4FT
• 8FT * 3FT
• 7FT * 3FT
• 6FT * 3FT

LAMINATED WOOD
• WHERE TWO OR MORE PARALLEL-GRAINED LAYERS OR
LAMINATION OF PLUNKS BOND TOGETHER WITH ADHESIVE.
• ADHESIVE IS NEEDED IN ALMOST ALL LAMINATE.
• THE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAMINATED WOOD
AND PLYWOOD THAT LAMINATED WOOD HAS VENEER OR PLIES
AT RIGHT ANGLES TO EACH OTHER.
• THE INDIVIDUAL MEMBER OF WOOD COMPRISING THE
LAMINATE IS CALLED LAMINA.
 • THE NUMBER, SIZE, SHAPE AND THICKNESS OF LAMINAE MAY
VERY IN ANY PARTICULATE LAMINATE.
• LAMINAE ARE DRIED IN KILN OR VENEER DRYER TO A MOISTURE
CONTENT BETWEEN 3-5% AND 10-12%.
• IT DEPENDS ON THE ADHESIVE AND THE PRESSING METHOD.
• MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE LAMINAE IN ANY SINGLE ASSEMBLY
SHOULD BE UNIFORM.
• PIECES WITH CASE- HARDENING, WARP, CHECKS AND SPLITS ARE
DISCARDED OR DEFECTIVE PORTIONS CUT OUT.

FIBRE WOOD
• THE TERM FIBREBOARD INCLUDES HARDBOARD, MEDIUM
DENSITY FIBREBOARD (MDF), AND INSULATION BOARD.
• SEVERAL THINGS DIFFERENTITATE FIBREBOARD FROM
PARTICLEBOARD, MOST NOTABLY THE PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
OF THE COMMINUTED MATERIAL.
• TO MAKE FIBRES FOR COMPOSITES, BONDS BETWEEN THE WOOD
FIBERS MUST BE BROKEN. IN ITS SIMPLEST FORM, THIS IS
ACCOMPLISHED BY ATTRITION MILLING (REFINER).
• ATTRITION MILLING, OR REFINING AS IT IS COMMONLY CALLED,
CAN BE AUGMENTED BY WATER SOAKING, STEAM COOKING, OR
CHEMICAL TREATMENTS.
• CHEMICAL TREATMENTS, USUALLY ALKALI, ARE ALSO USED TO
WEAKEN THE LIGNIN BONDS.