Composites Science and Technology

Mohammad Jawaid
Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa
Suchart Siengchin Editors

Bamboo Fiber
Composites
Processing, Properties and Applications
Composites Science and Technology

Series Editor
Mohammad Jawaid, Lab of Biocomposite Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
INTROP, Serdang, Malaysia
Composites Science and Technology (CST) book series publishes the latest
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hensively covering topics shown below:
• Composites from agricultural biomass/natural fibres include conventional
composites-Plywood/MDF/Fiberboard
• Fabrication of Composites/conventional composites from biomass and natural
fibers
• Utilization of biomass in polymer composites
• Wood, and Wood based materials
• Chemistry and biology of Composites and Biocomposites
• Modelling of damage of Composites and Biocomposites
• Failure Analysis of Composites and Biocomposites
• Structural Health Monitoring of Composites and Biocomposites
• Durability of Composites and Biocomposites
• Biodegradability of Composites and Biocomposites
• Thermal properties of Composites and Biocomposites
• Flammability of Composites and Biocomposites
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Mohammad Jawaid Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa
• •

Suchart Siengchin
Editors

Bamboo Fiber Composites

Processing, Properties and Applications

123
Editors
Mohammad Jawaid Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa
Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology Natural Composites Research Group Lab
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Academic Enhancement Department
Products (INTROP) King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Universiti Putra Malaysia North Bangkok (KMUTNB)
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia Bangsue, Bangkok, Thailand

Suchart Siengchin
Department of Materials and Production
Engineering
The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering
King Mongkut’s University of Technology
North Bangkok (KMUTNB)
Bangsue, Bangkok, Thailand

Composites Science and Technology

ISBN 978-981-15-8488-6 ISBN 978-981-15-8489-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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Editors are honored to dedicate this book
to their parents
Preface

Natural fibers for producing biocomposites are an emerging area in polymer sci-
ence. The rise in ecological anxieties has forced scientists and researchers from all
over the world to find new ecological materials. Therefore, it is necessary to expand
knowledge about the properties of bamboo fiber composites to expanding the range
of their application. This book presents an extensive survey on recent improve-
ments in the research and development of bamboo fibers that are used to make
biocomposites in various applications, because of its outstanding features like
lightweight, low cost, environmentally friendly and sustainablility. The unique
feature of this book is it presents a unified knowledge of bamboo composites on the
basis of synthesis, characterization, properties and applications. This book also
focusses on the recent advances in bamboo fibers and its composites from
renewable resources and introduces potential applications of these materials. This
book gives a sound knowledge on bamboo composites to the readers with
numerous example illustrations, methods and results for graduate students,
researchers and industrialists. Readers will have a quick reference by exploring the
research literature on the subject with commercial value-added research applica-
tions of bamboo composites.
The objective of the book is to summarize many of the recent developments in
the area of bamboo composites. As the title indicates, the book will emphasize new
challenges for the synthesis characterization and properties of bamboo composites.
Our book covers the void for the need of one stop reference book for the
researchers. Leading researchers from industry, academy, government and private
research institutions across the globe will contribute to this book. Academics,
researchers, scientists, engineers and students in the field of natural fiber composites
will benefit from this book which is highly application-oriented. Moreover, it will
provide a cutting-edge research from around the globe on this field. Current status,
trends, future directions, opportunities, etc., will be discussed in detail, making it
friendly for beginners and young researchers.

vii
viii Preface

We are thankful to all authors who contributed chapters in this edited book and
made our imaginary thought into reality. Lastly, we are thankful to Springer team
for continuous support at every stage to make it possible to publish on time.

Acknowledgment: The work was financed by the King Mongkut’s University of Technology
North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand and grant funded under KMUTNB-BasicR-64-16.

Serdang, Malaysia Mohammad Jawaid

Bangkok, Thailand Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa
Bangkok, Thailand Suchart Siengchin
Contents

Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

M. Ramesh, L. RajeshKumar, and V. Bhuvaneshwari
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Divakaran Divya, Suyambulingam Indran, and Kurki Nagaraja Bharath
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties
and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Ashwini Kumar, Aruna Kumar Behura, Dipen Kumar Rajak, Ajit Behera,
Pawan Kumar, and Ravinder Kumar
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites . . . . . . 63
Carlo Santulli
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical
and Thermal Properties of Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, M. Chandrasekar, K. Senthilkumar,
Nadir Ayrilmis, Suchart Siengchin, and N. Rajini
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer
Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
K. Senthilkumar, Harikrishnan Pulikkalparambil, T. Senthil Muthu Kumar,
J. Jerold John Britto, Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai, Suchart Siengchin,
S. Karthikeyan, and N. Rajini
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement
on the Dielectric Properties of Epoxy Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
H. Babu Vishwanath, H. Mohit, M. R. Sanjay, Suchart Siengchin,
and R. Ruban
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
M. Ramesh, C. Deepa, and Arivumani Ravanan

ix
x Contents

Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced

Bamboo Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Laila El Foujji, Khadija El Bourakadi, Abou el kacem Qaiss,
and Rachid Bouhfid
The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo Fiber Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Mohammad Irfan Iqbal and Rashed Al Mizan
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile and Apparel
Industries: Fabrication and Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Semalaiappan Yamuna Devi, Suyambulingam Indran,
and Divakaran Divya
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo
Fiber Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Asrafuzzaman, Kazi Faiza Amin, Ahmed Sharif, and Md Enamul Hoque
Lifecycle Assessment of Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
Bamboo Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Akarsh Verma, Naman Jain, Avinash Parashar, Amit Gaur, M. R. Sanjay,
and Suchart Siengchin
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites . . . . . . . . . . 247
H. Mohit, H. Babu Vishwanath, G. Hemath Kumar, V. Arul Mozhi Selvan,
M. R. Sanjay, and Suchart Siengchin
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites
and Their Applications in Modern Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Kazi Faiza Amin, Asrafuzzaman, Ahmed Sharif, and Md Enamul Hoque
About the Editors

Dr. Mohammad Jawaid is currently working as High Flyer Fellow (Professor) at

Biocomposite Technology Laboratory, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest
Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia, and also has been Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemical
Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
since June 2013. He has more than 14 years of experience in teaching, research, and
industries. His area of research interests includes hybrid composites, lignocellulosic
reinforced/filled polymer composites, advance materials: graphene/nanoclay/fire
retardant, modification and treatment of lignocellulosic fibers and solid wood,
biopolymers and biopolymers for packaging applications, nanocomposites and
nanocellulose fibers, and polymer blends. So far, he has published 37 books, 65
book chapters, more than 350 peer-reviewed international journal papers, and
several published review papers under top 25 hot articles in science direct during
2013–2018. He also obtained 2 Patents and 5 Copyrights. H-index and citation in
Scopus are 48 and 9941 and in Google scholar, H-index and citation are 55 and
13666. He is founding Series Editor of Composite Science and Technology Book
Series from Springer-Nature, and also Series Editor of He worked as guest editor of
special issues of SN Applied Science, Current Organic Synthesis and Current
Analytical Chemistry, International Journal of Polymer Science, IOP Conference
Proceeding. He also in Editorial Board Member of Journal of Polymers and The
Environment, Journal of Plastics Technology, Applied Science and Engineering
Progress Journal, Journal of Asian Science, Technology and Innovation and the
Recent Innovations in Chemical Engineering. He is also life member of Besides
that, he is also reviewer of several high-impact international peer-reviewed journals
of Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, Saga, ACS, RSC, Frontiers, etc. Presently, he is
supervising 16 Ph.D. students (5 Ph.D. as Chairman, and 11 Ph.D. as Member) and
8 Master’s students (2 Master as Chairman, and 6 Master as Member) in the fields
of hybrid composites, green composites, nanocomposites, natural fiber-reinforced
composites, nanocellulose, etc. 20 Ph.D. and 11 Master’s students graduated under
his supervision in 2014–2020. He has several research grants at university, national,
and international levels on polymer composites of around 3 million Malaysian

xi
xii About the Editors

ringgits (USD 700,000). He also delivered plenary and invited talks in international
conferences related to composites in India, Turkey, Malaysia, Thailand, the United
Kingdom, France, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and China. Besides that, he is also a
member of technical committees of several national and international conferences
on composites and material science. Recently Dr. Mohammad Jawaid received
Excellent Academic Award in Category of International Grant-Universiti Putra
Malaysia-2018 and also Excellent Academic Staff Award in industry High Impact
Network (ICAN 2019) Award. Beside that Gold Medal-Community and Industry
Network (JINM Showcase) at Universiti Putra Malaysia. He also Received Publons
Peer Review Awards 2017, and 2018 (Materials Science), Certified Sentinel of
science Award Receipient-2016 (Materials Science) and 2019 (Materials Science
and Cross field). He is also Winner of Newton-Ungku Omar Coordination Fund:
UK-Malaysia Research and Innovation Bridges Competition 2015.

Dr. Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa is currently working as Research Scientist at

King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand. He
has received the B. E (Mechanical Engineering) from Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi, India in the year 2010, M.Tech (Computational Analysis in
Mechanical Sciences) from VTU Extension Centre, GEC, Hassan, in the year
2013, Ph.D (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Science) from Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Belagavi, India in the year 2017 and Post Doctorate from
King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand, in the year
2019. He is a Life Member of Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE) and
Associate Member of Institute of Engineers (India). He is a reviewer for more than
50 international Journals (for Elsevier, Springer, Sage, Taylor & Francis, Wiley),
book proposals and international conferences. In addition, he has published more
than 100 articles in high quality international peer reviewed journals, 4 editorial
corner, 35+ book Chapters, one book, 15 books as an Editor and also presented
research papers at national/international conferences. His current research areas
include Natural fiber composites, Polymer Composites and Advanced Material
Technology. He is a recipient of DAAD Academic exchange-PPP Programme
(Project- related Personnel Exchange) between Thailand and Germany to Institute
of Composite Materials, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. He has received a
Top Peer Reviewer 2019 award, Global Peer Review Awards, Powered by Publons,
Web of Science Group.

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Suchart Siengchin is President of King Mongkut’s

University of Technology North Bangkok. Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Suchart Siengchin,
received his Dipl.-Ing. in Mechanical Engineering from University of Applied
Sciences Giessen/Friedberg, Hessen, Germany in 1999, M.Sc. in Polymer
Technology from University of Applied Sciences Aalen, Baden-Wuerttemberg,
Germany in 2002, M.Sc. in Material Science at the Erlangen-Nürnberg University,
Bayern, Germany in 2004, Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering (Dr.-Ing.) from
Institute for Composite Materials, University of Kaiserslautern, Rheinland-Pfalz,
About the Editors xiii

Germany in 2008 and Postdoctoral Research from Kaiserslautern University and

School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, USA. In 2016 he received the
habilitation at the Chemnitz University in Sachen, Germany. He worked as a
Lecturer for Production and Material Engineering Department at The Sirindhorn
International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), KMUTNB.
He has been full Professor at KMUTNB and became the President of KMUTNB.
He won the Outstanding Researcher Award in 2010, 2012 and 2013 at KMUTNB.
His research interests in Polymer Processing and Composite Material. He is Editor-
in-Chief: KMUTNB International Journal of Applied Science and Technology and
the author of morethan 200 peer reviewed Journal Articles. He has participated with
presentations in more than 39 International and National Conferences with respect
to Materials Science and Engineering topics.
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites

M. Ramesh, L. RajeshKumar, and V. Bhuvaneshwari

Abstract Natural fiber composites exhibit various advantages like biodegradability

after the life of components, minimal or no emission of greenhouse gases and less
pollution. Apart from the domestic and small scale industrial application of these
composites, are also employed in military, automobile and aerospace applications
owing to their maintenance of sustainable environment, design flexibility and contin-
uous improvement in facing several challenges. Bamboo is one of the well-known
and wide spread plants all around the globe. It is characterized by multifaceted
merits such as high stiffness and fiber strength, ease of processing, sustainable use
of fibers, eco-friendliness and rapid plant growing cycle. Bamboo fiber reinforced
composites are considered to possess enhanced environmental friendliness than any
other synthetic fiber reinforced composites such as glass fiber reinforced composites
and they render less impact over the environment, same performance for the similar
fiber content and allowing reduced use of toxic base polymers. This chapter deals
with a comprehensive view of individual bamboo fiber reinforced composites as
well as hybridization of bamboo fibers with other fibers. This may pave way for the
researchers working on bamboo fibers to reach newer heights in terms of properties
and applications.

Keywords Bamboo fibers · Bamboo composites · Processing · Properties ·

Hybridization

1 Introduction

Utilization of petroleum based products and fibers have become very hard due to
various constraints like very high oil rates, environmental effects of synthetic fibers,

M. Ramesh (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641402, India
e-mail: [email protected]
L. RajeshKumar · V. Bhuvaneshwari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641407, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_1
2 M. Ramesh et al.

problem of disposal, and depleting fossil fuels. Hence applications that were occupied
by synthetic fibers could no longer sustain and so the industrialists have turned
towards the usage of natural fibers which are environmental friendly materials and
could be largely considered as potential substitutes for synthetic fibers. Amongst all
natural fibres, bamboo is considered to be essential due to its significant features
like naturally available, biodegradable, grows rapidly, absorbs carbon dioxide from
the environment and available widely. Increased tensile and flexural strength and
modulus in a bamboo fiber is achieved owing to uniform spread of cellulose within
lignin matrix longitudinally, so it could be factored as a composite material. To
improve the interfacial bonding, the bamboo has to be treated with hydrophobic and
nonpolar eco-friendly material since it is hydrophilic and polar inherently. Being
highly competitive alternate to the wood, bamboo has been adopted and accepted by
many researchers by conducting fast and increased number of experiments. Through
the experiments it is evident that bamboo can replace wood in a much better way [1].
Bamboo has diaphragm till the end of its length and amongst the diaphragms,
internodes are available. Diaphragms are used to support the stem. Hollow gap
between the internodes, which extends until next node, are named as lacuna. This
lacuna is encompassed by a non-uniform length of culm wall starting from intern-
odes. Sometimes internodes without lacuna is known as solid bamboo which is rare
are known as male bamboo. The gap and size between the internodes is reduced by
incrementing the length of the bamboo due to the narrowing nature of culm wall from
bottom to the top [2]. Internal design of bamboo is curved and thinly with narrow
shape in macro level view. In case of micro view, it has a thread or a filament that is
strengthened by cellular parenchymatic tissue making up the softer parts of leaves
which is behaving as a matrix. Major elements constituted in bamboo are hemi-
cellulose, cellulose, lignin, ash and some other derivative elements accompanied
by silicon dioxide [3]. The major and significant properties of bamboo is designed
and determined by these compositions which yield good and improved toughness,
strength and ductility with less density. Figure 1 shows the bamboo plant, a small
circular ring from the plant, its macro view and the scanning electron microscopic
(SEM) images.
Outer layer of single bamboo filament is covered with several layer which is in
the shape of concentric circle which share the same centre. Those several layers are
encountered with heavy cell wall with some lumen, some pits and lesser micro fibril
angle which indicates overall anisotropic properties of the fibers. The diameter and
length of the single bamboo fiber is 10–30 µm and 1–4 mm respectively [4]. It is
highly desirable to improve the mechanical behaviour of the single layer bamboo,
which is widely used to reinforce the composites. Figure 2 shows the SEM image of
single bamboo fiber along its cross section and in longitudinal direction.
Various researchers indicated the different values of tensile strength of various
forms of bamboo fibers used and the following cases were used to analyse the tensile
behaviour of the bamboo in several forms: chemical isolation, bundle fiber exam-
ination, examination of puny bamboo strip and mechanical separation of vascular
bundles. Comparatively chemical isolation process enhanced the tensile behaviour of
the bamboo than mechanical separation technique. In mechanical separation tensile
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites 3

Fig. 1 Bamboo plant and its cross-sectional microscopic images [2]

Fig. 2 SEM image of single bamboo fiber [2]

behaviour of bamboo strips is reduced by increasing the bundle size of the bamboo
fibers. This could be due to poor interfacial bond created between fiber and its centre
lamella and the impairment of fiber during its extraction and surface treatment [5]. So
to retain fiber properties, it is has to be prevented from breaking during its preparatory
stages. Table 1 shows physical, mechanical and various other general properties of
single bamboo fiber.

2 Bamboo Fiber Composites

Prospective applications of bamboo fiber reinforced composites increase day by

day and its inspiring properties such as biodegradability, cost and availability has
4 M. Ramesh et al.

Table 1 Properties of bamboo fiber

S. No Property Unit Value Sources
Mechanical properties
1. Elastic modulus GPa 27–40 [6]
2. Elongation % 2.89 [2]
3. Tensile strength MPa 1504–2036 [2]
4. Tensile modulus GPa 25.24–28.46 [2]
5. Hardness HV 23.45 [5]
General properties
6. Specific gravity No unit 0.4–0.8 [5]
7. Moisture absorption % 13 [5]
8. Linear density g/cm3 1.44 [5]
9. Failure strain % 1.2–1.9 [6]
Thermal properties
10. Transition temperature °C 426.11 [3]
11. Thermal degradation % 52.35 [3]
12. Fiber enthalpy (at 65 °C) J/g 8.94 [3]
13. Activation energy J/K 23.22 [3]

opened avenues for bamboo fiber composites in the areas like pharmaceuticals,
furniture, biomedical, construction, cosmetics, automotive and electronics. Upon
clearly understanding the properties of bamboo fibers, manufacturing of bamboo
fiber reinforced composites by using various techniques has to be dealt with. Before
proceeding to manufacture the composites, the bamboo fibers were treated with
various solutions, either acidic or alkaline, expecting the properties of the composites
to improve. Surface treatment using various alkaline solutions like sodium hydroxide,
benzoyl chloride, potassium permanganate and so on are the mostly used treatments.
Generally, alkaline treatments are employed over the natural fibers which facilitate
to remove the cellulose and hemicellulose contents over the fiber surface making
it uneven and aiding the natural fiber to have better interfacial bonding with the
encompassing matrix.
In general, the bamboo fibers are treated with alkaline solution of various concen-
trations, for enhancing its chemical interaction and tensile characteristics, followed
by coating of bamboo fibers with many thermosets like polyurethane, polyethy-
lene and semi-interpenetrating polymer network polymers like polystyrene. Few
researchers inferred that when the bamboo fibers were treated with 10% NaOH,
fiber-matrix interaction was better and the fiber surface was not deteriorated while
20% alkaline treatment declined the strength of bamboo fiber composites [7]. Few
attempts were also made to reinforce the alkali treated bamboo fibers in bio-based
starch resins. From the experiments, those authors inferred that bamboo fibers acted
as fillers instead of playing the role of reinforcements due to their small aspect ratio
in the order of 20.
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites 5

Bamboo fiber reinforced polyester and epoxy composites were prepared by using
treated bamboo fiber by compression moulding and hand layup techniques. Both
of them used alkaline treatment for making the fibers devoid of hemicellulose and
lignin content by which the fiber-matrix interface of the composites were strength-
ened [8, 9]. Huang and Young [10] manufactured bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy
composites by means of resin transfer moulding process where they used quasi-
unidirectionally arranged fiber orientation. The fibers were treated with 0.1 N of
alkaline NaOH solution. Alkaline treatment rendered better properties of bamboo
fiber composites including tensile, impact and interface shear stress. Khan et al. [11]
attempted the preparation of bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites by means
of compression moulding method. They treated the bamboo fibers with 6% alka-
line NaOH solution while the percentage of alkaline solution was determined by
the single fiber fragmentation test. 6% NaOH removes the surface cellular contents
better than its other counterparts such as 2 and 10% NaOH and due to the pres-
ence of minimal wax content over the surface, the properties of the composites
were enhanced. Lequan et al. [12] fabricated unidirectional bamboo and coir fibers
reinforced polypropylene composites by means of compression moulding method.
Initially a prepreg of unidirectionally aligned bamboo fibers were prepared to make
it as a sandwich between the polypropylene faces. Nabinejad et al. [13] manufac-
tured unidirectional bamboo fiber reinforced polyester composites through vacuum
assisted resin transfer moulding method. Bamboo fibers were treated with 3, 5 and
7% of NaOH in this case and the optimum percentage of treating agent based on the
test results were evaluated. Choudhury et al. [14] prepared 0°/+45°/+90°/–45° ply
bamboo fiber reinforced PLA green composites by adopting compression moulding
method. Here the machinability study was carried out on the untreated bamboo fiber
reinforced composites. Wang et al. [15] determined the effects of fiber surface treat-
ment on tensile and bonding behaviour of unidirectional bamboo fiber reinforced
epoxy composites. Various percentages of alkali such as 1, 4 and 7% of NaOH was
applied to the bamboo fibers and the composites were manufactured by hot pressing
moulding technique.
Xie et al. [16] prepared bamboo fiber bundle reinforced phenol–formaldehyde
composites through hot pressing technique. Behaviour of bamboo bundles and its
influence over the mechanical and physical properties of the composites were eval-
uated. Yu et al. [17] manufactured the bamboo laminated sheets reinforced phenol–
formaldehyde composites through compression moulding method. Mechanical prop-
erties of these composites were evaluated. In both of the above cases, fiber surface
treatment was not carried over instead of which the fiber bundles and mats were
soaked in the resin itself for a specific period of time which was considered as treat-
ment. Anatomical properties of the bundles and mats determined the enormity of
properties of bamboo composites [18, 19].
Few authors tried to prepare hybrid composites with either treated or untreated
bamboo fibers and evaluated the required properties. Untreated kenaf and bamboo
fibers reinforced hybrid epoxy composites prepared through hand-layup method for
evaluating the hybridization effects upon the thermal and thermo-oxidative stabilities
[18]. The thermo- mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of woven bamboo
6 M. Ramesh et al.

and kenaf fiber mats reinforced epoxy composites prepared by hand-layup method
where the bamboo and kenaf mats were kept untreated [20]. Fei et al. [21] used
the same untreated bamboo and kenaf mats reinforced hybrid epoxy composites to
assess the weathering behaviour and the effects of soil burial upon the colour and
bio-degradability of the composites. In all the above cases, treatment of the bamboo
fibers was absent and the authors indicated that treatment of fibers might had given
still better results.
Liew et al. [22] prepared bamboo and jute fibers reinforced low density polyethy-
lene composites by hot press method and evaluated thermo-mechanical properties
of the composites. The dewaxed and delignified bamboo and jute fibers were treated
with 6% NaOH before the preparation of composites. Kumar et al. [23] investigated
the mechanical properties of treated bamboo fiber and hollow glass microsphere
polypropylene composites fabricated by injection moulding method. 6% NaOH solu-
tion was used for the treatment of bamboo fibers and the hollow glass microspheres
were treated using silane compounds. Gogoi et al. [24] assessed the mechanical prop-
erties and crystallinity of bamboo fiber reinforced hollow glass microspheres filled
polypropylene composites after treating the short bamboo fibers by using 6% of alkali
NaOH pellets. Kannan et al. [25] evaluated the mechanical properties of alkali-treated
short bamboo fibers and glass fibers reinforced polypropylene composites manufac-
tured by hot pressing technique. For treating the bamboo fibers 7% NaOH solution
was used. Figure 3 shows the scanning electron microscopic images of treated and
untreated bamboo fibers.
Among all these methods, mercerization is one of the most suitable low-cost treat-
ments for natural fibers by which the non-cellulosic substances will be extracted,
rendering increased wetting ability of fiber [18, 20]. The main objective of alkali-
treatment is to produce fibers with improved wetting and spreading characteristics and
the consequent changes in the dimension, fine structure, morphology, and mechanical
properties. From the studies it could be inferred that for treating bamboo fibers alka-
line treatment was most commonly used and specifically 6% or 7% NaOH solution
was often used for the fiber surface treatment. Commonly bamboo fiber reinforced
composites were prepared by using polyester, epoxy and polypropylene as matrix
materials [26].

Fig. 3 SEM images of untreated and treated bamboo fibers [25]

Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites 7

3 Properties of Bamboo Fiber Composites

3.1 Mechanical Properties

Mechanical characteristics of bamboo fiber reinforced polymer composites depend

upon the following factors: (i) fiber modulus and strength, (ii) chemical stability,
stiffness and strength of the matrix material, (iii) extent of interfacial bonding between
bamboo fiber and its matrix at the time of transfer of stress from one to the other.
If the interfacial compatibility exists between matrix and bamboo fibers, then even
low volume fraction of bamboo could be sufficient to perform the reinforcement role
in the bamboo fiber reinforced composites. Interfacial bond, in turn, depends on the
type of chemical treatment used and the resulting structure of bamboo fiber after such
chemical treatment [27]. During alkaline treatment of bamboo fibers, NaOH reacts
with the cellulose present in the fiber forming a product of sodium cellulosate which
remains stable. Meanwhile, Na+ ions in the alkali solution replace the hydrogen ion
of the hydroxyl group in cellulose. During further treatment process, when the fibers
were washed with dilute sulphuric acid and then by distilled water, once again the
hydrogen ion regains its position from sodium ion in sodium cellulosate present
within the fiber cellulose resulting in actual fiber structure [28]. Though the resulting
structure has cellulose II structure while initially the fiber may possess cellulose I
structure, this factor is believed to play a significant role in enhancing the properties
of bamboo fiber reinforced composites. Figure 4 illustrates alkali-treated bamboo
cellulose fibers.
Tensile, flexural and impact behaviour of bamboo fiber reinforced composites
were analyzed by various researchers by varying the volume fraction of bamboo
fibers or the chemical treatment of fibers [30]. Inferences were made from the
results obtained and the composites were characterized by SEM in most of the cases.
The tensile, flexural, compressive and shear strength of the bamboo bundle rein-
forced phenol formaldehyde resin were done by varying the density (800, 1000 and

Fig. 4 SEM micrographs of alkali treated bamboo fiber [29]

8 M. Ramesh et al.

Fig. 5 Tensile and flexural stress–strain curve of bamboo fiber composites [26]

1200 kg/m3 ) of the fiber for preparing the composites. From the results it could
be seen that the composites containing maximum density bamboo fiber exhibited
better mechanical properties due to the collapse of parenchyma which contains thick
lumen structures. This results in solid state composite materials after since they are
fabricated by hot pressing method [31]. The flexural behaviour of outdoor bamboo
fiber reinforced epoxy composites by preparing the composites with four different
densities were evaluated. It is inferred that due to the variability in permeability of
resin with various regions of the outdoor bamboo fiber, majority of the failure zones
had fallen at fiber matrix interface. Hence they concluded that when a composite of
much higher density was used for bending applications, internal stresses developed
would also be more within the composite [32]. Figure 5 shows the tensile and flexural
stress–strain graph of bamboo fiber reinforced composites.
The tensile, compressive and short beam strength of the bamboo fiber bundle
reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites with a fiber density of 1.03 g/cm3 . When
compared with bamboo fiber bundles, composites prepared by using the fiber bundles
possessed better mechanical properties due to the densification of fiber within the
matrix and the thickening of ground tissue. Enhancement of mechanical properties
was also attributed to the increase of bamboo fibers per unit volume in bamboo
fiber reinforced composites [33]. The tensile and flexural strengths of alkali-treated
bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy and polyester composites separately with varying
treatment duration and fiber volume fraction was investigated. Results indicated that
composites containing higher volume fraction of high density bamboo fibers and
composites prepared from fibers that were alkali-treated for a long duration exhibited
better properties than its counterparts. When the bamboo fibers were treated for
longer durations, the interfibrillar zone of the fibers decreases facilitating a better
removal of impurities leading to a fibrillary arrangement parallel to the direction of
load application. This aspect improves the mechanical properties of the bamboo fiber
reinforced composites. These behaviours stayed independent of the matrix material
used for composite preparation [34].
Latha et al. [35] analyzed the strength of hollow glass microsphere (HGM) filled
bamboo epoxy hybrid composites were and stated that the presence of HGM filler
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites 9

in half the proportion of high strength natural fiber rendered better mechanical prop-
erties like tensile, flexural and impact strength. Yet, due to the presence of spherical
HGM which is brittle in nature, the failure mode of hybrid composites were also
brittle. The mechanical properties like tensile and impact characteristics of short
bamboo fibers reinforced HGM filled polypropylene composites were tested by
varying the filler content between 5 and 20% by weight. It is observed that the
tensile strength of the hybrid composite was higher for the composites with 5%
HGM and the values decreased thereafter. They also visualized that the addition of
synthetic filler decreased the mechanical property in spite of the presence of high
strength bamboo fiber [36].
The tensile strength of kenaf and bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites are
determined and found that the hybridization of bamboo with kenaf fibers improved
the tensile properties of hybrid composites. It is noted that the strength values were
lesser than individual bamboo composites which could be attributed to the lower
strength values of the kenaf fibers. The strength improvement observed in the compos-
ites could directly be attributed to the usage of bamboo fibers whose strength is higher
than kenaf fibers. It is also observed that bamboo fibers possessed high elongation
at break than kenaf fibers which is the reason for their higher strength [37]. Earlier
researchers coined that when a fiber with less elongation was hybridized with a fiber
with high elongation, then strain required by the load to penetrate the fibers was
enhanced and this could be due to the role of fibers with high elongation to act as
crack resistors at the micro-level [19, 38]. The mechanical properties of bamboo and
glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composites were investigated by varying the
fiber volume fraction. Results indicated that the tensile, flexural and impact strength
was high for the composites containing glass and bamboo fibers in equal proportion
of 30% by volume of reinforcement in total [39]. Above studies indicate that rein-
forcement of high strength bamboo fiber in high volume fraction results in enhanced
mechanical properties of bamboo composites and the same effect would result in
hybridization also.

3.2 Thermal and Thermo-Mechanical Properties

The thermal degradation and thermal oxidation stability of bamboo and kenaf rein-
forced polyester and epoxy hybrid composites were investigated. Results indicated
that bamboo composites exhibited better thermal stability than kenaf fiber rein-
forced composites. This could be attributed to the higher lignin and cellulose present
in the bamboo fibers than in kenaf fibers. When such bamboo fibers with appre-
ciable thermal properties was hybridized with any other natural fibers like kenaf,
the resulting thermal stability of hybrid composites would also be better. Compos-
ites containing higher volume fraction of bamboo in the hybrids may also possess
better thermal stability in case of hybrid composites [40]. The thermo-mechanical
properties of alkali treated jute and bamboo cellulose reinforced hybrid low density
polyethylene composites were assessed. Results indicated that hybrid composites
10 M. Ramesh et al.

containing jute and bamboo fibers in equal proportions exhibited better stability
while the activation energy is also high for the hybrid composites. Due to the pres-
ence of surface roughness and pores on the treated fiber surfaces and its better matrix
adhesion ability, treated fiber hybrid composites exhibited higher activation energy
when compared with other composites [41].
The thermo-mechanical behaviour of bamboo and kenaf mat reinforced epoxy
composites were assessed through thermogravimetric analysis. Results revealed that
the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) was higher for the bamboo fiber reinforced
composites due to its better dimensional stability. Hybridization effect of kenaf fibers
reduced the overall CTE, though the kenaf mat is aligned in orientation. For the
composites containing 50:50 kenaf and bamboo fibers exhibited low CTE and so
less expansion [32, 42]. The thermal behaviour of bamboo kenaf based epoxy hybrid
composites were assessed by weathering the samples and through soil burial. It was
observed that the cellulose present in fibers, which has high thermal stability than
hemicellulose, decomposed by means of depolymerisation due to the presence of
larger crystalline chain of elements. This was predominant in kenaf fibers which had
lower cellulose content [33, 43]. Figure 6 depicts the cole–cole plot for bamboo and
kenaf reinforced epoxy composites representing the loss and storage modulus after
thermal degradation.
As far as the hybrid composites were concerned, after weathering the thermal
decomposition behaviour was reversed between them. Higher decomposition was
noted for kenaf followed by hybrid composites while bamboo composites were ther-
mally stable. Increase of various degradation temperatures like initial, mean and
final temperatures were noticed when the content of bamboo fibers increased in
hybrid composites [44, 45]. Soil burial of composites revealed that these composites
displayed better thermal stability at higher temperatures than kenaf fiber reinforced
composites and hybrid composites owing to the presence of less amount of hemicel-
lulose in bamboo fibers. Moisture absorption of fibers from the soil increases when

Fig. 6 Cole–Cole plot of bamboo kenaf reinforced epoxy hybrid composites [32]
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Composites 11

the content of hemicellulose increases and hence the biodegradation also increases
consequently decreasing the thermal stability [46, 47]. Alongside when the surface
of the bamboo fibers were treated chemically to tailor the composites as per require-
ments, mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, hardness, surface reactivity and
strength of the composites are enhanced [48, 49].

4 Conclusion

Since bamboo is a natural fiber, its environmental conservativeness is unquestionable

and incomparable with other plants. Due to this reason, bamboo stands tall among
other fibers in developing engineering and research applications along with various
processing techniques for the bamboo fibers. Production of bamboo fiber compos-
ites and other bamboo based engineering materials and products in large scale is
highly important in constructing many green structures purely based on bamboo
composites. This in turn requires the aid of automation so that those large scale
products are produced with ease. Bamboo fibers can also be employed in many non-
technical applications like interior panels, mobile cases, shell based materials and
storage containers when a heterotype fiber structure of bamboo fibers is made to
evolve by processing methods like filament-wound processing, weave forming and
vacuum molding. If the bamboo fibers are hybridized with any other natural fiber, the
coupled property enhancements may render wide range of applications apart from
the aforementioned ones. By using such bamboo fiber reinforced polymer compos-
ites, an eco-friendly atmosphere can be created and thus hazardous effects can be
reduced.

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Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material
for Bio-composites

Divakaran Divya, Suyambulingam Indran, and Kurki Nagaraja Bharath

Abstract The exploration and utilization of natural eco-friendly materials with

high performance, biodegradability and renewability is a need of the hour, in the
aspect of diminishing the detrimental effects of synthetic materials and thereby to
pledge a sustainable tomorrow. The application of bamboo-based materials expanded
largely worldwide due to its significant properties over conventional materials as bio-
degradable, recyclable, sustainable, luxurious, and environmentally friendly bene-
fits that maintains the ecological standards. This chapter principally deals with the
bamboo geographical distribution, bamboo production, anatomy, bamboo clum prop-
erties, bamboo fiber extraction techniques, fiber characterization and the adorability
of bamboo fiber as a potential natural reinforcement material for bio-composites and
its application in various sectors.

Keywords Natural fiber · Bamboo culm · Bamboo fiber · Bamboo reinforced

composite · Fiber characterization

D. Divya
Research and Development Department, Pinnacle Bio-Sciences, Kanyakumari 629701, Tamil
Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Indran (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rohini College of Engineering and Technology,
Palkulam, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu 629401, India
e-mail: [email protected]
K. N. Bharath
Composite Materials and Engineering Center, Washington State University, Washington State,
Pullman, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.M. Institute of Technology, Davangere, Karnataka
577002, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 15

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_2
16 D. Divya et al.

1 Introduction

Bamboo is an evergreen perennial plant with two major parts as a woody culm and
an underground rhizome. The plant belongs to the subfamily Bambusoideae of the
family Poaceae [1, 2]. It is considered as grass with hollow and woody stem since
even the large bamboo trees are often different from other woody trees in the aspect of
lacking vascular cambium and apical meristem cells. Though bamboo is considered
as a monocotyledonous plant that does not possess secondary growth in contrast to
other woody dicotyledonous plants that possess secondary growth [3]. Bamboo is
the fastest growing plant that probably grows up to 1 m per day and can grow over a
height of 100 feet (30 m). The ecological features of bamboo are no replanting, no
fertilizer, no pesticides, or skilled person needed to maintain its growth. Therefore,
this plant is recognized as one of the most sustainable resources in the world.
The culm is the straight and hollow woody material found above the ground
level, which holds stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, and branches. The stem is
differentiated into alternate nodes and internodes with cylindrical forms, where the
cells of the internodes are axially oriented to form hollow cavities inside the stem. In
the nodes, cells are horizontally framed by a partition called the diaphragm, which is
present between two adjacent internodes. This diaphragm serves as a transportation
channel for water and nutrients inside the stem. The wall thickness and diameter
of the culm increases from top to bottom while the internode length increases from
bottom to middle and then reduces up to the top [2, 4]. The leaves of the bamboo are
composed of a blade with a sheath and ligule.
The underground portion of bamboo is referred as rhizome. The function of the
rhizome is to uptake and transfer of water and nutrients to support plant growth,
along with developing new culms at rhizome nodes. Based on the branching pattern,
the rhizome is categorized into two types pachymorph and leptomorph. The short,
thick, curved rhizome clumps which bear apical buds and culms in tropical regions
are regarded as pachymorph/sympodial rhizome or clumping bamboo. Whereas,
leptomorph rhizome extends for a long distance in the soil and bear buds and roots
from the specific nodes and internodes. These are distributed in temperate regions,
are also known as a monopodial rhizome or running rhizome. The habitat seems
like a scattered state when compared to the aggregate/clumsy nature of pachymorph
rhizome [1, 5].
Bamboo is a potential eco-friendly material that possesses many applications in
diverse fields. The promising features are availability, sustainability, high produc-
tivity, inexpensiveness, easy growing, quick maturity, non-hazardous nature, and
good strength. Hence, bamboo has been successfully using in the construction, crafts,
energy, and paper industries for the past few decades. Currently, the bamboo fibers
are getting more attention from researchers due to its potentiality in making bamboo-
based bio-composite products [6, 7]. Although, the ecological, environmental, indus-
trial, and social benefits of bamboo, in comparison with other materials as plastic or
concrete or steel or glass, make it a value-added natural material to support the green
revolution.
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 17

2 Diversity of Bamboo Species

Bamboo plants are abundant in both tropical and subtropical/temperate areas of

various continents in the world. In the subfamily Bambusoideae, around 100 genera
of bamboo were identified around the world in which 1400 species are reported [2,
8, 9]. The worldwide geographical distribution and growth characteristics of various
bamboo species are described in Fig. 1.

2.1 Geographical Distribution of Bamboo

Bamboo species have a wide geographical distribution over most of the continents,
except Europe. The main significance of bamboo is its wide distribution and diversity
due to adaptation over different climates, even from low altitude (sea level) to high
altitude (hilltop/mountains). Generally, bamboo is habituated in both tropical and
subtropical regions of 46° North to 47° South latitude [2, 8, 10]. Around the world,
approximately 36 million ha (Hectare) of bamboo vegetation reported, of which
major portion belongs to Asia, Africa, and Latin America [11].
Among these, 65% (24 million ha) are assorted to Asia, where 900 species are
reported that contribute 80% species of the world. India and China are the major
producers of Asia, having the bamboo resource of 11.4 million ha, 5.4 million ha,
respectively. In India, approximately 145 species are reported in which Bambusa
bambos, B. blumeana, D. asper, D. giganteus, D. Strictus, P. heterocycla and P.
bambusoides possess high economic impact in Asia [12, 13].
Latin America pursues the second position by carrying 10 million hectares
bamboo resources that contribute 28% of the world’s production. The running
bamboos are prominently found among the 270 species identified, where a signifi-
cant species reported with large culm is Guadua spp. [2, 14]. The smallest bamboo
resources have found in Africa in contrast to Asia and Latin America. Around

Fig. 1 Bamboo production from various continents with species and area distribution
18 D. Divya et al.

2.7 million ha of plantations are stated that contributed up to 7% of total planta-

tions of the world. There were 40 bamboo species identified in which Arundinaria
alpine, B. vulgaris, and Oxytenanthera abyssinica are prominent [2]. Many countries
are actively involved in the commercial cultivation of this plant, whereas China is
the leading producer worldwide. Moreover, the countries of other continents are also
contributing their role in cultivating bamboo for viable purposes [15].

2.2 Growth Diversity of Bamboo Species

The distribution and diversity of distinct species of bamboo are primarily dependent
on the climatic condition and nutritional behavior of species. Most of the species
prefer warm and humid conditions in both temperate and tropical zones. They are
likely to grow on sandy loam to loamy clay soils with an average mean tempera-
ture of 20–30 °C per year. A species of India named Dendrocalamus strictus was
found to survive in dry conditions [12]. In China, 60% of bamboo plantations are
located at Fujian, Jianxi, Hunan, and Zhejiang. As well, the two species Phyllostachys
pubescens and Pseudosasa amabilis are prominently cultivated in China for commer-
cial applications. The indigenous Chusquea spp. are chiefly reported from Chile [11].
Although, two species of bamboo are mostly present in Africa are Savannah bamboo
(O. abyssinica) and Yushania alpina.
The species of these genera are categorized under several tribes as per geographical
distribution such as Bambuseae (woody tropical bamboo), Arundinarieae (temperate
woody bamboos), Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos), Bambusinea, Melocanninae,
Guaduinae and Chusqueinae [5, 12]. The famous Bamboo tribes and their distri-
bution in various countries are tabulated in Table 1. The Arundinareae, Bambusinea,
Bambuseae, and Melocanninae are the significant tribes existing in Asia. Bambuseae,

Table 1 Distribution of important bamboo tribes in different continents

Continents Tribes Country distribution
Asia Arundinarieae China
Bambuseae South Asia, China
Bambusinea South Asia, Indonesia, Myanmar, China, India, Thailand,
Malaysia, Bangladesh, Japan, Nepal, Laos, Vietnam, Philippines
Melocanninae Myanmar, China, India, Thailand, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
South America Bambuseae Mexico-Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador
Guaduinae South America
Chusqueinae South America
Africa Olyreae East Africa
Bambusinea East Africa, Ethiopia
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 19

Chusqueinae, and Guaduinae are the projecting tribes of South America, while
Olyreae and Bambusinea are the prime tribes distributed in Africa.
Depend upon the habitat growing nature, and bamboos are also differentiated
into running (monopodial) and clumping bamboos (sympodial), as described earlier.
The species habituated in the temperate region are usually runners, for instance,
Phyllostachys and Pluoblastus, while those located in the tropical zone are often
clumpers, e.g., Bambusa [9]. There were few methods frequently employed for the
primary production of bamboo, which are selective harvesting, post-harvest treat-
ment, and bamboo propagation (seed propagation, vegetable propagation, cloning).
Moreover, many countries are trying to increase the year-wise production of bamboo
in account to improve cultivation to compete for the global market.

3 Bamboo Culm: Nature and Properties

All the plant parts extant over the soil level belongs to the bamboo culm. Generally,
culm is composed of parenchyma (50%), fibers (40%), and conducting cells (10%).
Bamboo culm encompasses specific properties compared to other woody plants, even
as bamboo is a heterogeneous, anisotropic, lignocellulosic plant. The specificity in
their anatomy and physicochemical properties shows its potentiality of using bamboo
materials for various choices. The stiffness and lightweight nature of the bamboo-
based materials mainly depend upon the density and chemical components present
in the culm. Furthermore, the age of the culm determines the density and strength of
the material, where older culm possesses more strength and stiffness. Likewise, there
were notable differences reported in the cell wall components (cellulose, hemicel-
lulose, lignin) of young and older culm, which is higher in matured stem especially
form nodes to internodes [1, 16].

3.1 Anatomy of Bamboo Culm

The anatomy of the culm revealed that the outer layer of epidermal cells is shielded
with a wax layer, and the inner surface is made up of sclerenchyma cells. The
vascular bundles are sited from outer to the inner portion of the culm. The phloem
and metaxylem vessels are extant towards the middle portion, are also embedded in
parenchyma cells, which are capped with sclerenchyma sheath. The fibers are mainly
distributed in the outer wall, followed by parenchyma cells, and conducting cells are
frequently present towards the inner part. The fibers are comprised of sclerenchyma
cells with thick walls and long, tapered ends. Fiber content is higher in the bottom
and decreases from bottom to top with the increase of parenchyma cells.
20 D. Divya et al.

Fig. 2 Chemical
constituents of bamboo culm

3.2 Chemical Constituents of Bamboo Culm

The major components of the bamboo culm are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
that contributes 90% of the whole material while the other 10% comprised of resins,
tannins, waxes, and inorganic salts. The composition of hollo celluloses, lignin and
ash vary from 51.8–79.9%, 21.4–28.5%, and 1.3–2.0% with respect to diversity in
species [2]. However, in general, the bamboo culm partakes an average cellulose
content of around 45%, lignin of 25%, hemicelluloses of 26%, and ash content of
1.6%, and it is represented in Fig. 2 [6, 12].
An allomorph type Iβ crystalline cellulose domain is the characteristic feature of
bamboo culm [17, 18]. The hemicelluloses units such as arabinoxylans/pentosan and
β-glucan is present in the primary and secondary cell wall of the plant [19, 20]. The
guaiacyl, syringyl, and hydroxyphenyl propane units are part of lignin residue present
in the bamboo culms that increases with the age of the cell wall [21, 22]. Besides,
bamboo is quite like hardwood species with the distinction of high ash content that
is comprised of inorganic minerals silica, calcium, and potassium. The drawbacks
of bamboo materials are associated with these constituents as high ash content leads
to high wear of tools, high starch, fat, protein, and saccharide content encourage
microbial degradation and low durability/biodeterioration due to high moisture and
wax content.

3.3 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Bamboo Culm

The culm properties also determine the suitability of bamboo for bio-composites
artifact and lightweight applications. The density of bamboo is quite high compared
to hardwood species, is ranging from 0.4 to 0.9 g/cm3 . Nevertheless, the density is
strongly influenced by the position in the culm, which increases from bottom to top
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 21

as well as the inner part to the outer part of the culm. Interestingly, the dimensional
shrinkage (radial and tangential) of the plant is less than that of other woody species,
which is another characteristic that provides better dimensional stability preferred
for bio-composite materials. The mechanical properties of the culm are allied with
the microstructures, density, and moisture content enclosed with it. The significant
characteristics such as good modulus, compression strength, and low shear strength
than woody materials, which assists easy strip and strand preparation. In addition
to that, bamboo species possess good modulus of rupture (52.4–122 MPa), modulus
of elasticity (1700–6300 MPa), shear strength parallel to grain (4.0–13.7 MPa) and
compression strength parallel to grain (24.0–69.0 MPa) [23–25].

4 Extraction, Characterization, and Properties of Bamboo

Fibers

The strands associated with the vascular bundle of bamboo culm that embedded in
the parenchyma cells are referred to as fibers. These fibers are composed of thick-
walled, long sclerenchyma cells with tapered ends [26]. The fiber cells are arranged
in a bundle that provides mechanical support to the bamboo culm. The fibers are
present close to the outer surface (compactly) and the inner surface (sparingly) with
uniform strength while different volumes [27, 28]. The fiber volume increases from
bottom to top as proportional to density, which is higher in the outer wall of the
culm [2]. There are specialized multilayered structures with different fibrils present
in the longitudinal orientation in the fiber cell walls [29]. These layers exhibit in
a poly lamellate structure with alternating broad and narrow lamellae, where high
lignin content observed in broad lamellae. The fibers of bamboo are two to three
times longer than hardwood fiber and appear like softwood tracheids. The length and
width of the fiber are slightly varying from species to species with respect to the age
of the plant. An earlier report showed that the bamboo species are characteristic with
fiber length ranges from 1.04 to 2.88 mm, and diameter ranges from 1.0 to 24 μm
[2]. The chemical composition of bamboo fiber possesses an impact on its phys-
ical, mechanical, and thermal properties. The proximate chemical components are
cellulose (73.83%), hemicellulose (12.49%), lignin (10.15%), pectin (6.37%) and
moisture (3.16%), is demonstrated in the Fig. 3. Bamboo fiber production is around
40,000 tons/year, which is increasing every year in a competitive manner all over
the world. Although, the acceptability of bamboo fiber-based materials elevated in
the field’s construction, furniture, and instruments. Conversely, its eco-friendliness
is attracted many scientists to process it for making goods with high environmental
quality and sustainability. The other unique properties of bamboo fiber-based mate-
rials are anti-UV radiation, antibacterial, breathable, better moisture transmission,
softer, easy drying, medical elements, etc. [30].
22 D. Divya et al.

Fig. 3 Chemical
composition of bamboo fiber

Fig. 4 Advantages of bamboo fibers

The durability or life span of the bamboo materials depends on the carbohydrate
content present in it [31]. It is revealed that the carbohydrate content (glucose, fruc-
tose, and sucrose) of Bambusa vulgaris could be removed through the soaking tech-
nique [27]. However, these appealing characteristics such as UV-shielding, moisture-
controlling, anti-bacterial, sustainability, and non-harmful properties of bamboo fiber
authorize its potential to develop green bio-composites extensively for the time
being [6]. The significance of bamboo fiber with respect to social, medical, and
environmental aspects is depicted in Fig. 4.

4.1 Bamboo Fiber Extraction Methods

There are two kinds of fibers extracted from bamboo through a different process,
are natural original bamboo fiber and bamboo pulp fiber (viscose fiber). Original
bamboo fibers are directly extracted from the culm through physical and mechanical
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 23

methods without any chemical mediated action. Bamboo pulp fibers are obtained
through mechanical as well as chemical processing.
However, these two methods require an initial stage of the splitting of raw fiber
strips from bamboo and followed by specific chemical or mechanical treatments that
have to be done. In the mechanical processing, the material is initially crushed and
treated with enzymes that lead to the formation of a spongy mass. Consequently, indi-
vidual fibers are separated from the mesh through mechanical or manual combing.
Chemical processing can be accomplished by alkali (NaOH) hydrolysis and carbon
disulphide mediated multiphase bleaching. This method is used for industrial extrac-
tion of fiber due to the fact that less time requirement. Generally, fiber separation,
boiling, enzyme fermentation, bleaching, acid/alkali treatment, oil soaking, and air
drying are the typical methods employed for bamboo fiber extraction. Moreover, the
primarily obtained fiber after the processes cutting, separation, boiling, and fermen-
tation with enzymes are referred to as rough fiber. Along with that, further washing,
bleaching, acid/alkali treatment, oil soaking, and air drying are required for obtaining
fine bamboo fibers from rough fibers [13]. The extraction procedure of rough and
fine bamboo fiber is summarized in Fig. 5.
The complete fiber extraction from bamboo is challenging due to the brightness
of the lignin covered surface. Many researchers have been working on this aspect for
many years to explore an advanced optimized extraction method to diminish the draw-
backs of available techniques. Several physical, mechanical, and chemical extrac-
tion methods and their combinations are established for the past two decades. The
mechanical methods such as cutting, blending, milling, crapping, sieving, combing,
steam explosion, and scrapping were introduced, of which the steam explosion
showed a good impact [32, 33]. Another mechanical method ‘machining Center’
(MC Program) designed by Hung et al. in 2019 was purely based on the cutting
theory that used some measures as fiber length, shape, and diameter [34]. However,
chemical methods were more efficient than physical/mechanical methods. Alkali
extraction, acid neutralization, enzymatic fermentation, and oil soaking were the
proximate chemical methods, of which alkali treatment was more efficient for
fiber surface modification along with improving strength and interfacial interac-
tions during composite preparation [35]. Moreover, rotting, semi-pilot scale extrac-
tion (acid and alkali), and decorticating/degumming were the combined chemical
treatments specially designed for fine fiber extraction in later [36].

4.2 Characterization Methods for Bamboo Fiber

The physical, chemical, mechanical, thermal, and morphological features of the

bamboo fiber can be studied to understand the basic properties and reinforce-
ment efficiency for composite groundwork. The common methods used for the
characterization of bamboo fibers are explained in detail in the following session.
24 D. Divya et al.

Fig. 5 Rough and fine bamboo fiber extraction method

4.3 Physical/Mechanical Characterization

The density and diameter are the two physical properties that determine the mechan-
ical property of any fiber to a great extent. The physical properties such as the diam-
eter and density of bamboo fiber can be analyzed through an ocular microscope,
pyrometer, respectively. Fiber with low density and diameter are endorsed with good
mechanical strength [37]. Likewise, the mechanical characteristics are allied with the
crystallinity and tensile properties of the bamboo fiber. The crystallinity of the fiber
can be tested through X-Ray diffraction analysis for the crystalline index (CI) and
Crystalline Size (CS). The tensile properties as tensile strength, Young’s modulus,
and average tensile strain of bamboo fiber can be analyzed through a single fiber
tensile test by the aid of a standard universal testing machine, where the samples
with different gauge length can be experienced [38–40].
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 25

4.4 Chemical Characterization

The chemical composition of the bamboo fiber can be investigated as per the stan-
dard methods such as Kushner and Hoffer method (cellulose), TAPPI method (hemi-
celluloses), Klason method (lignin), Conrad method (wax) and statistical analysis
(ash, moisture) [41–43]. The cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, wax, ash, and moisture
content of the fiber assists in understanding various constituents present in it along
with exploring the requirement of further treatment to improve the viability of fiber.
The other chemical analyses like FT-IR (Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopy,
NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy, and EDX (Energy-dispersive X-
ray) diffraction analysis can be employed to establish the specific functional groups,
carbon and other elemental composition present in the bamboo fiber [42, 44–46].

4.5 Thermal Characterization

The sophisticated thermal characterization methods to analyze the thermal stability

of fibers are TGA (thermogravimetric analysis), DSC (Differential scanning
calorimetry), and DMA (Dynamic mechanical analysis). Hence, the degradation
temperature of various constituents of bamboo fiber can be assigned through these
methods. The thermal stability can be detected according to the degradation of crys-
talline cellulose. The maximum degradation temperature of the bamboo fiber can
be recognized through evaluating absolute degradation temperature. Fibers partake
a degradation temperature higher than that of reinforcement processing temperature
have a high economic impact [39, 40, 47].

4.6 Morphological Characterization

The surface morphological features of bamboo fiber can be found by SEM (Scan-
ning electron microscopy) and AFM (Atomic force microscopy) analysis. The SEM
analysis assists in differentiating the roughness/smoothness of the surface, quali-
tatively. While AFM analysis quantitatively determines the average roughness and
other roughness parameters of the fiber surface. The fibers contain rough surface and
porous nature with less waxy inclusions showed good binding affinity towards the
matrix during reinforcement [48, 49].
26 D. Divya et al.

4.7 Properties of Bamboo Fibers

The commercialization of natural fibers primarily depends on their easy availability,

high specific mechanical properties, low cost, low density, high roughness, less corro-
sive nature, and eco-friendliness. Even though, the interfacial interaction properties
and tribology properties have to be investigated to explore the complete benefits of
natural bamboo fiber for its extensive utilization in the future [4, 26, 50]. A compar-
ative analysis of specific properties of bamboo fiber with other natural and commer-
cial fibers are important to signify its adaptableness for reinforcement purposes and
composite applications. Table 2 shows the characteristics of typical bamboo fiber in
comparison with other well-established fibers. Bamboo fibers possess a low density
of 910 kg/m3 and an average diameter of 240–330 μm, which shows its adaptability
for lightweight applications. Conversely, high cellulose content (73.83%), low lignin
content (10.15%), high tensile strength (503 MPa), and large crystalline size are the
additional significant features of bamboo fiber over other fibers listed. Good thermal
stability is obligatory for using fibers for high-temperature applications. Besides that,
the thermal degradation temperature is a factor that determines processing temper-
ature for composite preparation along with retaining fiber properties. Moreover, the
good thermal stability of 245 °C also revealed the suitability of natural bamboo fiber
for reinforcement purposes [13].

5 Bamboo Based Composites

The cost effectiveness, less weight, high strength to weight ratio and harmless nature
of bamboo fibers are the most nice-looking properties of this material which makes
composite investigators to work in the direction of making bamboo fiber reinforced
composites. Consequently, bamboo fiber-based composites have probable use in
automotive industry, can replace the non-renewable, harmful synthetic fibers. The
extensive research from all the engineering, biotechnological, textile industry, etc.
are frustrating to use these bamboo fibers in healthier way in composite industry.

5.1 Preparation of Bamboo Composites

There were four different techniques employed for bamboo-fiber reinforced

composite grounding. They are solution processing film, melt processing film, in-
situ polymerization film, and hand lay-up or laminate method. In the old method,
the extracted bamboo fibers were dispersed in a solvent followed by mixed with a
polymer solution by mechanical means. The resulted solvent then vaporized at high
temperatures to obtain polymer composites. The melt processing method accom-
plished by direct mixing of extracted fiber and melted polymer matrix was formed
Table 2 Properties of bamboo fiber in comparison with other available fibers
Fiber Physical properties Chemical properties Mechanical properties Thermal properties Reference
Diameter Density CI CS Microfibril Cellulose Hemi Lignin Moisture Wax Ash Tensile Young’s Elongation Thermal Max.
angle celluloses Content strength modulus at break stability degradation
temperature
(μm) (Kg/m3 ) (%) (nm) (θ) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (MPa) (GPa) (%) (°C) (°C)
Bamboo 240–330 910 40-58 11.5–18.7– – 73.83 12.46 10.15 3.16 0.4 3.1 503 35.91 1.4 245 255 [13, 51, 52]
Aerial roots of 0.09–0.14 1234 72.47 6.28 10.88 ± 67.32 13.46 15.62 10.21 0.81 3.96 19.37 ± 1.8 ± 0.40 1.8 ± 0.40 230 358 [53]
banyan tree 1.198 7.72
Althaea officinalis L 156–194 1180 68 2.4 – 44.6 13.5 2.7 – – 2.3 415.2 65.4 3.9 220 344 [54]
Arundo donax – 1168 – – 6.85 ± 1.23 43.2 20.5 17.2– – – 1.9 248 9.4 3.24 275 320 [55]
Caster fibre 0.06–0.13 1181 48.88 4.8 – 65.5 – 5.56 10.17 0.87 4.86 356.3 34.931 ± 1.02 ± – – [53]
0.45 0.053
Cissus 610–725 1510 56.6 7.04 5.89 ± 0.27 77.17 11.02 10.45 7.3 0.14 – 1857– 68–203 3.57–8.37 230 328.9 [40]
quadrangularis root 5330
Cissus 770–870 1220 47.15 3.91 4.95 ± 0.32 82.73 7.96 11.27 6.6 0.18 – 2300– 56–234 3.75–11.14 270 342.1 [56]
quadrangularis stem 5479
Coccinia grandis 543–621 1517.5 46.09 1.91 – 63.22 – 24.42 9.14 0.32 – 424.242 26.515 16 105 320 [57]
stem
Coccinia grandis 27.33 1243 52.17 13.38 62.35 13.42 15.61 5.6 0.79 4.388 213.4 351.6 [43]
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites

13.25 ± 273 ± 10.17 ± 2.703 ±

0.664 27.74 1.261 0.2736
Cyperus pangorei – 1102 41 – – 68.5 – 17.88 9.19 0.17 3.56 196 ± 56 11.6 ± 2.6 1.69 221 324 [58]
Dichrostachys – 1240 57.82 – – 72.4 13.08 16.89 9.82 0.57 3.97 873 ± 14 – – 226 495.3 [59]
Cinerea
Dracaena reflexa 176.2 790 57.32 19.01 8.5 to 11.27 70.32 11.02 11.35 5.19 0.23 6.23 829.6 46.37 2.95 232.32 348.78 [60]
Ferula communis – – 48 1.6 – 53.3 8.5 1.4 – – – 475.6 ± 52.7 ± 3.7 4.2 ± 0.2 200 313.5 [54]
15.7
Furcraea foetida 12.8 778 52.6 28.36 – 68.35 11.46 12.32 5.43 0.24 6.53 623.52 ± 6.52 ± 1.9 10.32 ± 1.6 – 320.5 [61]
45
Heteropogon – 602 54.1 – – 64.87 19.34 13.56 7.4 0.22 - 476 ± 48 ± 2.8 1.63 ± 0.06 220 337.7 [62]
contortus 11.6
Juncus effusus 3300 385 43 – – 40.99 27.84 18.54 – – 7.3 31 ± 8 0.7 ± 0.1 – – – [63]

(continued)
27
Table 2 (continued)
28

Fiber Physical properties Chemical properties Mechanical properties Thermal properties Reference
Diameter Density CI CS Microfibril Cellulose Hemi Lignin Moisture Wax Ash Tensile Young’s Elongation Thermal Max.
angle celluloses Content strength modulus at break stability degradation
temperature
(μm) (Kg/m3 ) (%) (nm) (θ) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (MPa) (GPa) (%) (°C) (°C)
Jute 26 1300 65.8 29.25 16.9 58–63 20–24 12–15 10.99 0.5 – 400–773 10–30 1.5–1.8 – – [64]
Passiflora foetida 101 ± 40 1328 0.6736 4.23 7.46–12.18 77.9 12.63 10.47 9.54 0.35 0.94 248–942 11–48 1.38-4.67 320 383 [65]
Pineapple leave fibre 20–80 1440 58.6 – 14 81.27 12.31 3.46 11.8 3.2–4.2 0.9–4.3 413–1627 34.5–82.5 0.8-1 – – [66]
Prosopis juliflora 20 580 46 15 10.64 ± 61.65 16.14 17.11 9.48 0.61 5.2 558 ± – 1.77 ± 0.04 217 331.1 [67]
bark 0.45 13.4
Red banana peduncle 150–250 990 62.1 12.1 12.64 ± 72.9 11.01 15.99 9.36 0.32 2.79 440 ± 12.41 ± 5 1.57 ± 0.04 120 353 [68]
0.45 13.4
Ricinus communis 60–130 1180 48.88 4.8 65.5 5.56 10.17 0.87 4.89 356 ± 34.931 ± 1.02 ± 225 326 [69]
plant 23.87 0.45 0.053
Root of Ficus 25.62 1246 42.92 5.18 – 55.58 13.86 10.13 9.33 0.72 4.86 433.32 ± 5.42 ± 2.6 8.74 ± 1.8 325 400 [39]
religiosa tree 44
Saharan Aloevera 80.61 1325.1 56.5 5.72 11.1 60.2 14.2 13.7 7.6 1.5 – 805.5 42.29 2.39 225 350 [70]
Sansevieria 6–30 915 60 86 – 79.7 10.13 3.8 6.08 0.09 – 673.12 ± 6.72 ± 1.9 10.04 ± 1.5 – – [71]
cylindrica 51
Sansevieria 20–250 887 52.27 – – 80 11.25 7.8 10.55 0.45 0.6 50–585 1.5–7.67 2.8–21.7 223.85 333.02 [72]
ehrenbergii
Sida cordifolia – 1330 56.92 18 – 69.52 17.63 18.02 8.51 0.42 2.62 703 ± 23 42.84 ± 2 2.89 ± 0.24 – 338.2 [73]
Sida rhombifolia – 1320.7 56.6 2.75 7.3 75.09 15.43 7.48 12.02 0.49 4.07 673 ± 14 – – 250 433.3 [74]
Tamarindus Indica L 564–789 1020–1270 55 5.73 – 72.84 11 15.38 6.35 0.2 0.51 1137– 11.23– 6.56– 10.12 238 351.4 [47]
1360 20.72
Thespesia populnea 87–256 1412 48.17 3.576 13.94 ± 70.2 12.64 16.34 10.83 0.76 1.8 557.82 ± 20.57 ± 2.80 ± 0.56 245.4 323.76 [75]
1.21 56.29 4.46

(continued)
D. Divya et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Fiber Physical properties Chemical properties Mechanical properties Thermal properties Reference
Diameter Density CI CS Microfibril Cellulose Hemi Lignin Moisture Wax Ash Tensile Young’s Elongation Thermal Max.
angle celluloses Content strength modulus at break stability degradation
temperature
(μm) (Kg/m3 ) (%) (nm) (θ) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (MPa) (GPa) (%) (°C) (°C)
Tridax procumbens 233.1 ± 1.16 ± 0.12 34.46 25.04 13.4 ± 0.64 32 6.8 3 11.2 0.71 25.75 0.94 ± 2.77 ± 0.27 195 250–350 [76]
9.9 0.09
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites
29
30 D. Divya et al.

through processing with extruder, injector, mold, and roller by applying pressure.
The third method is related to in-situ graft copolymerization, is one of the surface
modification technique with chemicals such as methyl methacrylate, polyethylene
glycol (PEG), methyl ether methacrylate, methacrylamide, etc. [77, 78]. Therefore,
in-situ polymerization of bamboo fiber and polymer increases interfacial adhesion,
and hence it is considered as an efficient method to obtain a competent composite. The
normal method is a hand-lay-up technique, where the fibers are cut into the desired
length and placed over a mold, and compounding can be done by hot pressing by
applying pressure [15, 56].

5.2 Eco-composites from Bamboo

The composites with good environmental quality and ecological significances are
termed as eco-composites. These can be manufactured by natural fibers or natural
polymers or polymer matrices. The acceptance of eco-composites increasing day
by day due to the sustainability and environmentally friendly concerns of synthetic
fibers. Although, many eco-bamboo fiber composites are introduced over the past few
decades by reinforcing various polymer matrices. The polymers as polyester, epoxy,
phenolic resin, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride/polystyrene-based bamboo
fiber-reinforced composites are introduced successfully in various disciplines [13].
The search for apposite polymer matrix to overcome the brittle nature of the bamboo
fiber has been continuing with the aim to improve the properties of fiber-polymer rein-
forced composites. Few investigators worked on polyester matrices and developed
composite material with bamboo fiber that possesses high strength, light-weight, and
low fracture behavior [79–81]. Likewise, another study reported that NaOH treated
bamboo fiber-polyester composites showed extensive tensile, flexural strength, and
reduced water uptake property [78].
The epoxy-bamboo fiber composite had shown excellent wear resistance and
improved frictional performance. Although the alkali and silane derivatives treated
fiber with epoxy polymer also resulted in less water absorption and improved fiber-
matrix adhesion [82]. Improved wettability, interfacial bonding, mechanical and
thermal properties were obtained by using phenolic (novalac) resin in bamboo fiber
composites [35]. The novalac-bamboo fiber showed enhanced interfacial adhesion
and thermal stability when the fiber treated with alkali before composite fabrica-
tion [83]. Another interesting matrix intends for composite fabrication with bamboo
fiber was polypropylene. Bamboo fiber strips-polypropylene composites provided
excellent flexural property in the extent to replace synthetic glass fiber [13]. More-
over, matrix anhydride mediated modification of polypropylene matrix for composite
fabrication also provided good mechanical properties instead of bamboo fiber modi-
fication [84]. The interface adhesion of the fiber could be increased while using
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as the matrix along with coupling agents, which enhanced
the morphological and mechanical properties of the composites as reported by
Nystrom et al. in 2007 [85]. On the other hand, polystyrene and polyurethanes
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 31

coated alkali-treated fiber exhibited good interfacial bonding that also resulted in
high tensile strength and chemical resistance [86].

6 Application of Bamboo Fiber-Polymer Composite

Structures

The bamboo fiber-polymer composites possess potential applications in various

sectors, including housing, furniture, packaging, transport, etc. Treated bamboo fiber-
reinforced composites own better dimensional stability, longevity, corrosion resis-
tance, low maintenance, non-toxic and fire-retardant properties. Even though such
composites are highly employed for indoor and outdoor applications by replacing
other traditional or synthetic materials [13]. Based on the bamboo elements used for
manufacturing, there are different kinds of biocomposites available commercially.
They are categorized as.
• Bamboo strip and flattened culm sheets products
• Bamboo strand products
• Bamboo flake/particle products
• Bamboo fiber-based products
The bamboo strip-based products are made up of gluing and pressing of multi-
layered bamboo strip boards. The efficiency of bamboo strips can be enhanced
by subjecting culm strips to the softening process. Likewise, flattened culm sheets
are established later through bamboo flattening by employing the techniques high-
frequency dielectric heating and hot linseed oil immersion. There were four commer-
cially important products are developed from bamboo strips/flattened culms as mat
boards, ply bamboo, zephyr boards, and glued laminated mambo. The composites
obtained from bamboo strands that glued together to form board or lumber have high
economic importance for indoor and outdoor applications. These include oriented
strand board, parallel strand lumber, and oriented strand lumber. The particle bio-
composites are composed of thin, small, or irregular bamboo culms or from residues.
Bamboo particleboard panels and particle plastic composites are examples of the
particle-based process, which possess good quality and competitive characteris-
tics comparable with bamboo fiber-based composites. Even though bamboo fiber-
reinforced composites partake promising properties and appearance in comparison
with other synthetic materials. The commonly available forms of bamboo-fiber prod-
ucts are medium density fiberboards, high-density fiberboards, and bamboo paper.
Medium-density boards are formed by blending fibers with synthetic resigns through
hot pressing. While high-density fiberboards are made up of wet refined bamboo
fibers through hot pressing under high pressure and temperature. Usually, high-
density fiberboards are often stronger and denser than medium density boards [2].
A framework of bamboo elements used for various bio-composites production is
presented in Fig. 6.
32 D. Divya et al.

Fig. 6 Application of bamboo fiber-reinforced composites

Nowadays, bamboo composite fencing, deck tiles, railing, dustbins, outdoor furni-
ture, decking accessories, etc. are commercially available in the market for struc-
tural applications. Their renewability, recyclability, and less polluting characteristics
highly splendid to society. Moreover, the acceptance of bamboo composites in auto-
motive industries seeks a breakthrough for its extensive uses in lightweight applica-
tions. In the automobile industry, auto-body is replaced with polymer bamboo fiber-
based composited due to the features of high efficiency, light-weight, cost-effective
along with defending eco-friendly government regulations. Especially, electric vehi-
cles mainly choose fiber-based composites to increase fuel efficiency. Since the body
weight can be reduced up to 70% in the course to replace traditional steel material
[44].
Bamboo composites are extensively used for the fabrication in sports goods with
respect to its softness, moisture permeability, thermal property, light-weight nature,
and waterproof surface [4]. Water sports decks are successfully intended for sports
applications. Usually, sports apparel such as surfing boards, baseballs, polo balls, etc.
are produced from bamboo fiber-reinforced composites. These multilayered boards
are composed of epoxy polymer and bamboo fibers with specific characteristics over
bamboo glass boards. Surfing boards are light-weighted and possess waterproof
surfaces commonly used for water surfing activities. There are well-known appli-
cations of bamboo composites in construction and building industries, as reported
earlier [2, 3, 12, 14, 84, 87]. Bamboo bio-composites are widely used as structural
interior design components in the building. Also, it can be used as concrete rein-
forcement for housing construction due to its low moisture rate and light-weight,
eco-friendly nature in order to support the government policy of using sustainable
materials.
Moreover, bamboo high-density fiberboards (BHDF) and medium density fiber-
boards (BMDF) were developed extensively from the fiber-polymer composites for
commercial purposes [4, 12]. As well, bio-composites based flexible, thin paper
sheets were prepared from bamboo cellulose finer pulp. It is also introduced thin
sheets for printing, packaging, and cleaning purposes [79]. Another invention on
Bamboo: A Potential Natural Material for Bio-composites 33

binderless boards through hot compression of bamboo powder followed by steam

explosion was applicable for indoor uses. The plastic composites produced with
bamboo fiber by using polymer materials such as polypropylene, polyethylene, and
polyester are of high interest in the preparation of interior car parts. Conversely,
bamboo mineral composites produced by combining fibers with mineral binders are
used in bamboo cement composites as construction material, which has significance
over steel-reinforced concrete slabs and columns [25, 88]. Though, bamboo fiber
could be substituted as lightweight construction materials that resist earthquakes to
a large extent. Bamboo fiber has certain applications in food industries because of
micro cellulose because of its water-binding and texturing properties. Additionally,
the exploration of bamboo fibers in bakery, dairy, meat and fish products, beverages,
sauces, and dressings was also experienced. Bamboo stabilizers are used as a food
stabilizer, preservative of taste and flavor, along with using as a calorific additive
to avoid moisture loss. However, further advancements are required to explore the
potential of bamboo fiber and its composites to all sectors with the utilization of
probable techniques to expand its utilization by socio-economic and environmental
means [89, 90].

7 Conclusion and Future Perspective

The current environmental policy looks forward to developing eco-friendly, cost-

effective natural materials from sustainable sources instead of harmful, non-
biodegradable, expensive synthetic materials. Bamboo is a promising perennial plant
distributed all over the world that possesses specific growth characteristics and
common features required for the production of natural materials. The promising
physico-chemical and mechanical properties of bamboo fiber shows the potentiality
of using it in polymer composites, as an alternative to traditional materials. Certain
bio-composites are developed from bamboo fibers and polymers that resulted high
impact in diverse sectors. The initial adaptability of bamboo-based materials or rein-
forced composites points towards its extensive application in the future with advanced
techniques for the fabrication of well-defined, engineered products through the green
revolution.

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Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo:
Classifications, Properties
and Applications

Ashwini Kumar, Aruna Kumar Behura, Dipen Kumar Rajak, Ajit Behera,
Pawan Kumar, and Ravinder Kumar

Abstract With the development up to 75 cm in a solitary day, Bamboo has enrolled

its name as quickest developing plants on the planet. It’s being utilized in various
areas in various works and furthermore being utilized for building materials and so
forth at a bigger scope. In the event that we will contrast Bamboo and steel, at that
point can see that Bamboo is a lot less expensive than steel even Bamboo properties
like high elastic, adaptability, light weight, sturdiness is obviously superior to the
next structure materials. Right around 500 unique types of bamboo has found in our
universe even in some cases inside several subspecies can check their quality. One of
the heavenly bamboo “Guadia angustofolia” found in Colombia which gives a higher
caliber of timber straight and solid. Two subspecies of bamboo known as ‘guadua

A. Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand
831014, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. K. Behura
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
e-mail: [email protected]
D. K. Rajak (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip Institute of Technology and Research Centre,
Nashik, Maharashtra 422213, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Behera
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela, Odisha 769008, India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Kumar
Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
Science and Technology, Murthal, Haryana 131039, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Kumar
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab 144411,
India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 39

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_3
40 A. Kumar et al.

castilla’ and ‘guadua mecana’ exist in nature which height comes to up to 25 m and
a breadth up to 18 cm. Presently in current situation there are a significant number of
businesses are looking forward as an elective choice in type of Bamboo due to having
properties like reasonable, bottomless, minimal effort and great explicit quality. In
this current research scarcely any audits and explores on the warm, mechanical
and some different properties like high malleable, light weight, durability and so
forth have been appeared. The audits incorporate how the specialists set up their
investigations, the bamboo species utilized and the outcomes got.

Keywords Frames of bamboo · Green buildings · Power bamboo · Qualification

tests · Bamboo power · Bamboo · Mechanical properties · Physical properties ·
Green building · Sustainable development · Compression test

1 Introduction

Among the grass family ‘Poaceae’ and the subfamily ‘Bambusoideae’, Bamboos
are pine eternal blooming trees. The term ‘bamboo’ derives from the Dutch or
Portuguese languages that likely appropriated it from Malay. Bamboo materialis
a standard fabric built up from the pulp of the bamboo grass, the bamboo filament
is subsequently built up through mashing the bamboo grass till it discrete into thin
themes of filament, which is afterward revolved and washed for working into cloth.
Bamboo filament is alike to the mushiness of silk. Because of its flexible effects,
bamboo filaments are utilized mostly in fabric industries for making bath robes,
attires and towels. Because of its hygienic creation, this is utilized for preparing
sanitary napkins, bandages, nurse wears and masks. In contrast with the past, many
significant industries related to aeronautics, furnishing and construction, sought for
composite materials due to their overwhelming advantages such as lightweight and its
durability. For example, aircraft manufacturers have increased the usage of composite
materials in manufacturing aircraft. However, environmental concern is one of the
downside of using composite materials. In view of most conventional composites are
non-renewable and non-recyclable, pollution complication has become an issue when
conventional composites are used. Natural fiber compounds have taken the contem-
plation of numerous industries as another substances, as their current emphasis on
environmental- friendliness and sustainability.
A grass which can enlarge until 25 m within six months is known as Bamboo [1].
Every Culm appears from the earth surface at its last diameter (i.e. its girth does not
enlarge throughout its existence), narrowing as it enhances in height, and extending
in y-direction by cell-division “telescopically” in the middle of the intersections
(i.e., the space in the middle of intersections enhances as this extends). One time
completely extended, culms constantly take three to five years to grown-up to brimful
power, through which they occurrence lignifications and silification. Subsequently an
interval of five to six years, the culms’ power starts to worsen. Internationally there are
about hundred reputed “woody” herbs favorable for establishment. Clumps (Combine
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 41

Fig. 1 General structure of a bamboo culm

of culms enlarging at a time) of the big woody herbs usually outstretch highest
creation afterward around seven years and can continue systematic supplying of
about 20–25% during their high-yielding lifecycle. The stem, or Culm, is fragmented
through intersections, the straps at systematic gaps. The intersection evident as a
shield to the inside of the Culm, that assists to avert augmenting of the partitions.
The area in the middle of intersections is termed as the internodes, as represented in
Fig. 1; the intermodal placing differs across the Culm and in the middle of strains.
Inside the internodes, vascular bundles and cellulose fibers rush aligned to the span
of the Culm [2, 3], while at the intersections they engrossment, accompanied by few
of them interchanging into the nodal shield [1].

2 Historical Background of Bamboo

In its standard form, bamboo as a fabrication substance is conventionally connected

accompanied by the arts of the South Pacific, South Asia, Central, South America
and East Asia. In India and China, bamboo was utilized to setback effortless inter-
ruption bridges, either by preparing cables of twisting or split bamboo entire culms
of adequately flexible bamboo jointly. Such kind of bridge near to Qian-Xian is
mentioned in communicating dating back to 960 AD and may have nestle from
far back as the third century BC, due mainly to steady preservation. Bamboo has
also long been utilized as framing; the exercise has been prohibited in China for
buildings above the six stories, however is motionless in steady utilization for super-
structures in Hong Kong [4]. In Philippines, the nipa shed is an impartially classic
e.g. of the maximum fundamental kind of housing where bamboo is utilized; the
partitions are fracture and woven bamboo, and bamboo begins and poles may be
utilized as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is utilized essentially as a
supplement oridentifying element in buildings such as fencing, fountains grates, and
42 A. Kumar et al.

gutters, mostly because of the ready generous of standard timber [5]. Some regions
in India, bamboo is being utilized for drying cloths indoors, both as rod elevated up
close to the celling to put cloths on, and as a stick welded accompanied by acquired
expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the cloths when dry. It is furthermore
frequently utilized to construct steps i.e., aside from their standard performance,
are too utilized for supporting bodies in burials in Maharashtra, the bamboo copses
and jungles are known as veluvana, the title velu for bamboo is more appropri-
ately from Sanskrit, while vana defines jungle. Moreover, bamboo is further utilized
to generate bars for saffron-colored, Indian flags, which can be noticed that flying
throughout India. Bamboo has created an important fragment of the raising heritage
in Central and South America [1]. Vernacular creates of building such as bahareque
have established that utilize bamboo in extremely churning regions. When arranged
and in superior circumstances, these have been seen to execute curiously best during
earthquakes [6].

3 Origin of Bamboo

Bamboos expand in the subtropical and tropical areas of Latin America, Asia and
Africa, enlarging as faraway north as the southern United States or Central China and
as far away south as Patagonia. They too enlarge in the regions of Northern America.
The record of Chinese people transplanting and utilizing bamboo can be followed
backward, 7000 years. As quick as Shang Dynasty (sixteenth-eleventh century B.C.),
bamboo was earlier utilized in different feature of earliest Chinese people’s day today
lives. It was utilized for clothing, food, housing, musical instruments, transportation
and also weapons. In the opinion of Patrick Malcolm, gold colored bamboo was the
1st of the Phyllostachys bamboo varieties to be instigated within the country United
States, in 1882. In Alabama, where Bamboo was to be first utilized as rapid enlarging
for barrier of wind, it was transplanted through southern tobacco countryman. A
record of few repeatedly utilized systematic pieces across the globe shown in Table
1.

3.1 Suitable Structural Species

The subsequent attributes of bamboo pieces that have conventionally been utilized
for fabrication are as follows:
• Enlarge regionally in prosperity
• Powerful than other regional pieces
• Huge size (50–200 mm in diameter)
• Enlarge comparatively linear or vertical
• Grown-up rapidly (3–5 years)
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 43

Table 1 Represents a record of few repeatedly utilized systematic pieces across the globe [7–9]
Scientific name (local Areas found Diameter (mm) Solid/hollow
name)
Guadua angustofolia South America 120–160 Hollow
Knuth
Dendrocalamusstrictus Asia 25–80 Hollow
(Calcutta)
Bambusa vulgaris Africa, Asia, South America 80–150 Hollow
Phyllostachys edulis Asia 120–180 Hollow
(Moso)
Dendrocalamusasper Asia, South America 80–200 Hollow
(Petung)
Bambusablumeana Asia, Asia–Pacific 60–150 Hollow
(Spiny/Thorny Bamboo)
Gigantochloaapus Asia 40–100 Hollow

• Somewhat additional impenetrable to insects and fungi (Beneath liveliness

content)
• Smaller permissible to breaking.

3.2 Behavior in Earthquakes

There is a usual misinterpretation that the substance bamboo is anyhow ‘miracu-

lously’ superior in earth tremors. As a matter of fact a discrete characteristic this
holds various brittle failure manners that could influence its churning execution.
Constructions of bamboo have historically executed well in earth tremors firstly due
to their insubstantial creation (elevated power-to-heaviness proportion), and subor-
dinately due to their potential to suck up vitality at relations, mainly when utilizing
pins. It has been noticed afterwards earth tremors in jargon constructions such as
Bahareque [10], which usually utilizes pinned relations. The workable creation of
few conventional bamboo buildings may too be approvable in earth tremors, however
it is not an attribute which can be effortlessly utilized in current buildings that tend
to be weightier, have lesser motion liberalities and need a substantial assurance of
power to earth tremors than conventional constructions. Present bamboo formations
normally need elevated power gobbled relations accompanied by plaster that are
regrettably comparatively hard. But, while satisfactory operation tremorous blueprint
ideas are registered in coexistence accompanied by additional regionally ductile rela-
tions like pins, greater earth tremor resistance and altogether construction ductility
can be attained [11].
44 A. Kumar et al.

3.3 Fire Considerations

Bamboo acts as a same path to wood in flak, which burns at a moderate and probable
rate and is additionally a bad conductor of hotness; hence the bamboo in back of the
blackened coating persists practically safe. However, restricted flak experiments have
been performed [12], this is feasible to presume burning rates same as those for wood
(e.g. 0.6 mm/min), and due to the culm partitions are so narrow this is practicable to
judge that afterward blazing for just a some minutes the narrow partitions will begin
to misplace power quickly. It proves that an optically displayed bamboo construction
would hardly be favorable for positions where there is no flak resistivity demand like
roofs and probably the partitions of single-storey constructions. It has rarely been
utilized for two-storey dwellings [13], however hardly in positions where flak rules
are not meticulously related or where the bamboo is sufficiently defended through
e.g. cement furnish.

3.4 Specification of Bamboo

When identifying bamboo, this is supreme to confirm that it appears from a support-
able origin and is gathered, obtained and optically categorized through an esteemed
and experienced company. Standard norm should be incorporated in an identification
shows in Fig. 2.

4 Classification of Bamboo

Bamboos have a special inspection and their excellent fruitful actions are honestly
engrossing to examine. Bamboo is a segment of the accurate grassland ancestry,
and builds up the huge and most fruitful organ of grassland ancestry. Over 1000
pieces and 91 genera of bamboo exist all-round the globe and they enlarge in a
broad area of weather and topographical circumstances. Bamboo has the capability
to enlarge in the regions, which extends from the Sub-sarahana shun of Africa, to
the snowy mountain territory of the Himalayas. This has a lengthy and brief record
and is one of the greatest flexible plants in the globe. The majority of the pieces are
local to the equilaterals of Asia, even though some variation is local to the United
States, Arundhenaria gignatia. The dimensions of bamboo pieces differ rapidly. The
little variations enlarge to an elevation of 11 in., when massive wood bamboo can
outstretch elevations of over 100 ft. But, few of them have been represented under
the succeeding categorization sector shows in Fig. 3.
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 45

Fig. 2 Specification of bamboo

Fig. 3 Classification of bamboo [14–19]

46 A. Kumar et al.

4.1 Fargesia

Fargesia is a subfamily of blooming herbs in the grassland ancestry [20]. These

bamboos are origin firstly to China, accompanied by some pieces in Vietnam and
in eastern Himalayas [21]. Few pieces are cultured as decorative, accompanied by
general title introducing sunshade bamboo and jet bamboo [22]. These are average
to few elevation clustering bamboos, origin to alpine conifer jungles of East Asia,
from China south to Vietnam and west to the eastern slopes of Himalayas. These
are called in Cines as Jian Zhu, defining ‘arrow bamboo’. The technological title
was stated in privilege of the French promoter and layman botanist Paul Guillaume
Farges (1844–1912). Fargesia are few of the globe’s robust bamboos, however, they
do not escalate strongly. General bamboos in the subfamily Fargesia are important
nutriments for enemorous pandas, and the current blooming Fargesia nitida has had a
destructing outcome on panda community. Due to Fargesia are fetching finer called
for their dumpy clustering practices, they have suit economical and obtainable at
most of the nurseries.

4.2 Bambuseae

The Bambuseae are the maximum various ethnic groups of bamboos in the grass-
land ancestry. They comprises of wooden pieces from tropical areas, incorporating
few giant bamboos. Their sister category are the less herbaceous bamboos from
the tropics in tribe Olyreae, while the temperate of woody bamboos are addi-
tionally hardly connected. The Bambuseae are the various tribes of bamboos in
the grassland ancestry (Poaceae). They includes of woody pieces from tropical
area, introducing few giant bamboos. Their sister category are the less herbaceous
bamboos from the tropics in tribe Olyreae, while the temperate of woody bamboos
are additionally hardly connected. The Bambuseae drop into two clades, analogous
pieces from the Paleotropics (subtribes Bambusinae, Hickeliinae, Melocanninae,and
Racemobambosinae and from the Neotropics [23, 24].

4.3 Guadua

Guadua is a Neotropical group of spiny, collecting bamboo in the grassland ancestry,

scaling from modest to extremely huge pieces [25–27]. Sobstantially, Guadua
angustofolia is famed for existence the greatest Neotropical bamboo. The group
is same to Bambuseae and is occasionally covered in that group. Various animals
are, to a different range, linked accompanied by stance of Guadua bamboo, for
example various pieces of seedeaters, and the Amazon and Atlantic Bamboo Rats
[28]. According to practical approach, Guadua is the most vital American bamboo.
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 47

Because of its standard, the group has been plenty utilized for home buildings across
the inter-Andean watercourses of Colombia and in coastal Ecuador. Guadua angusto-
folia indigenous to Tropical America, is steadily flattering well known one time afresh
as a constructing substance. Really acknowledged by Simon Bolivar for its water-
shed shielding and worshiped by Alexander von Humboldt for its extensive diversity
of utilizations, it is being utilized in building today in South America. Scientific
investigations of bamboo’s mechanical attributes (“vegetable steel”) have enhanced
interest in its utilization. Even though bamboo culms utilized for construction can
be gathered in original jungles, excess misuse guides to the exhaustion of original
assets. Guadua angustofolia can be utilized in huge volume, when the administration
of sustainable bamboo jungles and copses, also the development of new nurseries
and farmsteads, is a primary task. Tropical bamboo can be cultivated accompanied
by trimmings or by casing entire culms accompanied by ground. New herbs will
germinate in the coming year. Or, Guadua can be cultivated further quickly through
the chusquin technique. Culms are trim at soil level when collecting gives rise to
numerous little shoots in this technique and latest herbs to enlarge across the primal
herb. This technique is acceptable for huge amount jungles or farmstead collabo-
rative. Hence bamboo is a grassland, collecting it down to the ground convinces
extra latest shoots to appear, exactly similar to turf grassland. It is circumstances
not called in tropical hardwood jungles. Recently quick techniques have been estab-
lished by the utilization of tissue culture. Bamboo cultivated in a laboratory in the
area of 1 m2 will be enough to develop one hectare of new jungle. This herb can
too be gladly conveyed in a one-half-cubic-meter box. Collecting can start 6 years
succeeding transplanting, preparing bamboo a prospective origin of tropical renew-
able creation for industry (e.g., bio fuels). For architectural grounds, Guadua is the
selected bamboo pieces. This diameter is steady for the first 15 m and after that tapers
at the top. This quality has dazzled the awareness of architects, artists, designers, civil
engineers, and academics. Guadua is additional constructive at separating CO2 from
the surroundings than all other tropical jungle environmentally; recent investigations
in Colombia have now been correlated through the Environmental Bamboo Founda-
tion. From the above investigations, Japan and the Netherlands have both accepted
enormous plantation projects as a path of obtaining so-called “carbon credits” to
balance the rate of contamination in industries.

4.4 Pseudosasa Japonica

The reed bamboo of Pseudosasa japonica [29] or metake [30] is a piece of blooming
herb in the grassland ancestry Poaceae, origin to Japan and Korea. This robust
bamboo generates copses up to 6 m (20 ft) height accompanied by shiny leaves
up to 25 cm (9.8 in.) long [30]. The culms are commonly yellow–brown and it
has palm-like leaves. The usual title, “arrow bamboo” outcomes from the Japanese
Samurai, utilizing its solid and rigid canes, for their shafts [29]. This cool robust
bamboo pieces (tolerant to 0 °F/−17.7 °C) enlarges completely both in shadow and
48 A. Kumar et al.

brimming sunlight. Pseudosasa japonica does completely in vessels and salty air
close to the ocean. Due it tends to be huge shadow tolerant than other bamboo pieces
it is repeatedly utilized through planters as a copse to a tree-lined living barrier [31].
In planting in the UK this herb has obtained the Royal Horticultural Society ‘s Award
of Garden Merit [30, 31].

4.5 Chusquea Culeou

Chusquea Culeou, the Chilean bamboo [32] (Spanish: Cana Coligue or Colihue) is
a breed of blooming herb in the grassland ancestry Poaceae. The bamboo, origin
to South America is always evergreen, dissimilar huge breeds inside the group of
Chusquea, this is frost-tolerant and hence plenty propagated in temperate areas. This
is origin to the Valdivian rainforests, humid temperate jungles of Chile and south-
western Argentina. Chusquea Culeou is a cornerstone breeds that can manage designs
of jungle energetic through upcoming reanimation of tree breeds [33–36]. Extending
to 8 m (26 ft) height through 1.5 m (4.9 ft) wide, Chusquea Culeou generates a
considerable cluster of plants. This has shaggy lanceolate leaves accompanied by a
spine on their ending, and its bloom is a whisk of gleam brown colour. The herb
too generates a caryopsis fruit. Blooming occurs after the variable times that could
valid for 60 years. Afterwards flowering and delivering its nuts, then the herb plant
expiry. The cane is straightforward up to 6 m (20 ft) in tall, and was utilized through
the pole of their spears. They are still utilizing through the Mapuche people for a
musical instrument known as trutruca. An attribute of this Chusquea is that the stalks
are rigid, dissimilar from most of the bamboos. Chusquea Culeou is propagated as an
attractive herb in gardens. This herb has obtained the Royal Horticultural Society’s
Award of Garden Merit [32, 33, 37].

4.6 Sasa

Sasa, also called broad-leaf bamboo, is a genus of running bamboo. These species
have at most one branch per node. Sasa is a group of brownie rushing bamboos
maximum of which have vast, small leaves. Maximum are from Japan and are conve-
nient in the lawn for earth shield, contrasting appearances, and as vessel herbs. They
conveniently obtain no larger than 6 , have one fork at each intersection and glance
finest enlargement in little shadow. Cutting down is in the springtime. Sole of the
Sasa herb types, Sasa Palmata is a pine bamboo expanding to 2.5 m (8 ft) by 5 m
(16 ft) at a rapid rate. It is robust to area (UK) 7. This is in leaf all year. The type is
hermaphrodite (has a both male and female organ) and is fertilized through Wind.
This is noticed for stunning fauna. Favorable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy)
and heavy (clay) soils. Acceptable PH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can
grow in semi-shade (light woodland). It prefers moist soil.
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 49

5 Classification and Taxonomy of Bamboo on Construction

Basis

Bamboo as a constructing substance has elevated contraction power and small mass
has been sole of the maximum utilized constructing substances as assist for concrete,
specifically in those positions where it is launched in prosperity. Bamboo as a
constructing substance is utilized for the building of scaffolding, and structures,
houses. Worthful bamboo herbs for buildings incorporate the types of the group:
Guadua, Dendrocalamus and Phyllostachys, of which the family of Guadua angusto-
folia is origin to South America and has the greatest attributes for building jointly.
Classifying bamboo has consistently been somewhat a laborious job [38], mostly
for non-scientists that occur to be most of the people who required acquiring these
details. It is due to the multiplex botanical titles. This proposes to clarify the crea-
tures or people of those who would approach to utilize bamboo more regularly [39],
generated a record of ‘popular’ bamboos, accompanied by both their botanical and
familiar titles. Ten of the most familiar bamboo species are represented in Fig. 4.
Although out of all the Botanists, there have been substantial discussions on
bamboo categorization and recognition over time [38]. The discussions occasionally
give the outcome as change of titles or even re-categorization. Hence, it is very tough
to have a universal categorization. But, the botanical titles of their geographical
position, genera, and the species are utilized as clarified statistics. Additional data
like botanical drawings Photos, vernacular names, descriptions etc., can also be
friendly.

Fig. 4 Popular bamboo with biological and common name

50 A. Kumar et al.

5.1 Descriptions of Bamboo Anatomy and Structure

The analysis of bamboo reports its shape which regulates its eventual mechanical
properties. Figures 5 and 6 represents the bamboo culm contains of 3-important parts:
• The stalk—fragment enlarging over the soil that may be linear orbend.
• The stalk foundation—bottom fragment of the stalk which expands into the
ground.
• The stalk pedicel—the bottom fragment of the stalk, built up of additional blast
segments.
The culm is constructional built of the intersections or midsections, and the
segments [40]. The intersections comprise of cells cover aligned or parallel to the
intersections, while the segments have lengthwise placed cells. Culms are normally
hollow, namely tubes that provides the wall thickness as the dimension in the middle
of the internal and the external surface of the stalk, but, few herbs accompanied by
ground culms [41].

Fig. 5 Basic parts of bamboo culm

Fig. 6 Hollow and solid culm bamboo

Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 51

6 Properties of Bamboo

Bamboo is repeatedly explained as extremely long lasting, but, it is mainly in accor-

dance to the continual development of the bamboo herb and not remarkable about
the long-lasting of the bamboo stalks. Real utilization, treatment, perpetuation and
supervision can secure magnificent long lasting as the bamboo constructions are of
more than two hundred years older, however, this is vital that the finale user is really
notified to build the maximum of their bamboo outcomes. Researchers have inves-
tigated and described on the use, refining and the characteristics of these growing
substance as a replacement to the enhancing reduction of wood in the jungle. The
characteristics of bamboo and its coated outcomes or products verify to its power in
replacement of wood. Use of bamboo has enhanced notably in the wood and wood
outcome or product industries, accompanied by sufficient exchanging in most of
the processing firms in the locality. In order with the establishment and utilization of
bamboo-laminated wood for the reason of wood in furniture manufacture, the forma-
tion of bamboo farmsteads on degenerated lands will importantly bear manufacture
and reduce the humiliation of jungle.

7 Mechanical Properties of Bamboo

The mechanical properties of bamboo rely on many components like species, culm
position, and age and so on. These factors affect the fiber density of the bamboo at
specific location on the bamboo. The density of the fiber will determine the strength of
the bamboo. Next to these components, it is too noticed that bamboo is an orthotropic
substance in natural, signification that it has dissimilar mechanical properties in the
length wise, incidental and radial direction of the bamboo [42]. They showed that as
the distance of the bamboo culm from the ground increases, the ultimate compressive
strength also gradually increase due to the increase in fibre density. This also means
that the ultimate compressive strength enhances from the internal part of the bamboo
to the external fragment. According to the research collection by Janssen, dry bamboo
has a better mechanical property when compared to wet bamboo [43]. Besides that,
bamboo with thicker wall has better mechanical properties generally. According to
Janssen, various herbs of bamboo has various mechanical properties and bamboo
has the best mechanical properties when they are aged between 3 and 7 years old
[43]. Young and old bamboos have lower mechanical properties [43]. According to
Amada and Untao, the optimum age occurs around 2.5–4 years old [44]. Numerous
tests and studies had been done by researchers on the mechanical properties of
bamboo, especially on their tensile and compression properties. For example, the
tensile properties of various bamboo herbs have been studied through several authors
such as moso bamboo [45], and so on. However, the results obtained might differ from
one study to another as different approaches are used. The species of the bamboo,
specimen size and shape, presence of node and the condition of the bamboo used are
different.
52 A. Kumar et al.

7.1 Tensile Properties of Bamboo

Lakkad and Pattel conducted an experiment to regulate the mechanical properties of

bamboo [46]. This species of the bamboo utilized is unknown but it is mentioned that
dry bamboo was used. The dimension used is 6 mm (T) × 12 mm (W) × 200 mm
(L). No nodes are present in the specimens. From the experiment, the ultimate tensile
strength and ultimate compressive strength of bamboo is 193 MPa and 68.4 MPa,
respectively. In term of particular power, the certain tensile strength of bamboo is
214.4 km2 /s2 , which is 4 times greater to the specific tensile strength of mild steel
which is 50.6 km2 /s2 . From this experiment, it has also found that the specific modulus
of elasticity of bamboo is comparable to unidirectional glass reinforced plastic (GRP)
but lower than the specific modulus of elastic of mild steel [47]. The particular
characteristics give a perception into relative strength and stiffness on a mass basis,
especially under single direction loads [47]. Li [45] has conducted tensile test and
compression test on moso bamboo. The tensile and compression specimens have
nodes in them. Hojo et al. [43], have conducted studies on the tensile characteristics
of bamboo mat-reinforced compound. The reasons behind choosing bamboo fibre
mats over natural bamboo fibbers are simpler manufacturing process, lower cost and
the short length of original natural fibers. The bamboo fibre mat used has a bamboo
fibber’s density of 1.293 g/cm3 and unit area weight of 907 g/m2 .

7.2 Compressive Properties of Bamboo

Compressive properties of bamboo of different species have also been studied by

researchers. For e.g., the contracting properties of various bamboo herbs which have
been earlier moved out through authors are Kao Jue (Bambusa pervariabilis) [48],
Mao Jue (Phyllostachys pubescens) [48–50], Bambusa balcooa, Bambusa bambos,
Bambusa nutans, Bambusa tulda, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Dendrocalamus strictus,
Melocanna bambusoides [51] and Hawaiian Gold Timber (Bambusa vulgaris vittata)
[52]. Chung and Yu [44] carried out compression tests on two bamboo species, which
are Bambusa pervariabilis and Phyllostachya pubescens [48]. Bamboo culms were
used as the specimens. For Bambusa pervariabilis, the average ultimate compres-
sive strength obtained is 103 MPa while the average compressive modulus of elas-
ticity obtained is 10.3 GPa [48]. For Phyllostachya pubescens, the average ultimate
compressive strength obtained is 134 MPa while the average compressive modulus
of elasticity obtained is 9.4 GPa [48]. Chung and Yu had shown that the mechanical
properties of the bamboo were best to general constructional wood [48]. On the other
hand, Li also conducted compression test on bamboo [49]. However, the species of
the bamboo used was unknown. Li used bamboo specimens that were of different
age and that were found from various positions of the stalk. Rassiah et al. [49] has
conducted the Charpy impact test on refined and coated bamboo strips. The bamboo
species used is the Gigantochloa scortechinii [49]. The bamboo plant was trim into
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 53

plunder fibre fragments utilizing a chopper and a hand saw. Then plunders were trim
into thicknesses of 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 mm. Three regions of the bamboo plants are
cut, which are inner section, middle section and outer section. The bamboo strips
were then exposed to the hand lay-up operation. The laminated bamboo samples
are fabricated by mixing unsaturated polyester with methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
catalyst and then brushing this mixture on the bamboo strips. The Charpy impact test
was carried out in accordance of ASTMD 6110 standard [49].

7.3 Fracture Toughness

The property of fracture toughness is that, which represents the quantity of stress
needed to generate a crack or defect [51]. It describes how far a material can go to
resist fracture at the crack. As bamboos is used in many high load structures and are
exposed to wear and tear, it is essential to know its fracture properties to take the
necessary precautions. Mode I and Mode II fracture properties of bamboo will be
discussed here.

7.4 Mode I Fracture Properties

In Mode I fracture, the rupture surface is perpendicular to the direction of the greatest
tensile loading [51, 53]. In Mode I fracture toughness, the mechanical property
that will be studied is fracture toughness, KIC. Liou and Lu [51] had carried out
Mode I fracture test on bamboo culms of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescence)
[53]. This study has used ASTM E399 test method, which involved arc shape bend
specimens.
Amada and Untao did a throughout study on the fracture properties of 2-years old
Mousou bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) [52]. First of all, they have conducted Mode
I fracture test on specimens from different culm. Besides that, we can also see that
the fracture toughness of bamboo increases with its height.
On the other hand, Amada and Untao also conducted Mode I fracture test on the
bamboo nodes. Amada and Untao suggested that this fibre made little or no contri-
bution to the fracture properties of the node√[52]. The average fracture toughness
obtained for the bamboo node is 18.4 MPa m, which is significantly lower when
compared to the bamboo culms. Amanda and Untao have also concluded that the
fracture toughness of the bamboo intersection is contributed through the parenchyma
cells [52].
54 A. Kumar et al.

7.5 Mode II Fracture Properties

Mode II fracture properties involve in-plane shear loading, which is the sliding of one
crack face with respect to the other in its on plane [53]. The total number of samples
used in their study is 43 samples and the average Mode II fracture toughness obtained
is 1303.18 J/m2 , 1107.54 J/m2 and 1216.06 J/m2 , respectively with some deviations
between methods. For all three methods, the bamboo height has minimal effect on
the fracture toughness of the bamboo.

7.6 Effect of Moisture on the Mechanical Properties

of Bamboo

Since bamboo is constantly exposed to harsh environment, such as exposure to rain

and river, the result of wetness or water contented on its mechanical properties has to
be properly studied. Numerous researchers have conducted test to regulate the result
of moisture on the mechanical properties and all have proven that the mechanical
properties of bamboo is weaken by the presence of moisture.

7.7 Tensile and Compression Properties

Lakkad and Godbole [54] have conducted an experiment that revolves around the
result of water engrossment on the mechanical properties of bamboo. Three types of
specimen configurations are prepared: dry; soaking in distilled water for 144 h (“wet”
samples); soaking in boiling water for 2 h (“boiled” samples). For the “wet” and
boiled” bamboo samples, their weight gain are recorded from time to time to monitor
water saturation level. The tensile modulus of elasticity of the specimens is dropped
by 47.7% and 31.1% when immersed in distilled water for 144 h and simmered
in distilled water for 2 h, respectively. On the other hand, the tensile strength of the
specimens is dropped by 36.9% and 26.6% when immersed in distilled water for 144 h
and simmered in distilled water for 2 h, respectively. It shows that exposing bamboo
to water has drastic effects on its tensile properties. Soaking the bamboo in distilled
water for long term does more damage to its mechanical properties than boiling it in
distilled water in a less span of time. The bamboo fibers are not damaged by the high
temperature. However, the diffusion of water within the “wet” and “boiled” bamboo
samples do reduce its tensile properties. As additional water has been engrossed by
the “wet” bamboo samples when compared to the “boiled” bamboo samples, their
tensile properties are much reduced. In order of contraction properties, the reduction
in compressive strength is more or less the same for the “wet” and “boiled” samples.
The decrease in contraction power is around 50%. It is very evident that water content
in bamboo can greatly decrease their tensile and compression properties. Similar
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 55

study has also been conducted by Yap et al. [48] on Bambusa vulgaris vittata type
bamboo and practically the same decrement of the mechanical properties was found.
Dorez et al. [55] reported the result of environmental aging on the tensile properties
of bamboo glass fiber strengthen polymer matrix hybrid composites. The length of
the glass fiber is 3 mm and the length of the bamboo fiber is 1–6 mm, which both
are randomly oriented in the resultant composite plate. Dog-bone shaped specimens
accompanied by dimensions of 60 mm × 12 mm × 3 mm were produced and the
tensile tests are carried out in accordance of ASTM standard D639.

7.8 Thermal Properties of Bamboo

Evaluation of thermal properties of bamboo composites and apprehension of their

belongings are censorious for the design of building construction. Thermal conduc-
tivity hegemonies the rates of heat transfer by utilizing the bulk material during
processing to control heating and cooling processes. Material thermal censorious
plays an important role in fire safety for the long-term durability of buildings. Thermal
stability of medicated and unprocessed bamboo fibers was moved out utilizing a
thermo gravimetric analyzer (STA7000, Hitachi). The mass varies of bamboo fiber
in the % as a basis of enhancing temperature accompanied by steady rate of warming
was noticed. All specimens were kept in a pan and increase the temperature from 20
to 800 °C at a rate of heating of 10 °C/min under a nitrogen surrounding.

7.9 Scanning Electron microscopy

The superficial morphologies of unprocessed and alkali-treated bamboo fibers

as well as the rupture area of the bamboo fiber strengthen polymer compounds
(polyester, vinyl-ester, epoxy), were investigated through scanning electron micro-
scope TM3030 plus Benchtop Electron Microscope Hitachi, Japan. The resemblance
was executed at accelerating voltages of 5–15 kV.

7.10 Flammability of Bamboo

Jobs of bamboo are not combustible as individuals expect. Even though bamboo is
original substance, the obstruction to fire is not minor to cement, iron, steel. Currently
bamboo jobs are familiar because of its distinctive charmer. But, most of the individ-
uals are too disturbance regarding the capacity of fire-prevention. Everyone believes
that bamboo jobs are effortless to blaze. But, that declaration is totally incorrect!
Bamboo is combustible while it’s chop. On the basis of the above opinion various
56 A. Kumar et al.

researchers have provided their view either through few execution tests or few differ-
entiation accompanied by the other herbs. Nurul Zuhairah et al. [56], have intro-
duced only method to utilize bamboo material as original fiber reinforced composites
(NFRCs). The investigation was intended to find the enlarge to that of bamboo mate-
rial could restore glass fiber in glass polypropylene (GPP) compounds and whether
the suggested mixtures were proficient of participating, specifically in contrast to the
combustibility of GPP compounds. In the field of bamboo-reinforced composites,
only a very small number of researchers [57] have performed studies in flammability.
However, no such investigation has been regulated on the fire performance of bamboo
fabric PP composites. Most research carried out using natural fiber-glass reinforced
hybrid composites has focused on physical and mechanical properties. Remarkably,
flammability testing of hybrids using quantitative methods has been relatively rare as
well as the prediction using Rule of Mixtures. However, no such research has been
performed on flammability of bamboo-glass hybrid composites [58]. The hybrid
composites, where several layers of glass in a GPP composite are replaced with
bamboo fabric, may improve the flammability. Experimentation has been carried out
for the thermo-physical characteristics and flammability deportment of poly (ethy-
lene terephthalate) (PET) compound, containing bamboo charcoal (BC) stuffing.
Outcomes represented that the amount of resistance reduced smartly but accompa-
nied by small result on thermal conductivity, when PET was loaded accompanied
by higher than bamboo charcoal. Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) disclosed that
soaring bamboo charcoal loading was linked accompanied by a higher onset temper-
ature of 50% humiliation (Td50%). However, the flammability of bamboo is under
acceptable range, but it has been seen that the mixture of bamboo fabric to others,
either by the method of reinforcement of composites or by using as a charcoal, gives
even better result as compared to the bamboo itself. So, the central importance of
bamboo fabric in flammability of these composites is the substantial contribution of
bamboo fabric to the fire resistance in bamboo-glass PP composites. Nurul Zuhairah
et al. [56] have mentioned in their investigation that, this was the first time for
bamboo fabric used in conjunction with glass in order to increase fire resistance of
the composites. So, hybridization may be useful in applications where fire resistance
is important. Demand for more natural fiber materials means a reduction in glass
use. A remarkable segment of the glass in GFRCs may be restored accompanied by
bamboo fabric, with a positive result on fire obstruction. Hence, in near future the
deduction in combustibility and the improvement in properties achieved, illustrate
assurance for the mixture substances petitions.

7.11 Recycling of Bamboo

Investigations have represented that of all the constructing substances which are
utilized in buildings, bamboo is the less dangerous in names of misuse as it can
be reprocessed and does not have discarding complications. The radicals in bamboo
support to manage ground deterioration as it forms a water wall. The highest standard
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 57

of manufacturing bamboo lyocell is that it’s a 100% closed-loop revolution that

secures all the chemicals, water, and everything else utilized to generate it is 100%
reused and accommodated.

8 Applications of Bamboo

Bamboo, an eco-friendly substance, has a plenty of uses. The Bamboo plant belongs
to the grassland ancestry called Poaceae in the subfamily of Bambusoideae. They
are pine everlasting herbs, which primarily enlarge in the tropics. Similar to other
grasses, they have parallel leaves, however for the bamboos particularly; their stalks
are hollow and columnar. Bamboos are few of the quickest enlarging herbs on the
planet, and are because of their single rhizome-dependent structure, few of herbs
can enlarge up to 36 in. in a 24 h time. Few of the Bamboo enlarging in the exact
states without any animal disruption they can extend up to 164 ft height and as high
as 12–20 in. wide, this, moreover, does not implement to all bamboo herbs but to
particular herbs.

8.1 Modern Uses of the Bamboo

Bamboo has been utilized in the constructing of roads and buildings in most of the
regions of Orissa in India, other formations linked accompanied by convey such as
bridges have been made utilizing bamboos in various locations of China also till
date. Bamboo has been utilized to construct pretty home constructions which are not
only powerful and muscular, however, long-lasting accompanied by the capability
to resistraspy circumstances. Numerous holiday resorts close to see utilize Bamboos
to include an artful connect to their developments and more than a billion people
are determined to live in bamboo homes. The bamboo herb has for years supplied
food for both animals and human beings and maximum Asian food productions
include the utilize of the bamboo herb, bamboo wounds are eaten raw, cooked or
utilized to form a stock, maximum Asian culinary shops even sell them in fried, dried,
and canned versions, which are prepared to eat. In Japan, the bamboo is utilized as
a food preservative because of its high antioxidant characteristics established in
its dermis, which blocks the enlargement of bacteria. Bamboo is utilized to build
attractive furniture that can too double up as decorative pieces in the home. Due to
its brightness that is an outcome of the hollow place internally, bamboo stalks are
often utilized for scaffolding throughout the construction of buildings and it is an
economical, highly environment friendly manners of buildings.
58 A. Kumar et al.

8.2 Application of Bamboo Materials in Building

Construction

Bamboo, as the primary architectural building in bamboo architecture, takes part

in the load holding of construction structures. Bamboo has powerful adjustability
in thickness and power and can build various compound adaption correspondingly
based on the architectural building to convince the need of various building execution.
On the other hand, the scientific demands of bamboo constructions are compara-
tively small and can effortlessly be united into municipal architectural buildings,
for e.g., the combination of bamboo accompanied by ground soil, concrete and
glue, etc., can support to enhancing the constructional power. As per the latest
and current bamboo architecture, the important technique of bamboo architecture
lies in the intersection position in the middle of main constructional components
consisting tension and stress. The power, stiffness and solidity of intersections
primarily are based on the junction power in the middle of construction elements
of the building. Hence, the enhancing development of relationship construction has
showed additional subscriptions to the diversification of bamboo architecture.

9 Conclusions

As, bamboo is a versatile raw material for social, economic and cultural point of
view, it has been compared with steel through which it has been noticed that bamboo
is much cheaper than steel even, bamboo properties like high tensile, flexibility, light
weight, toughness is much better than the other building materials. In the present
review work an overview of bamboo material has been studied by focusing its
origin, historical background, specification, applications and different properties, like
mechanical, thermal, flammability and recycling. On account of different properties
of bamboo detailed study following major findings have been concluded:
• The characteristics of bamboo and its coated outcomes verify to its potential
in switching wood. Use of bamboo has enhanced remarkably in the wood and
wood outcome industries, accompanied by sufficient regenerating in maximum
operating firms in the section.
• The mechanical properties of bamboo are weakening by the presence of moisture.
• The fracture toughness of bamboo increases with its height.
• Compression tests on two bamboo species, which are Bambusa pervariabilis
and Phyllostachys pubescens. Bamboo culms were used as the specimens. For
Bambusa pervariabilis, the average ultimate compressive strength has been found
to 103 MPa while the average compressive modulus of elasticity obtained was
10.3 GPa.
• For Phyllostachys pubescens, the average ultimate compressive strength obtained
was found to 134 MPa while the average compressive modulus of elasticity
obtained was 9.4 GPa.
Fundamental Concepts of Bamboo: Classifications, Properties … 59

• It had been found that the mechanical properties of the bamboo are higher to
familiar constructional wood.
• As, the bamboo fibers are not damaged by the high temperature, the diffusion
of water into the “wet” and “boiled” bamboo specimens do reduce its tensile
properties.
• The planes structure of unprocessed and alkali-treated bamboo fibers as well as
the rupture plane of the bamboo fiber reinforced polymer compounds (epoxy,
polyester, vinyl ester), were investigated by scanning electron microscope
TM3030 plus Bench top Electron Microscope Hitachi, Japan. The imaging was
executed at accelerating voltages of 5–15 kV.
• However, the flammability of bamboo is under acceptable range, but it has been
seen that the mixture of bamboo fabric to others, either by the method of rein-
forcement of composites or by using as a charcoal, gives even better result as
compared to the bamboo itself. So, the central importance of bamboo fabric in
flammability of these composites is the substantial contribution of bamboo fabric
to the fire resistance in bamboo-glass PP composites.
• Hybridization may be useful in applications where fire resistance is important.
Demand for more natural fiber materials means a reduction in glass use. A notable
section of the glass in GFRCs may be changed accompanied by bamboo material,
with a positive result on fire obstruction.
• In near future the deduction in combustibility and the improvement in character-
istics attained, illustrate assurance for the mixture substance petitions.

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9546-6
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects
of Bamboo Composites

Carlo Santulli

Abstract The length of bamboo culms makes the obtained fibers promising for
application in composites, both for the reinforcement of oil-based matrices and of
biomatrices. However, the varietal diversity of bamboo species and the mode of
extraction from the plant, which can involve mechanical and chemical stages, both
contribute in changing the morphology of the fibers and their performance. A number
of studies exist in trying to relate the above aspects to the performance of the obtained
composites, which are reviewed in this chapter. For the aforementioned reasons,
the existing literature gives scattered evidence of bamboo potential in composite,
despite the inherently outstanding properties of this plant. This has been explained by
the difficulties in controlling mechanical and morphological properties of extracted
fibers, and as the consequence of the obtained composites.

Keywords Bamboo · Composites · Species effect · Fiber morphology

1 Introduction

Bamboo is the collective definition of a group of perennial evergreens in the family

Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae, which, according to Liu et al.
[41], is constituted by over than 90 genera and about 200 species. It is not obvious,
however, to make clear distinctions about the taxonomy of bamboo. Therefore, in
other cases, much larger numbers of species have been reported: an early study by
Bansal and Zoolagud [7], suggests that the known species at that time were already
1250. Quite comprehensive information on the species of bamboo available in the
different parts of the world for use in materials is available in Panda [53].
With respect to other bast fibers, such as ramie or flax, bamboo fibers have a consid-
erably thicker cell wall, which point toward higher mechanical properties [26]. The
transverse section of a bamboo culm, as shown in Fig. 1, includes numerous vascular
bundles embedded in the parenchymatous ground tissue [9]. As the consequence

C. Santulli (B)
Geology Division (SST), School of Science and Technology, Università Degli Studi Di Camerino,
Via Gentile III da Varano, 62032 Camerino, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 63

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_4
64 C. Santulli

Fig. 1 The structure of a bamboo culm [9]

of this structure, the extraction process of the fibers would need to separate the
large amount of parenchymal tissue from fiber strands and vascular bundles possibly
causing limited damage to the fibers, despite its strong interface, which is apparent
from images in Fig. 2 [79].
Bamboo has found some application in the wood sector, where it can even offer
some more significant potential, due to its lower thermal conductivity, especially
when coupled with a biodegradable matrix, such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) [67].
A limitation can lie in the significant density of bamboo, which can get as high as
1.4–1.5, due to its relatively high content of lignin strongly bonded with cellulose
and other components in the culms. As a matter of fact, the insoluble part, referred to
as Klason lignin, was measured by Huang et al. [28], according to ASTM D1106-96,
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites 65

Fig. 2 Position of the fibers in the bamboo culm [79]

obtaining values between 19.67 to 28.48%). In addition, from this plant, materials
with a number of geometries would be obtainable. In particular, bamboo splits and
slivers, where the former are strips of the full thickness of the culm wall with some
part of the green outer layer and the latter are thin, narrow sections of bamboo wood,
as shown in Fig. 3, powder or charcoal. This last product has been also proposed for
introduction in a polymer matrix (a polyolefin blend), mainly as an inert filler during
melt compounding, with no significant influence on mechanical properties [42].
A general scheme for the treatments that allow coming from bamboo strips to
fibers useful for introduction in composites is reported in Fig. 4. More details on

Fig. 3 Bamboo slivers

66 C. Santulli

Fig. 4 Options to obtain fibers from bamboo strips

the value of the possible options for fiber extraction are offered e.g., in Zakikhani
et al. [80]. Chemical extraction is usually achieved by sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
at high concentration, while retting can also be acid, for example by acetylation.
Another possible form coming from mechanical operations, which is also worthy for
the production of paper, is bamboo pulp. The process for obtaining bamboo pulp,
with not much difference with what happening with other ligno-cellulosic material,
such as bagasse, involves an initial stage of shredding, followed by washing and wet
depithing. This is normally completed by steam explosion, which is a low energy
consumption method to obtain pulp developed in the 60s. When the need is to obtain
bamboo fibers to be used in composites though, steam-exploded fibers were often
reported to be rigid and not completely clean from lignin, which condensed on the
surface, and therefore in need for some treatment, such as isocyanate silane, which
resulted though in a reduction of tensile properties [70]. Another explored possibility
for lignin elimination was a washing with dioxane solution [62], whose effects are
depicted in Fig. 5. It is worth mentioning for completeness that lignin removed from
bamboo fibers after steam explosion can be possibly re-used for the development of
bio-based cured epoxies [59].
The morphological features of the fibers in bamboo pulp are very different. Sadiku
et al. [58], reported obtaining fibers with length in the order of 2 mm and with an
aspect ratio above 100, intended mainly for use into paper. This kind of product is
not exactly applicable as a reinforcement of composites for its excessive hydrophilic
character and limited resistance to chemical agents. Moreover, it was also noticed
that for an aspect ratio lower than 20, no effective reinforcement was really obtained,
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites 67

Fig. 5 a Steam exploded (SE) bamboo fibers. b SE bamboo fibers treated with dioxane/water 9:1
solution v/v [62]

at least on biodegradable matrices [66]. In other cases though [35] alkaline treatment
provided fibers of few centimeters length, which are adapted as “technical fibers”
for use in composites, its length being limited only by the nodes. In general though,
obtaining longer and cleaner, hence fully degummed, fibers should be preferable for
composites: however, in most cases mechanical stripping does not result in a sufficient
separation of the single fibers to be ready for formation of a strong interface by resin
impregnation.
Actually, during the last decades, bamboo fibers have often been proposed as
a possible reinforcement for polymer matrices, therefore obtaining natural fiber
composites. On these materials a considerable and growing interest has been revealed
as a more sustainable replacement e.g., for fiberglass in some applications, such
as the automotive industry [46]. To constitute an intermediate step to the afore-
mentioned substitution, also the fabrication of bamboo/glass hybrid composites has
been proposed in a number of works involving the use of polypropylene matrix
[44, 48, 69, 83].
Possible application for bamboo fiber composites are in the building industry
e.g., as a dissipating structure to be embedded in concrete [15], in the automotive
industry for the production of components, as the prototype, which is represented in
Fig. 6, or in the shipbuilding industry [65]. Beyond the use of thermosetting matrices,
also bamboo fiber thermoplastic matrix composites have been proposed, in partic-
ular polypropylene [14, 45], starting already from over two decades ago, and more
recently also polyethylene [25], in both cases investigating both mechanical prop-
erties and crystallization patterns. Other studies involved using poly(vinylchloride)
(PVC) matrices though with limited amounts of bamboo fibers [36]. Another field of
application of bamboo fiber is their combination with biopolymers based on starch,
such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) [72], synthesized from crude oil, such as polycapro-
lactone (PCL) [30], or by a bacterial stream, such as poly(hydroxybutirate-valerate
(PHBV) [64]. The idea of these works is producing more sustainable composites
through the biodegradability of their matrix.
68 C. Santulli

Fig. 6 Development of a car door prototype from a bamboo fiber composite [20]

Actually, a few reviews of work performed about bamboo fiber polymer compos-
ites exist, which concentrate on different aspects; therefore, these may be considered
completing each other to obtain more thorough information on this field. In partic-
ular, Shah et al. [61], offered indications about tensile properties, concentrating on a
specific case, which is of paramount interest of the automotive industry, namely the
reinforcement of polypropylene (PP) matrices, especially in the case they are compat-
ibilized with maleic anhydride (MA) (therefore being referred as to MAPP). Another
review, which concentrated on polypropylene/bamboo fiber composites, reports also
on the possible interest of nanoclay addition for the improvement of mechanical
properties [31]. Other indications in this sense are offered by Rassiah and Megat
Ahmad [57], adding also some more details about the possible application as matrix
of biopolymers, such as poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB). The review by Abdul Khalil
et al. [1] set a more specific focus on biopolymers: here, the critical point of the
variability of fiber properties obtained by their extraction using different methods is
clearly highlighted, by comparing a number of those available in the technological
practice. Among biopolymers, the particular success recently obtained by poly(lactic
acid) (PLA), especially in fields, such as packaging, made it possible to propose also
the introduction of bamboo fibers, also for the multiplicity of extraction processes
possible, which make them adaptable also to the use in films of very low thickness. In
particular, Nurul Fazita et al. [49], have dedicated a specific review to PLA/bamboo
composites for packaging.
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites 69

2 From Bamboo Plant to the Fabrication of Composites

The length of its culms makes bamboo one of the most promising groups of species
for the extraction of fibers with high aspect ratio, hence also for composite production.
In addition, the structure of bamboo plants appears quite repeatable with limited vari-
ations throughout the different species. On the other side, the properties of the culms
change during aging of the plant, since with increasing age their structure undergoes
cell wall thickening, as shown, concentrating on Phyllostachys Viridiglaucescens, by
Liese and Weiner [40]. In practice, the culms are divided into segments, which are
separated from each other by areas of wider section, defined to as nodes. An initial
morphology evaluation would concern measurements carried out on the distance
between nodes, also referred to as internodal, which became first of interest for the
construction industry, where bamboo culms where proposed as the replacement for
steel bars into reinforced concrete. In that case, the frequency of nodes indicated the
degree of variation of culms with respect to hollow cylinder geometry with constant
section [23]. Along the culms, mechanical properties also considerably change espe-
cially between nodes and internodes regions, less so between different internodes
[2].
As far as use of bamboo in polymer composites is concerned, internodal distance
has an influence on the maximum possible length of the fibers for use in composites,
although in principle it is not necessary to exclude nodes from fiber selection, being
aware of the aforementioned variation in properties with respect to internodes. More
refined evaluations regard the density distribution in the internode sections, which
have an effect on the internal density distribution and consequently on the different
strength of the fibers. This density variation depends on the relative proportions and
growing patterns between tissues from vascular bundles tissues and parenchymal
ones (Huang et al. 2014). After fiber extraction, the nodal structure and tissue distri-
bution patterns still result in some variability of their length and diameter, and there-
fore in widely scattered strength values: despite this, some modelling has also been
attempted [73]. For the fabrication of composites, it is crucial to evaluate whether
bamboo fibers would be able to compete with or even outdo other fibers as rein-
forcement. This could appear evident in general, due to the structure of bamboo
culm,however, the extraction process may result in some damage inflicted to the
fibers.
As the consequence, comparative studies with other vegetable fibers have been
carried out, as it is case e.g., with sisal and Jowar [54], with Vakka, sisal and banana
[56], with jute [8, 47], with jute and kenaf [27]. It is significant for example to note
that bamboo composites have similar flexural properties to kenaf ones, although
they are less compressible, due to the lower void content and lumen dimensions
[63]. The great majority of these comparative studies is based on possible alternative
use of fibers available in the same region e.g., in India or in South-East Asia. The
comparison with bamboo may also be based though on a morphological similarity
between the plants, such as it is the case for a study on Arundo donax, however
70 C. Santulli

both reinforcements being used rather in the form of powder, which is of limited
suggestion about relating the morphologies of the two ligno-cellulosic fillers [55].
Other comparative studies are specifically intended for use in composites where,
given the very large availability of bamboo fibers, also the possible fabrication of
hybrids with other ligno-cellulosic fibers has been considered. This is the case of
work carried out in comparison with flax/epoxy fiber composites, where in terms of
mechanical and impact properties, bamboo proved largely inferior, when applying
them in the amount of 40% by weight as the reinforcement of an epoxy matrix. On the
other side, a hybrid with 20% flax and 20% bamboo was able to reduce considerably
this gap, due to the strict packing of flax fibers, able to improve both void content
and to show better compatibility with the polymer matrix [60]. Another possibility
of comparison of the performance of bamboo with other ligno-cellulosic fibers was
explored again using kenaf, but comparing at the same time also bamboo fibers with
bamboo charcoal: this led to the idea to produce hybrid composites with the three
fillers together. Kenaf would contribute in terms of mechanical properties, bamboo
charcoal would offer a higher thermal stability, while bamboo fibers would espe-
cially contribute dynamical mechanical properties, supposedly for their structural
morphology [11]. The subsequent fabrication of the hybrids brought to the conclu-
sion that 50:50 weight ratio of bamboo and kenaf fibers with a total amount of 40%
by weight in epoxy resin was the optimum mixing ratio for obtaining hybrids with
enhanced dimensional and dynamic mechanical properties [12]. An example of a
hybrid composite with three different fibers, bamboo, coir and kenaf, indicated that
an effective balance between the higher ductility of coir and the higher strength of
the other fibers was also obtained, in combination with a poly(lactic acid) matrix
[78].
Among other considerations, two significant factors have an influence on the
morphology of bamboo fibers, therefore on the mechanical properties of the compos-
ites obtained by using these as fillers in polymer matrices: fiber extraction and the
species of bamboo from which extraction takes place. In a more applicative context,
one of the issues encountered in producing natural fiber composites, with respect to
fiberglass, has been the much higher variability of their properties, due to the natural
hierarchical structure of the fibers, originated in the case of bamboo from the bundle
sheath [4]. The hierarchical cellular structure has an influence over the mechanical
characteristics of the obtained fibers, in particular controlling crack propagation [24].
The previously mentioned considerations indicate that studies aimed at the
production and characterization of bamboo fiber composites would need to concen-
trate on the effect of the morphological aspects of fiber, as resulting from their
extraction and treatment, and of the variability depending on species, considering
that bamboo has a particularly high number of species adapted to the production
of fibers. This will have a consequence on the morphological, therefore mechanical
and structural properties of the composites obtained, as discussed in the following
section.
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites 71

3 Fibre Extraction and Effect of Species

The main reason that requires controlling bamboo fiber extraction and morphology
lies in the inherent brittleness of fibers, as received, due to them being covered in
lignin [50]. This surface layer appears nonetheless having a non-uniform topog-
raphy with the consequence that wetting behavior can be very variable, and has been
demonstrated to be possibly reduced by autoclave treatment [22]. This occurs at the
microscale, whereas the situation appears different at the nanoscale. Bamboo plant
appears to be realized in nature to take the shape of highly organized multiscale
structured composites, which are at the same time exceptionally tough, yet also hard
and strong. Individual bamboo fibers are in fact built using a structure of cobble-like
polygonal cellulose grains with diameter between 40 and 100 nm nanograins, which
leads to a ductile rather than brittle behavior. Observations under the atomic force
microscope that prove this particular morphology are described in Fig. 7 [82].

Fig. 7 Phloem fiber cap in a vascular bundle of a bamboo culm: a Optical micrograph of a fiber
cap. b–d Atomic force microscopy (AFM) phase images of bamboo fibers. e–j AFM phase images
of the nanoscale structure in the fiber cell wall [82]
72 C. Santulli

Typically, the lamellar structure of the fibers presents an increasing lignin content
proceeding from the lumen towards the middle lamella. In addition, the amount of
lignin is higher as far as the plant becomes older [43]. The effect of this is the difficult
predictability of mechanical properties of the fibers, unless these are extracted in a
standardized way from fully developed plants of a young age.
The ultimate effect of species on fiber performance in composites has also been
comprehensively examined in a study by Yu et al. [76], which tested a number of fibers
of different species and related their section geometry with mechanical properties. For
the purpose the fibers were cut at 2 m above the basal node and were either 2 or 3 years
old. More specifically, the species considered were Neosinocalamus affinis (Rendle)
Keng f. (C), Bambusa pervariabilis McClure (CG), Dendrocalamopisis vario-striata
(W.T.Lin) Keng f. (DS), Bambusa chungii McClure (FD), Bambusa albo-lingata Chia
(H), Bambusa longispiculata Gamble ex Brandis (HM), Dendrocalamopisis oldhami
(Munro) Keng f (LV), Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro (Ma), Bambusa eutuldoides
var. viridi-vittata (W.T.Lin) Chia (QS), Phyllostachys heteroclada Oliver (s), and
Bambusa multiplex cv. ‘Silverstripe’ (YS). It is suggested that the section geometry
may considerably depart from circularity and this has some relation, though not an
obvious one, with tensile performance.
To extend further the understanding of bamboo fibers’ potential as the reinforce-
ment of polymer composites, a remarkable consideration has to be done on the
large variety of species that have been used for fiber extraction with intended use in
composites. In particular, studies also exist with the purpose of comparing perfor-
mance obtained when adding fibers obtained from different species. For example,
in Bahari and Kraus [6], fibers from two Malaysian species (Bambusa vulgaris and
Schizostachyum brachycladum) of bamboo are added to poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
matrix in a particulate filler form. As indicated in Fig. 8, it is important to observe
that the effect of the species of bamboo is prevalent in varying water absorption,
which is of paramount significance in composites.
A significant consideration, preliminary to proceed with fiber extraction, is that the
section of the culm used for the purpose would be the most suitable one. With this idea,
in the study by Zakikhani et al. [81], four different bamboo species (Dendrocalamus
pendulus, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigantochloa levis, Gigantochloa scortechini) have
been compared, as regards their morphological, physical and mechanical properties.
The study evidenced that, while the highest aspect ratio and Young’s modulus were
shown by Dendrocalamus asper, in contrast the highest specific strength was obtained
by Gigantochloa levis. This comparison was aimed at evaluating the maximum fiber
length to be extracted from the plant: to have fibers longer than the internode distance
is only possible in case of mechanical extraction e.g., by stripping off dried bamboo
culms or by other cutting procedures, which lead to bamboo slivers or bundles.
All these operations enable a good separation, so that these can be able to retain
their natural characteristics, as reported among others by Deshpande et al. [21],
which raised a considerable concern though on the scattering of diameters and
tensile strength obtained by compression molding and roller mill extraction. This
method allowed in some particular cases, such as for giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites 73

Fig. 8 Water uptake (weight increase percentage) property for all composite groups: (a) bamboo-
PVC composites from different species, particle sizes and particles loading, (b) pure PVC
composites and wood-PVC composites (Note Bv = B. vulgaris, Sb = S. brachycladum) [6]

Giganteus), obtaining fibers even more than 100 mm long, with a very variable
length/diameter ratio though [51].
Other possible extraction procedures, which always follow some form of mechan-
ical processing, normally by cutting and striping, are chemical extraction by alkali
treatment using sodium hydroxide or steam explosion process. The comparison
between the properties of fibers of the same bamboo species three processes which,
apart from the consumption of energy and chemicals, results in disrupting the orien-
tation of the natural bamboo fibers, therefore in a lower performance in terms of
strength along the fiber direction [34]. Moreover, it is also important to notice that
steam explosion can also produce the possibility of binder-less adhesion of fibers in
wood-like panels as an effect of an improved isolation of phenolic hydroxyl groups
of lignin [62]. Another implication of this chemical transformation is that the more
effective separation of bamboo filaments obtained through steam explosion may lead
to an improved flexural performance and therefore also to a tougher interface with
polymer matrices, such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) [71]. This has also been revealed
effective on oil-based matrices, such as polypropylene, coupling also effectively with
the traditional treatments, leading to an improved compatibility with plant fibers,
such as maleic anhydride treatment [75]. The comparison among different modes of
extraction has also been attempted before composites fabrication: a relevant review
was provided by Zakikhani et al. [80]. In particular, bamboo fiber bundles, to be
prepared for impregnation into vinylester resin, were extracted by three methods,
namely steam explosion, alkali extraction, and chemical extraction, characterizing
the bamboo fiber bundles for their interfacial shear strength (IFSS), improved by
74 C. Santulli

chemical removal of hemicellulose, and tensile properties, where all treatments

proved detrimental instead [37].

4 Morphology of Extracted Bamboo Fibers and Their

Properties in Composites

The objective difficulty encountered in studies on bamboo fiber reinforced compos-

ites is trying to relate morphological features of the fibers after extraction with the
properties of the composites obtained. The starting point is that in natural fibers, a
clear connection exists between the sectional geometry, the relevant dimension of
lumen and the microfibrillar angle, therefore the winding angle by which the fibrils
are turned around, and their tensile strength, as observed for example by Alves Fidelis
et al. 2013. In the specific case of bamboo, the microfibrillar angle tends to be very
small, in some cases as low as 2°, which results in general terms into promising tensile
characteristics in fiber direction [33]. This can be very appealing for the production
of bamboo fiber composites. On the other side, fibers morphology is known to be
possibly modified substantially by the action of chemicals, such as it occurs for alkali
treatment. In particular, the transformation from cellulose I to cellulose II, disrupting
therefore the alignment of polysaccharides chains, is taking place by the effect of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treatment, also referred to as “mercerization”. Going into
further detail, an increase in crystallinity has been revealed up to a concentration of
NaOH equal to 15% wt. [17], which resulted in an increase into work of fracture of
bamboo strips/novolac (phenol/formaldehyde) composites [18]. Another possibility
to increase crystallinity is the application to bamboo fibers of heat treatment with
superheated steam, which resulted up to 140 °C also into an increased stiffness of
Moso bamboo fibers [77].
The change in morphology of bamboo fibers obtained using steam explosion was
related to process parameters: in particular, degumming rate increased and a better
separation among fibers was obtained the higher the steam explosion pressure and
the longer the time this pressure was maintained. Moreover, a combination of alkali
treatment and steam explosion was preferable over performing the two processes
alone: as the result of combined treatment, the fibers were smoother and with smaller
diameter [13].
Other than with extraction, some morphological features were observed on
bamboo fibers due to the combination with specific matrices. In particular, bamboo
fibers are able to contribute to the rise in crystallinity of polypropylene, also when
treated with maleic anhydride (MAPP): in practice, bamboo fibers act other than rein-
forcement, also as nucleator of β crystallinity phase with trans-crystallinity growth
[45]. On the other side, in the case of low-density linear polyethylene, despite effec-
tive mechanical/chemical extraction, leading to unbundled fibers, fiber bleaching was
necessary to improve their hydrophobicity in order to obtain a sufficiently strong
fiber/matrix interface [38]. However, also when using a polyethylene matrix, maleic
Morphological and Mechanical Aspects of Bamboo Composites 75

Fig. 9 Improvement of interfacial bonding between fibers in a rubber matrix bamboo composite
by addition of amine-based bonding agent (micrographs 150×) [32]

anhydride treatment proved effective in increasing tensile, flexural, Izod impact prop-
erties and torque value of the composite, whereas the addition of montmorillonite
(MMT) clay was more critical [25]. To further reduce the hydrophilic character of
bamboo fibers in composites, particularly aiming at oil-based matrices, silane treat-
ment was also applied to mercerized fibers, which more than halved water absorption
in unsaturated polyester/bamboo composites [39].
An alternative possibility that has been also explored was the addition of bamboo
fibers to a natural rubber matrix up to a 50 wt.% loading. This resulted in a consid-
erably higher stiffness of the composite, as indicated by the subsequent increase of
the Mooney viscosity, yet on the other side in a significant reduction of its tensile
strength. It is worth observing though that the presence of bonding agents, namely
phenol–formaldehyde and hexamethylenetetramine (HETA), solved the problem of
weak interfacial bonding between fibers, as depicted in Fig. 9 [32]. This has obvi-
ously a negative influence on the sustainability of the material, although in itself a
natural rubber/bamboo composite does appear already of difficult recyclability.

5 Conclusions and Future Perspective

In recent years, the use of fibrous material obtained from bamboo culms in composites
has been widely explored. A number of factors can influence the success of this
operation: in particular, the mode of extraction is critical: this may involve mechanical
and chemical operations, would need not to damage fibers and at the same time allow
obtaining sufficiently long segments, given the botanical limitations represented by
the presence of nodes.
A large amount of literature exists, which concerns comparison with different
fibers, with preference for the ones available in south-east Asia, such as kenaf,
but more generally open also to further solutions, even to the production of hybrid
76 C. Santulli

composites including other ligno-cellulosic fibers together with bamboo. The poly-
mers used include biodegradable ones, such as poly(lactic acid) and ones of more
interest in the automotive and commodity industry, such as polyolefins, together
with traditional thermosetting ones, such as epoxies and unsaturated polyester, which
prove suitable for initial studies to propose bamboo fibers for use in this field, as a
replacement for fiberglass. A difficulty appears to be also the very large number of
bamboo species existing, some comparative studies on this aspect exist, yet still of
limited significance. It is suggested that this will need more attention in the future to
try making predictions on the possible performance of the composites to be obtained
from the single bamboo species and the section and age of the plant that is used for
the purpose.

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Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their
Influence on the Mechanical and Thermal
Properties of Polymer Composites

T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, M. Chandrasekar, K. Senthilkumar,

Nadir Ayrilmis, Suchart Siengchin, and N. Rajini

Abstract Bamboo has been traditionally used in sports and musical equipments,
household appliances, interior furnishing and decoration for many years. Other than
the usefulness of bamboo in the product form, studies indicate that fibres extracted
from the bamboo tree can also be used as reinforcement in composites. Bamboo
fibres can be easily extracted and are available in chopped form, as long fibres
and as woven mats. The bamboo fibres possess superior tensile properties and high
strength to weight ratio, an important criteria for reinforcement in composite mate-
rials. This article discusses the influence of fibre parameters such as fibre orientation,
fibre loading, fibre architecture, etc. on mechanical and thermal properties of the
composites. Fibre treatments that has been carried out by researchers to improve the

T. Senthil Muthu Kumar (B) · N. Rajini

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education,
Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu 626126, India
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Rajini
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Chandrasekar
School of Aeronautical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Padur,
Kelambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 603103, India
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Senthilkumar
Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering for Manufacturing (CoI-DEM), King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang, Bangsue, Bangkok
10800, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Ayrilmis
Department of Wood Mechanics and Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul
University-Cerrahpasa, Bahcekoy, Sariyer, 34473 Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Siengchin
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok
(KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 81

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_5
82 T. Senthil Muthu Kumar et al.

fibre-matrix adhesion between hydrophilic bamboo fibre and hydrophobic polymer

matrix along with their mechanism and their impact in the mechanical and thermal
properties has also been highlighted.

Keywords Bamboo fibre · Fibre extraction · Mechanical properties · Fibre

treatment

1 Introduction

There is a mounting interest among the researchers to substitute the fibre glass and
carbon fibre reinforced composites with natural fibre reinforced composites (NFRC)
[1]. The foremost advantages of using the natural fibres in polymer composites
are their non-abrasive nature, lower energy consumption, eco-friendly nature and
abundant availability [2, 3]. Natural fibres can promote the CO2 sequestration in the
atmosphere and help in reducing the carbon foot print. In addition to these advantages,
the stringent environmental regulations all around the world has also paved the way
for extraction and development of new natural fibres for use in composites.
Natural fibres such as kenaf, sisal, banana, pineapple, flax, sugar palm, hemp,
bamboo, jute have been extensively used as reinforcement in composites [4]. Natural
fibre reinforced composites with thermoplastic and thermoset matrices have been
employed in structural applications in automotive, aerospace and construction sector
while it also has non-structural applications in the sports equipment, household items,
etc. [5, 6]. Application of NFRC in high performance applications is still limited
due to the characteristic of the natural fibres and their inferior mechanical prop-
erties. Many attempts has been made by researchers to overcome this problem as
follows: (1) Modification of the fibre surface with fibre treatments, (2) Introduc-
tion of nanoparticles into the matrix, (3) hybridization with other natural fibres and
synthetic fibres and (4) use of compatibilizers [2, 3, 7–9]. This review highlights
recent research works on the use of bamboo fibre (BF) as reinforcement in polymer
composites and the influence of fibre architecture, fibre loading and fibre treatments
on the mechanical properties of composites is discussed.

1.1 Bamboo Fibres

Bamboo, a plant which belongs to the family of grasses (Poaceae), is grown for
controlling soil erosion and carbon sequestration. It has many traditional applications
such as musical instruments, artworks, crafted bags, tools and construction materials
[10]. Other than their diversified use in applicatios, bamboo fibres can also be used
as plausible reinforcement in the polymer composites. It is abundantly available in
many countries and the total bamboo plantation in the world is around 22 million
hectares. The global availability of bamboo fibre is over 30 million tons per year
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical … 83

Fig. 1 Process of making bamboo fabric mats

and over 80% of this resource is spread in Asian countries, especially in India and
China [11]. Other than the use of bamboo fibre as reinforcement, recent studies show
that cellulose extracted from the bamboo pulp is a bio-polymer and could be used
as matrix [12, 13]. The clum of bamboo has an unique structure having many nodes
along its length (shown in Fig. 1) and resembles like an unidirectional fibre consisting
of cellulosic fibres surrounded in a ligneous matrix.

1.2 Extraction Methods

The clum in the bamboo plant is split into strips for the removal of the nodes as
shown in Fig. 1. Extraction of fibres may be done by steam explosion or alkali
extraction [14]. The steam explosion process involves heating the bamboo strips in
an autoclave at around 200 °C and 0.8 MPa. The steam pressure was then suddenly
reduced to atmospheric pressure to separate hemicellulose and lignin form cellulose.
The process is repeated several times and the obtained fibres were washed thoroughly
and dried at 100 °C overnight. The extracted bamboo fibres can be made into fibre
bundles, fibre yarn and weaved into fibre mats as shown in the Fig. 1.
Similarly, in alkali extraction process, the bamboo strips were placed in a stainless
steel container with 1.5 N NaOH solution. The solution was heated to at 70 °C for
about 5 h and the strips were pressed in a machine. The obtained fibres were washed
thoroughly and dried at 100 °C overnight in a hot air oven. For making mats the
fibres were weaved and bamboo mats were obtained.

1.3 Fibre Composition and Properties

It has been reported that the structure of bamboo varies with cross section and their
height. Fibre constituents such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, etc. also varies
from species to species. Table 1 shows the chemical composition and properties of
bamboo fibres. Tensile strength and young’s modulus of the bamboo fibre is between
100 MPa–600 MPa and 3 GPa–15 GPa respectively [15]. It is well documented
84 T. Senthil Muthu Kumar et al.

Table 1 Chemical
Particulars Value
composition and properties of
bamboo fibres [12] Cellulose (%) 26–43
Lignin (%) 21–31
Pentosans (%) 15–26
Ash (%) 1.7–5
Density (g/cm3 ) 0.6–1.1
Tensile strength (MPa) 140–230

in the literature that mechanical properties of the bamboo fibres are influenced by
their length, cross section and chemical composition.This is because fibres orient
themselves along the length of the plant and it is easier to obtain long fibres of any
length which are the attibutes for better mechanical properties [16].

2 Fabrication of Bamboo Fibre Reinforced Composites

Bamboo finds mounting application as a substitute to wood based products such

as fibre boards, particle boards and laminated lumber, veneers, and ply-bamboo.
Bamboo fibres can be utilized in various forms such as splits (2 m), filaments,
macrofibres (0.25 mm), microfibres (pulp, 20 μm), or nanofibres (20 nm) etc. by
applying different mechanical and chemical processing steps [10]. Many researchers
have attempted using bamboo as a reinforcing material in composites. Fabrication of
these composites are done by different methods such as the hot press, compression
moulding, hand lay up method and casting technique etc. The fabrication method
is selected based on the form in which bamboo is being used. Bamboo fibre rein-
forced composite with thermoplastic polymers such as polypropylene, polyethylene,
polyesters, polylactic acid etc. and thermoset polymers such as epoxy, polyester,
etc. has been fabricated and their properties were explored. Hebel et al. [17] fabri-
cated epoxy based composites with unidirectional bamboo fibres in the layered
structure using a hot press. Compression molding technique was used to fabricate
HDPE/bamboo fibre reinforced polymer composites by Han et al. [11] Bamboo
fibre–reinforced epoxy composites with different orientation of bamboo fibres were
prepared by Jain et al. [18]. Lu et al. [19] extracted cellulose powder particles from
bamboo fibres using a high speed universal grinder, and fabricated cellulose/epoxy
composites by casting method. Khan et al. [20] fabricated composites using bamboo
fibre and epoxy by the conventional hand lay-up method.
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical … 85

2.1 Mechanical Properties

Okubo et al. [21] used bamboo fibre as a reinforcement in PLA based hybrid compos-
ites along with microfibrillated cellulose (MFC). They reported that due to the inter-
phase between the cellulose and the PLA matrix around the bamboo fibre, abrupt
crack growth was arrested. This eventually resulted in enhanced tensile performance
and further the diffusion of 1 wt% of MFC in PLA matrix drastically improved the
strain energy of the bamboo/PLA composite upto 200%.
The performance of composites are mostly influenced by the physical character-
istics of the polymer matrix and the reinforcing fibre. Yusoff et al. [22] fabricated
hybrid green composites using PLA as matrix and kenaf, bamboo, and coir fibres
as reinforcements. They employed varied combinations of fibre sequences such
as bamboo-coir/PLA, kenaf-coir/PLA, and kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA with constant
weight percentages of fibre to matrix and examined their mechanical performance.
Their results revealed that the kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA hybrid composites showed
the highest tensile strength and modulus of 187 MPa and 7.5 GPa respectively,
while the kenaf-coir/PLA hybrid composites presented the lowest tensile properties.
The highest toughness was found for kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA hybrid composites at
4.45 MJ/m3 , while the lowest was recorded for for kenaf-coir/PLA at 0.97 MJ/m3 .
The bamboo-coir/PLA hybrid composites possessed 3.54 MJ/m3 . The reason for the
higher toughness was due to the optimum fraction of fibre in the composites. Further,
the flexural strength of kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA and bamboo-coir/PLA hybrids was
higher than that of the kenaf-coir/PLA hybrid composites which was due to the
strong interaction between the fibre cell wall and the matrix. They concluded that the
bamboo and kenaf fibres compensated the lower strength of coir fibre by bearing the
tensile load while the coir fibre contributed in the enhanced toughness of the hybrid
green composites.
Bamboo fibres with fibre diameters in the range of 178–181 μm were extracted
through steam explosion method by Biswas et al. [23] Similarly they also extracted
jute fibres with fibre diameters in the range of 39–66 μm through mechanical process.
Composites were prepared by reinforcing bamboo and jute fibres in epoxy matrix to
compare the mechanical properties of both the composites. Their results revealved
that the tensile strength of the bamboo epoxy composites was 392 MPa while for the
jute epoxy composites it was only 216 MPa. On the other hand there was not much
difference in the tensile modulus of these fibre composites. Simlarly, they also found
the flexural properties of both the fibre composites in both longitudinal and transverse
fibre distribution. When the fibres were distributed longitudinaly bamboo epoxy
composites exhibited 226 MPa while jute epoxy composites exhibited 158 MPa and
when the fibres were transversly oreinted jute epoxy composites possessed 25.7 MPa
and bamboo epoxy composites presented 11.89 MPa. The main reason for this trend
is that the bamboo fibres could not take any stress as they were aligned to the parallel
direction of flexural load.
86 T. Senthil Muthu Kumar et al.

Varying contents of short bamboo fibre (10, 20, 30 and 40 wt%) reinforced
polypropylene composites have been fabricated using maleic anhydride polypropy-
lene (MAPP) as the compatablizer and characterized to determine the mechanical
properties. The increase in percentage of the fibre did not influence the mechanical
properties. Hence, they added 20% by mass of glass fibre and formed bamboo glass
fibre hybrid composites. By incorporation of glass the tensile and flexural modulus
increased by 12.5 and 10% respectively. The tensile and flexural strengths increase
by 7 and 25%. The decrease in tensile properties of the bamboo fibre composites
were attributed to the poor adhesion between the polymer and the matrix. Further the
enhancement in the properties in bamboo glass hybrid composites were attributed to
the addition of stronger and stiffer glass fibre [24].

2.2 Fibre Treatments and Compatibilizer to Enhance

Mechanical Properties

The main drawback in using bamboo fibre as reinforcement is their poor adhe-
sion with many polymers. Since, the polymers are hydrophobic and the fibres are
hydrophilic in nature, there exists a low interaction between the two components.
Physical and chemical modifications of fibre surface can enhance the interfacial
interaction between the polymer and fibre [7, 8]. So the scope of utilizing the abun-
dantly available bamboo lies in modification of the fibre surface to achieve better
performcance of the ensuing composites.
A strong interfacial adhesion between the polymer resin and fibre is required for
achieving superior mechnical properties in a fibre reinforced polymer composite.
Thus, strong interfacial adhesion imparts effective stress transfer and load distribu-
tion throughout the composite. Strong adhesion between the resin and the fibre can be
achieved by proper wetting of the fibres by the resin and also by the chemical bonding
between the fibre surface and the matrix. Hence many researchers have attempted
in chemical modification of natural fibres for improving the interfacial interaction
between the fibres and the resin matrix. Zhang et al. [25] investigated the effect of
fibre modification by varying concentrations of NaoH (2, 6, 10 wt%) on the mechan-
ical properties of bamboo-based composites. It was found that the 2 wt% NaOH
treatment had a minor effect on the tensile properties of bamboo fibres since 2 wt%
NaOH treatment could only remove small part of the surface substances, indicating
that a large amount of gummy material still existed as a constraint among cellulose
chains. The tensile strength of 2 wt% NaOH treatment fibres was 283 MPa when
compared to the 263 MPa strength of the untreated fibre composites. On the other
hand, 6 wt% NaOH treatment yielded maximum tensile strength of 368 MPa where
for 10 wt% NaOH treatment the values reduced to 235 MPa. From this study they
concluded that the optimal NaOH concentration was 6 wt% which yielded the highest
tensile strength. The phenomenon behind the modification of fibre surface through
alkali treatment and their improvement in mechanical properties is explained. Fibre
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical … 87

constituents such as hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, wax and other surface impurities
are removed due to the immersion of natural fibres in the aqueous alkali solution.
Removal of fibre constituents can cause the following physical changes to natural
fibre: (1) Micropores on the fibre surface leading to rough fibre surface and (2) fibril-
lation which splits the single fibre into fibril strands. Both the micropores and fibril-
lation provides better mechanical interlocking of the treated fibre with the polymer
leading to better mechanical properties [5, 6, 26]. Composites with NaOH treated
fibres had lees fibre pull-out and lower fibre-matrix de-bonding (which are signs
of improved interfacial adhesion) was reported by from the fractured specimens
observed under scanning electron microscope [27]. Fibre treatment with alkali does
not always yield improvements in mechanical properties of the NFRC. For instance,
Manalo et al. found that optimum mechanical properties were obtained for polyester
based composite containing 6 wt% NaOH treated fibres. Strength and modulus of the
composites with 8 wt% NaOH treated fibre declined. This is because high concentra-
tion of NaOH resulted in excessive removal of hemicellulose and other constituents
from the fibre. This led to weakening of the fibre and makes them less effective
in stress transfer between the fibre and matrix, thus leading to lower strength and
modulus [28].
In a different study, alkali pre-treated bamboo fibres were subsequently dipped
in aqueous silane solution containing 3 wt% of aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (AS)
and tetramethoxy orthosilicate (TMOS). It is clear from their results that both AS
and TMOS treatment resulted in substantial improvement in tensile, flexural and
impact strength of bamboo fibre reinforced polyproylene composites. The mecha-
nism behind the combined Alkali-silane treatment is explained as follows: Alkali
treatment promoted better interlocking between fibres and matrix while silanol
groups in the silane forms a covalent bond with the hydroxyl groups of the fibre
leading to better compatibility between the fibre and matrix [29].
In addition to the fibre treatment, it is also possible to add compatibilizer like
Maleic Anhydride (MA) in thermoplastic matrix to enhance the fibre-matrix bonding
characteristic. In a recent study, recycled polypropylene/bamboo composites were
examined without and without MA compatibilizer. Bamboo fibres were subjected
to mercerization and acetylation on mechanical properties of it was found that the
tensile and impact strength of untreated bamboo/recycled polypropylene compos-
ites was 22.4 MPa and 2.8 kJ/m2 respectively. The chemically modified bamboo
fibre/recycled polypropylene composites exhibited better tensile and impact strength
when compared to the untreated composites. It could be seen that the tensile and
impact strength was 29.7 MPa and 3.8 kJ/m2 for alkali treated composites and the
same for acetylated bamboo fibre composites was 31.6 MPa and 4.2 kJ/m2 . The
improvement in the properties could be due to the enhanced adhesion at the interface
between fibre surface and polymer after alkali and acetylation treatments. Further
the incorporation of MAPP compatibilizer led to better adhesion between fibre and
matrix [30].
88 T. Senthil Muthu Kumar et al.

3 Thermal Properties of Bamboo Fibre Reinforced

Composites

The thermal analysis includes a group of techniques such as (i) thermogravimetric

analysis (TGA) (ii) dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) (iii) differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) and thermomechanical analysis (TMA). These techniques can be
used to determine the chemical or physical characteristics of any substance since it is
cooled, heated, or held at a constant temperature. These characteristics are significant
for polymer characterization; additionally, these are playing a significant role in the
field of foodstuffs and pharmaceuticals [5, 6, 31]. Some of the essential factors that
influence the TGA, DMA, DSC, and TMA are tabulated in Table 2. Additionally,
some of the critical industrial applications of these techniques are tabulated in Table
3.
Chee et al. [32] examined the DMA and TMA properties of bamboo/kenaf/epoxy
matrix hybrid composites by varying the individual fibre contents (in wt%) such
as 28:12, 20:20, 12:28 (bamboo/kenaf). The performance of the hybrid composites
measured by comparing individual fibre reinforced composites. The results reported
that the complex modulus and storage modulus of composites exhibited in the order,
bamboo composite > 20:20 > 28:12 > 12:28 > kenaf composite > epoxy matrix.
Furthermore, the 20:20 hybrid composites effectively transformed the loads and
showed the lowest value of the coefficient of effectiveness. Regarding the dimen-
sional stability, the 20:20 hybrid composites performed well than the rest of the coun-
terparts. Furthermore, the bamboo/kenaf/epoxy matrix composites were subjected to
accelerated weathering, and the thermal stability was compared with that of before
weathered composites [33]. Interestingly, after weathered hybrid composites [i.e.,

Table 2 Influential factors of the thermal analysis techniques

TGA DMA DSC TMA
Heating rate Type of load Furnace heating rate Specimen preparation
Heat of reaction Frequency Furnace atmosphere Stress (load)
Furnace Tightening torque Recording speed Specimen geometry
atmosphere
Geometry of Clamps The geometry of Starting temperature
crucible sample holders
Characteristics of Temperature program Location of sensors Heating rate
samples Specimen geometry Pan type Type of load
Sample size
The solubility of
evolved gases in the
sample
Heat of reaction
Thermal conductivity
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical … 89

Table 3 Different applications of the thermal analysis techniques

TGA DMA DSC TMA
Automotive Automobile and aerospace Automotive Plastics
Chemical Chemical Chemical Electronics industry
Fats and oils Fats and oils Fats and oils Paints
Rubber Paints and lacquers Paints Textile fibres
Plastics Rubber Rubber Film packings
Food industry Plastics Food industry Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals Ceramic materials Pharmaceuticals
Food industry
Pharmaceuticals

the mass ratio of 28:12 (bamboo/kenaf)] showed higher thermal stability in TGA;
also, the complex modulus of the all the weathered composite samples were shifted
to higher magnitudes. It was ascribed to the increased cross-linking reaction due to
the ultraviolet radiation.
In another work, Chee et al. [34] observed the pyrolysis decomposition proper-
ties of bamboo/kenaf/epoxy matrix composites under the presence of oxygen and
nitrogen gases. They reported that the decomposition temperatures were not varied
by changing the working atmospheres; however, the initial decomposition temper-
ature was shifted to the lower range, and the mass loss was observed between 450
and 600 °C. Moreover, (i) the mass ratio of 28:12 (bamboo/kenaf) hybrid composites
exhibited higher thermal stability and thermo-oxidative property and (ii) the oxida-
tion onset temperature was found to be reduced with increasing the content of natural
fibres in an epoxy matrix due to the existence of hydroxyl group.
In another study, Chee et al. [34] compared the thermal stability of bamboo char-
coal mat composites with the bamboo/epoxy and kenaf/epoxy matrix composites.
Amongst the composites, the bamboo charcoal mat composites performed well,it
was ensured by witnessing their higher temperatures from the initial and final
decomposition level than the rest of the epoxy matrix composites. Nevertheless,
the mechanical properties of the bamboo charcoal mat composites showed lesser
than the bamboo/epoxy matrix composites. Some of the reported studies on thermal
analysis techniques are tabulated in Table 4.
Another interesting study made by the researchers [44]. reported that the thermal
properties of wood-plastic composites improved by incorporating bamboo charcoal
as reinforcing filler, whereas the bamboo charcoal was varied in the ranges of 2, 4,
and 8%. By adding 8% of bamboo charcoal, the char residue of the wood-plastic
composites almost hit 13% also showed higher thermal stability. In other research
work, found that increasing the content of bamboo fibril in poly- hydroxybutyrate
(PHB), the thermal stability of the composites was found to be enhanced. For instance,
the weight loss of pure PHB, 5 wt% of bamboo fibril/PHB, and 30 wt% of bamboo
fibril/PHB were recorded as 85.26%, 80.57%, and ~60% respectively at 300 °C [45].
90 T. Senthil Muthu Kumar et al.

Table 4 Reported work on thermal characterization techniques

Reinforcement Matrix Characterization References
technique
Bamboo fibre Polylactic acid TGA [35]
Bamboo particles Polyvinyl chloride DSC [36]
modified by sodium
silicate
Bamboo powder Polypropylene TG–DTA [37]
Bamboo fibre High-density polyethylene DMA [11]
Bamboo fibre Polypropylene/polylactic TGA, DSC [38]
acid
Bamboo fibre was Polypropylene DSC [39]
modified by sodium
meta-periodate
Bamboo charcoal Ultra-high molecular weight DSC [40]
polyethylene
Bamboo/jute Low-density polyethylene TGA, DSC [41]
Bamboo fibre Polyvinyl chloride TGA, DSC [42]
Bamboo fibre Polypropylene DSC [43]

Ren et al. [46] compared the thermal stability of bamboo pulp fibres/high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and bamboo flour/HDPE matrix composites by analyzing the
TGA thermograms. They varied the contents of bamboo pulp fibres between 5 and
50% while the bamboo flour was fixed as 50%. It was reported that the initial degrada-
tion temperature, i.e., (T 5% ) of the bamboo pulp fibre/HDPE matrix composites was
found to be decreased with increasing the fibre content; however, the carbon residues
showed an opposite trend. The better thermal stability of composites was ensured by
comparing the initial degradation temperatures of bamboo pulp and bamboo flour
reinforced composites with 50 wt% of fibre contents. The former was exhibited
higher initial degradation temperature (i.e., 20.18%) than later.
In another work, Xian et al. [47] examined the thermal properties of bamboo
residue fibre/polyethylene composites after introducing white mud as a secondary
filler. The hybrid composites were fabricated by varying the contents of white mud
from 0 to 22% and maintaining the bamboo residue fibre as 50% in all the samples.
They reported that the char residue of the hybrid composites was found to be
increased from 7.56 to 33.55% (until 18% addition of white mud); however, the
initial degradation temperature (i.e., T5% , °C) was found to be decreased.
Another study illustrated that the thermal stability of bamboo fibre/polypropylene
composites was observed to be enhanced by the addition of maleic anhydride grafted
polypropylene (MAPP) [48]. It was ascribed to the increased molecular weight by
the cross-linking reaction between the bamboo fibre and the polypropylene matrix.
Furthermore, the thermal stability of these composites was found to be improved
by incorporating (i) the glass fibres (15%); it was attributed to the higher thermal
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical … 91

stability of glass fibre than the bamboo fibre. Regarding the DSC thermograms,
the melting temperature of the polypropylene matrix (162 °C) was not changed
by the addition of bamboo fibre, glass fibre, and MAPP. However, the degree of
crystallization was found to be reduced. The degree of crystallinity of composites
increased by incorporating the fibres in polypropylene. Nevertheless, the crystallinity
was found to be decreased with the addition of MAPP in bamboo/polypropylene and
bamboo/glass/polypropylene composites; it was attributed to the improved interfa-
cial adhesion between the fibres and the polypropylene. Furthermore, the storage
modulus of bamboo/glass fibre reinforced hybrid composites were increased by
showing higher stiffness values than the pure polypropylene matrix and untreated
fibre reinforced composites.
Researchers found that increasing the content of cellulose nanowhiskers (i.e.,
which was extracted from the bamboo pulp residue of newspaper production) from
2.5 to 10 wt% within the natural rubber, and the onset degradation temperature was
shifted from 273 to 278 °C [49]. Moreover, the degradation temperature was shifted
from 275 °C (natural rubber) to 350 °C (nanowhiskers/natural rubber) in the deriva-
tive thermogravimetry (DTG) curve. The improvement of degradation temperatures
of these composites was ascribed to the decreased movement of the natural rubber
phase in the vicinity of nanowhiskers. Yao et al. [50] reported that the effect of fibre
loading on bamboo fibre/polylactide biocomposites was depended on the bamboo
fibre loading. They observed that the glass transition temperature and melting temper-
ature of the bamboo/polylactide composites were found to be increased initially and
decreased with increasing the content of bamboo fibres. These observations were
suggested to enhance the segmental motion of the polylactide.
The thermal stability of bamboo fibre reinforced composites were studied by (i)
comparing untreated, and NaOH treated fibre composites (ii) varying the fibre loading
(0–40%) and (iii) introducing three different types of the matrix such as polyester,
epoxy and vinyl ester [46]. It was observed that the neat matrix (i.e., polyester,
epoxy and vinyl ester) exhibited higher residues than their respective matrix- fibre
reinforced composites. While considering the effect of fibre loading, 40% of fibre
loaded epoxy and vinyl ester reinforced composites showed the highest residues
than the rest of the fibre loaded composites. However, 40% of fibre loaded polyester
matrix composites showed the lowest char residue; it was attributed to the increased
interactions between the fibre and the polyester matrix. Furthermore, the thermal
stability of bamboo fibre reinforced composites did not show the differences in onset
degradation temperatures. Therefore, the degradation temperatures at 5 and 50%
of weight losses were observed, including the different fibre loaded composites.
The pure matrix samples showed higher degradation temperatures. In the case of
fibre loaded composites, there was a decreasing trend noticed by increasing the fibre
content; it was ascribed to the degradation of non-cellulosic substances [46].
Tang et al. [51] analyzed the thermal stability of bamboo fibre/phenolic foam
composites by (i) varying their fibre lengths such as <1 and 1–3 mm and (ii) increasing
the fibre loadings such as 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5%. They observed that the char residues at
600 °C were decreased with increasing their fibre loadings, which was associated with
92 T. Senthil Muthu Kumar et al.

the lower thermal stability of bamboo fibre. However, there were no significant differ-
ences observed by varying the fibre lengths. In another interesting study, the effects
of CaCO3 treated bamboo pulp fibre/high-density polyethylene composites were
studied by DMA and DSC techniques [52]. The thermal stability of these compos-
ites was analyzed by (i) varying the fibre loadings from 30 to 50 wt% and (ii) intro-
ducing three different manufacturing methods such as extrusion molding, hot press
molding, and injection molding. Regarding the DMA results, the storage modulus
and loss modulus of the extrusion molded composites (30% of fibre treated compos-
ites) exhibited higher than the rest of the manufacturing methods. The damping
characteristics of the bamboo pulp fibre/high-density polyethylene composites were
influenced by CaCO3 treatment, fibre content, and fabrication technique. The crys-
tallinity index of these composites was examined by using the DSC technique. It was
observed that the CaCO3 impregnated modified bamboo fibre reinforced compos-
ites showed a higher crystallinity index; it was ascribed to the increased interfacial
bonding between the matrix and the CaCO3 . However, increasing the fibre content in
hot press molded composites, the crystallinity index was found to be decreased. But
it was not in the case of extrusion and injection molded composites. This observa-
tion showed the significance of varying fibre content and using different fabrication
techniques [52].
Shih [53] compared the thermal stability of untreated bamboo fibre/epoxy and
silane treated bamboo fibre/epoxy matrix composites. The TGA results reported that
the char residues were increased from 8.9% (epoxy sample) to 13.6% due to embed-
ding the fibres in the epoxy matrix. Regarding the DMA results, the silane treated
bamboo fibre reinforced composites exhibited higher in storage modulus and loss
modulus. For instance, the glass transition temperature of the pure epoxy matrix was
shifted from 58 to ~75 °C due to the addition of bamboo fibres. In another work, the
interfacial bonding characteristics of bamboo fibre/poly (lactic acid) was improved
by using (i) NaOH treatment (ii) alkali and silane coupling agent and (iii) alkali and
titanate coupling agent [54]. Furthermore, the thermal stability of these composites
was subjected to TGA and DSC techniques. From the results, it was reported that the
untreated bamboo fibre/poly (lactic acid) composites showed lower thermal stability
than the pure poly (lactic acid) samples. However, the chemically-treated composites
showed higher degradation temperatures than the pure poly (lactic acid) samples.
Amongst the composites, the NaOH treated bamboo fibre reinforced composites
showed the highest thermal stability than the rest of the composites. Regarding
the DSC parameters, the bamboo fibre/poly (lactic acid) composites showed higher
glass transition and melting temperatures than the pure poly (lactic acid). Moreover,
these temperatures (i.e., glass transition and melting temperature) were found to be
improved after the chemical treatments; it was attributed to the improved interfacial
adhesion between the fibre and the matrix [54].
Utilization of Bamboo Fibres and Their Influence on the Mechanical … 93

4 Conclusions and Future Perspective

In this article, factors influencing the mechanical and thermal properties of composite
reinforced with bamboo fibres were reviewed. It could be observed from studies that
strength and modulus of the composite were dependent upon the physical char-
acteristics of the fibre such as fibre diameter, fibre loading, fibre orientation in the
composite and presence of other natural fibres in hybrid form. Compatibility between
the natural fibres and polymer matrix is also pivotal for achieving superior mechan-
ical and thermal properties. Modification of the fibre surface with alkali, silane and
acetylation was found to improve the wettability between the bamboo fibre and
various polymer matrices. Alkali treatment removes fibre constituents such as cellu-
lose, hemicellulose, lignin, etc. and leads to micropores or fibrillation on the fibre
surface leading to better mechanical interlocking. Further, the chemical modification
also improves the thermal stability especially the glass transition and melting temper-
atures of the composites by improving the interfacial adhesion between the fibre and
the matrix. Silane acts as a coupling agent and forms a covalent chemical bond
between the fibre and matrix. Maleic Anhydride, when mixed with thermoplastic
polymers acts as a compatibilizer and improves the fibre-matrix bonding leading to
improvement in the mechanical and thermal properties of the composites. Based on
the studies and the reports it is sure that bamboo fibres can find enormous potential
in the future in engineering applications.

Acknowledgements The corresponding author Dr. T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, expresses his appre-
ciations to the management of Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education (KARE), Srivil-
liputhur, Tamil Nadu, India for their encouragement and support. This research was also supported
by King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand through Grant
No. KMUTNB-64-KNOW-001.

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Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo
Fiber-Based Polymer Composite

K. Senthilkumar, Harikrishnan Pulikkalparambil, T. Senthil Muthu Kumar,

J. Jerold John Britto, Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai, Suchart Siengchin,
S. Karthikeyan, and N. Rajini

Abstract The present work aims to study the free vibration and damping prop-
erties of pure bamboo bioepoxy composites (B), pure basalt bioepoxy composites
(b), and bamboo/basalt fiber reinforced hybrid bioepoxy composites. The pure and
hybrid composites were fabricated by hand layup technique with different layering
sequences such as BBBB, bbbb, BbBb, BBbb, BbbB, and bBBb. Experimental modal
analysis was performed to obtain the natural frequency and the damping charac-
teristics of the fiber reinforced composites. Variations in the natural frequency and

K. Senthilkumar (B)
Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering for Manufacturing (CoI-DEM), King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800,
Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
H. Pulikkalparambil · J. Parameswaranpillai
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology North
Bangkok, 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Senthil Muthu Kumar · S. Karthikeyan · N. Rajini
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education,
Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu 626126, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Karthikeyan
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Rajini
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Jerold John Britto
Ramco Institute of Technology, Rajapalayam, Tamilnadu 626117, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Siengchin
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok
(KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 97

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_6
98 K. Senthilkumar et al.

damping characteristics were noticed with different layering sequences of the fiber in
the composites. For instance, a higher natural frequency was obtained when bamboo
fiber was stacked on the top surface and an enhanced damping behavior was noticed
when basalt fibers were used as skin layer in hybrid composites. Numerical analysis
was performed and the results were compared with the experimental results.

Keywords Bamboo fiber · Basalt fiber · Hybrid composites · Free vibration test ·
Natural frequency · Damping

1 Introduction

The need for bio-based composite materials is increasing rapidly in the industrial
sector after the implementation of the various pollution norms around the world
[16]. Many researchers are working on the development of the new combinations of
composites with synthetic and natural fibers [6, 9, 15]. The investigations on synthetic
fiber-based composites are slowly diminishing due to their negative effect on the
environment. On the other hand, the usage of natural fibers in composite materials
is slowly increasing, and lots of explorations had been witnessed in the past decade.
This shows their positive impact on the environmental aspects. Industrial sectors
like the automotive, construction, aviation, packaging, marine, and manufacturing
use natural fiber based composites for different applications [25, 29]. Even though
many cheaper alternatives have been identified to replace the synthetic fibers, still
the synthetic polymers/resins systems are dominating because of the high cost of the
bio-based polymers. However, material scientists are working rigorously towards the
development of cheaper natural-based resins [29].
In this scenario, bio-based composites and some of their significant properties such
as, mechanical, thermal behavior, water absorption, vibration, and damping, need to
be studied at a broader level. Mechanical, thermal and sorption properties of bio-
based composites are well investigated by many researchers. However, the vibration
and damping characteristics of bio-based composites still need more exploration.
Damping is an effect that reduce the vibratory motion. The damping coefficient of the
material indicates the material’s response to the unwanted shocks or vibrations. The
high damping coefficient will diminish unwanted shocks or vibrations very quickly.
In other words, it measures how quickly the unwanted shocks or vibrations weaken.
It is one of the essential properties where researchers need to work on; improvement
in these properties in natural fiber-based composites can potentially replace many
conventional materials used in different industrial sectors [13].
The vibrational study on fiber reinforced composite materials started in the earlier
1950s, when the development of the synthetic fiber composites was booming. Never-
theless, vibrational studies on natural fiber reinforced composites were reported only
in the last decade and still needs further exploration. Further, finite element analysis
of the fiber composites was also conducted using computer code earlier, in which the
three-dimensional finite element analysis of rubber like materials was made under
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composite 99

the different conditions. This revealed that the fiber orientation, fiber length, and fiber
volume fraction could influence the vibrational behavior of the composite materials
[28].
The vibrational properties of coconut sheath and glass fiber reinforced polyester
composites using the impact hammer technique was reported earlier [21]. The natural
frequency of hybrid composites was influenced by the addition of clay content,
whereas the maximum increase of dynamic properties was reported up to 3wt%.
Recently researchers investigated the effect of varying the fiber stacking sequence
on dynamic properties of coconut sheath (C)/banana (B) fiber reinforced polyester
composites [23]. The CBC layering sequence exhibited the most significant damping
factor. It was evident that the properties of the hybrid composites can be improved by
varying the fiber stacking sequences. Researchers also investigated the vibrational
properties of the coconut sheath (C) and sisal (S) fiber reinforced polyester compos-
ites. The composites containing more wt.% of coconut sheath than the sisal fiber
(i.e., CCS) displayed an increased natural frequency [12].
The investigation on the effect of varying the layering sequence of the coconut
sheath (C) and sansevieria cylindrica fiber (S) reinforced polyester composites
showed that fibers possessing higher tensile modulus positioned as skin layer
in hybrid composites (i.e., CSC) produced an increased natural frequency [1].
Researchers examined the dynamic properties of short fibers such as sisal and
banana in polyester matrix composites by varying the fiber lengths and fiber load-
ings. The maximum damping was observed at 4 mm/40wt% for the banana, and
5 mm/40wt% for the sisal fiber reinforced composites. It was ascribed to the fiber
surface morphology variations between the two natural fibers [11]. In another work,
a comparative study was reported on flax woven sheath and glass fiber reinforced
epoxy composites. The composites reinforced with flax fiber exhibited improved
damping property than the composites reinforced with glass fiber [18]. Recently the
dynamic properties of banana and jute fiber reinforced hybrid polyester compos-
ites were investigated. The highest damping was observed in huckaback (i.e., type
of woven) woven composites due to their improved interaction between the fiber
and matrix [19]. The effect of fiber orientation on the vibration properties of sisal
fiber reinforced polyester composites showed that the higher natural frequency was
obtained by orienting the fibers in 0° as skin layers, while the lowest natural frequency
was found for fibers with 90° orientation placed at the top and bottom surfaces of
sisal fiber reinforced composites [26].
In this present work, an attempt was made to study the free vibration, and damping
properties of completely biobased hybrid composites having bioepoxy as the matrix
and natural fibers such as bamboo and basalt as the reinforcement materials. The
hybrid composites were fabricated with four-layered sequences by using the woven
bamboo and woven basalt fiber. The fabricated hybrid composites were tested for
natural frequency and damping with the effect of different layering sequences.
100 K. Senthilkumar et al.

Table 1 Properties of bioepoxy matrix and hardener

Bioepoxy matrix Hardener (SD surf clear)
Aspect/colour Clear liquid Aspect/colour Liquid/clear
Storage 2-years, crystallization Typical reactivity Standard
free
Viscosity (m.Pa.s ± 20%) 800 Viscosity (m.Pa.s ± 20%) 40
at 25 °C at 25 °C
% bio-based Carbon 50–58 % Bio-based Carbon 0
content content
Density @ 20 °C ± 0.005 1.198 Color (Gardner) 1 max
Refractive index @ 25 °C 1.5350 Density @ 20 °C ± 0.005 0.958
+ 0.5%

Table 2 Properties of
Properties Bamboo fiber Basalt fiber
bamboo and basalt fiber [8,
22] Density (kg/m3 ) 910 2800
Tensile modulus (GPa) 35.91 89
Tensile strength (MPa) 503 2800
% Elongation 1.4 3.15

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials

The bioepoxy matrix (SR Greenpoxy 56®), a produce having 56% of its molecular
structure coming from the plant origin, was kindly gifted for the research work by
Sicomin epoxy systems, France. The weight ratio of bioepoxy and hardener was
100:37. The salient properties of the bioepoxy matrix and the hardener are presented
in Table 1. Bidirectional bamboo fiber mat and basalt fiber mat were used in the
present study. These fibers were purchased from local sources in North Bangkok,
Thailand. The properties of the fibers are presented in Table 2.

2.2 Fabrication of Composites

In this present study, the different combinations of bamboo/basalt fiber reinforced

hybrid composites (Fig. 1) were fabricated by hand layup technique. The bioepoxy
and the SD surf clear were mixed in the weight ratio of 100:37. The mould was
coated with silicone spray for easy removal of the test samples. After the application
of the releasing agent, the fibers were layered as per the designated combinations.
The epoxy and the hardener mixer were poured between the fiber layers to improve
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composite 101

Fig. 1 Different layering sequences of bamboo/basalt fiber reinforced bioepoxy hybrid composites

the infiltration into the reinforcement and to enhance the fiber settlement. Then the
excess mixer was removed carefully by a roller, and the steel mould was closed on
top. The mould was left for curing for the next 24 h at room temperature, followed
by post-curing at 80 °C for 2 h.

2.3 Modal Analysis

Modal analysis of the bamboo/basalt fiber reinforced hybrid composites was

performed by impact hammer technique (Kistler model 9722A500), and the test
was conducted according to ASTM E756—05 (2017).

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Natural Frequency and Damping Behavior of Woven

Fiber Reinforced Hybrid Composites

Modal analysis is used to study the dynamic behavior of any material such as natural
frequency, damping, and mode shape. The dynamic properties depend upon many
factors such as weight of the material, stiffness, area, moment of inertia, etc.[23].
Understanding these dynamic behavior helps in formulating new materials for vibra-
tion and noise applications such as aerospace, automotive, golf clubs, tennis rackets,
civil structures, biomechanical, and acoustical instruments. The design of structural
applications requires a reduction of resonance amplitude and increasing the fatigue
102 K. Senthilkumar et al.

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of free vibration experimental setup

life of the structures due to the near-resonant vibrations under the sudden applied
load or force.
A free vibration test is a commonly accepted technique. A schematic represen-
tation of the vibration set up is shown in Fig. 2. In this experiment, the impact
hammer was used to apply a force at the free end of the composite sample, whereby
the composite sample was fixed like a cantilever beam. Due to this excitation, the
response of the composite sample was received with an accelerometer attached at
the free end of the sample (shown in Fig. 2). Consequently, the calculated frequency
response function (FRF) generated the information about (i) the natural frequency
and (ii) the damping [5]. If any sample or object vibrates equivalent to the natural
frequency, the vibration amplitude of the object could increase predominantly which
would lead to failure.
The FRF is referred to as the ratio of output response of the material to the applied
force. The response of the material could be displacement and velocity or accelera-
tion. These measurements acquired by the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analyzer or
data acquisition system (DAQ), coupled with some software (e.g., DEWESoft) that
could perform the FFT [27].
As an example, the measured response of the composite sample (BBBB) is
presented in Fig. 3a, where the amplitude was changed continuously (i.e., incre-
ment and decrement in amplitudes at various points as sweep up in time). It could be
ascribed to the rate of change of oscillation of the input force. Besides, the response
of the composite sample was amplified as the applied force with the rate of oscillation
that reached closer and closer to the resonant frequency (i.e., the natural frequency)
of the composite sample and reached a maximum when the rate of oscillation was at
the resonant frequency of the composite sample. The time data were then taken and
transformed into the frequency domain with the help of DAQ, which could compute
the FRF. As an example, the FRF of BBBB is presented in Fig. 3b, which shows the
peak values corresponding to the stiffness of the BBBB fiber reinforced composites.
Generally, a deformation pattern occurs when applying a force that matches the
natural frequency of the sample. If the force matches with the first natural frequency,
it corresponds to the first bending deformation (Mode I), and if the force matches
with the second natural frequency, it is referred to as the first twisting deformation
(Mode II). Similarly, for the third natural frequency, it is referred to as the second
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composite 103

Fig. 3 a Increasing the rate of oscillation and, b frequency response function (FRF) of pure bamboo
fiber reinforced composites (BBBB)

bending (Mode III) deformation. All the deformation patterns are also called a mode
shapes of the composite sample [27].
Nowadays, the fiber reinforced composites are found to be promising alterna-
tives for conventional materials. This could be attributed to their high specific stiff-
ness, high specific strength, and tailorable properties. Moreover, the fiber reinforced
composites have more viscoelastic nature than the elastic nature, which can exhibit
higher damping [3, 24]. Hence, they are vastly recommended for high-performance
applications.
Damping is a noteworthy factor in analyzing the dynamic characteristics of fiber
reinforced composites. The damping could be enhanced by using active and/or
passive damping control systems [7]. The active damping control system needs (1)
sensor and actuators (2) source of power and (3) a compensator, which can give better
performance under the vibratory conditions. While the passive damping requires (1)
the use of structural changes (2) damping materials and/or (iii isolation method; the
passive damping control system uses the materials’ inherent ability to dissipate vibra-
tional energy. Furthermore, the system complexity is considered to be lesser in the
case of the passive control system. Hence it is effectively contributing to improving
the reliability of structures [7].
The improvement of damping characteristics of fiber reinforced composites is
typically based on micro-mechanical and macro-mechanical approaches. In the
micro-mechanical approach, the improved damping could be achieved by optimizing
length(L)
(1) the fiber [ diameter (D)
] ratio and the fiber orientation (2) the fiber interaction (3)
104 K. Senthilkumar et al.

the fiber to matrix interface bonding and (4) the fiber coatings. While the macro-
mechanical approach involves (1) lamina orientation (2) coupling effect (3) damping
tape (i.e., a viscoelastic material sandwiched) (4) co-cured damping layers (5) lamina
hybridization and lamina layering sequence [3].
In general, the damping is measured by using the vibration test of small-sized
samples, where the samples are subjected to (1) flexural vibrations (2) extensional
and/or torsional vibrations. For example, the damping of BbbB composites was
measured by the half-power bandwidth method (as shown in Fig. 4). Figure 4 shows
the intersection of the line obtained from the FRF curve. The maximum amplitude
was obtained from the peak of the FRF curve, and the half-power points were obtained
from 3 dB below the peak curve of the respective mode when the logarithmic scale
was used and √12 of the peak value was used for the linear scale, as shown in Fig. 4.
Hence the damping (ξ) was calculated based on Eq. (1) by the half-power bandwidth
method [11].

ω
ξ= (1)
2ωn
where
ω bandwidth
ωn natural or resonant frequency.
The first three modes of natural frequencies were calculated by using the free
vibration test, and the values are presented in Table 3. From Table 3, it is evident
that the natural frequency of the BBBB and the bbbb were 29.3 Hz and 19.53 Hz,
respectively. This could be due to the higher mass of basalt fiber than the bamboo fiber

Fig. 4 Damping calculation of BbbB composites from the half-power bandwidth method
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composite 105

Table 3 Free vibrational characteristics of the bamboo/basalt fibers reinforced hybrid bioepoxy
composites
Layering sequence Natural frequency (Hz) Damping
Mode I Mode II Mode III Mode I Mode II Mode III
Bioepoxy 29.3 195.3 449.2 0.12948 0.01942 0.00845
BBBB 29.3 419.9 878.9 0.20446 0.01427 0.00682
Bbbb 19.53 449.2 878.9 0.14546 0.00632 0.00323
BbBb 39.06 410.2 986.3 0.09390 0.00894 0.00372
BBbb 39.06 546.9 849.6 0.06235 0.00445 0.00287
BbbB 39.06 507.8 1103.5 0.08047 0.00619 0.00285
bBBb 29.3 449.2 1103.5 0.14274 0.00931 0.00379

for a constant fiber length [17, 22]. Further, the mass of the basalt fiber was increased
by the addition of bioepoxy for fabricating the basalt fiber reinforced composites.
Owing to this inertial effect, an increase in stiffness of basalt fiber composites was
dominated by the mass of the basalt fiber; hence, a reduction in the natural frequency
could be witnessed.
It can also be observed from Table 3 that the combination of bamboo and basalt
fiber reinforced hybrid composites exhibited higher natural frequencies than the pure
fiber reinforced composites (i.e., BBBB and bbbb). It could be due to the improved
interfacial adhesion between the bamboo fiber, basalt fiber, and the bioepoxy matrix.
A tensile test was conducted according to ASTM: D 3039–08 for examining the
reasons for such higher natural frequency possessed by the hybrid composites. From
the tensile tests, it was revealed that the tensile strength of hybrid composites had
ranged between 72 and 94 MPa, whereas the BBBB and bbbb were found to be 38
and 154 MPa, respectively. The improvement in the interfacial adhesion between the
hybrid fibers (i.e., bamboo and basalt) and the bioepoxy was witnessed by obtaining
an intermediate behavior between the tensile strengths of BBBB and bbbb. Similar
studies were done on coconut sheath and banana fiber reinforced polyester hybrid
composites, and the results reported that the hybrid composites produced higher
natural frequency than the pure fiber reinforced composites [23]. In another study,
coconut sheath/sisal fiber/polyester composites showed higher natural frequency
than the pure fiber reinforced composites, i.e., coconut sheath/polyester and sisal
fiber/polyester composites [12].
Table 3 shows the damping values of the pure fiber, and the hybrid fiber reinforced
bioepoxy composites. It can be observed from Table 3 that the BBBB compos-
ites exhibited higher damping (0.20446) than the bbbb composites (0.14546). It is
well known that the fibers and bioepoxy possessed elastic behavior and viscoelastic
behavior, respectively. Further, it is expected that the bamboo fiber could intake more
amount of bioepoxy during fabricating their corresponding fiber layered composites
when compared to the basalt fiber reinforced composites. This is due to the larger
diameter of bamboo fiber (10–30 μm) than the basalt fiber (9–24 μm) [10, 30].
106 K. Senthilkumar et al.

Accordingly, the bamboo fiber reinforced composites (BBBB) could exhibit more
viscoelastic nature, which resulted in increased damping.
When hybridizing the two fibers (i.e., bamboo and basalt) with bioepoxy, the
damping values were found to be decreased significantly. According to Chandra
et al. [3], the interfacial bonding between the fiber and matrix would influence the
mechanical and damping properties. Further, the authors reported that the enhanced
interaction between the fiber and the matrix could support to transfer the loads effec-
tively as well; it could lead to enhance the mechanical properties. However, there
was no help in terms of improving the damping properties. Henceforth, the hybrid
composites exhibited lesser in damping than the pure fiber reinforced composites.
Figure 5 shows the comparison of damping results available from the earlier
reported literature with the present work. From Fig. 5, it can be observed that the
combination of bamboo and basalt fiber reinforced hybrid composites was found to be
superior to the earlier reported studies [2, 4, 14, 20]. Hence these hybrid composites
could be a potential replacement for low and medium load structural applications.
In the numerical study, the bamboo and basalt fiber reinforced hybrid composites
were modeled by ANSYS Workbench R17. The frequency was set up between 0–
1100 Hz, and the element type was chosen as BEAM188. Furthermore, the material
properties such as Young’s modulus and density were given based on the experimental
test results. The experimental and numerical results of the bamboo/basalt fiber rein-
forced composites were shown in Table 4. It showed a good agreement between the
experimental and numerical results. Then the mode shapes (such as Mode I, II, and

Fig. 5 Damping of different types of composites from available studies [2, 4, 14, 20]
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composite 107

Table 4 Comparison of experimental natural frequencies with numerical results

Layering sequence Natural frequency (Hz)
Experimental Numerical
Mode I Mode II Mode III Mode I Mode II Mode III
Bio epoxy 29.3 195.3 449.2 29.844 224.25 438.37
BBBB 29.3 419.9 878.9 47.717 315.69 878.91
bbbb 19.53 449.2 878.9 49.945 330.5 874.08
BbBb 39.06 410.2 986.3 56.298 372.49 985.22
BBbb 39.06 546.9 849.6 45.162 298.84 844.95
BbbB 39.06 507.8 1103.5 40.009 700.17 1368.8
bBBb 29.3 449.2 1103.5 30.575 535.06 1046

III) of bBBb hybrid composite obtained from the commercial software ANSYS were
given in Fig. 6a–c, whereas the composite was modeled in cantilever beam condition.

Conclusion and Future Perspective

• The bamboo and the basalt fiber reinforced hybrid bioepoxy composites were
fabricated by hand layup technique with four different layering sequences.
• The experimental test (i.e., free vibration technique) was performed to estimate
the dynamic characteristics such as natural frequency and damping of the pure
and the hybrid fiber reinforced composites.
• The natural frequencies increased by changing the layering sequences between
the bamboo and basalt fibers in bioepoxy. Nevertheless, the hybrid composites
showed no significant changes in Mode I while the pure fiber reinforced compos-
ites (i.e., BBBB, bbbb) exhibited higher damping than the hybrid fiber reinforced
composites.
Based on the results attained from the present work, the developed hybrid
composites could be used in structural applications where the improved dynamic
characteristics are anticipated.
Further work is necessary to eliminate the errors in FRFs due to the added trans-
ducers or mass loading effects. These errors need to be eliminated before they are
used for any further analysis purposes.
108 K. Senthilkumar et al.

Fig. 6 The first three modes of bBBb fiber reinforced bioepoxy hybrid composites. a Mode I,
b Mode II and c Mode III

Acknowledgements This research was completely supported by the King Mongkut’s University of
Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand through Grant Numbers KMUTNB-63-KNOW-
002; and KMUTNB-64-KNOW-001.Therefore, all the authors hereby express their sincere appre-
ciation to the KMUTNB. The authors are also thankful to the Kalasalingam Academy of Research
and Education, Krishnankoil 626 126, India, for providing test facilities.
Free Vibration Analysis of Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composite 109

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Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo
Fiber Reinforcement on the Dielectric
Properties of Epoxy Composites

H. Babu Vishwanath, H. Mohit, M. R. Sanjay, Suchart Siengchin,

and R. Ruban

Abstract In the present investigation, the bamboo fiber incorporated epoxy-based

composites were manufactured with chemically treated and raw bamboo cellu-
lose fibers. The electric modulus, dielectric constant, alternating, and direct current
conductivity investigations were performed to justify the dielectric properties of
bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy laminates. The electric modulus and dielectric prop-
erties of the epoxy composites were measured from traditional impedance analyzer
equipment. The dielectric behaviors were characterized by frequency function
(0.01 Hz to 1 MHz) for the range of temperatures between 30 and 150 °C. The conduc-
tivity, volume resistivity, dissipation parameter, and dielectric constants of ERRBT
epoxy composites were higher than that of ERSBT, and ERSABT epoxy composites.
The activation energy, volume resistivity, and dissipation parameter reduced with the
increment in frequency under all the range of temperatures. The combined salt and
alkaline treatment decreases the water absorption capacity in bamboo cellulose fibers
and hence enhances the dielectric and thermal insulation characteristics of the epoxy
laminates. Also, the investigation of the adhesion of cellulose fiber in the polymer

H. Babu Vishwanath
Composite Research Center, Ambattur, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
H. Mohit (B)
Natural Composite Research Group Lab, King Mongkut’s University of Technology, North
Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Ruban
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Siengchin
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok
(KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
M. R. Sanjay
Natural Composites Research Group Lab, Academic Enhancement Department, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road,
Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 111

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_7
112 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

matrix with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed higher compatibility
of bamboo cellulose fibers with the epoxy matrix.

Keywords Bamboo cellulose fiber · Dielectric constant · Dissipation parameter ·

Electric modulus · Epoxy composite · Volume resistivity

1 Introduction

The advantages of plant cellulose fiber incorporated polymer composites (PCFRP)

when compared with synthetic fiber, pure polymer and wood laminates has been well
established, because of biodegradability, usage of raw materials, resistance from
impact, lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), modulus, lower dielectric
constant, and flexibility [1, 2]. In addition, they have other superior characteristics
which contains low price, lower density, low machine wear, renewable in nature,
lower device abrasion, less skin and respiratory problems, abundant in different
forms through the world, higher fiber aspect ratio and sound absorption [3–7]. The
reinforcement of plant cellulose fiber into the polymers offer researchers an oppor-
tunity to fabricate PCFRP laminates that possibly challenge the recently developed
materials in nature which have better mechanical characteristics, and similarly it
can be applied for different dielectric applications such as switches, printed circuit
boards, connectors, household plugs, cable pillar, cables, solder mask, etc.[8]. More-
over, they have certain possible applications in the creation of back seat, arm rest,
and packaging trays [9, 10].
The polymers played as an efficient insulator but utilization is restricted to bearing
dielectric applications. Hence, investigations on dielectric characteristics of PCFRP
laminates expect higher importance [11]. The applications in dielectric acquire lower
CTE and dielectric constant for successful employment. For illustration, the FR-4
PCB based materials have dielectric constant value around 4.6 under frequency of
1 MHz and lower CTE [12]. Primary limitations of plant cellulose fibers were lower
resistance from weathering and hydrophilic in nature which negatively influence
the polymer matrix/cellulose fiber interface that tends to strength loss, delamination
and degradation of laminates [13, 14]. Due to hydrophilic nature of plant cellulose
fibers, it should be physically or chemically treated to create them more suitable
with the hydrophobic polymers (thermoplastic and thermosets) [13]. Many scien-
tists have recorded enhancement in dielectric characteristics of plant cellulose fibers
when treated with alkaline solution with distinct concentration of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) [15, 16]. Depend on its intrinsic characteristics, principle of plant fracture
and ultra-structure, the bamboo cellulose fiber provides a hard engineering composite
material and desirable plant cellulose fibers when compared to other familiar plant
fibers such as henequen, kenaf, sisal, coir, flax, hemp, etc.[17]. The bamboo and
other cellulose fibers applied in European based automobile industries. In laminates,
it is generally suitable to align cellulose fibers for improved dielectric and structural
characteristics [18]. It is usually, very hard, if not impractical, to attain excellent
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 113

arrangement of cellulose fibers. Orientation of cellulose fibers in the polymer based

composites is mainly depend on the different conditioning processes.
Furthermore, the utilization of plant cellulose fibers in dielectric applications
has become more familiar. The plant cellulose fibers reinforced polymer based
composites have been utilized as dielectric materials in transformer parts, micro-
chips, switches, connectors, circuit boards, terminals, etc. Hence, the investigation of
dielectric characteristics of plant cellulose fiber reinforced polymer based compos-
ites are very important [19]. The various properties of dielectrics are dissipation
factor, dielectric constant, volume resistivity and conductivity which are essential
for the successful utilization of these types of materials. These characteristics are
mainly based on the different parameters like physical texture, chemical composition,
structure and microstructure of the materials [20].
The thriving attention in the advancement of electrically conductive based polymer
laminates, because of the principle that plant cellulose fibers reinforced polymer
laminates not only played as an efficient insulator but also offer higher mechanical
characteristics for field bearing conductors [21]. Thus, the investigations on the elec-
trical characteristic of the plant cellulose fiber reinforced polymer based laminates
are very essential. The various dielectric properties like dissipation factor, and dielec-
tric constant of different plant fiber composites have been investigated by different
scientists. Paul et al. [22] have determined the influence of different chemical treat-
ments such as acetylation, stearic, potassium, and alkali treatment on sisal fibers
incorporated low density polyethylene laminates. It was found that the dielectric
loss and constant values of the laminates were reduced with an outcome of chemical
treatment process. The volume resistivity of the treated fibers reinforced polymer
composites were observed as higher when compared with untreated fiber reinforce-
ment. The influence of temperature, orientation of cellulose fiber, and frequency
on dielectric characteristics of sisal based polymer laminates has been studied and
found there is a decrement with the rise of temperature on the dielectric characteris-
tics of sisal fiber incorporated polymers [8, 23]. Shinoj et al. [24] have investigated
the influence of cellulose fiber treatment and fiber loading on dielectric characteris-
tics of oil palm fiber incorporated linear low density polyethylene based laminates.
They recorded an increment in dielectric constant of the laminates with the effect
fiber loading and reduced the dielectric constant under higher fiber concentration
and alkaline treatment. Fraga et al. [25] evaluated the relationship between dielectric
nature and water absorption capability of the jute fiber polyester laminates and found
that there is a decrement in dielectric constant value with the increment in water and
higher frequencies for laminates. Sreekumar et al. [26] examined the electrical char-
acteristics of the sisal fiber based polymer laminates and showed an improvement in
dissipation factor, loss parameter and dielectric constant with the fiber concentration
under the higher range of frequencies.
However, it is well-established that the plant cellulose fiber and polymeric resins
both have different surface characteristics. From the region, the plant cellulose fibers
show a larger hydrophilic characteristic, highly polar because they are made up
of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin content, which includes strongly hydroxyl
114 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

bonds (polarized). Hence, these kinds of cellulose fibers are intrinsic and incompat-
ible with hydrophobic polymers [27]. The incompatibility may leads to complete
wetting of cellulose fibers, which limits the uniform distribution within the resin
and produce weak dielectric, thermal and mechanical characteristics. The chemical
surface treatments on the plant cellulose fibers improves the compatibility within the
polymer matrix and cellulose fibers, which tends to laminates with stronger interface
that results in efficient stress transfer between the incorporating cellulose fibers and
polymer matrix [28, 29]. The chemical surface treatments may produce the cellu-
lose fiber cell walls more stable, decrease water absorption capacity and improves
the resistance from micro-organisms damage. But, there is no such investigation on
chemical treatment using both sodium chloride (NaCl) and NaOH on bamboo fiber
which is utilized as reinforcement material to epoxy polymer. The aim of the present
investigation is to observe the influence of combined NaCl and NaOH treatment on
the dielectric characteristics of the bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy polymer compos-
ites. In this chapter, the dielectric constant, dissipation factor, volume resistivity, and
dielectric relaxation were examined under ranges of frequency and temperature.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials

The polymer resin matrix applied in thin present investigation was epoxy resin (ER)
polymer supplied from Sakthi fiber glass, Tamilnadu, India. The polymer resin
contains two constituents as epoxy (LY 556) and hardener (HY 951). During the
fabrication process, a low viscosity epoxy polymer was mixed with hardener in the
ratio of 10:1 to convert the liquid into solid film.

2.2 Chemical Treatment on Bamboo Fiber

A cultivated Assam bamboo species of Bambusa Tulda was utilized in this present
investigation. The culms of bamboo was sectioned into small pieces of average
dimensions as 4 mm (diameter), 20 mm (length), and 1.2 mm (thickness) and cleaned
with fresh water, denoted as raw bamboo sample (RBS). A salt solution was prepared
using NaCl and fresh tap water at the ratio of 1:5 under 6 pH and the bamboo
fibers were soaked for 48 h in atmospheric condition, and then dried in sunlight
for 360 min., which is considered as SBT (salt solution treatment on bamboo) [28].
After the SBT, the bamboo fibers were again treated with 1 N NaOH solution under
room temperature for 6 h. Consequently, the combined treated bamboo fibers were
completely rinsed and washed with distilled water to eliminate the residues of alkali,
till it attains the 6 pH, is denoted as SABT (combined salt and alkaline treatment
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 115

on bamboo). Then, the extracted bamboo fibers were dried in electric furnace for
60 ± 2 °C for 24 h. All the three different types of bamboo fibers were placed in
the industrial miller to obtain the fine particles and separated from 150 μm (average
size) micro mesh.

2.3 Bamboo Fiber Epoxy Composites

An ultrasonic assisted wet-layup technique has selected for the manufacturing of

epoxy composites reinforced with chemically treated or untreated bamboo fiber to
attain uniform dispersion of fibers within the matrix [30]. The three types of extracted
bamboo fibers such as RBT, SBT, and SABT of each 10 wt% were reinforced in the
epoxy polymer and stirred with the help of ultrasonictaor probe (24 kHz of frequency
and maximum power). During the curing process, the hardener has been added and
stirred with mechanical agitator for complete immersion. A load of 50 kN has been
applied on the top surface of the mould to ensure the complete soaking of fibers within
the polymer resin. The post curing of bamboo fiber reinforced polymer composites
was performed at 80 °C in electric furnace for 24 h.

2.4 Epoxy Composite Characterization

2.4.1 Dielectric Properties

The dielectric properties measurements were performed in HP LCR impedance

analyzer and 16451B dielectric test fixture, the observations of the investigated spec-
imen taken over the range of temperature between 30 and 150 °C with the frequency
ranges from 0.01 to 1 MHz according to the ASTM D150-11 standard. The fabricated
bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites was sectioned into square-shaped part as
25 and 5 mm length and thickness respectively. The experiment was conducted five
times for every composite sample and average value was measured.

2.4.2 Morphological Properties

The morphological properties of the epoxy composites reinforced with chemically

treated and untreated bamboo fibers examined under room temperature by FE-SEM,
Hitachi, Europe instrument. A plasma gold ion sputtering of some thickness in nano
meters ws produced on the epoxy composite specimen surface to provide charge and
observed with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV. These examinations were carried out
on the cross-section surface of the epoxy composites, which is fixed 90° to the axis
of the fiber, so that the cross-sectional aspects could be examined.
116 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Dielectric Properties

The dielectric properties of a bamboo fiber reinforced polymer composites mainly

based on the polarize-capability of its components (i.e. micro fibers and polymer
matrix) and are committed primarily by interfacial, dipoles, interfacial, and polar-
izations from electronics [31, 32]. The capability of composite material to save
charge and become polarized followed by an extrinsic field of electricity is termed
as dielectric constant, whereas the dissipation parameter is the ratio between the
power distributing in the circuit and electrical power dissipated in the material. In
this context, it can also be defined as the measurement of energy from the source
of electricity which can be modified into heat that applied as an insulator [21, 31].
The loss parameter is generally applied to explain the losses produced during the
transmission of industrial energy and circulation which can be termed as the mean
power parameter for the given time period.

3.1.1 Dielectric Constant and Dissipation Factor

The dielectric characteristics of pure epoxy polymer and chemically treated and
untreated bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy polymer composites was performed from
room temperature to 150 °C for frequencies ranging between 0.01 and 1 MHz. The
curves of frequency dependent of the dissipation parameter and the dielectric constant
in the epoxy polymer matrix and its ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composites for
different range of temperature between 30 and 150 °C with an increment of 20 °C
are presented in Fig. 1a–h. The overall increment in dielectric constant with temper-
ature under lower frequency range and reduction of the characteristics with the rising
frequency were examined. For pure epoxy polymer, the dissipation parameters also
showed the appearance of two relaxations, which based on the frequency and temper-
ature, whereas the bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites exhibited only one
relaxation. In this context, these relaxations were correlated with the glass transi-
tion for higher range of frequencies and polarization electrode for lower frequency
range when there is an increment in temperature. Then latter it was assigned to
the glass-rubbery transition of the polymer based composites. The maximum peak
of relaxation also transferred to the higher range of frequencies by increasing the
temperature, which tends to reduction in relaxation time and also maximum shifting
under higher range of frequencies [33].
In the condition of ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composite, the relaxation
associated with the influence of conductivity above glass transition temperature,
the dissipation parameter graphs showed the relaxation which is assigned to the
Maxwell–Wagner-Sillars (MWS) effect [8]. This relaxation was the outcome of the
aggregation of charge within the polymer matrix and bamboo fibers which consisting
different dielectric constants and conductivities. Hence, the improvement of these
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 117

Fig. 1 Bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites, Dielectric constant. a ER, b ERRBT, c ERSBT,
d ERSABT, and dissipation parameter, e ER, f ERRBT, g ERSBT, and h ERSABT
118 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

relaxation above glass transition temperature augmented the intensity of dielectric

constant when the increment in temperature. It is also observed that the previous
experimentation on relaxation of molecules in an anisotropic laminate depend on the
acrylic polymer and hydroxypropyl cellulose displayed that under lower frequencies,
the ionic conductivity controlled the dielectric spectrum of the laminate. In this condi-
tion, the bamboo fiber is treated with NaCl and NaOH solution which is comparably
lesser conductivity than the raw bamboo fiber. The reason may be assigned to the elec-
trical properties of the elements of the epoxy composites (conductivity and dielectric
constant of fibers and polymer matrix) to be less distinct for the display of MWS polar-
ization, so the elimination of the MWS peak from the dissipation curves, as shown in
Fig. 1h, which leads to slow improvement in dielectric constant under higher range
of temperature and lower frequencies when compared with ERRBT, and ERSBT
composites, could be described. The reinforcement of bamboo fibers in the polymer
matrix, leads to reduction in dissipation parameter intensity and this was augmented
in reverse in the ERRBT composite. It is also examined that the introduction of heat
increases the insulation temperature which increases its degradation, hence bamboo
fibers reinforcement improves the thermal insulation properties in epoxy compos-
ites. The relaxation which was already observed in the epoxy polymer, was entirely
sketched from the conductivity effect in the condition of ERSBAT composite and
by interfacial polarization in the condition of ERSBT composite. However, in the
condition of ERSBAT, and ERSBT composites, the constant temperature of the dissi-
pation parameter in the similar range of temperature exhibited an improvement in the
presence and intensity of relaxation peak which is ascribed with the interfacial polar-
ization for the epoxy based composites. The similar results were examined in Okrassa
et al. [34] in which the cellulose relaxation corresponds to its glass transition which
is also not appeared in the dielectric spectrum. This characteristics was comprised
with the appearance of string hydrogen bonds within the chains of cellulose [35].

3.1.2 Volume Resistivity

The volume resistivity of bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites is formulation

of cellulose microfibrillar angle, crystalline, cell (size, number, and shape), chemical
constituents, presence of amorphous components, applied voltage, concentration of
impurity and moisture. The graphs of volume resistivity as temperature function for
ER, ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composites are presented in Fig. 2a–d respec-
tively. It is observed that volume resistivity reduced with increment up to 80 °C, and
remains constant after this temperature ranges between 80 and 130 °C.
After this temperature range, the epoxy composites starts degrading thermally and
volume resistivity exhibits anomalous nature. When the frequency increments, the
volume resistivity exhibits a reduction because of interfacial polarization with the
heterogeneity of system [18]. Volume resistivity of ERSABT composites is compa-
rably higher than the ERSBT and ERRBT composites, due to the formation of
stronger interfacial bonding within the matrix and bamboo cellulose fibers. The
hydrophilic behavior of raw bamboo fiber is important for the higher alternating
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 119

Fig. 2 Volume resistivity of bamboo cellulose fiber reinforced epoxy composites. a ER, b ERRBT,
c ERSBT, and d ERSABT

current conductivity and dielectric constant when compared with chemically treated
one.

3.1.3 Electrical Conductivity

The present investigation deals with direct & alternating current conductivity of
epoxy laminates. The alternating current conductivity dependent on the temperature
for ER, ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composites are shown in Fig. 3a–d respec-
tively. The chemical surface modification of bamboo fibers in epoxy composites
modifies the complete structure of composites, due to alternating current conduc-
tivity value alters with chemical composition of fibers. Under the lower range of
temperatures, the alternating current conductivity values mainly based on signif-
icant frequency. Furthermore, with rise in temperature, relaxation considered &
conductivity on frequency also get decreased.
Figure 4a–d exhibits the conductivity variation with frequency and temperature
for ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composites respectively. Frequency character-
istics of conductivity under the given range of temperature in ERRBT, ERSBT,
and ERSABT laminates classified in two sections as alternating and direct current
120 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

Fig. 3 Temperature dependence of alternating current conductivity at different frequencies. a ER,

b ERRBT, c ERSBT, and d ERSABT

conductivity and obtained from Eq. (1) [18].

σ (ω) = σdc + Aω (1)

where Aω and σdc depicts the frequency dependent & independent conductivity.
Under lower range of frequencies, the specimen exhibit a different plateau which
presents direct current conductivity of epoxy laminates under distinct temperatures.
At higher frequency range, the spectrum show a strong distribution because of
the limited movement of hydroxyl ions & contaminations in structures presents
alternating current conductivity.
The Arrhenius graph of reciprocal of temperature (absolute) vs conductivity in
logarithmic scale is presented in Fig. 5a–d. Direct & alternating current activation
energy quantities estimated from Arrhenius graphs were 0.35 and 0.31–0.22 eV for
ERRBT laminates. Activation energy for direct current conductivity is high while
comparing with alternating current conductivity, because of transportation/mobility
of charge carriers through large distances under the lower frequencies. Furthermore,
under higher frequency range, the principal of relaxation has been taken place, in
which movement of charge is limited to neighboring lattice parameters. The conduc-
tivity activation energy values of bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy laminates are given
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 121

Fig. 4 Alternating current conductivity under different temperature for bamboo fiber epoxy
composites. a ER, b ERRBT, c ERSBT, and d ERSABT

in Table 1. Activation energy showed decrement from 0.34–0.18 eV with the rise in
frequency for ERRBT composites in the frequency ranges between 100 and 100 kHz.
Energy prescribed for process of relaxation is smaller than movement of charge
carriers through large spaces, this higher energy conduction energies are examined
under lower range of frequencies when compared with higher frequencies. In prin-
ciple, the conductivity of bamboo fibers is primarily low, because of the absorption
of water molecules from the surface of the cellulose fiber [8]. The complete experi-
mental process was performed under the similar exterior case as the room temperature
was reported as 30 ± 1 °C. With the effect of salt and combined treatment, the regions
of inter fibrillar removes lignin and hemicellulose content, which become less solid
and dense, thereby creating the fibers more suitable for realigning, recrystallization
and reorientation. The elimination of hemicellulose and lignin tends to fibrillation,
cutting down the fiber bundles into small piece, which improves the efficient surface
area possible to contact with the polymer matrix [18].
122 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

Fig. 5 Reverse temperature dependence of alternating current conductivity for bamboo fiber epoxy
composites. a ER, b ERRBT, c ERSBT, and d ERSABT

Table 1 Conductivity activation energy of bamboo cellulose fiber epoxy composites

Frequency Activation energy in eV
ER ERRBT ERSBT ERSABT
100 Hz 0.45 0.44 0.41 0.35
2 kHz 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.27
100 kHz 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.22
1 MHz 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.18

3.1.4 Electric Modulus

Electric modulus examination broadly applied to investigate the dielectric nature

of the composites. Generally, the dielectric characteristics of epoxy composites
increased with the effect of polymer matrix and fiber interaction. The movement
of charges could be considered with dipole reorientation, displacement of charge,
and formation of space charge. To understand the electrical characteristics of a
given polymer matrix and bamboo fiber combinations must be extracted out. Elec-
tric modulus is acquaintance to structural properties of shear modulus described by
McCrum et al. [36]. Electric modulus can be termed as a benefit method to interpret
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 123

Fig. 6 Electric modulus curve of bamboo cellulose fiber reinforced epoxy composites. a ER,
b ERRBT, c ERSBT, and d ERSABT

the solid relaxation characteristics that fluctuation in large amount of real component
of dissipation parameter and dielectric constant under lower range of frequencies are
reduced [37]. The wide peaks of electric modulus as a frequency function for ER,
ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composites are shown in Fig. 6a–d.

3.2 Morphological Properties

The SEM examination was performed to analyze the interface between bamboo fiber
and epoxy polymer matrix in the composite materials. The SEM images of the epoxy
composites are shown in Fig. 7a–c for ERRBT, ERSBT, and ERSABT composites
respectively. Figure 7a presents the microstructure of cross-sectional view of the
ERRBT composites that the fibers are randomly distributed in the epoxy matrix
and individual partition of fibers were not observed in single form. In Fig. 7b, a
closer examination of the interface in the image of the ERSBT composites showed
good contact between the epoxy matrix and bamboo fibers than that in the condition
124 H. B. Vishwanath et al.

Fig. 7 SEM micrographs of the bamboo cellulose fiber reinforced epoxy composites. a ERRBT,
b ERSBT, and c ERSABT

of NFRUP composites investigated by Kumar et al. [18]. A narrow and tiny voids
around the fiber which may leads to cracking in the ERSABT composites, due to
the propagation of fatigue crack resistance based on the adhesion between the epoxy
polymer and bamboo fiber, which decreased the dissipation factor and dielectric
constant values. A closer glance at the ERSABT composites cross-sectional aspects
showed in Fig. 7c determined an identical adjacent contact in the interfacial region
within the epoxy matrix and bamboo fibers when compared with ERRBT and ERSBT
composites.

4 Conclusion

The impedance spectra have been utilized to justify the dielectric characteristics of
chemically treated and untreated bamboo cellulose fiber reinforced epoxy compos-
ites. The ERSABT composites have higher dielectric characteristics when compared
with ERRBT and ERSBT composites. The dissipation parameter and dielectric
constant of bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites were observed reduced with
higher frequencies. The reason may be assigned to the decrement in the polariza-
tion of components that appeared in the bamboo cellulose fibers. Volume resistivity
was observed to reduce the effect of chemical salt and alkaline treatment process.
When compared with other bamboo composites, the ERSBT composites exhibits
higher volume resistivity due to it has a comparably smaller microfibrillar angle and
a lower concentration of cellulose. From this analysis of dielectric characterization,
it exhibits that these price efficient bio-based epoxy composites could be applied for
dielectric applications.
Effect of Chemically Treated Bamboo Fiber Reinforcement … 125

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Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Composites

M. Ramesh, C. Deepa, and Arivumani Ravanan

Abstract The construction industry in most countries is considered to be the main

consumer of energy and materials. Many research attempts concentrate on the use
of renewable and sustainable materials in this area in an effort to ensure future
generation sustainability. Because of higher steel costs and non-renewability, efforts
are now being made to provide a sustainable low-cost alternative through the use
of naturally available material. This increases construction prices exponentially and
also damages the environment by producing large quantities of greenhouse gases.
And, in the future, cheap and affordable infrastructure needs to be developed based
on the bio-friendly building materials. A series of observational experiments, test the
feasibility of using bamboo as concrete reinforcement. The reinforced bamboo can
significantly strengthen the mortar and reduce the overall weight of the laminate due
to its high strength to weight ratio. This chapter examined the potential for structural
applications of bamboo fiber enhanced composites.

Keywords Bamboo fiber · Concrete composites · Pulping · Biodegradability ·

Durability

1 Introduction

The choice of products in this period of industrialization is based primarily on the

cost and form of facility used for production or storage. Industrialized products,
including ordinary cement and steel, find applications in all industries and the world
a road leads to. Advanced materials such as synthetic polymers, fibers and alloys
have been developed in the second half of the twentieth century. For the construction
of load bearing buildings, reinforced concrete is mostly used in steel. Concrete is

M. Ramesh (B) · A. Ravanan

Department of Mechanical Engineering, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Deepa
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of
Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 127

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_8
128 M. Ramesh et al.

often reinforced with steel bars to increase the carrying capacity of its low tensile
load. Nonetheless, due to higher steel prices and non-renewability, attempts are now
being made to provide a sustainable alternative at low cost through the use of locally
available materials [1]. Several scientists are therefore making attempts to provide
a low-cost, renewable steel alternative. Several scientists have been exploring the
possibility of using plant fibers as structural materials in concrete in this regard.
Therefore, a low cost and renewable material such as bamboo, which apparently has
some physical characteristics of metal, is considered.
Bio-composites with natural fibres, low density, low cost, low energy consump-
tion and CO2 neutralization [2, 3]. Among the natural fibers, due to its exceptional
strength-to-weight ratio, particular attention should be paid to bamboo fibre, which
results in an active strength comparable to low-carbon steel and glass fiber [4, 5].
Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, it is widely used as scaffolds and wall
proportioning. Bamboo’s tensile strength is very high and the ultimate tensile strength
for some of its species is the same as the yield strength of mild steel, whereas the
strength to the specific weight ratio is six times greater than that of steel. Bamboo can
take both tension and compression like steel bars, whereas many other plant reinforce-
ment materials cannot carry compression loading. In addition, the energy needed to
produce one cubic meter of bamboo per unit of stress is 50 times lower than the
energy required by steel. Because of these characteristics, bamboo has attracted the
attention of many researchers for use in concrete. There have been many promising
studies that have shown diverse use of bamboo for construction [1].
Bamboo fiber characteristics include: high strength and biodegradability and three
times higher production of O2 than other plants. Given their many benefits, natural
fiber reinforced composites were considered potential candidates for structural appli-
cations, such as low-cost residential buildings in developing countries [6]. Bamboo
is a promising fiber to be used as a pulping and reinforcing raw material, taking
into account its rapid growth, its position as a major non-wood forest product and
wood replacement, its worldwide abundance and relatively low cost compared to
other vegetable resources. Several scientists have worked as new modern building
materials to grow bamboo and bamboo items. Reinforced concrete from bamboo has
a long history of civil engineering research and applications [7]. Various composite
bamboo components such as composite slabs, walls, beams and columns are used
for the construction of beam-column frame structures or for the assembly of large
panel structures with a rigid connection or other reliable connections [8, 9].

2 Bamboo

Bamboo is a natural grass-like perennial plant and one of the world’s fastest growing
woody plants [10]. About 75 genera and 1250 bamboo species are found in various
countries around the world. Bamboo is a rapidly growing wood that belongs to
the Poaceae family of grass, composed of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix
of lignin. Bamboo is a giant grass which grow at a phenomenal rate of growth of
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 129

91 cm per day, according to the world record Guinness Book. Bamboo has a major
economic advantage as it grows in full in a few months and is abundantly available
in tropical and subtropical regions. In addition to releasing fresh oxygen into the air,
the processing of each ton of bamboo absorbs about one ton of atmospheric CO2 .
Bamboo is found to be approximately 50 times more energy-efficient than steel
in terms of the resources needed to produce them. Bamboo is elastic, lightweight,
has outstanding tensile strength and a very good weight to strength ratio, making it
extremely effective against high-speed winds and earthquakes.
Bamboo is a wood-like plant belonging to the family of grasses, consisting of
a cylindrical hollow shoot, or culm. This culm is covered with a waxy surface that
prevents the escape of moisture. The culm has raised ridges called nodes at intervals,
from which branches are offshooting. The plant grows from a multitude of under-
ground stems and roots called rhizomes. Some species can grow up to 30.5 m in
height, with a diameter as wide as 305 mm. In just three or four years, it achieves its
maximum intensity and reaches maturity within five years. In addition, bamboo culm
needs only 3–6 years of maturity in order to achieve optimum strength for structural
applications [11]. Bamboo is characterized as a natural resource that is renewable,
biodegradable and energy-efficient, with great potential as a building material that is
sustainable. Compared to conventional materials such as cement, wood and metal,
it has a high strength to weight ratio [4, 12–15]. Bamboo’s large applications in
civil engineering are limited by its dimensional instability due to humidity, inade-
quate adhesive binding, difficult connections due to its irregular shape, insufficient
knowledge of modern bamboo structure layout and lack of official design codes and
standards.

2.1 Bamboo as a Structural Material

Bamboo is distinguished by its high potential as a sustainable structural building

material as a biodegradable and energy-efficient natural resource [16]. Several scien-
tists have devoted themselves as new modern building materials to the production of
bamboo and its products. Number of studies have been carried out to look for such
unusual construction materials. The number of materials such as kevlar, polyester,
carbon fibres, metal alloys has been regarded as a building material over the past few
decades. Nonetheless, the manufacturing of such products is a complex process that
cannot be produced from the local materials and technologies at the minimum level.
In order to resolve the problem of housing shortages, which is predominant for people
living below the poverty line, it is essential to develop building technologies that can
be used from the materials available locally to construct building components such
as beams, columns, slabs and walls at a much lower cost than traditional building
materials [17]. An curious feature of bamboo is that the shoot’s diameter coming out
of the soil is the biggest diameter it ever grows to. Given this high growth rate, the
bast fibers, or so-called wood fibers, still need four to five years to mature. Bamboo’s
130 M. Ramesh et al.

Fig. 1 General features of a bamboo culm [18]

general physical characteristics are shown in Fig. 1 [18]. The relation between steel
and bamboo is discussed in Table 1.

2.2 Bamboo Composites

Bamboo’s growing industrial and environmental importance requires more compre-

hensive statistics to be developed on bamboo resources, use and trade. Bamboo is
a highly efficient material in its natural shape. Bamboo easily becomes a possible
reinforcement product for structural use with these additional parameters in mind.
Bamboo is a building material that is widely used, particularly in Asian countries.
Activities are suppressed in rural areas or even in small towns as a result of consumers
preferring manufactured goods, among other consequences, and renewable resources
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 131

Table 1 Comparison of different properties between bamboo and steel [17]

S. No Property Bamboo Steel
1 Density (Kg/m3 ) 515–817 7850
2 Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2 ) 0.6–21.41 × 103 2 × 105
3 Tensile strength (MPa) 100–400 130–140
4 Compressive strength (MPa) 25–100 110–130
5 Bending strength (MPa) 70–300 0.5–0.7
6 Factor of safety 3.5–4 1.15
7 Ratio of tensile strength to weight density (m) 31,800–32,200 5300–5400

are lost and cause permanent pollution. Bamboo composites are currently used in a
wide range of fields, including aerospace, chemical, industrial, electrical, hydraulic,
nautical and mechanical engineering [19]. In this sense, it becomes evident that
ecological materials meet such fundamental requirements, using agricultural by-
products such as rice husk, coconut fibres, sisal and bamboo, thus minimizing energy
consumption, preserving non-renewable natural resources, reducing pollution and
maintaining a healthy environment.
The building industry has undergone many changes and has become familiar with
the use of composite materials. Houses were built using natural short straw fiber
mixed with clay as ancient brick material, which can be described as a good example
of natural fiber reinforced composite. The daunting complexity of the concrete struc-
tures repair and the demanding tasks involved with repairing and replacing old and
heavy concrete or cement structures have prompted the construction industry to
follow the techniques of using plastic composites reinforced with synthetic fiber.
Given the advantages of synthetic fiber composites, it is not possible to reuse
these materials [20]. New hybrid composites of bamboo and glass fibers have been
developed and are being used to produce high-strength and termite-resistant arti-
ficial panels. Adding bamboo to fresh concrete can increase the concrete matrix’s
ductility. The energy required to produce 1 m3 per unit stress projected in practice
was compared with that of bamboo for materials commonly used in civil construc-
tion, such as steel or concrete. It has been found that 50 times more energy is needed
for steel than for bamboo. Bamboo’s tensile strength is relatively high, reaching
370 MPa. In tensile loading applications, bamboo is an attractive alternative to steel.
This is because the tensile strength ratio to bamboo’s specific weight is six times that
of steel. Recent advances in composite bamboo materials can be a viable bamboo
concrete reinforcement product discussed in this chapter.
132 M. Ramesh et al.

2.3 Selection of Bamboo for Composites

Chow studied the performance of bamboo as a building material in the early 1900s
[21]. Bamboo and bamboo fragments of small diameter were used as reinforce-
ment material for concrete applications in this research. However, only after the
1950s, elaborate research began with research projects on bamboo as concrete rein-
forcement. Problems such as concrete de-bonding, water absorption, fungus attacks,
and thermal expansion coefficient are prevalent and not much further research was
conducted. Ghavami later started several mechanical experiments using bamboo as
concrete reinforcement in 1995. Bamboo has been found to significantly increase
the composite’s load bearing strength. For building purposes, that shows a distinct
brownish green color, only those bamboos should be used. This will mean that the
crop is mature and at least three years old. Selection is to be done in such a way that
we get the longest large diameter culms, the culms are usually short at the top of the
bamboo and the thickness often decreases to a considerable degree, so culms from
the bamboo base are preferred. It is important to avoid bamboos that are cut in spring
or early summer; these culms are generally weaker due to increased fiber moisture
[22]. Bamboo has continuously attracted the attention of scientists and engineers to
be used as reinforcement in cemented composites due to its superior properties such
as high strength to weight ratio, high tensile strength and other considerations such
as low cost, easy availability and harmless to the environment during operation [23].
Bamboo’s main disadvantages in its natural form are its poor bond with concrete, low
elasticity modulus, high tendencies of water absorption, low durability, and low fire
resistance. Some of these deficiencies can now be substantially improved by treating
the bamboo appropriately [24].

3 Bamboo Concrete

Much early interest in concrete from bamboo is attributed to the U.S. Navy and its
interest in rapid construction in South East Asia after the World war II. The continued
shortage of steel in the first half of the twentieth century led to further research
into bamboo and many other materials for their potential construction. Bamboo-
reinforced concrete work involved structural testing and Glenn’s design of prototype
buildings [25]. He provided a set of findings from the test results obtained as well
as principles of design and construction for the use of bamboo canes and splints
as concrete reinforcement. He highlighted issues such as (i) high deflection, low
ductility and early brittle failure of reinforced bamboo concrete beams under load,(ii)
reduced ultimate load capacity compared to reinforced steel elements; (iii) bonding
problems associated with excessive bamboo cracking and swelling; and (iv) the need
to use asphalt emulsions. For concrete beams with 3–4% bamboo reinforcement, it
is recommended that a bamboo tensile stress of 34–41 MPa be based on maximum
stress values of 55–69 MPa. Ultimately, to keep the beam deflection below 1/360
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 133

of the length, an appropriate bamboo tensile stress is recommended for reinforced

elements between 20 and 28 MPa. Brink and Rush [26] promulgate an encouraging
stress approach to the development of reinforced concrete for bamboo, comparable
to the contemporary ACI 318 [27] reinforced concrete approach. They proposed an
acceptable 28 MPa bamboo tensile stress based on an ultimate 124 MPa capability
and 0.34 MPa bond strength. For serviceability requirements, a bamboo elasticity of
17.2 GPa is recommended.
Research on cemented and polymeric composites using bamboo and other natural
materials as reinforcement highlights common problems such as biodegradability,
manufacturing and thermal compatibility of bamboo and matrix material. A final
issue that could potentially affect the bonding performance of bamboo is the thermal
expansion coefficient that is affected by the moisture content; and is as much as
five times lower in the longitudinal direction than that of concrete or steel, but two
times higher than that in the transverse direction. The reported longitudinal thermal
expansion for bamboo ranges from 2.5 to 10 °C; the transverse direction is about an
order of magnitude higher [28–30].

3.1 Properties of Bamboo Concrete

Bamboo’s mechanical properties and its availability in developing countries have

resulted in its empirical use in concrete structures as reinforcement. It can support
both tension and compression parallel to fibers like a steel rod, whereas many other
materials cannot withstand compression loading [31]. Bamboo is a generally hollow,
anisotropic, natural material with high physical and mechanical properties varying
throughout the section and along the culm. Bamboo density varies with standard
values spanning from 500 to 800 kg/m3 through the cross section. In modes of
failure dominated by longitudinal tension, bamboo usually exhibits a fragile behavior.
The variability of bamboo’s longitudinal mechanical properties is close to that of
wood, having variance coefficients between 10 and 30% [29, 32]. While bamboo
is a material with exceptional mechanical properties, its use in concrete is an ill-
considered idea with major problems in terms of toughness, strength and rigidity
and does not always meet the environmentally friendly requirements [29].

3.2 Durability

Bamboo’s resilience is closely linked to its natural composition. Bamboo consists

of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, as with other lignocellulosic materials. The
chemistry of these bamboo components changes with age and/or after harvesting,
resulting in a cycle of cell death and tissue deterioration [29]. Unlike wood, bamboo
is vulnerable to insect and mold attacks and environmental degradation. Its durability
depends on the species type, age, condition of conservation, treatment and curing.
134 M. Ramesh et al.

When cutting bamboo in the bamboo grove, cure should be initiated. There is a strong
relationship between insect attacks and starch rates plus bamboo culm humidity.
Bamboo receives a variety of treatments, including spot curing, immersion, heating,
or smoke, to reduce the starch content. Sustainable infrastructure requires creative and
cost-effective methods to reduce processes of deterioration such as curling, oxidation,
water and chloride permeability that affect the durability and serviceability of cement
composites [33].
For various reasons, drying bamboo is essential to its conservation. Low moisture
bamboo is less prone to mould attacks, particularly if the moisture content is less
than 15%. Bamboo’s physical and mechanical properties increase with its moisture
content decreasing. Bamboo to be handled with a preservative must be dry to help
penetrate and achieve better results and minimize transport costs. Bamboo’s dura-
bility depends heavily on the preservative treatment methods in accordance with
basic requirements: its chemical composition should not affect the bamboo fiber and
should not be washed out by rain or humidity once it is injected. The preservative
can be applied using simple systems such as leave transpiration, immersion, impreg-
nation, modified Boucherie method, Boucherie method to state-of-the-art cauldron
equipment and special vacuum or pressure chambers [34].

3.3 Water Absorption

One of the bamboo’s major drawbacks is its water absorption when used as concrete
reinforcement. Several species have studied the capacity of bamboo to absorb water.
Different biological studies have stated that bamboo has a high water absorption
ability, as shown in Fig. 2a, dimensional variations of untreated bamboo due to
water absorption may cause micro- or even macro-cracks in cured concrete. Bamboo
swelling pushes away the concrete and the bamboo loses its moisture after the healing
process and shrinks almost back to its original size, leaving vacuum around itself. The
swelling and shrinking of bamboo in concrete restricts the use of bamboo as a steel
replacement in concrete. Figure 2b shows the use of epoxy in splints of bamboo [22].
Akeju and Falade [35] used bamboo bitumen and sand coating to reduce their water
absorption potential and used this to improve the beam and column components.

3.4 Bonding Strength

Another important factor is bonding between bamboo and concrete, particularly

when the concrete member is loaded The bond between bamboo reinforcements and
concrete matrix is formed mainly by means of key mechanisms; adherence to the
concrete matrix; creation of residual compressive stress due to concrete shrinkage at
the reinforcement and concrete interfaces; and friction due to surface roughness of
reinforcements. Bonding creates a shear resistance with reinforcement at the matrix
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 135

Fig. 2 Behaviour of bamboo as reinforcement in concrete: a bamboo in fresh concrete, b bamboo

during curing of concrete and c bamboo after cured concrete [18]

interface [36]. Bonding between concrete and reinforcing material avoids the slippage
of the reinforcement. The factors responsible for the bond strength are the elastic
properties of the cement matrix, the compressive frictional forces on the surface of
the reinforcements due to concrete shrinkage and shear resistance, and the roughness
of the reinforcements [22]. The bonding properties of raw bamboo splits in concrete,
chemically modified and untreated, were studied. This showed that an epoxy resin
coating of two components improves the bonding of raw bamboo reinforcement up
to 5 times compared to uncoated bamboo and steel.
A series of pull-out experiments examined bamboo and concrete bond behaviour
for the first time. This research resulted in a special bamboo strip profile and surface
treatment combined with maximum bond strength under uniaxial loading. This
bamboo strip is also used in concrete slab panels as the central reinforcement.
Through experimental testing of concrete slab panels, the viability and effective-
ness of this particular bamboo profile used as reinforcement was investigated. Test
results showed that the load carrying capacity and the deformation capacity were
increased when the proposed bamboo strip is used as reinforcement in concrete slab
panels compared to plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete slabs
[37]. To understand the bonding behavior of the newly developed concrete bamboo-
composite reinforcement, series of pull-out tests were conducted to find a suitable
technique for reinforcing the bond between concrete matrix and bamboo-composite
reinforcement [36, 38]. Through reinforcement pull-out test, the bonding between
concrete and bamboo for 3 product types has been developed. Sand rolled bamboo
rebar, G.I rolled bamboo rebar and coir rolled bamboo rebar as shown in Fig. 3a
are the 3 types of products. The test was conducted in an Indian-standard universal
136 M. Ramesh et al.

Fig. 3 a Bamboo bars with various frictional properties; b specimen for reinforcement pull-out
test [22]

testing machine. The reinforcements with different bonding properties were placed
into three different cubes of 15 cm × 15 cm × 15 cm dimensions as shown in Fig. 3b.
The bonding shear stress can be calculated as:-

Fm
τb =
L∗S
where, Fm is the pulling load applied, L is the length of bonded interface and S is the
perimeter of the bamboo splint. It was found from the test that G.I rolled bamboo
rebar offers higher bonding shear stress compared to coir rolled and sand rolled
bamboo rebar i.e. G.I rolled rebar bonding shear stress is 1629 times that of sand
rolled rebar and 1147 times that of coir rolled rebar respectively [22].

3.5 Tensile Strength

Bamboo, one of the oldest building materials called high tensile strength, is used as
the main structural component for these low cost houses [22]. The tension is very
strong and the tensile strength varies from species to species. It can be found in
bamboo an average tensile strength of 50–75% of that of steel or sometimes even
more. The test specimen has an average 250 N/mm2 tensile resistance. The test was
carried out in a universal testing machine; the results obtained from the test are shown
in Fig. 4. It can be seen from the plot that although bamboo has high tensile strength,
unlike steel, it lacks ductility [22].
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 137

Fig. 4 Load versus displacement plot of tensile strength test bamboo specimen a 16 mm bamboo
splint; b 20 mm bamboo splint [22]

3.6 Compressive and Split-Tensile Strength

Concrete is known for its high compressive strength and low tensile strength as
the most common material on earth. To increase the tensile strength of concrete,
the incorporation of bamboo fiber into reinforced concrete [39] becomes common.
Details of compressive and split-tensile forces are shown in Fig. 5. The strength
properties of the mixes increased with the healing period, this trend is a norm in
concrete composites. This growth was caused by the accelerated hydration of cement
in the presence of moisture. The reference mix (Mc) reported the highest compressive
strength of 28 days, with a strength of 7.28% compared to the m-sand concrete (M2).
The mix 2 slowly gained strength until 14 days when the early strength of other mixes
quickly developed. This may have been due to the addition of fly ash, which possibly

Fig. 5 Strength development with days a compression, b split-tensile [40]

138 M. Ramesh et al.

disrupted the hydration in the mix. In mix 2 (M2), which has an equal combination
of river sand and m-sand as fine aggregate, the highest 28-day tensile strength was
obtained for split tensile strength. The effects of mixed cement with fly ash help
block micro-pores in the concrete matrix aggregates. Usually, the main pores of the
aggregate particles are usually broken along the fault surface during the splitting
tensile test. Therefore, it can be concluded that these types of admixtures are good in
concrete when high tensile strength and compressive strength are needed. In addition,
for all the mixes considered, statistical regression models using the best fit curve for
both compressive and split tensile strengths were calculated [40].

3.7 Flexural Strength

The bamboo-based ferrocement slab panel’s flexural activity has been examined.
The writers used bamboo strip skeletal in one-way slabs along with chicken wire
mesh as protection in this investigation. The impact of cement replacement with fly
ash and slab thickness variation was studied. The results of the slabs tested under
monotonically increasing uniformly distributed flexural load indicate that the first
crack load and ultimate loads were similar in both slabs [41] type. For example, the
flexural performance of bamboo reinforced concrete slabs with styrofoam as an infill
panel has been examined. It was reported that slabs casted with the combination
of bamboo reinforcement and expanded polystyrene infill panel becomes light in
weight by 27%, with 6% decrease in load carrying capacity [42]. Three-point loading
flexural strength test is conducted according to ASTM C1341-13 standards. Tests
were carried out by an Instron testing machine, with 100-kN load cell, on the 7th day
after curing. The test span to depth ratio was 13:1, and the crosshead velocity was
0.47 mm/s. Strain was measured by crosshead displacement. The flexural strength
gained by the samples (Mc, M1 and M2) over 28-day period is presented in Fig. 6.
The concrete bamboo reinforced sample slightly gained more flexural strength than
other composites. The implication of this was that there exist a perfect gripping

Fig. 6 Flexural strength development over 28 days a reference (Mc), b mix 1 (M1), c Mix 2 (M2)
[40]
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 139

between the concrete matrix and the bamboo strip. Thus, the resistance of concrete
further complemented the appreciable tensile strength of bamboo strip [40].
The preparation and flexural properties of bamboo fiber reinforced mortar lami-
nate was done by Yao and Li [23]. The laminate was a sandwich plate combined
with reformed bamboo plate and cement mortar sheet. Test results showed that the
reformed bamboo plate can greatly strengthen the fiber reinforced mortar and reduce
the total weight of the composite, and the flexural strength values of the laminate can
be improved to greater than 90 MPa.

3.8 Impact Strength

The effect of bamboo diameter and slab thickness on impact strength of slab panels
were studied during the experimentation. It is reported that there exists a linear
relationship for first and ultimate crack strength with respect to bamboo diameter
and slab thickness in both type of concrete mix. The impact strength of the bamboo
reinforced concrete slabs compared to conventional concrete slabs needs further
investigation. The performance of bamboo concrete slab panels subjected to impact
loading was investigated. In this work, oil palm shells are used as substitute to
conventional aggregate inside concrete mix with cement in the ratio of 0.45 and 0.6.
The impact strength for first crack was mainly influenced by bamboo diameter but
it is even more sensitive to slab thickness [43].

3.9 Fatigue Strength

An effort to evaluate the fatigue behavior of a cement base composite reinforced with
bamboo pulp in the proportion of 6% of the dry cement weight was taken. Bend spec-
imens of the composite were subjected to three point bending and the corresponding
S–N curves were determined and then modelled according to Manson-Coffin type
formulation. Fatigue data obtained using notched bend specimens showed a great
deal of scatter and hence could not be reasonably modelled [6, 44]. Finally, it is
worth mentioning that the fatigue behavior of the concrete indicated value the range
between 0.0559 and 0.0575. This is seen to be consistent with the fatigue resis-
tance exponent obtained in the present study for the bamboo reinforced cementitious
composite.

3.10 Morphology Analysis

The morphologies of untreated and alkali-treated bamboo fibers are shown in Fig. 7a,
b, respectively. Compared with untreated, alkali treatment leads to a more open or
140 M. Ramesh et al.

Fig. 7 SEM micrographs of bamboo fibers: a untreated; b 10% alkali treated; c fractured surfaces
of cement with 0.5% untreated fibers; and d fractured surfaces of cement with 0.5% treated fibers
[45]

rough fiber surface, probably resulting in an increased fiber cement bonding and
greater energy dissipation during composites failure due to a larger fiber failure
surface area [45]. Figure 7c, d show the fractured surfaces of the cement with 0.5%
untreated and 0.5% alkali-treated bamboo fiber at low and high magnification, respec-
tively. As shown in images, the cement with 0.5% untreated fiber shows a bunch of
individual fibers. This should be caused by the strong inter-fiber hydrogen bonding,
which resists dispersion of the individual fiber. Inhomogeneous distribution of fibers
would yield bulk and surface flaws. The cement with alkali-treated fiber shows a
fine and uniform dispersion of the fibers. Uniform dispersion of treated fibers would
inhibit the crack propagation resulting improved mechanical properties of the fiber
reinforced mortar. It can be seen that the matrix of cement closely enwrap treated
bamboo fiber, and treated fiber homogeneously distributed in cement matrix without
obvious phase interface and the aggregation of treated fiber on fracture surface.
This indicated that better adhesion is formed between the alkali-treated fiber and the
cement matrix. This may be attributed to the fibril-exposed surface, cement precip-
itation into the fiber cavities and the interfacial bond formed between the cellulose
chain of bamboo fibers and calcium based hydrated product of the cement [45].
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 141

4 Life Cycle Assessment of Bamboo Concrete

Many of the references cited in this chapter premise bamboo reinforcement for
concrete as a green or sustainable alternative to steel reinforcement. This section
attempts to quantify this claim using life cycle assessment (LCA), a well-established
methodology used to assess the whole life environmental impacts and/or cost of
products and services [46]. With the aim of providing a benchmark for the selection
of bamboo as reinforcement in concrete structures and comparing their environ-
mental impact, a LCA analysis has been carried out. The software Open LCA was
used in combination with the EcoInvent V3 database and the environmental impact
evaluation method IPCC2013 [29]. The data for bamboo composites and transport
distances were calculated using the methods developed by Escamilla and Habert
[47–49]. This method allows for the generation of three scenarios combining the
production efficiency of construction materials and the potential transport distances.
The bamboo culms are assumed to be only boric acid treated and a structural epoxy
surface treatment is assumed to enhance bond. The transport of construction mate-
rials was considered to be primarily road transport. The production of the bamboo
reinforcements will have emissions of the order of 2000 kgCO2 eq, almost twice the
emissions resulting from the production of the steel reinforcements. This increase is
attributed to the considerably greater amount of concrete necessary to meet the load
carrying requirement of the functional unit.
The increase effects both concrete materials production and transportation. The
emissions savings achieved by replacing the steel reinforcement with bamboo are
surpassed by the emissions from the additional concrete. Considering only the
bamboo reinforcement; the emissions contribution from the bamboo reinforcement is
minimal, but the emissions from transportation of bamboo are much greater than the
materials savings achieved by replacing steel; this conclusion was arrived [49, 50].

5 Industrial Applications of Bamboo Concrete

The usage of bamboo-reinforced concrete in primary structural members, certain

related applications may be practical provided issues of durability, dimensional
stability and bonding between bamboo and concrete are addressed as discussed in
this chapter. Bamboo splints may be an alternative for crack control reinforcement for
slabs on grade provided at least 3% bamboo is used. Such slabs are designed to remain
uncracked and/or are provided with control joints to permit only controlled cracking.
Light cement bamboo frame panels, known colloquially as bahareque construction
are well established [51]. This construction is a modern technique utilising composite
shear panels constituted of a wall matrix of bamboo or metal lath nailed onto a bamboo
framing system, plastered with cement or lime mortar render. This method works well
because the stresses in the wall matrix are very low. This method of construction is
142 M. Ramesh et al.

recognised and promoted by ISO 22156. Bamboo splints has been proposed as rein-
forcement for masonry construction. Due to the role masonry reinforcement plays,
some researchers consider bamboo reinforcement as suitable to reinforce hollowcore
masonry in non-seismic environments [18].
Javadian et al. [36] have proposed the use of a heat treated, densified engineered
bamboo composite for concrete reinforcement. The resulting composite strips to be
used as concrete reinforcing bars, the composite strips are coated with epoxy resin and
sand is broadcast on to this as a means of enhancing bond. The bond capacities ranged
from 2.42 to 3.65 MPa in direct pull-out tests which was reported to be about 80% of
comparable steel reinforcement bond strength. Such engineered bamboo composite
reinforcing rods hold promise for overcoming many of the obstacles associated with
using bamboo as concrete reinforcement. Till now no LCA or similar comparison
with steel has been made to document assertions of sustainability. Nonetheless, it is
clear that the additional processing, energy and the resins used on their production
will have a significant impact on environmental impact and cost. Finally, bamboo
fiber reinforced concrete has been proposed and demonstrated by several researchers
[52–54].

6 Conclusion

Bamboo reinforced concrete stands to be a good option in the sustainable develop-

ment of civil engineering construction. Many researches has been carried out in this
field which helps us in understanding that use of bamboo in reinforced concrete has
a vast scope. In order to expand the application of bamboo in building structures,
bamboo concrete composite structures are discussed in this chapter.
• Bamboo is a ductile reinforcing material having some appreciable tensile strength,
• which makes it suitable as a substitute for steel. Due to its strongly bonded parti-
cles, bamboo can be an excellent material for members subjected to compression
and bending.
• A poor bonding of bamboo with concrete with alternative material can be a factor,
because bamboo on its own has good strength and ductility.
• Performance of bamboo fiber composite in concrete pore water solution, indi-
cating the ability of bamboo to retain its mechanical properties in the alkaline
environment of a concrete matrix.
• It can be concluded that bamboo provides a high tensile strength of 250 N/mm2
or higher which actually depends on the area of cultivation, type of species and
cross-sectional area. An improved flexural performance of bamboo composite
beam has been observed with the increase in number of days of curing period and
increase in the size of bamboo rebar.
• Although the aim of the study is to increase the flexural strength but in practical
case with the increase in span of the beam the mid span deflection increases which
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites 143

is also an important criterion when serviceability limit state is considered, thus

reduction of mid span deflection is another major area of research.
• Design, fabrication and evaluation of properties of bamboo revealed the bamboo-
reinforced concrete composite to be a potential sustainable green material for
construction.
• It is noted that bamboo is a cheap and replenishable agricultural resource and
abundantly available in some countries. Thus, it would be expected that the low-
cost bamboo reinforced constructional and housing products have a widely market
in future.

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Characterization and Properties
of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo
Composites

Laila El Foujji, Khadija El Bourakadi, Abou el kacem Qaiss,

and Rachid Bouhfid

Abstract The development of novel sustainable eco-friendly materials gained

increasing attention, in order to minimize the dependency on fossil fuels. Biopoly-
mers and derivatives are among the chosen materials due to their natural origin,
diversity and abundant character as well as being environmentally friendly thanks to
their biodegradability. Biopolymers are complex biochemical units that vary due to
their structures, they are synthesized from plants or living organisms. The advantages
of these natural polymers are biodegradability and renewability, but used alone, they
have low mechanical properties. To overcome this drawback, using composite mate-
rials which have a wide spectrum activity in industrial and engineering fields seems
as an interesting choice. Recently, for composite manufacturing, interest shifted
towards using fibers stemming from natural resources as reinforcements, because of
their environmental benefits. Using a biodegradable matrix and a bio-resourced filler
would result in a completely biodegradable composite. The available naturally occur-
ring reinforcements are based upon jute, sisal, flax, hemp, and kenaf etc. We will be
interested in the use of bamboo fibers as reinforcing fillers for biopolymer composites.
Bamboo fibers own one of the most desirable combinations of low density (1.4 g/cm3 )
and good mechanical properties allowing them to compete with glass fibers in terms
of specific stiffness and strength at similar volume fractions. In this chapter, we will
present the latest biopolymers used in composite and nanocomposite materials and
their main properties and characterization screening their combination to various
types of bamboo fillers, starting from the raw materials to nanoscale dimensions
and, we will show some main applications in interesting domains.

Keywords Bamboo · Biopolymers · Composites · Nanocomposites ·

Characterization

L. El Foujji · K. El Bourakadi · A. Qaiss · R. Bouhfid (B)

Moroccan Foundation of Advanced Science Innovation and Research MAScIR, Composites and
Nanocomposites Center, Rue Mohamed Al Jazouli Madinat Al Irfane, 10100 Rabat, Morocco
e-mail: [email protected]
L. El Foujji · K. El Bourakadi
Faculty of Science, Laboratoire de Chimie Organique et Hétérocyclique, Mohammed V-Rabat
University, Rabat, Morocco

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 147

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_9
148 L. E. Foujji et al.

1 Introduction

Each year, the development progresses in science and technologies led to a huge
number of polymers and polymer by-products. However, the main majority of
the synthesized polymers are from fossil fuel origins, which make them non-
biodegradable materials, and with the absence of the best treatment methods, they
become environmentally harmful wastes [1]. In addition, the shortage of oil and
fossil fuels has been a problem for many years and raises concerns all around the
globe. It also greatly affects the field of chemical industry. For example, a 2012
statistic study showed that the annual plastics production is around 200 million tons
[2]. Therefore, it is necessary to find new renewable and environmentally friendly
raw material alternatives to replace fossil fuel resourced ones. An interesting good
approach is to produce polymers from agricultural sources [3], polymers issued from
renewable resources, biomass in particular, have received a rising attention lately
due to their environment friendly impact. This class of polymers have two important
properties, which are biodegradability and biocompatibility, that are mostly investi-
gated regarding several applications such as medical issues [4]. Through the previous
two decades, major advances have been done on developing biodegradable polymer
materials for several applications [5], some applications of biodegradable polymers
include food packaging, packing foams, disposable food service items and health
care products, at the present, most of these products are produced from polystyrene
or polyethylene. They also become wide ranging vital materials in the implantable
applications, such as dental and orthopedic devices, drug delivery systems and tissue
engineering scaffolds [6]. The use of biopolymers (such as starch, chitin, cellulose…)
with other components is an interesting choice in order to bring them new proper-
ties or at least, improve their intrinsic properties. Composites and nanocomposite
materials the strategy to be followed to reach the previous goal. The mix between
biopolymers and fibers to improve some properties, should not alter the biopoly-
mers’ biodegradable and environment safety properties. The advantage of natural
bio-sourced fibers over inorganic ones (such as glass fibers…) is their reduced cost.
Other properties also include low density, high specific density/resistance ratio, low
abrasiveness, along with biodegradability and renewable origin [7]. Bamboo is an
interesting source of fibers, it’s a fast growing tree, and has an abundant global
production of about 30,000 kt each year, the stiffness and strength of bamboo fibers
are closely similar to this property of glass fibers and hard woods [8]. Bamboo fibers
present favorable physical and mechanical properties compared to natural fibers and
have been proposed for reinforcing different polymer matrices including polylactic
acid [9]. The cellulose is the main constituent of bamboo fibers, about 57%, followed
by the lignin content by approximatively 25% and the humidity is present at 8.5%.
Nanocellulose is gaining a great deal of attention, it typically has a 5 to 50 nm
width and an important specific surface area. Enormous advancements and consid-
erable interest on cellulose nanofiber were seen in the last decade owing that to
renewable character, low density, advantageous mechanical properties, availability,
and diversity of sources. The use of cellulose nanofibers from bamboo pulp as a
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 149

reinforcing phase in natural rubber have been studied and proven to have superior
values of tensile strength compared to early reports on natural rubber [10]. Cellu-
lose whiskers or nanocrystals extracted from bamboo are another important type of
reinforcements, an improved yield of 88% of cellulose nanocrystals extraction was
established by simultaneous mechanochemical activation and phosphotungstic acid
hydrolysis, Short rod-like cellulose nanocrystals were elaborated and showed higher
thermal stability and displayed a web-like network structure that could provide higher
reinforcing capability for composite materials [11].

2 Polymers and Biopolymers

The polymer is a word that descends from the Greek term “many parts”, it’s the main
constituent of plastic and elastomer materials. Large molecules or macromolecules
that are made and composed of repeated monomers chemically joined and bonded
into long chains result in obtaining polymers [12]. Thanks to their numerous proper-
ties, natural polymers, and synthesized ones play a ubiquitous role in everyday life
[13]. The chemical industry produces enormous quantities of synthetic polymers in
order to assure the material needs for product diversity, including coatings, films,
paints, and structural plastics. Yet, in the previous several decades, the development
of eco-friendly and sustainable products to lessen the dependence on the attenuated
fossil fuels, which is the source of most plastics, knew a major increase. The rapid
growth of the demand for removing petroleum-derived plastics from our eco-system
has been an impetus to the research on bio-friendly polymers [14]. Biopolymers are
the alternative solution for this problematic issue, currently considered as a poten-
tial class of materials and among the most investigated ones [15]. Biopolymers are
extracted from various natural resources. A summarize of biopolymer classification
is shown in Fig. 1.

2.1 Classification and Characterization of Natural

Biodegradable Biopolymers

The classification of biodegradable polymers is not usually an easy task. They can be
sorted according to many criteria. Starting from their chemical composition, synthesis
and processing methods, their economic importance and application. These classi-
fications provide useful and different information [17]. To categorize biodegradable
polymers called biopolymers based on their origin, we can find two groups: natural
polymers issued from natural resources and synthetic polymers.
150 L. E. Foujji et al.

Fig. 1 Classifications of bio based polymers [16]

2.1.1 Carbohydrate Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are made of several monosaccharides linked together via glycosidic

bonds. It’s the largest component of the biomass, its value is expected to exceed 90%
of the carbohydrate mass in nature [18].
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 151

Fig. 2 Hemicellulose structure

Microbial and Animal Polysaccharides

Microbial polysaccharides are renewable resources materials made by microorgan-

isms, and they have both characteristic of biocompatibility and biodegradability, such
as alginates/alginic acid. Thanks to their high properties for thickening, stabilizing,
emulsifying, and gelatinization, they are used in many industrial fields as additives,
such as the synergic effect seen between polysaccharides and particle gel on the
thickening and oil recovery [19]. Many potential natural polysaccharides are used in
the drug delivery systems, the widely used one is chitin and its derivative. Chitin is
a widespread biopolymer, located in large quantities in marine animals, especially
on the animals’ outer skeleton such as insects and crustaceans [20]. Chitosan have
gained important attention thanks to the fact of being biodegradable, biocompatible
and to their non-immunogenicity and non-toxicity [21].

Hemicellulose

In general, hemicellulose is a pentose-based polysaccharide [22], that forms the

cellulose-hemicellulose network thanks to its attachment by hydrogen bonds to the
cellulose microfibrils, which guarantees the rigidity and strength of the plant tissues
[23]. The hemicellulose structure was first elucidated as arabinoxylan oligosaccha-
rides with diferulic acid cross-linkage in moso bamboo shoots, the thermal degra-
dation was observed to occur at 200–300 °C for 4-year-old moso bamboo. Figure 2
shows the hemicellulose structure. The hemicellulose includes xylans, xyloglu-
cans, glucomannans and mannans, and it plays an important role in plant tissue
configuration [24].
152 L. E. Foujji et al.

Fig. 3 Structure of cellulose

Cellulose

One of the top polysaccharides contributing at a fast rate to engineer multifunctional

bio-based materials, is the cellulose, especially at its nanoscale forms. Cellulose is a
linear chain of glucose molecules having a flat ribbon-like conformation, its repeat
unit consists of two anhydroglucose moieties joined together 1–4 glycosidic bond
as shown in Fig. 3, n is the polymerization degree which found to vary between
10,000 and 15,000 depending on cellulose source [25]. Cellulose is extracted from
plant using chemical, mechanical or enzymatic methodologies, we will focus later
on, on some important applications of this polysaccharide, but as a first important
application, we can cite the manufacture of a fully bio-based conductive separator
made from cellulose polysaccharide for application as a separator in electrolyte
polymers in fuel cells [26]. The pretreatment of bamboo with cold sodium hydroxide
and urea lead to some structural and morphological changes, providing high reactive
cellulose that found and important application in the bioethanol production [27].

Starch

Starch is ranked among the three more abundant polysaccharides on earth, along with
cellulose and chitin. But it is the only used material as main carbohydrate storing
system of green plants, while chitin and cellulose are structural polysaccharides.
Starch is collected in amyloplasts organelles and can be stored for a long period of
time, and it’s used generally in food [28].

Chitin

Chitin is the second largest carbohydrate resource for the production of fuels issued
from bio-sourced origin and of some chemicals, the sustainable and efficient conver-
sion of chitin makes it an attractive material [29]. Chitin is constituted by sequences
of N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine through a β linkage, its structure is shown in Fig. 4 it is
the second abundant biopolymer in nature after the cellulose. Among the applications
of chitin is its use in the manufacture of films used on board surfaces to prevent the
bacterial growth in perishable food packed in starch-based treated board [30].
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 153

Fig. 4 Chitin structure

Fig. 5 Chitosan structure

Chitosan

Chitosan is a linear cationic biopolymer, ranked in the second position of the most
abundant natural biopolymer after cellulose. It has a similar structure to cellulose;
the only difference is the type of attached group to carbon 2 [31]. The chemical
structure of chitosan is shown in Fig. 5. This polysaccharide is built from 4-linked-β-
2-amino-2-deoxy-glucopyranose residues, some of which are N-acetylated as shown
in Fig. 5.
Chitosan biopolymer have a wide spectrum of use, an important application
is its use as a coating agent of several nanoparticle materials, such as polymer,
lipid and metal nanoparticles. An efficient coating process is confirmed, as well
as, many physicochemical and biological advantages that were brought by the
chitosan-coating, like physicochemical stability, improvement of tissue/cells inter-
action, controlled releasing time and increase in the bioavailability and efficacity of
drugs [32].

2.1.2 Animal and Plant Sourced Proteins

Many proteins extracted from animals exist, for example gelatin, collagen and whey.
The collagen, another abundant and natural biopolymer that has many applications
in the biomedical and non-biomedical fields, this biopolymer can be extracted from
fish waste using ionic liquid as a green pretreatment route [33]. Gelatin is another
biopolymer with interesting properties, it can for example be applied as a coating
layer to stabilize surfaces by increasing the steric barrier and it shows interesting anti-
angiogenic and antibacterial activity [34]. Many plant proteins are used in chemistry
fields (wheat gluten, soya, zein, caesin…), for example functional commercial soy
proteins are often affected due to their natural high molecular weight but a controlled
154 L. E. Foujji et al.

enzymatic hydrolysis reaction of these proteins can improve both the technical func-
tionality of these proteins and numerous of their bioactive properties like providing
good emulsion activity and gelling ability [35].

2.2 Synthesis and Properties of Synthetic Biopolymers.

Synthetic biopolymers have been developed, primarily in response to perceived

uncertainty in the continuing supply of fossil raw materials from the 1970s oil
crisis, they are mostly developed for biomedical and agricultural applications, Among
these synthetic biopolymers, we cite polylactic acids or polylactide, that indicates
the same biodegradable aliphatic polyester, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polyhydroxybu-
tyrate, polyglycolide, polydioxanone, polyvinyl alcohol…. Synthetic biodegradable
biopolymers have been developed, typically for biomedical and agricultural applica-
tions [36]. The biopolymer production capacity in 2011 sorted by type is presented
in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Biopolymer production capacity in 2011 by type [37]

Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 155

3 Bamboo and Bamboo Fibers

Bamboo received expanding attention in the previous two decades thanks to its
economic and environmental values [38]. Bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) is a
woody, perennial, evergreen plant that belongs to the Poaceae-Graminae, consid-
ered to be the fifth-largest known ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering
plants, containing all lower grasses along with some giant members. Numerous
chemical compounds are found in the leaves of bamboo and have an important
therapeutic activity against a number of diseases and play a vital role as antiox-
idants. Leaves mainly consist of benzoic acid, hydrocyanic acid, glutelin protein,
flavonoids, proteolytic enzymes [39]. The general composition of bamboo culm is
shown in Fig. 7.

3.1 Sources of Bamboo

Bamboo is one of the most important and substantial green renewable resources, it
is an easily flourishing plant, a cursory obtainable fibrous plant that can be used as
an alternate for the unsustainable synthetic fibers in the biodegradable polymer, it
offers a great potential alternative to wood [41]. Globally, bamboo is widely available
in about 1662 species and 121 genera, and it is distributed over a large number of
biogeographic regions, commonly found in Africa, Asia, some parts of Europe and
America [39].

3.2 Bamboo Fibers Extraction

Bamboo fibers are extracted mainly by mechanical methods to avoid much black
liquid release [42]. The bamboo fibers extraction methods are important to main-
taining particular properties of bamboo fibers, the use of a machining center to

Fig. 7 Anatomy of bamboo culm showing functionally graded distribution of fiber in culm wall
[40]
156 L. E. Foujji et al.

end-mill the bamboo culm, for example, results in obtaining high-quality, straight
bamboo fibers without any thermal damage [43]. The treated bamboo may be made
into huge durable structural elements that will have the potential ability to become
transformative large-scale building materials. Laminated bamboo, for example, is a
promising structural engineered material, generally made by improving the mate-
rial’s durability [44]. Raw bamboo fibers can be used as microscopic reinforcement
agents, these fiber bundles of 125–210 μm in diameter were used as reinforcement
agents of a polymer matrix made of maleic anhydride polypropylene. Commercial-
ized bamboo chips (3 × 2 cm) using were filtrated and were the source of the bamboo
bundles, using a mesh sifter machine. The tensile strength of the bamboo bundles was
as high as that of the jute fiber [45]. In another case, using untreated and alkali-treated
continuous bamboo fibers were studied to compare their properties, these fibers were
incorporated into an epoxy matrix. The characterization showed that the strength of
bamboo fibers was reduced with the alkaline treatment, however, the alkali-treated
fiber-reinforced composites acquired better tensile strength than those with untreated
bamboo fibers [46]. Bleached bamboo fibers are another branch of fibers that have
some important characteristic, for instance, a comparative study on the compatibility
of unbleached and bleached bamboo-fibers with the Linear low-density polyethylene
matrix, showed better properties of the bleached fibers in terms of tensile strength and
less water uptake, which assure an improved compatibility of these fibers conjointly
with a better wettability with the apolar matrix [47].

3.3 Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Bamboo

Fibers

3.3.1 Tensile Strength

The usual longitudinal tensile strength of Moso bamboo single fibers ranges from
1.43 to 1.69 GPa, what makes it significantly higher than nearly all the previously
published data. High-strength bamboo strip used to reinforce composite materials
with a maximum tensile capacity of approximately 180 MPa were fabricated using
the hot press method [48]. Table 1 shows some physical properties of some natural
fibers [49].

Table 1 Physical properties of some natural fibers

Sl. Fiber Density Tensile Young’s Specific Specific Failure
No. name g/m3 strength Modulus strength modulus strain
(MPa) (GPa) MPa/g m−3 GPa/g m−3 (%)
1 Bamboo 800 441 35.9 551 44.9 1.3
2 Jute 1300 370 22.7 281.6 17.5 1.4
3 E-glass 2500 2400 70 900 28 –
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 157

3.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy

The morphologies of untreated bamboo fibers and alkali-treated bamboo fibers are
shown in a and b of Fig. 8, respectively. Alkali treatment leads to a more open or
uneven rough fiber surface which results probably in an increased fiber-material
bonging due to a larger fiber surface area [50].

Fig. 8 SEM micrographs of the bamboo fibers: a untreated bamboo fibers; and b 10% alkali treated
bamboo fibers
158 L. E. Foujji et al.

3.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a powerful technical tool

that is used to recognize and confirm the presence of certain functional groups
belonging to the modifying agent used during the modification and also the mech-
anisms of interaction between materials [51]. Fourier transform infrared spectrums
of treated samples that were presented elsewhere [52] comparing raw to bleached
and caramelized fiber have only some subtle differences that exist between these
treated sample and the raw one, observed shifts in the bleached material compared
to the raw Moso bamboo were attributed to the bleaching process oxidizing the
aromatic rings of the phenolic groups in the lignin (1230 cm−1 ) and to hydroxyl
groups in the polysaccharides (1047 cm−1 ). The FTIR spectra from another study
[53] of original bamboo, microwave liquefied residue, bleached residue, alkali treated
residue, and cellulose nanofiber are presented in Fig. 9. They are showing the impor-
tant absorbance peaks that distinguish the original bamboo which have character-
istic bands such as 1735 cm−1 for hemicellulose and 1230 cm−1 for lignin, from
the liquefied one, where an absorbance band appears at 1203 cm−1 and attributed
to S=O vibration revealing the introduced sulphate groups during the microwave
process because of the use of sulfuric acid as the catalyst. The other characteristic
absorbance bands of lignin (1596, 1506, 1456, and 1230 cm−1 ) were absent in the
spectrum of the bleached residues.

Fig. 9 FTIR spectra of a original bamboo, b microwave liquefied residue, c bleached residue,
d alkali treated residue, and e cellulose nanofiber [53]
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 159

4 Properties of Bamboo and Cellulosic Bamboo Fibers

4.1 Bamboo Based Nanofibrillated Cellulose

The bamboo was studied as micro and nano reinforcement agent in polymeric
matrices, including thermoplastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, different
polyesters, and other semicrystalline polymers, hybrid composites such as that of
polypropylene and polylactic acid, macro reinforcement in thermosets and polyester
resins [55]. The hierarchical structure of bamboo fibers is described in Fig. 10.
Nanofibrillated Cellulose is the cellulose fibers that have been fibrillated to reach
the agglomeration stage of many cellulose microfibril units, nanofibrillated cellulose
has a nanoscale diameter (at least one dimension should be less than 100 nm) and a
typical length of several micrometers [56]. Cellulose nanofibrils can be derived from
the bamboo plant using eco-friendly ultrasonic treatment process, which provides a
high aspect ratio of isolated nanofibrils [57]. Appropriate pretreatments of cellulosic
fibers are important parameters to consider for promoting hydroxyl groups accessi-
bility, increasing inner surface, alter crystallinity, and break cellulose hydrogen bonds
and therefore, boost the reactivity of the fibers, among the mechanical processes
used to isolate nanofibrillated cellulose, we can cite: High pressure homogenization,
grinding, cryo-crushing, micro-fluidization, steam explosion, ball milling and high
intensity ultrasonication [56, 58].
Chemical modification on cellulose fibers is mainly used to facilitate cellulose
nanofibers production and decrease energy consumption, among the first used strate-
gies of introducing negative charges on the cellulose fibers surface is the oxidation,
using 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) [59], the newest research on
TEMPO oxidation for cellulose nanofibrillation focused on coexisting salts, where a

Fig. 10 Hierarchical organization of bamboo fibers over different length scales [54]
160 L. E. Foujji et al.

portion of NaBr was replaced by Na2 SO4 , providing both cheaper cost and leads to
the same carboxylic content. Phosphoarylation is another way of introducing negative
charges on cellulose fibers, it’s a new emerging chemical pretreatment. Many other
chemical modification processes exist (enzymatic, sulfoethylation, cationization,
ozonation…) [60].

4.2 Bamboo Cellulose Nanowhiskers

Cellulose microfibril is a semicrystalline polymer, it is constituted of a disordered

region called amorphous region and a highly ordered called crystalline region [61].
While acid hydrolysis treatment is applied to cellulosic microfibrils, it allows the
dissolution of cellulose amorphous domains. During this process, hydronium ions
pierce the cellulose chains in the amorphous domains promoting the hydrolytic
cleavage of the glycosidic bonds and liberating individual crystallites. The resulting
material is called cellulose whiskers, but other terminologies are used such as
cellulose nanocrystals, cellulose nanowhiskers, or nanocrystalline cellulose [62].
A mechanochemical approach of manufacturing bamboo cellulose whiskers via the
dissolving action of phosphoric acid on cellulose microfibrils was applied, this leads
to high yields bamboo cellulose nanocrystals thanks to the swelling effect of phos-
phoric acid on microfibrils, allowing them a better disintegration [63]. Decreasing
the size of a material from the microscale to the nanoscale have a major effect on
its properties, they change and they are expected to drive new potential applications.
The main impacted properties by this change are reported below:

4.2.1 Specific Surface Area

The specific surface area is a property of solids defined as the total surface area of a
material per unit of mass, since the nano-dimensions of the structural elements leads
to a high surface area, the reported large specific surface area of cellulose nanocrystals
is estimated to be more than 100 m2 g−1 and even up to several hundreds of m2 g−1
[64]. The addition of sulfuric acid to bamboo fibrils separated the cellulose whiskers
instantly. After a 3 h treatment using a 65 wt% sulfuric acid, bamboo whiskers showed
the maximum specific surface area of 14.225 m2 g−1 , while after a 4 h treatment
with a 55 wt% sulfuric acid treatment, the specific surface area of the whiskers
reached 13.355 m2 g−1 . Cellulosic hydrolysis degree varied in acid concentration
and processing time, more pores led to a larger specific surface area, but an excessive
treatment dissolved the cellulose and the specific surface area may decrease [65].
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 161

4.2.2 Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is defined to be the length to width (L/W) ratio, it is a predominant factor
in the morphological characterization of cellulose nanowhiskers, usually, sphere-
tended nanoparticles exhibit a low aspect ratio value (≥1), but close to 1. A study
on cellulose nanocrystal prepared by using sulfuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, and a
mixture of acetic and nitric acid solutions showed good aspect ratios ranging from 1
to 28 [66].

4.2.3 Mechanical Properties

The mechanical modulus of cellulose nanomaterials is doubtlessly their main asset.

The cellulose is a ubiquitous structural polymer that gives its mechanical proper-
ties to higher plant cells. The tensile modulus of native cellulose crystals for example
can be estimated to range between 56 and 220 GPa, with an average value of 130 GPa
[67].

4.2.4 Thermal Properties

The thermal properties of cellulose nanoscale materials are low because of its low
thermal stability, and this might affect their use, especially sulfuric acid-hydrolyzed
nanocrystals [62].

4.2.5 Morphological Properties

Bamboo cellulose nanocrystals exhibited a large length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) and

had rod-like shapes (Fig. 11), the fibrillated bamboo cellulose nanocrystals had a
higher surface area and better cross-linking characteristics when used as nanofillers.
The bamboo cellulose nanocrystals had an average length, diameter and L/D ratio
of 455 nm, 12 nm and 37, respectively [68].

5 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Bamboo

A composite material is a multiphase material formed from a combination blend of

materials which vary in the composition or in the form and remain bonded together,
and retain their identities and properties. Composites maintain an interface between
components and act in concert to provide improved specific or synergistic charac-
teristics that cannot be obtainable by any of the original components acting alone
[69].
162 L. E. Foujji et al.

Fig. 11 SEM Micrographs of bamboo cellulose with different treatment: a raw bamboo particles;
b alkali treated; c 55 wt% H2 SO4 4 h; d 65 wt% H2 SO4 3 h [68]

In the present era, researchers cannot think about the development without devel-
oping new materials with exciting properties to meet the increasing and diverse
demand of both industry and society [70]. Composite materials are materials
consisting of a fibrous phase generally a reinforcing fiber providing high mechanical
properties for example, incorporated in a continuous phase (matrix). Depending on
the type of matrix, composites are classified as polymeric, metallic, or ceramic [71].
Nanocomposites show great promise as they can provide the necessary stability and
processability for important application.

5.1 Characterization of Composite Materials

5.2 Physicochemical Properties of Composites

and Nanocomposites

Dramatic changes in the physicochemical properties of composites and nanocom-

posites can occur, due to the fillers or reinforcement agents, physical and thermal
properties can increase or decrease according to the amount and nature of the fillers,
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 163

Composite Materials

Matrices Reinforcement Interface

Polymer Ceramic
Metal Matrix Particulate Continous
Matrix Matrix
composites Discontinuous fiber fiber
composites composites

Area that
Alumina Thermoplastic Thermoset Rubber P Cf/SiC separates the
& alumina & fiber from the
-Silica SiCf/SiC, matrix and
(mullite), Cf/ZrC differs from
Carbon- them
Carbon chemically,
composite mechanically.
s, Silica Articulate,
carbide Discontinous
fiber and
Continous
fiber

Fig. 12 Composite materials and types of constituents [69]

as well as many other properties such as mechanical behavior, along with some crit-
ical issues like the poor bonding, poor wettability, and the degradation at the interface
between fiber/matrix which is usually caused by a hydrophilic and hydrophobic effect
[72]. Some main components of composite materials are described in the Fig. 12.

5.3 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing processes of composites and nanocomposites are crucial steps to

consider in the materials elaboration process. For instance, the damage of the fiber
during manufacturing present a main reason of the decrease of the composites’
strength, as well as other properties, The suitable manufacturing processes must
be utilized to transform the materials to the final shape without causing any defect
of products, for example the injection moulding of composites is a process where a
measured amount of mixture which contains the molten polymer and fiber is forced
into mould cavities [73]. Another process is the Compression moulding, many studies
were conducted on the possibility of using natural fibers as filler mixed with renew-
able polymers to form a new class of biocomposites through compression moulding
process, it’s the preferred process thanks to its simplicity and fast processing cycle
[74]. Hot processing favorable for simple flat samples because only two hot plates
are needed to compress all fiber and matrix together simultaneously, then heat was
applied, and the last process is resin transfer moulding [72].
164 L. E. Foujji et al.

6 Bio-based Polymers Matrices Reinforced Bamboo

Composites

Chitosan is an exciting biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic polymer, it is

commercially available and indeed widely used in composites as a matrix, in a
recent study, the manufacturing and characterization of bio-nanocomposite films
using chitosan as matrix, which was reinforced with bamboo or montmorillonite
nanofibers was done. The solutions were prepared by dissolving crab shell chitosan
in a glacial aqueous acetic acid following the described specific concentration and
under the described conditions, the prepared films were elaborated by the casting
technique. A comparison of cassava starch and chitosan as matrix polymers was
established, showing some better response to nanostructure process of cassava starch,
while in another hand the use of bamboo nanofibers showed a good interaction
between the polymer matrix and the nanofibers, and the use of montmorillonite
nanoparticles and bamboo nanofibers improved the low mechanical resistance of
chitosan films and improved also its poor barrier properties [75]. In another study
poly lactic-co-glycolic and nanohydroxyapatite and bamboo fibers were combined
as a ternary composite by solution mixing method, the effect of the bamboo fibers
content was investigated, it has an important impact on crystallization behavior,
interface structure and mechanical and thermal properties. 5 wt% of the bamboo
fibers showed the ultimate benefits for both crystallization and mechanical properties
[76]. Another study investigated the mechanical and thermal properties of an aged
composites based on polypropylene, ethylene-propylene-diene monomer and talc
reinforced with bamboo fibers. Again, adding bamboo fibers increased significantly
flexural and tensile modulus and the fatigue life, while decreased the elongation at
break and impact strength. A compatibilizer was also used and it influences positively
only tensile and flexural strength, but it has a negative effect on tensile elongation at
break and impact strength of the material [77].

6.1 Morphological and Structural Characterization

of Nanocomposites

Nanocomposite materials can be characterized using several tools, in the following

part examples of nanocomposites materials characterization studies will be presented.
A research paper on poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/bamboo cellulose nanowhiskers
(BCNW) bionanocomposite material exhibits improved high toughness but a low
modulus, in order to surpass this drawback, new fillers of silane surface-modified
based ultrafine bamboo-char were used. The elaborated materials were films made
by solution casting method using different amount of reinforcements ranging from
0.25 to 4 wt%.
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 165

Fig. 13 FT-IR spectra of raw ultrafine bamboo-char (UFBC) and silylated UFBC

6.1.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

At first, an important technical characterization tool to be used is the Fourier transform

infrared spectroscopy, in this example, and in order to assure the surface modification
of the ultrafine bamboo-char using silane, Fig. 13 makes a clear statement of that
modification by the appearance of an absorption band at 2976 cm−1 equivalent to
the silane group [78].

6.1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used in order to observe the uniformly disper-
sion of the fillers, confirmed again in the Fig. 14, the micrographs of bionanocom-
posite surface exhibited more pits and cavities than the binary system of PLA/BCNW.
Which is due to the presence of UFBC/PLA around the biochar particles and formed
small cavities all around the particles resulting in a core–shell dispersion structure,
UFBC were dispersed uniformly in the PLA matrix and the two phases had a good
interface effect [78].
After proving the modification and the incorporation of the fillers, mechanical
properties of the composites were evaluated, the surface modified UFBC did success-
fully reinforce the PLA/BCNW bionanocomposites, a higher tensile strength was
reached (18.87 MPa) along with improved tensile modulus (272.24 MPa), the ideal
UFBC content was 0.25 wt% assuring an elongation at break value of 165.8% [78].
166 L. E. Foujji et al.

Fig. 14 Fractural surface of PLA/BCNW/UFBC bionanocomposites, a 0.25%, b 0.5%, c and

d 0.5% UFBC in PLA

Another study was focused on the borer powder of bamboo which can be an be
considered as an excellent starting material for manufacturing cellulose nanocrystals
in both a low-cost and using an environmental-friendly way, the chemical composi-
tion of uninfected bamboo powder and borer powder has not been changed signif-
icantly, so cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals
(CCN) were prepared, the crystallinity of the CNC and the CCN nanofibers are
significantly improved after a series of chemical treatments, that is up to 69.84 and
62.75%, respectively [79].

6.1.3 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis

The crystallinity improvement of the nanofibers (CCN or CNC) compared to the borer
powder is also shown in the same study [79], this property of CCN and CNC makes
them eventually used to improve mechanical properties of composite materials, based
on the fact that mechanical properties, especially the tensile strength modulus is
massively dependent on the crystallinity property. Another study [11] presented the
X-Ray diffraction analysis (XRD) of other bamboo based cellulose samples. All the
cellulose samples present four diffraction peaks at 2θ = 15°, 16.5°, 22.7°, and 34.8°,
corresponding to the (110), (110), (200), and (004) crystallographic planes of the
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 167

monoclinic cellulose demonstrating that the crystalline type of CNCs is remained

after the nanocrystallization process. Compared to bamboo pulp, an increase of the
crystallinity index for CNCs is seen and which is explained by the degradation of
amorphous regions and disordered regions of cellulose. As mentioned previously,
a higher crystallinity index in CNCs is associated with higher tensile strength and
thermal stability, which is expected to be beneficial for producing high strength
composite materials.

6.1.4 Thermal Analysis of Nanocomposites

To characterize the thermal properties of bamboo pulp and of its derivative cellulose
nanocrystals (CNCs), The initial thermal decomposition of bamboo pulp is 313 °C
compared to 322 °C for CNCs, the maximum degradation temperature follows the
same path, where for CNCs the temperature is increased to 348 °C compared to
338 °C for the pulp. All of these results indicate that the thermal stability of CNCs
is higher than that of cellulose raw material, due to the fact that the thermal stability
of cellulose is affected by crystalline order [11].

7 Applications of Bamboo Cellulose Nanocrystals

The use of bamboo cellulose nanocrystals as alternate to bacterial cellulose for wound
dressings seems to be an interesting application of these materials, a prior study
highlighted interesting properties of cellulose nanocrystals, such as their ability and
capacity of absorbing water along with their strong antibacterial activity. The in-situ
single approach was adopted for the elaboration of this bionanocomposites, where
the formation and simultaneous impregnation of silver nanoparticles onto cellulose
nanocrystals matrix were carried out. The elaborated bionanocomposite was found
to significantly enhance the in-vivo skin tissue repair by decreasing the production
of inflammatory cytokines and increasing fibroblast proliferation, angiogenesis, and
finally tissue neoepithelization and regeneration in less than 14 days by favoring
collagen deposition [80].
Hybrid materials made of bamboo cellulose nanocrystals and zinc oxide were
elaborated. Using solely water solvent in mild temperature (80 °C), this facile green-
route one step synthesis provided materials with various morphologies (nearly spher-
ical, thin sheet and flower-like shapes) depending on pH values. These materials were
subjected to several applications, they were used to absorb methylene blue and mala-
chite green dyes, they showed high removal capacity (93.5 and 99.0% respectively)
reaching 91.5% and 97.8% respectively withing the first 5 min. These materials
were also tested to investigate their antibacterial activity. The spherical like hybrid
materials actually showed high ratios reaching 91.4–99.8% against Escherichia coli
(gram positive) and Staphylococcus aureus (gram negative) as shown in Fig. 15 [81].
168 L. E. Foujji et al.

Fig. 15 Antibacterial ability of CNC and ZnO/CNC hybrids against a E. coli and b S. aureus

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)/cellulose nanocrystal films were elaborated in order to

test their barrier and migration ability while they are in contact with food prod-
ucts, the extraction source of cellulose source was bamboo stems, the nanocompos-
ites were elaborated using the solvent exchange cum solution casting evaporation
technique, the oxygen transmission rate of these films was dropped dramatically
by 65% even at low cellulose nanocrystals loading of 2 wt% compared to neat
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). These materials seem to be promising materials for various
applications in the field of food packaging [82].
Some other nanocomposites were elaborated based on glycerol plasticized starch,
and in order in reinforce these materials, bamboo based cellulose nanocrystals were
used, the latter material was prepared using a combination of sulfuric acid and HNO3 –
KClO3 hydrolysis which led to several geometries depending on the concentration of
the acidic media. Tensile strength and Young’s modulus of these nanocomposites, was
much higher than their counterparts for glycerol plasticized-starch without bamboo
crystals, these results were due to the effect of the size of cellulose nanocrystals, and
to the reduced water uptake.

8 Conclusion

The addition of bamboo fiber in biopolymeric materials represents a promising route,

as it improves the overall properties of the composite and nanocomposite materials.
The increase in mechanical properties was engendered by the high properties of the
bamboo extracted nanofibrils and nanocrystals (modulus, tensile strength), but many
other parameters must be taken into consideration, such as the fiber size, surface
modification, fiber content, coupling additives, etc. because they also influence the
Characterization and Properties of Biopolymer Reinforced Bamboo Composites 169

mechanical properties as well as other characteristics of the composite and nanocom-

posite (thermal stability, crystallinity, water absorption, etc.). The realization of a
composite material with the best possible properties, thus passes through the control
of all these parameters.

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The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo
Fiber Properties

Mohammad Irfan Iqbal and Rashed Al Mizan

Abstract A Chinese poet once wrote, “Man can live without meat, but he will die
without bamboo” because of its multifunctional and ecofriendly in nature. It has
recently entered the textile and composite sector with some attractive labels such
as ‘green’. The current commercial manufacturing methods of bamboo fibres and
its reinforced composites are mainly based on removal of nodes portion of bamboo
culm. This method generates a high amount of solid waste materials and hence the
term ‘green’ becomes questionable. This research investigates the effects of culm
nodes on fibre properties. In this study an approach to produce fibres from bamboo
strips along with nodes has been reported. SEM analysis and X ray diffraction is
done to get idea of surface morphology and crystallinity of bamboo fibre along with
node respectively. The surface of bamboo fibre which have node was comparatively
rough than the fibre in internode portion. It was reported that the bamboo fibres along
with nodes had a lower crystalline than internodes fibres. The finding implies that
the separation of fibres from bamboo strips along with nodes is difficult. In order
to use these bamboo fibres for textile and composites applications fibre properties
such as fineness and tenacity were examined. It was revealed that the fibres without
node have high fineness and higher tenacity compared with node fibres. It is assumed
that the single fibre length of this bamboo species is not enough for conventional
spinning. However, spinnable length was achieved as fibre bundles.

Keywords Bamboo fibre · Characterization · Nodes · Green

M. I. Iqbal (B)
Wuhan Textile University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
e-mail: [email protected]
BGMEA University of Fashion and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
R. Al Mizan
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 175

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_10
176 M. I. Iqbal and R. Al Mizan

1 Background

In the recent decades, Bamboo fibers has been one of the major interesting research
subjects due to its multifunctional and ecofriendly nature [1]. It is considered one of
the biggest grass plants in the world. It has always belonged to the Poaceae family, a
sub-family of Bambusoideae It has more than 1250 species within 75 genera in the
world [2], mainly grown in tropical and subtropical areas. China is one of the hubs
of bamboo growth, having about 400 species of 50 genera. The estimated area of
bamboo growth has gone beyond 4.21 million ha [3]. Bamboo plantation can be done
in very hard climatic conditions by maintaining green harvesting processing. It is also
well acknowledged for its easy and faster growing nature amongst the scientist and
farmers [4]. Bamboo plants are also popular due to its hard and heavy-duty in nature.
It is one of the ancient structural materials used by humankind [5]. It has been always
used in household products. Now, owing to changes in processing technology and
enhanced market demand, it has been expanded to industrial applications recently [6].
It is an intimate part of the daily lives of people in nations where bamboo is scarce in
resources and is therefore handled with excellent regard. As plentiful natural resource
in China, bamboo has been utilized in many purposes such as agricultural, craftwork,
housing and structural for many centuries; however, textile fiber from bamboo has
gained attention recently due to its unique properties suitable for apparel industry
[7]. To utilize bamboo based fiber in the textile and apparel sector in China two ways
can be considered [8]. One method is to process natural fiber from bamboo by means
of physiochemical action and the other method is the making of regenerated fiber
from bamboo pulp widely known as semi synthetic bamboo fiber [9].
The annual output of bamboo fibers is almost 40,000 tones and is accelerating
significantly [10]. Generally, bamboo fibers are made from “Moso” the world’s
largest bamboo [4]. Though bamboo is well valued and widely used in life, the
development of bamboo fiber is most current [11].The utilization of bamboo fiber
for apparel purpose is a twentieth century development, started by several Chinese
company [11]. The first contemporary bamboo textile process was developed by
Beijing University [12].
The successful extraction of the bamboo fibers and because of modern bleaching
technology [13], lead to create commercially available bamboo fabrics for readymade
garments, finds potential market in Europe and America. Subsequently, the methods
of engineering bamboo fabrics have been in progress, bringing new innovations in
fiber processes. The entire processes are natural which, retain the organic heritage
of the product.
Philipp Lichtenstadt in 1864 has been made bamboo textile reported by Nayak
and Mishra [11]. The practice is quite similar to the procedure use nowadays to
manufacture regenerated bamboo cellulose, [14]. The U.S. patent #41,627 dated, 16
February 1864 which deals with the process for “disintegrating the fiber of bamboo,
so as to use it in manufacturing cordage, mats, cloth, or pulp for paper.” There is
another U.S. patent #87,295, dated 23 February 1869 which also discusses on the
improvement of bamboo fiber preparation. One more document has been delivered
The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo Fiber Properties 177

in 1881 for mixing bamboo fiber with wool and spinning into a modern bamboo yarn
[11].
The chemical compositions of bamboo fibers are mainly cellulose (60%), hemi-
cellulose and lignin (32%) [15]. Culm, node, internode, leaf and roots are the main
parts of bamboo (Iqbal et al.). The culm is a hollow stem cylindrical in shape consists
of nodes along the entire length of bamboo, acting as a disc introduced between every
segment of culms [16] (Fig. 1). These nodes portion play a significant role in avoiding
buckling of bamboo culm [17]. Many researchers reported that these node portions
have a mechanical function for instance: improving the stiffness and strength of
the bamboo fibre. It has been suggested: “Bamboo node is crucial to improve stiff-
ness and stability of the slender bamboo Culm during growth” [18]. There is a
consensus among botanists that the biomechanics of the plant have been governed
by the nodes. Studies have found that properties of node portions varied from those
of bamboo internodes [19]. The effects of different species, age, location, and portion
of bamboo culms can influence processing procedures and performance of end prod-
ucts [20]. Previous studies have reported that the bamboo consists of about 52%
parenchyma cells, 40% fibers and 8% conducting tissue [21]. The strongly lignified
bamboo fibers can influence the mechanical properties of end products [22]. The
structure and anatomy of the bamboo culm has a great influence on its physical
properties reported by Liese [23].
The research to date has tended to focus on extraction of bamboo fibers only in
internode portions rather than along with node points. In this chapter we are going
to take a closer look into the effect of culm nodes on fiber properties. There are
some advantages to the development of bamboo fiber for textiles and composites.
First, bamboo fibers are an environmentally friendly fiber, which is renewable, fast
growing, degradable, and does not occupy cultivated land. Next, the exploitation

Fig. 1 Structure of a bamboo [24]

178 M. I. Iqbal and R. Al Mizan

of the abundant bamboo resources can be of significant economic benefit in hilly

areas. In addition, the bamboo fiber can make up for the lack of natural textile
fiber available in China and it may replace partial need for synthetic fibers used in
garments and furniture fabric. Moreover, bamboo and the bamboo fibers are very
competitive in price. Bamboo fibers have potential as a sustainable alternative for
glass fibers also. Besides these the beneficiary characteristics of bamboo and its
products are worth noting. The natural antimicrobial ability along with smoothness,
hypoallergic and deodorant properties. Moreover, high water absorption with fast
drying property caused by the existence of large number of micro cracks with grooves
on the bamboo plant surface making them suitable products for higher breathability
and thermo regulating properties than other natural fiber such as cotton and hemp. It
has a high durability in comparison to other fibers, UV protection abilities (SPF 15);
a high sorption of dyes and better color clarity; bamboo fabrics have low shrinkage;
bamboo fiber does not essential to be mercerized to obtain natural luster; clothes
made from bamboo fiber are more wrinkle resistant than cotton and can be ironed at
lower temperatures; bamboo products are biodegradable [4].
Bamboo fiber has a long list of application possibilities. Sports clothing industry
could be a potential place for bamboo fiber due to its antibacterial and temperature-
regulating features. Because of its smooth hand and UV protection nature makes it
ideal material for summer (Zakrzewski). A most noticeable escalation in bamboo
fiber use can be seen in yoga and fitness clothing [4]. For these reasons, once the
conception of the bamboo fibers appeared, it has drawn increasing attention from
many international organizations and countries, especially within China. Unfortu-
nately, there is always a debate in every case because of the bamboo fibers are
short and rigid in reality that it would be difficult t spin them for apparel uses [25].
Hence, studies into bamboo fiber are very active among the researchers. Research
activity currently divided in two groups. One is for structures and property analysis
of bamboo fiber and another one focuses on extraction methods of bamboo fiber. In
the beginning, most scientist worked on the analysis of the structures and properties
of bamboo fibers and development of bamboo fabrics [9, 26–28]. Testing results have
showed that the structures and properties of the bamboo fiber are similar to those
of ramie [9, 29]. But there is no measurable research in the field of manufacturing
and characterization of 100% bamboo yarn by taking fibers from different sections
of bamboo culm in China as well as in the research world. In this chapter work an
overview has been taken in order to make bamboo fibers by taking node and without
node of bamboo Culm.
Bamboo also has noteworthy prospect in composite manufacturing because of
its high strength, green nature, fast growing properties, low cost, availability and
sustainability. To save the ecosystem and produce cost effective fiber reinforced
composites, researchers are working to manufacture composites using natural fibers
by replacing less environment-friendly fibers (e.g. glass fiber). The cost, availability,
light weight, high specific strength and safe nature of bamboo fibers are its most
attractive properties„ encouraging researchers in composite technology to work on
its development. There is also limited work in the development of bamboo fiber
reinforced composite along with nodes. The chapter suggest that bamboo fibers along
The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo Fiber Properties 179

with nodes could be a potential material for various purposes. However, available
studies have hardly addressed the extraction and use of bamboo fibers along with
nodes for composite and textiles applications. Most of the previous studies focuses
on only utilization of bamboo with only internode portions.

2 Literature Review

The apparel industry is considered as one of the major polluters organization because
of using hazardous and pollutants raw materials and chemicals during fiber produc-
tion. Even cotton, the most demanded and usable natural fiber, has been marked as
one of the most non-‘green’ crops because of the use of enormous quantity of water
and pesticides during its harvesting period [30]. Consequently, the price of cotton
is also increasing dramatically. Therefore, it is necessity to look for new renewable
resources for apparel fiber production. Bamboo species has been considered as one
of the green and abundant crops in nature due to its fast growth rate, excellent carbon
sequestration activity, and needs for little water along with no pesticides requirement
(Austin et al. 1970; Liese 2009). However, the current commercial manufacturing
process of bamboo fibers involve the removing of nodes portion generates large quan-
tities of wastes and hence it is questionable to label bamboo textiles or composites as
‘green’ products. It is therefore necessary to develop a fresh technique for the produc-
tion of textile fibers from raw bamboo crops together with nodes. Recently, the use of
bamboo species in apparel products, composite materials [31] and cosmetics goods
has rapidly growing. This is entirely due to the consumer perception for bamboo
based products as an eco-friendly material [32] and the potential functionality and
sustainability that bamboo can add, including UV-absorbing, antibacterial and mois-
ture regulation. In general, processing bamboo crops into fibers along with nodes in
an environmentally friendly way is challenging [33]. This is usually due to the fact
that the extraction and separation of bamboo fibers depends on the change in the
orientation of cellulose micro fibrils and the presence of a big quantity of gummy
material lignin (~28%) [34].
For apparel fiber processing the ultrasonic treatment has been recently recognized
as one of the green methods [35–38]. Bio based methods for instance, enzymatic
and bacterial are also eco-friendly and thus extensively used in the apparel industry
for fiber processing.[39–44]. The usually used enzymes for bast fiber processing
are cellulase, xylanase, pectinase and mannanase [45, 46]; among them, the use of
cellulase is remarkable [47, 48].
In this chapter, an investigation was carried out to process bamboo strips into fibers
that retain the node portions of raw bamboo plants. Ecologically benign methods such
as Ultrasonication, enzyme treatment was used to process bamboo into fiber.
180 M. I. Iqbal and R. Al Mizan

3 Experimental

3.1 Materials

The bamboo strips used as the starting materials were procured from local markets
in the middle part of China with a typical length of 74 cm. The strips had an average
length of 74 cm. The average distance between the nodes was 20, 16.5 cm at the top
and 20 cm at the bottom. The width and thickness of bamboo strips were 4.7 mm and
1.8 mm respectively. The strips were classified into two categories: without nodes or
only internodes and with nodes in middle of strips. Reagent grade sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), 35% hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), Cellulase enzymes (9012-54-8) and acetic
acid (CH3 COOH) from Aladdin Industrial Corporation, China were used.

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Fiber Extraction Procedures

Figure 2 shows the flow chart of production process of bamboo fibers along with
nodes. In this method, bamboo strips were used as a starting material. First, bamboo
strips cut into 50 mm small pieces and treated mechanically with pressing and
hammering to accelerate the reaction rate in defibrillation and degumming. An ultra-
sonic bath (KQ-50DE) was used for ultrasonic treatment. An oil bath (DF101S) was
used for boiling the samples with acetic acid (2%) followed by ultrasonic treatment.

Fig. 2 Production process of bamboo fibers along with nodes

The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo Fiber Properties 181

Three separate chemicals, namely, NaOH (100 g/l), enzyme (20%) and H2 O2 (10%)
were used for degumming independently. For the degumming with enzyme, bamboo
strips in deionized water were treated with cellulase enzyme for 4 h at 60o C and pH
7 prior to ultrasonic treatment. Then the processed fibers were filtered and washed
with deionized water and the fibers were subsequently dried in oven at 40 ° C for
18 h.

3.2.2 Characterization of Fibre

Fibre fineness: The linear density in tex was measured by dividing the mass of
specimens by their known length [49, 50]. For fineness 3 samples were considered
and their averages were reported.
Tensile Testing: Fibre tenacity in CN/dtex was determined using an electromechan-
ical tensile machine, ASTM D 3379-75 Standard was followed to determine tensile
properties. The gauge length was 10 mm and the cross-head speed was 20 mm/min.
The tests were carried out until the materials got broken. The samples with Jaw break
were not taken into consideration for the analysis. For tensile property 100 samples
were considered randomly and their averages were reported.

3.3 Surface Morphology

A scanning electron microscope (JEOL, voltage: 20 kV) was used to investigate

the surface morphology of the bamboo fibers. Before observation, the samples were
coated in gold by ion sputtering.

3.4 X-ray Diffraction Measurements

Crystal orientation of raw bamboo fibers specimens along with node were char-
acterized by X-ray diffraction measurements using an X-ray diffraction measuring
instrument. The degree of crystallinity, Xc, was estimated using the Segal method
[51] (Eq. 1) which is widely used for cellulosic materials:

I002 − Iam
Xc = × 100% (1)
I002

where I 002 is the peak intensity from the (002) lattice plane (2θ = 22.6°) and I am is
the diffraction intensity of amorphous phase represented at 2θ = 19°.
182 M. I. Iqbal and R. Al Mizan

Table1 The properties of bamboo fibers

Bamboo fibre Fineness(tex) ± STD Tenacity(cN/dtex) ± STD
Without node 20 ± 4 71 ± 6
With node 50 ± 2 82 ± 10

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 The Properties of Bamboo Fibre

The tenacity and fineness of the bamboo fibers with nodes and without nodes are
shown in Table 1. The average value of Tenacity and Fineness of fibers with nodes
and without nodes are 50tex, 82cN/dtex and 20tex, 71cN/dtex respectively. It can be
found from the Table 1 the fibers without node have high finness but lower tenacity
compared with node fibers. In contrast to earlier findings, no evidence of bamboo
fibers extracted from bamboo strip along with nodes is found. This result may be
explained by the fact of unique morphological and anatomical characteristics of
nodes [52] that allows that contribute to the variation in fiber fineness and tenacity.

4.2 Fibers Appearance

Figure 3a, b shows SEM images of an extracted fiber without node and with node
respectively. The SEM images 3a indicate that the fiber without node gives the most
uniform fibrous morphology. However, the fibers were found in bundle form and had
very rough surfaces, unsuitable for textile applications.

Fig. 3 a SEM photograph of bamboo fiber without node b SEM photograph of bamboo fiber with
node
The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo Fiber Properties 183

Fig. 4 XRD spectrum of a bamboo fibers without node and b bamboo fibers with node

4.3 Crystallinity of Processed Bamboo Fiber

The orientation of polymer chain in bamboo fiber can be observed from XRD pattern
in Fig. 4. There are several mechanical properties and suitability of end use, depends
upon this molecular direction. In Fig. 4a, the XRD pattern of bamboo fibers without
nodes showed, where the diffraction peak indicates the evidence of cellulose in the
bamboo.
In this XRD pattern the corresponding peak around 22° and 16° are the strong
evidence of cellulose-I crystal structure. The pattern also gives the evidence of crys-
talline region in bamboo fiber by giving the corresponding peak in arbitrary intensity.
Moreover, the boarded background of the XRD pattern gives proves of amorphous
region in the respective bamboo. However, the crystallinity of the bamboo fiber
without node was calculated as ~86% which was finely supported by morphology.
On the other hand, the XRD pattern of bamboo fibers with nodes showed in Fig. 4b.
This pattern gives a similarity with former pattern, rather than giving an intensity
difference. The intensity difference of this XRD spectrum provides the evidence of
reducing crystallinity, which was stated as ~66% in this portion. In same way, it can
also be sated the increase of molecular disorientation of bamboo fibers with nodes
portion. From Fig. 5, it is clearly showing; some route develops in the node portion.
During the initial stage of this route development can affect lignocellulose depo-
sition in this portion, which is also a reason of this molecular disorientation in the
node portion. However, the increase of amorphousness will be adventitious for textile
production, due to facilitation of dye ability and water absorption. In contrast, node
in bamboo fiber also gives a hinder to produce single fiber in real.

5 Conclusions

In this chapter, a new approach to process bamboo strips into fibres along with nodes
was investigated. The bamboo Fibres were extracted from bamboo strips with the
184 M. I. Iqbal and R. Al Mizan

Fig. 5 Route and branch develops in the node portion with their CT-scanned images. Adapted with
permission [53]

aid of Mechanochemical method. The manufacturing process was considered as eco-

friendly due to the avoidance of environmentally hazardous chemicals and the use
of H2 O2 . The bamboo Fibres processed using this manufacturing method having the
properties of single fibres was not suitable for existing conventional textile spinning.
In this study, it was shown that the single Fibre length of this bamboo species is
3–5 mm. This short length is not suitable for conventional textile spinning. However,
there are many applications of these short fibres. Some of the examples are:
• The short Fibres can be used as reinforcement components in plastics [54] and
composites [55].
• The short Fibres can be made spinnable by blending with other textile fibres.
The short Fibres add UV blocking and antibacterial functions to the fabrics. The
antibacterial property can be used in medical textiles such as bandages.
• The short Fibres can be used to make bamboo paper sheeting with UV blocking
and antibacterial functions.
The short fibers can be used as a precursor of ultrafine bamboo powders. Bamboo
powders can be blended in various host materials to give UV blocking and antibacte-
rial functions [33]. Because of the high solubility of ultrafine powders, they can also
be used to produce regenerated or blended fibers, membranes and other functional
materials [56–60].
However, fibers with spinnable characteristics for making yarn were obtained
as fiber bundles. The fibers produced using this method will be useful for many
applications in the textile, plastic, composites and medical industries.
The Effects of Culm Nodes on Bamboo Fiber Properties 185

The bamboo fibers along with node had the highest tenacity but lower fineness
and crystallinity from the internode fibers. It was found that node fibers were not
suitable to process into single bamboo fiber due to less crystalline structure.

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Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber
in Textile and Apparel Industries:
Fabrication and Characterization

Semalaiappan Yamuna Devi, Suyambulingam Indran, and Divakaran Divya

Abstract In recent years, the textile market is proposed to have new types of fibers
and yarns. The expansion of eco-friendly fabrics with organic, bio-degradable, and
environmentally friendly nature is the current trend to reduce the carbon footprints
as well as a carcinogenic effect caused by various synthetic materials. Ecofriendly
fabrics possess natural characteristics that are user-friendly, cost-effective, and less
harmful nature. The market demand for such fabrics is increasing with the conscious-
ness of the consumer. Bamboo textiles provide a remarkable opportunity for devel-
oping sustainable and socio-economically significant textiles in the future. This
chapter describes the fabrication and characterization methods for bamboo-based
textiles and their futuristic prospects in the textile and apparel industries.

Keywords Natural fiber · Bamboo · Textile fiber · Bamboo weave · Bamboo

fabric · Bamboo textile

1 Introduction

Natural fibers were explored to humans from different plant and animal sources for
thousands of years back. At present, the exploration of natural plant fibers is increased
due to its potential in various fields, including textile and apparel industries. Specific
industries were making use of sustainable products for diverse end applications.

S. Yamuna Devi
Department of Costume Design and Fashion, NIFT-TEA College of Knitwear Fashion, Tirupur,
Tamil Nadu 641606, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Indran (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rohini College of Engineering and Technology,
Palkulam, Kanyakumari 629401, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Divya
Research and Development Department, Pinnacle Bio-Sciences, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu
629701, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 189

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_11
190 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

However, the textile industry has poor pathway records in social and ecofriendly
concerns. Bamboo textile has an excellent opportunity to provide sustainable textile
products. There are two main advantages of bamboo textiles processing such as
bamboo is a natural eco-friendly, non-harmful material and which can act as raw
material that regulates sustainable government policies [1, 2].
Nowadays, the textile industry has mainly focused on utilizing renewable and recy-
clable resources as well as environmental friendly processes to pledge the demand,
more comfort, healthier, and eco- friendly products [3]. Bamboo the “Green Fiber”
has extended the reputation and evoked the interest of investigators to develop textile
products for protection, comfort, and environment-friendly assets. Bamboo fiber is
one of the new inventions in the textile industry since bamboo is a fast-growing plant,
unlike cotton, which is a widely used cellulose enriched material and without need
any pesticides to grow the plants. The fiber which is obtained more abundant and
cheaper from the natural resource like bamboo is another advantage. The bamboo
plant is grown in tropical climates, and it is harvested after 3–4 years. This plant is
widespread throughout Asian, Latin American, and African countries. Heterocyclic
is a species known as Moso bamboo, which is the most commonly used bamboo for
fiber extraction for textile applications [4, 5].
Bamboo fiber from most of the species possess characteristics such as excellent
tensile strength, UV protection, anti-bacterial, bio-degradability, moisture absorption
property, breathability, and drying behavior [6, 7]. In SEM analysis, the cross-section
of bamboo fiber had shown small voids like structures called the lumen, unparalleled
micro-structures, and different micro gaps. Bamboo fiber clothing has high air perme-
ability that can absorb and evaporate human sweat quickly. Besides, its anti-bacterial
and eco-friendly nature make it a suitable material for the manufacturing of textiles
along with other apparel and socks [8].

2 Processing of Bamboo Fibers

In the textile industry, bamboo is processed by two kinds of manufacturing methods

that are mechanical and chemical processing (Fig. 1). It is required more efficient
equipment for the extraction of bamboo fiber on an eco-friendly basis, and this
process having a negative impact also since it may cause health issues like an allergy
to labors [9–11].

Fig. 1 Processing methods for bamboo fiber

Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 191

Fig. 2 Extraction and

mechanical processing of
bamboo fiber

2.1 Mechanical Processing Method

During mechanical processing, the bamboo is crushed into pulp, followed by natural
enzymes that are used to form a soft material, and after that, the fibers are combed
out. Then the fiber is spun into yarn, and the yarn is converted into bamboo fabric
products [12]. The mechanical process for making bamboo fibers and yarn that are
ramie-like method is demonstrated in Fig. 2.

2.2 Chemical Processing Method

The most common method used to extract bamboo fiber in the textile industry is
chemical processing. In this process, the bamboo culm is treated with chemicals to
obtain renewed bamboo fiber, and then it can be again processed with more chemical
agents to make fine yarn to convert them into fabrics. All parts of the bamboo plant
can be turned to usable fabrics through this chemical treatment method. Primarily, the
192 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

bamboo culm collected can be treated with caustic soda for softening, then the steps
pressing, aging, ripening, degassing, and acid treatment to be carried out (Fig. 3).
After the process of cutting filament fibers into staple fibers, they are further subjected
to necessary final treatments, and the dried, baled fibers are then direct for spinning.
However, the chemical process requires additional labors and cost expensive
compared to the mechanical method. Some chemical processing methods are not
eco-friendly while some provide more economical and sound environmental impacts.
Furthermore, the chemical techniques involve low energy consumption and easy
control over fiber properties when compared to steam explosion and mechanical
methods [14]. Hence, this method of the manufacturing process is rarely used in the
apparel industry for bamboo fiber processing [15]. There is also a third category of
bamboo fiber, which falls under chemically manufactured bamboo fiber are bamboo

Fig. 3 Extraction and chemical processing of bamboo fiber

Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 193

charcoal. When using bamboo charcoal in the form of nano-particles, the charcoal
powder is mixed with the liquid of viscose spinning [16, 17].

3 Properties of Bamboo Fibers and Their Products

Properties of the bamboo fibers are inconsistent for the extraction, processing, and
time owing to decrease cellulose content with aging [18]. Moreover, the method of
extraction of fiber found as a significant factor in defining the characteristics of the
end- product. The manufacturing of bamboo pulp fiber follows a technique similar
to that of viscose production since it is quite easy to predict the structure and prop-
erties of the same. Distinct methods possess the different potential to remove lignin,
which contributes stiffness and yellowing of bamboo fibers. Simultaneously, the non-
cellulosic components also affect fiber properties like strength, density, moisture
absorbency, flexibility, etc. [19, 20].
The fabric woven out of mechanically extracted fibers has a rough and stiff feel,
whereas, the one woven out of viscose-type chemical process holds a very soft handle
and excellent drape. Another difference is reflected in terms of strength and dura-
bility, which is higher in the case of mechanically processed fibers. These differences
can be attributed to the alteration in the physical form of the fiber during chemical
processing, which leads to the modification of molecular orientation within the fiber,
and also its degree of polymerization. Even though the bamboo viscose fiber is essen-
tially the same in chemical nature as its raw form, the yarns and fabrics manufactured
out of both behave differently (Table 1).

4 Yarn

Moving on from fiber to yarn level, the mechanical process is used to comb out the
natural fibers to get individual fibers, and then the spinning of the yarn process is
carried out. In the textile industry, yarn is arranged in the form of a continuous strand
of staple or filament fibers, which is more suitable for weaving, knitting, or non-
woven. Also, relatively the cross-section of the yarn shows the twist or fiber filament,
and also yarn is a textile product of considerable length [17, 30]. The yarn is twisted
with one or more yarns to ensure added value or create aesthetics. The fibers with
a finite length of yarn are called staple fibers. Nowadays, continuous filaments are
also used to construct yarns. Filament yarns tend to be smoother, lustrous, uniform,
harsher, and less absorbent. While spun yarns have hairy surface and are more uneven
in appearance, lower luster, softer, and more absorbent. The Spun yarn is mostly used
in many woven and knitted fabric products.
194 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

Table 1 Important chemical and mechanical properties of bamboo fibers in comparison with some
other natural fibers [10, 21–29]
Types of Cellulose Lignin (wt. Moisture Tensile Elongation at Density
fibers (wt. %) %) (wt. %) strength break (%) (g/cm3 )
(MPa)
Bamboo 60.8 32.2 – 615–862 3 0.91
Coir 36–43 41–45 8 593 7.8 1.2
Banana 63–68 5 10–12 600 3.36 1.38
Sisal 67–78 8–11 10–22 511–635 3–7 1.5
Jute 61–72 12–13 12.5–13.7 393–773 1.5–1.8 1.3
Hemp 70–74 4–6 6.2–12 690 1.6 1.47
Kenaf 31–39 15–19 – 930 – 1.45
Flax 71 2.2 8–12 500–1500 2.7–3.2 1.5
Ramie 69–76 0.6–0.7 7.5–17 400 – 938 3.6–3.8 1.5
Cotton 85–90 0.7–1.6 7.85–8.5 287–800 7–8 1.51–1.60
Nettle 53–86 3.5–9.4 – – – 1.5
Pineapple 81 12.7 – 144 14.5 1.44–1.56
Okra 60–70 0.6–0.7 – – – –
Silk – – – 252–528 20–25 –
Wool – – – 122–175 25–35 –

4.1 Yarn Manufacturing Process

A number of processes are employed for converting bamboo fiber into yarns,
which involves the removal of stable fibers, alignment of fibers and then spun the
yarn. Depending upon the machinery/setup present in the spinning mill, along with
the manufacturing process, influences the quality of the yarn produced. The yarn
manufacturing process from bamboo fiber is depicted in Fig. 4 (Table 2).

4.1.1 Opening, Blending, and Cleaning

The first process of the spinning mill is opening the fiber from the bales. The opening
and blending processes ensure the reliability and uniformity of the blended fiber, are
shown in Fig. 5. Fiber is blended and then passed in between many spike rollers to
open further the fiber clusters, followed by cleaning is done to remove the impurities,
which may cause severe quality issues in the end product. A blending of various fibers
is done to improve the functional properties and also to enhance the aesthetic quality
of fabric [16].
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 195

Fig. 4 Flow chart of yarn

manufacturing process

4.1.2 Carding

The carding machine used to separate and clean the fibers; bypassing fibers between
three different rollers. Then the overlapping fibers are converting to a single contin-
uous strand is called ‘sliver’ Notably, a large number of short fibers and neps are
removed during this process, as shown in Fig. 5 [17].

4.1.3 Drawing

The process of drawing assists in blending fibers and smooth down. In this process,
the number of fibers present in the slivers is reduced with the desired linear density.
The uniformity or evenness of the slivers can be improved through this drawing
process.

4.1.4 Combing

Improving the quality of the sliver, the final short fibers, neps, and other impurities are
removed via the combing process. The functions of the combing process are aimed
to obtaining good quality of yarns. Comparing carded and yarn, combed yarns are
better in quality. The fineness, strength, evenness/uniformness of the yarn can be
improved by removing short fibers, which helps further alignment of the fibers.
196 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

Table 2 Functional properties of bamboo fibers compared with other fibers [10, 29, 31–41]
Fibers Absorbency Elasticity Recovery Strength Wicking Comments
ability
Bamboo Hydrophilic, 13% 14–24% – 22–25 Poor New fiber,
cN/tex natural
antibacterial,
biodegradable
Cotton Good, hydrophilic, Poor, 74% Good, very Slow to dry
8.5% 3–10% 20–43 poor
cN/tex
Wool Good, hydrophilic, Good, high, Fair, Good Slow to dry
13% 20–40% 99% loses
20%
strength
when
wet
Silk Good, hydrophilic, Good, Poor Good Good Challenging
11% 20% strength to care in use
in dry
state
Viscose rayon Hydrophilic, 13% Good, 82% Fair to Poor Difficult to
15–30% good, launder
18–26
cN/tex
Lyocell Good, hydrophilic, 12–16% High, Poor
12% 37–45
cN/tex
Polyester Poor, hydrophobic, Good, Good, High Faster most popular.
0.4–0.8% 19–23% 97% than cheap, easy to
cotton care for
Polyamide Fair to poor, 4–4.5% Good, Good, Very Better More
26–40% 100% high than expensive
strong polyester than polyester
fiber fibers
Polypropylene Very poor Good, Good, High Excellent Lightest
hydrophobic, <0.1% poor than poor than among
polyester polyester synthetic
fibers, unable
to be dyed
Acrylics Hydrophobic, 1–2% Good Good, Fair Good Tend to pill
25–46% 92–99% strength, during wear
20%
weaker
when
wet
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 197

Fig. 5 Process flow of Spinning

4.1.5 Roving

This process is to reduce the thickness of the sliver to get finer strand before spun
into yarn is shown in Fig. 5. To keep the fibers together, a small amount of twist is
applied to the soft strands of combed and carded fibers and freed of foreign matters,
which are the feed for the next spinning process. There are two types of twisting
used in this process, such as S-Twist and Z-Twist.

4.1.6 Spinning

The spinning of bamboo fiber is similar to viscose fiber spinning. Humidity is an

important factor that needs to controlled while bamboo spinning. During the drawing
and roving process, more fly is produced in the bamboo fiber. So it is recommended
to keep the humidity ranges from 65 to 70% and low temperature approximately
25 °C. To enhance the humidity properties of bamboo fiber, vapor treatment to be
applied before starting the process. The cohesion properties are weak for bamboo
fiber, so it is required to keep a high coefficient of the twist with low carded web and
roving tension [13, 42, 43]. Three main spinning systems used to convert the fibers
into yarn.
They are:
198 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

• Ring spinning method

• Rotor spinning method
• Air-jet spinning (vortex) method.

Ring Spinning Method

The ring spinning method is one of the spinning techniques where the final yarn
count needed to draw out the roving, by rotating the spindle twist are inserted to the
fibers and yarn is wounded on a bobbin. These three stages took place continuously
and simultaneously. For producing a ring-spun yarn, the new processes (winding
and roving) are required and slower in the production process. So the ring-spinning
process is comparatively expensive. Ring-spun yarns have a fixed twist structure,
excellent tensile properties, and are versatile in that any count can be spun. Yarns
with optimum characteristics can be produced, and this method is also simple [44].

Rotor Spinning Method

The sliver web is fed into the machine and where the sliver is combed to individualize
by the opening roller. In the rotor, the fibers are deposited along with the groove of air
current and centrifugal force, deposits where they are evenly scattered. The spinning
action of the rotor allows the twisting of fibers together, and from the center of the
rotor, the yarn is drawn continuously. The resulted yarn is clean from any defects,
and then yarns are wound onto packages.

Air-Jet Spinning (Vortex) Method

To produce a unique structure with a distinct way of yarn formation air-jet spinning
machine is used. Fiber wrapping is achieved by holding fibers together parallel of
the core to spun a fascinated yarn. The sliver web is fed into the machine, and the
final count of yarn is further drawn out through high pressured air rotating vortex
twisting. The yarn obtained is clear and free from wound or defects, are ready for
the fabrication process.

4.1.7 Winding

The winding section is comprising of two elements, such as spindle and a flyer. A
spindle is a long metal shaft that acts as a guide and a conveying element for the flyer.
To insert a twist in the roving process flyer is a specialized attachment attached in the
roving frame. In the bearing, the low end of the spindle is attached, which gets the
train of gears from its drive and transfers it into the flyer. The flyer is fixed around the
shaft at the spindle, which is derived from a separate set of gears independently. An
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 199

empty hollow package made of wood or plastic is arranged on this shaft. Where, the
winding is the process of transferring the one package of spinning yarn into another
large package (cone, spool, pirn, etc.).

5 Properties of Yarns

The physical properties of ring spinning yarns made from 100% regenerated
bamboo, and 50:50 bamboo/cotton blends are discussed here. The diameter of yarn
and hairiness reduce mechanical properties such as tensile strength, elongation, and
evenness are found to be increased because the blending proportion of the bamboo
fibers increases in yarns. It is found that there is increasing the percentage of bamboo
fiber up to 50:50, the tenacity reduced is ascribed to the differentiation in breaking
strength and elongation of bamboo fibers. The fiber and yarn characteristics of
bamboo fiber are quite similar to those of viscose rayon fiber. On the other hand,
its natural anti-bacterial characteristic, high air, and moisture permeability, ensuring
breathability in particular knitted goods, are distinctive characteristics of bamboo.
The high elongation value and moisture absorption capacity of bamboo fiber can
result in high shrinkage after refurbishing. For this reason, world-leading sports
clothing brands are incredibly attentive in bamboo fiber opine [6, 17].
The yarn count and yarn twist are the two parameters that influence the thermal
resistance and water vapour permeability of the fabric [45]. The amount of air layer
decreases simultaneously when there is an increase in the fiber per unit area as the
weight increase. In addition, the thermal conductivity of entangled air is lower than
the thermal conductivity values of fibers. The fabric obtained higher porosity values
are made from the finer yarns could be ascribed to the fabric made from finer counts
having lower thermal conductivity [46]. The textiles materials made from bamboo
yarn possess high absorbency, antibacterial, and soft feel. Compared to conventional
fiber, bamboo fiber is very hydroscopic and absorbs more water. The breathability
and coolness are the other remarkable outstanding characteristics of bamboo fabric.
200 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

Table 3 Properties of bamboo yarn in comparison with some other textile fibers yarn [8, 13, 17,
30, 43, 57, 59]
Fiber Yarn Blend Weight Thickness Porosity Optical Loop Cover
count ratio (g/m2 ) (mm) (%) porosity length factor
tex (%) Mm
Bamboo 36.60 100 220 0.69 60.26 11.84 3.68 1.65
Wool; 38.90 43:57 222 0.75 78.14 7.89 3.38 1.85
polyester
Wool; 42.20 48:52 236 0.75 76.76 6.37 3.46 1.88
polyester
Wool; 38.90 61:29 225 0.72 73.84 6.08 3.54 1.76
polyester
Wool 40.00 100 204 0.72 78.37 6.39 3.61 1.75
Wool; 56.60 35:65 270 0.83 67.01 8.47 4.39 1.71
bamboo
Wool; 38.30 52:48 210 0.74 73.56 13.91 3.72 1.67
bamboo
Wool; 46.10 60:40 236 0.75 71.76 9.91 3.90 1.74
bamboo
Polyester 44.40 100 220 0.77 79.24 5.01 3.44 1.93
Cotton 30 100 210 0.69 62.06 12.97 3.56 1.45

6 Bamboo Fabric

Fabric is a flexible textile structure usually made of threads. The clothing fabric
of ancient man dating back to thousands of years was made directly from fibers.
Primitive methods of making fabric involve applying heat, moisture, and physical
force to animal fibers. These processes interlock the fibers and make a fabric. Fabrics
may be made either by weaving or knitting. The process of making fabric by the
interlacement of two sets yarn strands is known as weaving, and the process of
making fabric by interloping of threads is known as knitting.

6.1 Bamboo Fabric Manufacturing Process

There are three processes that are employed to manufacture fabrics from bamboo
yarn. They are knitting, weaving, and nonwoven (Fig. 6).
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 201

Fig. 6 Fabric manufacturing

process from yarn

6.1.1 Knitting Technology

The knitting process is used for inter looping of yarns to form the fabric. Knitted fabric
is characterized by the direction of wales and courses yarn that runs vertically and
horizontally. There are many advantages of knitting in the aspect of the end product
is economical and relatively fast performance together with the comfortness of the
wearier. Knitted garment are more elasticity, good permeability, and high moisture
absorption that reduces some possible functional and performance properties. The
comfortness and performance properties of the knitted products such as tight T-shirts,
summer wear, socks, and gloves. There are two techniques used to form knitting
technology, such as warp and weft knitting [16, 43, 47, 48].

Weft Knitting Process

Weft knitted fabrics can be produced either in the flat or tubular form. Generally, the
weft knitting fabric has high elasticity and high drapability, which is more suitable
for a huge range of textile applications. For outer and inner garments, the weft knitted
fabric is more suitable because of its porous nature and comfortness. There are four
types of machines available for weft knitting, which are (i) Circular knit machine,
(ii) Flatbed knit machine, (iii) Fully fashioned knit machine, and (iv) Hosiery knit
machine. The latch needles are fitted in the cylindrical form in the circular knitting
machine (Fundamental elements of knitting machines are the hooked needle and a
thin strip of a sinker). Inside the cylinder, guide synchronized timing cams are fitted
to trace the movement of latch needles in a loop formation.
202 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

Warp Knitting Process

The warp knitting is length-wise, through the intermeshing of loops in the form of
wales direction. In this process, the loops formed on the knitting needles are column-
wise, remain in the knitting mode. Compared to the weft-knitted fabric, which is not
easy to ravel out the warp knitted fabric, is the main advantage of warp-knitted cloths.
However, these fabrics are less stretchable as the weft knitted fabrics. Two types of
warp-knitting machines are used commercially. They are.
I. Tricot knit machine
II. Raschel knit machine.

6.1.2 Production of Weft Knitted Fabrics

The increase of the weft knitting industry with modern machines to produce a wide
range of product designs shows the potential of bamboo yarn. The knitting machine
selection is purely based on fabric type or products. Machine productivity is an
important factor to be considered in selecting a knitting machine, which is influenced
by the circumferential speed, a number of feeders of the machine, the diameter of
the cylinder, and machine efficiency [7, 11, 49–55]. The appearance, characteris-
tics, dimensional stability, fashion, and eco-friendly trend increases the demand of
using regenerated fibers and their blends with cellulose fibers like cotton. For the
weft-knitted fabrics with effective production, proper selection of knitting yarn is
very important. The properties such as yarn count, twist, evenness, knitting ability,
winding behavior, friction and moisture content have a bearing on selection of a
knitting yarn. Basic machine factors such as diameter, needle gauge, and number
of feeders, knitting bed and take down systems are to be considered while selecting
fabrics to produce in the knitting machine [56].

6.1.3 Single Jersey Structure

The plain knitted fabric is described as prominent visibility of face loops structure at
the right side of the fabric and visibility of back loops at the wrong side of the fabric.
It is furthermore signified as a single jersey fabric (single fabric). Single jersey fabric
is very smooth even at the technical face and with the face side limbs formed at the
column of fabric in V shape alongside wales. There is a more significant appearance
of the fabric is emerged when the fabric is produced using different colour yarns as
the design of the single jersey has a basic repeating pattern. The backside appearance
of the fabric highlighted using an alternative different coloured yarn by the formation
of interlocking semi-circles columns with an aid needle head loops and singer base
loops.
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 203

6.1.4 Rib Structure

Upright cord-like appearance is formed by the intermeshing of vertical rows of wales,

alternatively in the face and backside of rib fabric. The vertical row of wales is
intermeshed with another loop in the opposite direction at the backside of the fabric,
and hence the fabrics having a similar appearance at the front and backside. The stitch
of the rib structure occurs in both planes of the fabric, and thus it is called double
jersey fabric. Predominantly the face and backside of the fabric have to face loop
appearance at 1 × 1 rib fabric unless the fabric is elongated to make the visibility of
the back loops in-between the surface. The thickness of the 1 × 1 rib is increased
in double, and the width of the rib fabric is around half of the plain knitted fabric
theoretically. But the elastic recovery of 1 × 1 rib fabric is increased by double as
compared to plain jersey knitted fabric. Generally, the widthwise elastic recovery of
the 1 × 1 rib fabric is around 30% compared with single jersey knitted fabric.

6.1.5 Interlock Structure

The interlock structure is formed by combining two 1 × 1 rib structures, and it is

the derivative of the rib knit structure. Both sides of the interlock structure have a
similar single jersey face side appearance. As it has reversed mesh combination,
the stretch-ability of the fabric is very less as compared to plain and rib kit fabrics,
and it has a very smooth appearance at eight sides of the fabric [47]. The vertical
column of the loop of direction yarns on the front and backside are exactly reverse
to each other, and the loops are intermeshed together. The interlock knit structure is
a derivation of the rib structure form in which two sets of threads are consecu-
tively intermeshed by the cylinder and dial needle and shot and long needles for the
formation of the interlocking structure occurs. The movement of individual needles
of interlock knitting the machine is controlled by a jacquard mechanism to create
enlarged and complicated knot structures [57].
204 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

6.2 Weaving Technology

Two sets of yarn strands are interlaced to each other at a right angle are known as
woven fabric. The yarn runs in the lengthwise direction are known as warp, and the
yarn runs in widthwise direction are called the weft yarns. The thick edges of the
fabric, which are produced in the manufacturing process of woven fabric, are known
as selvages. Weaving is the method of interlacing the warp and filling yarns to form
a woven fabric. The warp yarns are runs parallel to each other, and fabric runs in
lengthwise or the direction along with the weaving machine [58]. To directions of
fabric without selvedge in the fabric, the grainline is passed parallel to both directions.
For example, 45 º diagonal directions of woven fabric are termed as bias. The bias
direction of the stretchability is high. The drapability of the woven fabric is good in
the bias direction (Table 4).

6.2.1 The Manufacturing Process of Woven Fabric

The weaving is the process of making the fabric on the loom, and such woven fabric
manufactured from the machine is called a loom. The process sequence is described
in detail below.
(a) The warp yarn is wounded in a huge roller, which is located in the lower back
of the warp beam. To get a desired width of the final fabric, the yarn per inches
is pre-determined depends upon a number of yarns present in the warp beam.
To have warp stripes in the fabric, according to the stripes pattern, preferred the
colored yarns are ties in the beam.
(b) The warp yarns pass via the harnesses, which have many vertical wires called
heddles, each with an eye within the middle. In one heddle, each warp yarn is
threaded through that eye. The purpose of the harness is to decrease or raise
the warp yarns to create an opening or shed for passing the weft yarn. In the
loom, a minimum of two harnesses are required, and the number of harnesses is
increased because the structure of the fabric design becomes more complicated.
The odd numbers of yarns are attached to one harness in a simple loom, and the
second harness is attached as an even number of yarns. When the first harness
is raised, the odd numbers of yarns are lifted to form a shed, and this process is
known as shedding.
(c) By using a boat-shaped device, the weft yarn is inserted in the shed is called a
shuttle, which carries the yarn continuously on a bobbin or pin. The weft yarn
is inserted through other devices such as air or water jets are known as shuttle
less looms, which is called picking.
(d) The reed is used to push the filling yarn into the previously woven fabric at
a point are known as fell. The reed is a frame that is made up of a number of
vertical wires and with the metallic comb. Once the weft yarn is inserted to make
the fabric more compact, the reed is pulled by the weaver is called as beating
up.
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 205

(e) Finally, the woven fabric is wounded into the cloth beam, which is located in
the loom near to the weaver is known as take up.

6.2.2 Motions of Loom

• Primary operations

1. Shedding: In this process, separation of the upper and lower layer of warp shed
forming a shed through which the weft yarn is passed.
2. Picking: Weft yarn is inserted into the shed is done in this process.
3. Beating: Pushing of the recently laid weft yarn against the cloth.
• Secondary operations

1. Let Off: The more warp yarn is supply by the slow unwinding of the warp beam.
2. Take Up: The interlaced fabric is wound up onto the cloth beam. The secondary
processes, i.e., simultaneously take up and let off happen.

6.2.3 Basic Weaves

Figure 7 shows all about weaving technology for various products. The warp and
weft yarn is interlaced in different ways to get a variety of structure is known as a
basic weave.
A weave may be characterized by its repeat unit present in the fabric. Basic weaves
are those that require a minimum number of warp and weft yarns to constitute their
repeat units, e.g., plain weave needs just two warp and two weft yarns. To make
different kinds of fabrics, many types of weaves are used, such as cambric, poplin,
matt, satin, velvet, towels, denim, etc. There are three basic weaves, such as plain,

Fig. 7 Weaving technology

206 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

Twill, and Satin weave and all other weaves combinations and variation of this basic
weaves.

Plain Weave

Plain weave is a basic tightest weave structure and also the most widely used weave.
In this case, the warp and weft yarns are interlaced to each other at the right angle,
i.e., one up one pattern is followed, which means each weft filling yarn goes above
one warp yarn, and under successive the warp yarn and the same repeated patterns are
followed for rows to produces a checked effect. The plain weave fabrics reversible
until one side of the fabric is making as a face by finishing or printing. Plain weave
structures do not ravel easily, and it has less absorbency compared with other weaves.
The plain weave structure is used in blankets made by thin yarns and fine cambries
fabric, a grey fabric made extremely fine [60].
• Rib Weave fabrics: the rib effect is produced in fabric by using large-diameter
filling yarn compared to warp yarn. There are two types of rib weaves, such as
warp rib and weft rib structure. By inserting two yarns in the shed, which form
the 2 × 2 rib structure. Similarly, for weft rib also. The warp rib is identified
prominently in the weft direction, and the weft rib is obviously identified in the
warp direction. Example: Bengaline, ottoman, faille, poplin, broadcloth, taffeta.
• Matt or Basket Weave fabrics: Basketweave is extending both warp and weft
direction of plain weaves structure. To produce matt weave, one single ends two
or more ends is working and then two or more picks in the shed. Grouping of both
warp and weft direction of yarns in an irregular manner, which produced irregular
matt weave. Example: Flat duck, hopsacking, Panama are other examples.

Twill Weave

Diagonal lines are produced on the front, or the backside of the fabric is known as
twill weave. For creating the new effects in the twill fabric, the direction is varied,
such as broken twill weave, herringbone twill weave structure, and pointed twill
weave. High strength and compact weaving of the fabric are the main characteristics
of this type of fabric.

Satin Weave

The characteristics of satin weave are smooth, shiny, and slippery on the surface of
the fabric are created long floats present on its structure. The surface of the fabric
seen more warp yarn has resulted in the fabric. The shiny effects of the fabric are
reflected in light by using these yarns. Satin weave requires 5–12 harnesses in the
loom. Moreover, less twisted yarns are used to making these types of yarns compared
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 207

to other weaves. All these together give a soft, smooth, and shiny appearance to the
fabric. The satin wave processing is demonstrated through Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Processing of satin weaves

6.3 Nonwoven Fabrics

Nonwoven is a process of converting fabric directly from fiber, and also this process is
invented before spinning and weaving process earlier days. The process of entangle-
ment of fibers by applying heat, pressure, and moisture to make the fabric is known
as felting. Nowadays, nonwoven fabrics are extensively used in technical textiles,
and especially in the medical textiles sector, it protects against biological agents.
Finishing is given to nonwoven materials to improve the properties of the mate-
rials such as repellent against water, microbes proof, and anti-bacterial resistance
that has been developed for applications. For example, surgical face masks, hygiene
gowns, drapes for hospitals etc. There are three methods used to manufacturing the
nonwoven fabric, namely Hydro-entanglement, thermal bonding, and Melt blown.
However, bamboo fiber has wide market demand in the field of textile healthcare
and hygiene fabrics such as an inner layer of the sanitary napkin, surgical masks,
mattress, and because of the antibacterial nature of the bamboo fabric it is used in
food-packing bags.

7 Properties of Fabric

Basically, the bamboo is anti-bacterial in nature, so it fights against microbes and

pathogens; relatively, the fiber is smooth and soft with low pilling resistance and also
anti-wrinkling, due to the micro gaps the bamboo fiber has high moisture absorption.
Compared with the cotton fabric, in order to dye the bamboo fabric, it requires less
amount of dyestuffs at the desired level because the absorption properties of the
dyestuff are better, good to colour fastness, and show the colour better. The chemical
208 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

components of bamboo are more significant, so it’s providing extraordinary fungal

and bacterial resistance. Due to their unique properties such as stretchability, open
structure, and contour to the body shape without restricting the movement, the weft
knits techniques are widely used in the apparel industry. The production technique
is effortless and compared to other knit fabric structure costs, is low, wide product
range, and high level of clothing comfort are influences the growing interest for weft
knits.
Prakash et al. [62] examined the relationship between the linear yarn density and a
stitch length of the single- jersey-knitted bamboo fabrics for thermal properties. It is
found to be increasing in linear density, and stitch length affects the thermal comfort
properties of the fabric. So that the value of thermal properties was compared and
it was found that it is due to the fineness of the fabric, the thermal resistance and
thermal conductivity of the fabric are decreased. The relatively both water-vapour
and air permeability values increase simultaneously, there is increasing in linear
density and the stitch length (Table 4).
The GSM and thickness of the fabric of all linear densities of yarn are decreased
because of increasing in bamboo fiber content. The thermal properties of the fabric are
affected due to the presence of more bamboo fiber. It is concluded that depend upon
the fibre content present in the fabric affects the thermal properties, air permeability,
and relative water vapour permeability properties and the yarn essential the linear
density of the fabric [43, 62]. It is also established that the blending of cotton fiber
with bamboo fiber for producing single jersey knitted fabric to improves moisture
management properties. As the moisture content of bamboo fiber is more in nature,

Table 4 Properties of bamboo knitted fabric in comparison with some other textile fibers fabrics
[16, 41, 47, 61]
Types of Blending Types of Areal Thickness Thermal
fibers ratio fabric density (mm) conductivity
(g/m2 ) (W m−1 K−1 ) ×
10−3
Bamboo 100 Single jersey 185 0.50 45.04
Cotton 100 Single jersey 149 0.47 55.27
Merino wool 100 Single jersey 139 0.35 24.59
Polyester 100 Interlock 168 0.61 –
Modal 100 Single jersey 133 0.59
Wool; 52:48 Two-layer, 253.00 0.90 30.54
Bamboo interlock
Wool; 60:40 Two-layer 161.80 0.82 –
Polyester interlock
Nylon; 92:8 Single jersey 214.20 0.80 –
Elastane
Modal 100 Pique 151 1.64 59.94
Cotton 100 Pique 176 0.833 55.86
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 209

the absorption rate of the fabric is improved at the maximum level altogether. The
fiber fineness and light in the weight of bamboo fiber the air permeability of the
bamboo fabric are increased enormously. The busting strength of the knitted fabric
is considered significant for improving the durability of cotton bamboo knitted socks
and gloves material [62]. The fineness and strength of plain weave are extremely high
as the plain weave has more amount of interlacement and binding points between
warp and weft, and there is a restriction of displacement and slippage of warp and
weft yarns when it undergoes any stress during use. Woven structure fabric fabrics
have the preeminent eminent history in the textile application as these fabrics are
produced by strong interlacement and binding of two sets of warp and weft yarns
mutually [63]. The fabric tensile, tearing and bursting strength, thickness, stiffness,
stability, porosity, filtering quality and abrasion resistance of fabrics are influenced
by the fabric particulars such as ends per inch, picks per inch, warp and weft count
and areal density and the cover of the fabric at a greater level. The characteristics of
the fabric are the primarily prejudiced warp and weft yarn density and also weave
construction. For achieving more quality parameters such as good fabric strength
and durability of the fabric considering fabric particulars, areal density and cover is
considered significantly [64].
Medical textile, which is under technical textiles, is significantly used in health-
care and hygiene disposable and non-disposable products manufacturing such as
surgical gown, mask, surgical drape, towels, gloves, baby diapers, sanitary napkins
and they are mainly used in clinics and houses. Bamboo fiber has an exceptional
characteristic that helps in the ideal manufacturing of health care products. Bamboo
fiber is excellent in moisture absorbency and has the capability to absorb time times
of water on its own weight [48]. The abrasion resistance of bamboo, fabrics are higher
as compared to cotton fabrics. Natural sterilization, moisture vapor transmission, and
quick-drying properties of bamboo fabrics are excellent. Sanitary materials such as a
baby diaper, absorbent pads, adult napkins, and towels manufactured using bamboo
are highly absorbent, soft, and not causing any skin allergies.

8 Dyeing and Finishing of Bamboo Textile

During dyeing and finishing, the pretreatment process, such as light sergeing,
enzyme desizing, moderate bleaching, and semi-mercerizing, should be applied to the
bamboo fabric. Which is applied to avoid strong conditions and use small mechanical
tension?
1. Sergeing: It is a process that is carried out in a moderate condition.
2. Desizing: It is a process used to remove the sizing materials in the fabric, and it
should be consolidated, the desizing rate should be over 80%.
3. Scouring: For pure bamboo fabric, there is no need for scouring process, some-
times wash it with a little amount of alkaline soap solution. In case the bamboo
fiber is blended with other fiber that fabrics need scouring.
210 S. Yamuna Devi et al.

4. Bleaching: It is a process that removes coloring matter and also brightening the
fabrics.
5. Mercerizing: this process is carried out to give lustreness to the fabric and bad
anti-alkaline. However, in order to increase the absorbance capacity to dyestuff.
6. Dyeing: It is a process of coloring the gray fabric with active dyestuff, the alkali
should be less around 20 g/L, and the temperature should not exceed more than
100ºC. The low temperature and light tension are applied in this drying process
to cure the fabric.

9 Scope of Bamboo in the Textile and Apparel Industries

Bamboo textile products demand very high in the market because of their physic-
ochemical, thermal, and mechanical properties along with natural antibacterial,
bio-degradable, high moisture absorption, UV protective, and breathable behavior.
Comfort, cooling nature, and luxurious feel are the additional features of bamboo
fabrics over other materials. Currently, there is an increasing demand for bamboo
fibers in fact of their application in apparel such as underwear, sportswear, t-shirts,
gloves, and socks. Hygienic products like sanitary napkins, absorbing pads, masks,
bandages, and surgical gown are manufactured by bamboo fibers that enhance its
market value to a large extent. The acceptability of bamboo fabrics in medical,
textile, and apparel industries increases due to their good functional performances
also [1, 65, 66]. Moreover, the competence of bamboo fiber with other available
materials with respect to various unique, promising properties confirms its merit for
extensive future uses in textile and apparel industries using further advancements.

10 Conclusion

The futuristic of natural fiber-based textile products depend upon the products that
have reduced environmental and social problems during their entire lifetime. As a
significance of the unique properties of bamboo products, the textile and apparel
industry has established a remarkable mark on it. The merits of the usage of bamboo
fiber in the textile industry are breathability, ease of processing, high functionality,
and beauty. This chapter mainly focused on the processing of the bamboo fiber,
manufacturing of bamboo fabric along with its industrial demand. Further scope in
this area point towards the prospects of using bamboo products in both the textile and
apparel industry, to maintain the environmental quality along with social welfare.
Futuristic Prospects of Bamboo Fiber in Textile … 211

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Bonding Mechanism and Interface
Enhancement of Bamboo Fiber
Reinforced Composites

Asrafuzzaman, Kazi Faiza Amin, Ahmed Sharif, and Md Enamul Hoque

Abstract Nowadays, the utilization of natural fiber-reinforced polymeric compos-

ites has increased due to its eco-friendly nature. Among all the natural fiber rein-
forced polymer composites, bamboo fibers have caught attention as reinforcement
in the polymeric matrix due to its superior mechanical properties, sustainability,
and recyclability. The bonding mechanism of the polymeric matrix, bamboo fiber
reinforcement, and their interface plays a critical part in governing the properties
and performance of the formed composite materials. Factors like moisture content
and lignin tend to reduce the interfacial adhesion between matrix and reinforce-
ment phases resulting in the formation of defects and loss of strength that degrades
the quality of the composite materials. That is why the enhancement of interfa-
cial bonding/adhesion is required to ensure optimal properties of bamboo reinforced
composite materials. This article summarizes the chemical treatments and the interfa-
cial agents such as mercerization, use of compatibilizers, and silane treatment that are
employed to enhance the interfacial adhesion which eventually leads to an improve-
ment of strength in tension, stiffness, flexural strength, interfacial shear strength and
so forth.

Asrafuzzaman
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and
Technology (RUET), Rajshahi 6204, Bangladesh
K. F. Amin
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology (BUET), Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Sharif
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology (BUET), Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]
M. E. Hoque (B)
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST),
Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 215

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_12
216 Asrafuzzaman et al.

Keywords Bamboo fiber · Bonding mechanism · Interfacial adhesion ·

Mercerization · Compatibilizer · Silane treatment · Interfacial shear strength

1 Introduction

With the advent of nanotechnology, the nanoparticle-reinforced composites (called

nanocomposites) have been developed as advanced materials [1–6]. Likewise,
natural fibers have shown great potentials nowadays in producing eco-friendly
green composites for wider areas of applications [7–11]. They are known for their
biodegradability and enhanced properties. Among the natural plants, bamboo is quite
advantageous because of its’ high growth rate, ability to fix carbon-di-oxide emis-
sion to the environment, lightweight, and high specific strength [12]. Bamboo fibers
caught special attention owing to their longevity, mechanical characteristics, recycla-
bility as well as their utilization as reinforcement in composite materials [13]. Earlier
work on bamboo protective coatings with phenolic, epoxy, and styrenated coatings
showed perfect adhesion between bamboo fiber and coating materials. However,
work reported on the bamboo fiber-reinforced composite is very limited and a thor-
ough study is required [14]. It has been suggested that some of the issues pose obstacle
to the widespread use of bamboo fibers as reinforcement of composite matrix such as
low moisture resistance, inadequate mechanical and chemical characteristics, current
extraction procedure of bamboo fiber from bamboo culm is not suitable for manufac-
turing business [13]. The study found that the poor interfacial bond amid the matrix
and bamboo fiber leads to the de-bonding of the composite on aging which results in
poor mechanical and chemical properties. Hence, arises the concern for improving
the interface of the bamboo fiber – composite matrix to meet the required property
requirements [14].

2 Bamboo Structure

Bamboo culms are hollow, and several diaphragms divide each culm from inside,
which are observed like rings from outside. The portion between rings is known as
“Internode” where branches grow [12]. The bamboo culm contains vascular bundles
that are attached in parenchyma tissue. The vascular bundles are kept in the longitu-
dinal direction by the parenchyma tissue. It is observed that a high amount of vascular
bundles is present near the outside culm of the bamboo whereas their percentage
reduces on the inner side culm [13]. The fiber strand comprises of various funda-
mental fibers (mostly hexagonal and pentagonal shape) where nano-fibrils are aligned
and attached with hemicellulose and lignin. Vascular bundles delimit culm strength.
Hence, a suitable method is required to isolate the parenchyma tissue from the fiber
strands and vascular bundles without any detrimental impact on the fibers which are
extracted [13]. Figure 1 exhibits the components of a bamboo culm.
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 217

Fig. 1 a Culm of a bamboo, b Bamboo culm cross-sectional view, c Vascular bundle, d Fiber
strand, e Elementary fibers, f Model of polylamellae structure of bamboo [15]

2.1 Bamboo Fibers (BF)

Bamboo has the combined characteristics of grass and wood. They are quite robust
(specifically longitudinally) because a resilient fiber bundle infiltrates their body
from the base to the topmost part albeit bamboo pulp being shorter than ∼2 mm.
So, the ordinary length of bamboo fiber is around 2 mm plus the regular diameter
is 10–20 µm [16]. Hemicellulose, lignin, and cellulose consist of bamboo. Around
half of the total chemical constituents are cellulose and hemicellulose. They are
present as holo-cellulose. Lignin is also present in abundance. It provides the role
of a binder and performs as the matrix for the cellulose fibers. Lignin participates in
load-bearing actions as a fundamental part of the composite [17]. Other than these
two constituents, bamboo contains starch, de-oxidized saccharide, fat, and protein
[18]. Bamboo fibers also referred to as ‘natural glass fiber’ are getting more and more
consideration from the researchers [19].

3 Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites

In general, BF is used as reinforcement for polymer composites. Inherently, BF is

hydrophilic, while polymers are hydrophobic. Owing to the incompatibility in terms
of their polarity structures, it is quite difficult to formulate a feasible composite
having superior interfacial bonding [16]. Various approaches i.e. physical treatment
(solvent extraction, heat treatment), physio-chemical treatment (laser, ultra-violet
bombardment), and chemical modification have been endeavored to make lingo-
cellulosic molecules of fiber and hydrocarbon-based polymers compatible to each
218 Asrafuzzaman et al.

other [20, 21]. It is well established that bamboo fiber can be used as a reinforce-
ment for thermosetting composites, thermoplastic composites, rubber/elastomeric
composites, and biocomposites.

3.1 Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Thermosetting Composites

These composites are composed of BF fibers which are large in size. Post-curing
under a particular load is required for the preparation of the thermosetting compos-
ites. Phenolic resin, epoxy, and unsaturated polyester are the most commonly used
thermoset polymer matrices for this type of composite [22].

3.2 Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites

Unlike thermoset composites, short BF fibers are used for thermoplastic compos-
ites. Polymers (petroleum-based) that are chosen to be used as matrix material are
polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), nylon, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The
short fibers are dispersed in the matrix in a random orientation. As a result, they
exhibit isotropy [22].

3.3 Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Rubber/Elastomeric

Composites

Rubber/elastomeric composite reinforced with short BF has several advantages

including design flexibility, stiffness, damping, process economy [23].

3.4 Bamboo Fiber Filled Bio Composites

The use of BF in biocomposites is a recent practice. Biomass-derived biopolymers are

utilized as matrix material. The most commonly used biopolymer matrices are poly-
lactic acid (PLA), polybutylene succinate (PBS), protein, polycaprolactone (PCL),
and starch [24].
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 219

4 BF-Polymer Matrix Interfacial Bonding Mechanism

The property and performance of any plant fiber (including bamboo fiber) composite
rely on the bonding mechanism at the interface. The interface area of the matrix and
the reinforcement has a prime role to play in controlling the performance of the mate-
rial. The composite interface is created by the coupling of the fiber and matrix, which
is, in essence, a region of structural, compositional, and property gradients, usually
ranging in breadth from one atomic layer to many micrometers. Processes occurring
at the different levels of the interface (macroscopic, atomic, and microscopic) are
closely related. To accurately comprehend the interfacial phenomena, it is extremely
important to understand the order of incidents happening at mentioned levels. Stress
transfer between matrix and bamboo fiber is controlled by the interfacial region [25].
The molecular synergy at the interface as well as the thickness and strength of the
interfacial region regulate the effectiveness of load transference [26].
Inter-diffusion, electrostatic adhesion, chemical reactions, and mechanical inter-
locking are the most common interfacial bonding mechanisms. All of these mecha-
nisms are mutually responsible for adherence and typically one of them prevails [25].
Due to Van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding, intimate intermolecular interac-
tion occurs between fiber molecules and the polymer that causes inter-diffusion [22].
Adsorption and diffusion are two sub-stages of the adhesion mechanism. The first
stage is governed by spreading and penetrating while the second stage indicates good
wetting leading to inter-diffusion of fiber and matrix. The fiber-matrix compatibility
controls the magnitude of the diffusion process [27]. For electrostatic adhesion, two
opposite charges are formed at the interfacial region. Those are responsible for the
adhesion of fiber and matrix. The chemisorption reactions form chemical bonds
(ionic bond and atomic bond) between matrix and fiber (Fig. 2).
The mechanical interlocking phenomenon occurs when the holes, crevices, or
other irregularities of the fiber are infiltrated by the matrix and the fibers get locked to
the matrix mechanically [25]. It is seen that increasing surface roughness, increases
the contact area for adhesion thus favoring mechanical interlocking [27]. More-
over, increasing mechanical interlocking displays potential improvement of bonding
mechanism [25].

5 Controlling Factors of Interfacial Characteristics of BF

Composites

5.1 Moisture Absorption

Under natural humidity situations, BF soaks a substantial quantity of moisture and

thus it is known as a hydrophilic material. Moisture sorption hysteresis of BF is
comparable to other natural fibers for instance hemp and flax [28]. The mechanical
performance of the bamboo is affected by the absorption capability of BF. Moreover,
220 Asrafuzzaman et al.

Fig. 2 Types of bonding mechanisms in the interfacial region

poor adhesion between BF and water-repelling polymers (matrix) is observed due

to moisture absorption [16]. Moisture has a detrimental effect on the polymeric
matrix and the fibers. Moreover, the matrix-fiber interface can also be impaired due
to the presence of moisture. Ultimately, poor stress transference from the matrix to
reinforcement is observed. The cycle of deterioration begins when the cellulose fibers
are swollen. It produces stress at the interface. As a result, micro-cracks appear in the
matrix around the swollen fibers exacerbating the water absorption and weakening
the interface. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is formed with the fibers due to the
absorbed water and thus interfacial adhesion is reduced. At the same time, water
leaches out the soluble constituents from fibers. This occurrence eventually results
in de-bonding at the interface. The study showed that due to moisture absorption
extensibility of BF is increased but elastic modulus is decreased whereas the tensile
strength remained unaffected. The effect of moisture absorption on interfacial shear
strength (IFSS) was inspected for bamboo fiber—vinyl ester matrix composite. The
IFSS in 20°C and 60% humidity was only 50% of what was achieved under dry
conditions. For composites developed under 80–90% humidity conditions, negligible
interfacial strength was observed. Significant damage to interfacial shear strength was
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 221

observed for BF-vinyl ester matrix composite due to water absorption. Ultimately,
the IFSS was reduced by 38% [22].

5.2 Presence of Lignin

Bamboo fiber contains 32.2% lignin approximately, which is greater than the
percentage of lignin in other natural fibers [17]. Studies have found that bamboo strips
containing lignin lead to ineffective interfacial adhesion [22]. Defects are formed due
to poor interfacial adhesion and as a result, the composite lacks strength [16].

6 Treatments to Enhance Interfacial Adhesion of BF

Reinforced Composite

Interfacial bonding/adhesion is the prime concern for producing BF reinforced

composites having optimal properties. Various studies have conducted engineered
enhancement of interfacial adhesion between BF and matrix materials. In turn, it leads
to an effective increase in composite properties like tensile strength, flexural strength,
interfacial shear strength (IFSS), stiffness, and many more. Different chemical treat-
ment procedures, interfacial agents, filler materials, and bonding agents affecting the
enhancement of the interfacial adhesion will be discussed below.

6.1 Alkaline Treatment or Mercerization

Alkaline treatment, namely mercerization, removes lignin and other unwanted

constituents and thus helps to reduce the acrid aroma of BF. It forms cellulose
micro- or nanocrystals that have irregular fiber surfaces due to the removal of amor-
phous cellulose from the cellulose fiber bundle. Hydroxyl groups in bamboo fiber
are activated due to mercerization. The enlarged surface area results in better inter-
facial adhesion. Ultimately, the tensile and thermal properties of the composite are
improved [22]. Usually, a NaOH solution (aqueous) is used to perform this treat-
ment. The study showed that PLA (polylactic acid) composites containing deligni-
fied BF provide better tensile strength and bending modulus than a PLA composite
with untreated BF. This improvement was ascribed to the surface alteration and
the enhancement of the interface adherence between the BF and PLA matrix [29].
However, it is observed that superfluous alkali treatment results in excessive delig-
nification that results in weakening and deterioration of the fiber being treated [25].
Alkali treatment (greater than 15%) proved to be detrimental to composite properties
[30, 31].
222 Asrafuzzaman et al.

6.2 Compatibilizer or Maleated Coupling Agents

Maleated coupling agents showed promising results in enhancing interfacial adhe-

sion. The hydroxyl group of the plant fiber is removed by the maleic anhydride
(MAH) group and thus reducing its’ hydrophilic tendency [25]. Additionally, a C–C
bond is formed with the matrix. Improved adhesion is attained by the creation of cova-
lent bonds at the interface between coupling agents and fibers along with molecular
entanglement amid polymeric matrix and coupling agents [32]. Due to this treat-
ment, the surface energy of fibers and matrix become closer resulting in improved
wettability and enhanced adhesion at the interfacial region [33]. As a compatibi-
lizer/coupling agent for the BF/PP composite, maleated polypropylene (PP) is the
most frequently used. Studies showed that incrementing the content of MAH results
in a little improvement in impact strength and modulus but the augmented degree of
maleation increases tensile strength substantially [34].
Bamboo pulp fiber-reinforced composites showed improved strength and modulus
but reduced toughness due to the addition of maleic anhydride grafted PHBV8
(Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)) as compatibilizer. Isocyanates,
MDI (Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) are common compatibilizer used in BF
reinforced composites. The fracture surface of PHBV8/bamboo pulp fiber compos-
ites with and without pMDI (Poly methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) is shown in
Fig. 3. Without pMDI, a significant amount of fiber pullout is detected. This proved
inadequate interfacial adhesion. However, interfacial bonding becomes strong due to
the presence of pMDI and fracture surfaces show that all fibers are broken. Improved
interfacial adhesion reduces the chance of fiber de-bonding and hinders the fiber
pull out. Moreover, it enables higher stress transference between fiber and matrix
and thus improves the modulus and the tensile strength of the composites [22]. The
toughness of the composite is diminished owing to the interruption of fiber pull out,
a key energy dissipation source throughout the composite deformation [36]. There-
fore, the addition of compatibilizer helps to improve flexural and tensile strength,
while the ductility of the composite is reduced.

6.3 Silane Treatment

Silane (SiH4 ) is an inorganic substance. Two reactive groups are present in silane
coupling agent. The alkoxysilane group interacts with hydroxyl rich fiber while the
other is left to react with the matrix. Silane tends to react with water (absorbs mois-
ture) to form silanol. The formed silanol further reacts with the hydroxyl group inte-
grated to the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin molecules in the filler through ether
linkage with the elimination of water. In contrast, hydrophobic molecules of silane are
capable of reacting with a polymer matrix [37]. Because of covalent bonding between
fiber and matrix, the hydrocarbon chain formed by the silane restrains swelling of
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 223

Fig. 3 SEM images of tensile a, c and impact b, d fracture surfaces of PHBV8/bamboo pulp fiber
(80/20 w/w) composite without pMDI a, b and with pMDI c, d [35]

the fiber by getting entangled and cross-linking of the networks [33, 38]. Further-
more, the presence of hydrocarbon chains is anticipated to have an impact on the
fiber wettability and chemical affinity of the matrix and thus enhancing interfacial
properties [25]. The amine groups of 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane are favorable
for increasing the adhesion at the interface of PLA (Polylactic acid)/ BF composites
[22].
224 Asrafuzzaman et al.

To enhance fiber-matrix interface adhesion, numerous other physical and chem-

ical procedures are utilized. Some of them are acetylation, benzoylation, acrylation,
permanganate treatment, argon plasma treatments, etc. [22].

7 Scientific Studies and Research on Interface

Enhancement of BF Reinforced Composites

7.1 Alkali Treatment on BF Reinforced Polyester Composites

Wong et al. [39] studied two types of bamboo fibers: treated with NaOH concentration
(1, 3, and 5%) and untreated. Interfacial shear strength (IFSS) of the fiber with
polyester matrix at dissimilar embedment length of fibers were also studied.
For the characterization of the morphology of the fiber (before and after the tests),
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) was utilized. Both strength and stiffness were
increased according to the result. Besides, higher NaOH concentration and longer
embedment length showed increased IFSS. Figure 4a, b shows the effect of NaOH
concentration and fiber embedment length on IFSS.
However, It is necessary to remember that enhancement will be saturated after a
certain proportion of alkali treatment [39].

7.2 BF Filled Rubber Composites with Bonding Agents

Ismail et al. [23] studied the adhesion between BF and natural rubber by the addition
of bonding agents. In this study, phenol–formaldehyde and hexamethylene tetra-
amine were used as bonding agents. SEM characterization of the tensile fracture
surface showed that the presence of the bonding agent resulted in better interaction
between fiber and rubber matrix interfacial adhesion.

7.3 BF Reinforced Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) Composite

with Micro-Fibrillated Cellulose (MFC)

The study of [40] showed that small addition (10%) of MFC obtained from the
wood pulp with the PLA/BF composite gives enhanced fracture toughness due
to better interfacial adhesion and intertwined MFC fibers prevent the progress of
cracks through the interface. Figure 5 exhibits a representative stress–strain curve of
PLA/BF/MFC, PLA/BF, and PLA resin composites.
It is quite clear from the graph that the addition of MFC content with PLA/BF
composite enhanced interfacial adhesion thus increasing bending strength and elastic
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 225

Fig. 4 a The outcome of fiber embedment length to IFSS for treated and untreated fibers. b The
outcome of alkali treatment to IFSS at different fiber embedment length [39]

modulus. Nevertheless, the increasing ratio is insignificant for the sample with MFC
content over 10% in weight.
Figures 6a, b display the fracture surface of PLA/BF and PLA/BF/MFC compos-
ites. Countless fiber pullouts are observed for PLA/BF composites, which is detri-
mental for interfacial adherence between matrix and fiber while only a small number
of fiber pullouts are detected in the case of PLA/BF/MFC.
Moreover, high interfacial shear strength (IFSS) is observed (Fig. 7) due to the
addition of a minor quantity of MFC in PLA/BF composites that also prevents
interfacial failure.
In the case of PLA/BF, as soon as a crack reaches bamboo fiber, it propagates
alongside the interface giving low fracture toughness. Improvement of fracture tough-
ness was observed due to the addition of MFC with PLA/BF composite since inter-
twined MFC prevents crack progression along with the interface. Consequently, no
226 Asrafuzzaman et al.

Fig. 5 Stress–strain profiles of PLA, PLA/BF and PLA/BF/MFC composites [40]

Fig. 6 Fractography of a PLA/BF (50:50) composite and b PLA/BF/MFC (50:40:10) composite

[40]

Fig. 7 Interfacial Shear Strength of PLA composite and PLA/BF/MFC composite [40]
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 227

Fig. 8 Graphical
representation of fracture
toughness of PLA, PLA/BF
and PLA/BF/MFC
composites [40]

de-bonding occurs. Figure 8 shows the fracture toughness of PLA, PLA/BF, and
PLA/BF/MFC composites.
Another study by [41] showed the effect of alkali-soaking treatment, silane
coupling treatment, and maleic anhydride grafting treatment of the cellulose fiber on
the mechanical characteristics of bamboo cellulose fiber reinforced PLA compos-
ites. Improved strength and modulus were observed for alkali soaked composite in
comparison to the untreated specimens. Enhanced impact toughness and ductility are
observed by silane treatment which is are higher than those of PLA composite filled
with pristine bamboo cellulosic fibers. Maleic anhydride grafting showed a moderate
effect on ductility and rigidity. SEM observation as well as FTIR spectrum analysis
concluded that interfacial interactions amid fibers and matrix were enhanced due to
all the above-mentioned modifications.

7.4 BF Reinforced Unidirectional Epoxy-Based Composite

Wang et al. [42] studied epoxy-based composite reinforced with BF which are chem-
ically treated with NaOH solution of 1, 4, and 7% concentration at room temperature
causing an increase in tensile strength of the composite by 17.78, 45.24, and 28.92%
respectively. The addition of NaOH solution removes pectin, hemicellulose, and part
of the lignin of bamboo fibers [43]. As a result, a large number of micro-fibrils on the
fiber surface are exposed ensuring promising interaction with the epoxy resin matrix.
So, interfacial adhesion enhancement improves tensile performance. However, at 7%
NaOH concentration, the micro-fibril structure was damaged and interfacial adhesion
became weak.
Toughness is dominated by interfacial adhesion too. It was also observed that with
an increasing percentage of NaOH solution (1, 4, and 7%), elongation at break of
228 Asrafuzzaman et al.

composites increased respectively by 15.92%, 23.32%, and 41.70%. Fracture surface

morphology indicates that with the increase of NaOH percentage, the fiber pullout
phenomenon reduces due to better interfacial adhesion. However, a 7% NaOH solu-
tion causes the formation of disordered micro-fibrils, which is harmful to interfacial
performance. Figure 9 shows the interfacial morphology of BF reinforced epoxy-
based composite treated with numerous alkali concentrations. As shown in Fig. 9a,
complete fiber pullout from the matrix occurred displaying poor interfacial adhesion.
Figure 9b indicates the dispersion of fibers and an effective increase in the surface
area of the fiber leading to improved interface adhesion. Figure 9c shows that broken
fibers are firmly fixed in the epoxy resin indicating a well-bonded interface. Figure 9d
also shows a well-bonded interface but some fiber pullout occurs due to the presence
of disordered micro-fibrils in the fiber surface.
The IFSS also increased by 30.79, 100.30, and 53.66% in the sample treated
with 1,4, and 7% NaOH solution. In the case of, 7% concentration, cellulose crystal
structure is damaged hence the decrease of IFSS. Moreover, the flexibility of the
epoxy-based molecular chain is limited after the NaOH treatment which results in a

Fig. 9 Interfacial morphology of BF reinforced epoxy based composite treated with numerous
alkali concentrations of a 0% b 1% c 4% and d 7% [42]
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 229

higher glass transition temperature, Tg . They determined that this treatment improves
decomposition temperature and exhibit enhanced thermal stability due to the better
interfacial adhesion.

7.5 Interfacial Adhesion of BF Reinforced Thermoplastic

Composites

Improved mechanical properties are already obtained with BF reinforced composites

with a thermoset matrix. Good chemical bonding at the interface and low viscosity of
the resin is attributed to this improvement [15]. However, they are neither biodegrad-
able nor recyclable thus having a serious environmental impact. In search of eco-
friendly BF reinforced polymer composites, Fuentes et al. [44] integrated the phys-
ical–chemical-mechanical methodology to study the influence of interfacial adhesion
on the mechanical behavior of BF reinforced thermoplastic composites. Maleic anhy-
dride grafted polypropylene (MAPP), polypropylene (PP), polyvinylidene-fluoride
(PVDF), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are used as a thermoplastic matrix in
this study. PP, MAPP, PET, PVDF composites reinforced with BF showed increased
interfacial shear strength. Among the four of them, PVDF displayed best amalgama-
tion of high work of adhesion, wetting parameters along with a positive spreading
co-efficient assisting to attain a better wetting of the molten thermoplastic on the
bamboo fiber. This is a direct result of strong physical adhesion at the interface
owing to the presence of a highly basic component on the bamboo fiber’s surface
and a highly acidic component of PVDF. Moreover, the relatively high total surface
energy of both the matrix and fibers also attributes to this factor.

7.6 Cotton Shaped BF Reinforced Maleic Anhydride

Modified Polypropylene (MAPP) Composites

Okubo and Fujii [19] observed the interfacial adhesion development of BF reinforced
MAPP composites. They used the steam explosion technique for extracting bamboo
fiber and compared its’ properties with mechanically extracted bamboo fiber. The
study showed the modulus and tensile strength of PP based composites using steam-
exploded fibers improved by 30% and 15%, correspondingly, owing to the good
impregnation of the matrix into fibers and reduction of several voids, compared to
mechanically extracted bamboo fiber PP composites.
The fiber extracted by the steam explosion method appeared as cotton fiber. They
stated to it as “Bamboo Fiber Cotton (BFC)”. It is shown that the MAPP based
Bamboo Fiber Cotton Eco-Composites (BFCEC) gives better strength as well as
modulus compared to MAPP based Bamboo Fiber Eco-Composites (BFEC), which
clearly indicates enhanced interfacial adhesion.
230 Asrafuzzaman et al.

7.7 BF/Epoxy and BF/Polyester Composites with Polyester

Amide Polyol (PEAP) as Interfacial Agent

Saxena and Gowri [14] examined the effect of PEAP on the BF as an interfacial
agent and observed the properties of BF/Epoxy and BF/Polyester composite. The
flexural and tensile strength of both the composites were improved owing to the
PEAP treatment on BF. The polyester amide polyol acts as a bridge between the
resin matrix and the fibers. The polyester amide polyol is attached to the fiber surface
(containing surface reactive protons) due to hydrogen bonding.
This interaction is responsible for better wetting to the resin during application
followed by chemical bonding. There is a further possibility of hydrogen bonding
between PEAP treated fiber and resin matrices which in turn enhances fiber-matrix
interface adhesion. Figure 10 shows the stress elongation curve of BF/epoxy and
BF/Polyester composite in a treated and untreated condition. Evidently, the presence
of PEAP improved the tensile strength of both types of composites.

Fig. 10 Stress-elongation plot for bamboo composites untreated and treated with PEAP [14]
Bonding Mechanism and Interface Enhancement of Bamboo … 231

Another important characteristic, observed from this study is the reduction of

water absorption percentage of BF with the addition of PEAP as an interfacial agent.
Introduction of hydrophobicity to the fiber surface attributes to this phenomenon. The
surface-treated composite absorbs less moisture/water than untreated composites,
owing to the cross-linked interface region formed by the reaction between PEAP and
resin matrix. Thus, interfacial adhesion enhancement reduces the moisture-induced
degradation of the composites.

8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

It is undeniable that interfacial adhesion between bamboo fiber and polymer matrix is
a crucial part in determining the properties of composites. Modification of the inter-
face through various physical, chemical, and mechanical treatments has resulted in
enhanced strength, modulus, IFSS, water absorption capacity, toughness, ductility,
etc. Due to the improved properties, the range of industrial and commercial applica-
tions of BF reinforced polymer composites is expanding substantially. However, there
are many scopes for further investigation and innovation in this field to overcome
the probable challenges ahead.

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Lifecycle Assessment of Thermoplastic
and Thermosetting Bamboo Composites

Akarsh Verma, Naman Jain, Avinash Parashar, Amit Gaur, M. R. Sanjay,

and Suchart Siengchin

Abstract This chapter reports on the lifecycle assessment of the thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers composites reinforced with bamboo fibers. Several research
works have reported that the bamboo reinforced polymers composites are biodegrad-
able with environmental friendliness characteristic. Several chemical surface func-
tionalization techniques have enhanced the properties of bamboo reinforced polymer
composites.

Keywords Composites · Lifecycle assessment · Bamboo · Thermoplastic

polymers · Thermosetting polymers

1 Introduction

For a comfortable life, human required useful and novel materials; and for this, explo-
ration for the new materials had been already started from a long time. Various new

A. Verma (B) · A. Parashar

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Jain
Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology, Meerut, India
A. Gaur
Women Institute of Technology, Dehradun, India
S. Siengchin
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok
(KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
A. Verma
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India
M. R. Sanjay
Natural Composites Research Group Lab, Academic Enhancement Department, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road,
Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 235

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_13
236 A. Verma et al.

materials were continuously developed and discovered through the stage of twentieth
century and composites have identified as one of the materials, which revolution-
ized the concept of high strength and toughness. Therefore, the composites have
become an essential component of our life and can be easily available everywhere in
engineering industries, for example spacecraft, rubber tire, asphalt, etc. Bricks made
from the straw and mud is amongst the classic examples of composites of past time.
Composite is defined as the resultant material fabricated through the combination
of two or more materials (having different chemically/physically states that may be
polymers, metals and ceramics) to develop the superior properties as compared to the
parental components (material which is present in a comparatively large amount as
compared to other components in the domain) [1–5]. Bones, woods, muscles, tissues,
teeth, etc. are the common examples of composites that are found in nature. Most
commonly used composites consist of fibers or particles reinforced in the matrix
domain. Composites are any multiphase materials that are made up of two or more
chemically dissimilar elements, which have a discrete interface that separates them.
In composites, continuous phase surrounds one or more discontinuous phases. Gener-
ally, the discontinuous phase is relatively stronger and harder than the continuous
phase elements and is known as the reinforcement, whereas the continuous phase is
called as the matrix [6–10]. The purposes of matrix in composite materials are to
transfer the loads to reinforcements, protect the reinforcements from the surrounding
environment and to keep the reinforcements in the desired orientation and location;
whereas the function of reinforcements in composites are to give strength, stiffness
and enhance the other mechanical properties [11–15]. A judicious combination of
reinforcing phase and matrix direct a composite material having the modulus and
strength similar to or even superior to than those of the usual metallic materials
[16–20]. The physical and mechanical characteristics of composites can further be
modified by adding certain additives and fillers.
Nowadays, the bio/green composites have become an area of interest to compos-
ites scientists and industries; and several experimental researches are going on in this
area [21–24]. Green composites are a special class of bio-composites that have caught
the attention as an alternative solution to the petroleum derived materials which may
cause several environmental problems. In case of green composites, both the rein-
forcement and matrix are derived from the natural renewable resources [25, 26].
Green composites are termed as green because of their sustainable and biodegrad-
able properties, so it can be simply decomposed without causing any harm to the
environment. Nowadays various experiments and research works are performed to
enhance the mechanical and other desirable properties of green composites so that
their applications can be expanded. This becomes particularly essential to discuss
the significant works connected to the area of biodegradable composites and their
properties.
Earth has a very limited resources and over exploitation of these resources result in
the depletion of non-renewable resources. This gives rise of the environmental crises,
which may be slow (sometime unnoticeable) but highly significant to the human
beings. Moreover, the growing issue of environment pollution, reduction in the cost
Lifecycle Assessment of Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Bamboo … 237

of raw material, and the demand of renewable resources for the fabrication of compos-
ites, results in shifting of the researcher’s interest towards the natural fibers. Due to
their good thermo-mechanical properties, nowadays the application of natural fibers
as a reinforcement material in thermoplastic and thermosetting composites have
gained a quite a bit of interest [27]. Natural fibers are further divided into three major
groups depending upon their source of extraction. Natural fibers which were extracted
from the plants are known as the cellulose fibers; fibers which were extracted from
the animals are known as the protein fibers and fibers which were extracted from
the minerals are known as the mineral fibers [28, 29]. On a chemical note, the major
components of the natural fibers are the cellulose (semi crystalline polysaccharides)
in which D-glucopyranose units are linked together by b-(1-4)-glucosidic bonds;
hemicelluloses (branched and fully amorphous polysaccharides) mostly consisting
of D-pentose sugars units strongly bonded with the cellulose fibrils through hydrogen
bonding; lignin (highly complex structure and amorphous) consisting of the aromatic
alcohol units such as coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol; pectin
(a heterogeneous polysaccharide); waxes and other water soluble materials [30].
Cellulose fibrils are the major component that provides strength to the fiber. Plant
fibers are further divided into the stalk, grass, fruit, wood seed, leaf and bast, out of
which the bamboo belongs to the family of grass known as the Bambusoideae [31].

2 Overview of Bamboo: Production to the Fiber Extraction

Out of all the natural fibers, the bamboo fiber (regenerative cellulose fiber) is one
of the mostly used fibers become of its availability and low production cost. In
India, bamboo (belongs to the Gramineae family) is the largest cultivated crop of
about 11.4 million hectares, and China being the second largest of about 5.4 million
hectares. Considering worldwide geography, there is around 1200 species (such as
the bambusa balcooa, bambusa bamboos, bambusa nutans, etc.) and 90 genera of
bamboo covering about 36 million hectares land (about 3.2% of the total forest area)
[32]. Majorly concentrated in the Asia (about 65%), Arica and Latin America; due to
the better heat, monsoon climate and water availability [32]. On the other hand, there
are some species of bamboo which also found in the cold regions. Depending upon
the height of the bamboo, their species are classified into the 3 major groups: dwarf
species grow only a few centimeters; medium size species grow up to few meters;
and the giant species grow up to 30 m (having diameter of about 30 cm). Except in
rock strewn soils, the bamboos can be grown on different soils, mostly on a pH level
of 4.5–6 and drained sandy soil to clay soil is required for its plantation. Propagation
of bamboo normally occurs through the rhizomes or culms cutting. Seeds can also
be used for propagation, but the availability is very rare. Tissue culture, seeds, air-
layering, wildings and offsets are the methods for procuring planting material or
bamboo.
Bamboo structure consist of hollow cylinder known as culm, which is having
several diaphragms from inside and outer appearance looks like the rings. Internodes
238 A. Verma et al.

are defined as the spacing between the two rings which varies from species to species
[33]. Characterizations of bamboo species is one on the basic of vascular bundles,
and also play an important role in providing the strength to culm [34]. As we go up
to the upper most section, bamboo culm diameter decreases that result in increase of
the vascular bundles density. Therefore, the strength of base section is lower than the
top section [35]. Chemically the bamboo fiber consist of cellulose, hemicelluloses
and lignin; these components constitute of about 90% of the total weight and act
as major building block which provides strength to the bamboo fiber. Moreover, the
physiological activities depend upon the other constituents such as the fat, tannin,
pectin, protein, pigments and ash [36]. Cellulose content of bamboo fiber keeps on
decreasing with increase in age, which results in decrease in its strength. Lignin
provides the yellow color and stiffness to the bamboo fiber; it is also resistance to
the alkali medium.

3 Bamboo Fiber Extraction

3.1 Mechanical Extraction Process

One of the most popular methods is the steam explosion method. In this method, the
plant stalks were disintegrated into the fiber bundle by treating them with the hot
stream (120–180 °C temperature) under certain pressure and then the rupture of rigid
structure biomass fiber is done with the help of an explosive. It is one of the cheapest
method with relatively low energy consumption to disintegrate the cell walls of the
bamboo. But this method is not sufficient enough to produce single fiber and about
25–210 µm diameter bundles were produced that were dark and rigid [37]. Another
method is crushing in which the small pieces of bamboo were cut through the help
of roller crusher. Then with the help of pin roller, the coarse fibers were extracted
from the small pieces. After that the fat and unwanted materials were removed by
boiling at 90 °C for a period of 10 h and finally it is dried in the dehydrator [38].
But this process only yields the short fibers [39]. Another technique is the grinding,
the procedure involves soaking of bamboo culm without nodes for a period of 24 h.
Then these drenced strips were cut into small pieces. After that the small bamboo
chips were cut when passing the strips through extruders. With the help of high speed
blender these chips were then grounded for 30 min to fabricate the bamboo fibers.
Finally, dried into an oven for 72 h after the size separation of fibers [40]. Another
similar method was rolling. In this process, the bamboo strips were soaked for 1 h in
water and then passed through a rolling mill at low speed with some pressure. Then
rolled strips were again soaked in for 30 min and separation of fiber is done using a
blade. The oldest method is retting, in which the bamboo strips were soaked for long
periods of time for about 3 days minimum, and then beaten and scraped with sharp
blades [41].
Lifecycle Assessment of Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Bamboo … 239

3.2 Chemical Extraction Process

Most commonly used chemical method was retting with an acid or alkali. In this
method, the bamboo strips were dipped into a NaOH solution at different normality
mainly by 1 N concentration, as per many researchers heated around 70 °C for several
hours [42, 43]. Treated strips were then passed through the press machine and then
finally separated. After that it is then washed properly and dried in an oven. Lignin
is also soluble in acidic solution; therefore some researchers also used trifluoracetic
acidic [44]. To reduce the water content and lignin in the fibers, some chemical
assisted natural retting method is also used. In this method, the bamboo slices were
immersed into a Zn(NO3 )2 solution at different concentrations for long duration at
40 °C temperature [45].

4 Lifecycle Assessment of Bamboo Polymer Composites

Lots of scientific studies have been performed on characterization of bamboo rein-

forced polymer composites that includes mechanical, thermal, fracture, water absorp-
tion, visco-elasticity, morphology, tribological, chemical and wear [40, 46–104].
Lifecycle assessment scrutiny has been performed for various composites [105–127];
but for the bamboo reinforced polymer composites it is very limited [128–132]. Li
et al. [128] evaluated the glued-laminated bamboo’s environmental impact on a life
cycle assessment ground. The outcome shows that the processing of glued-laminated
bamboo contributes remarkably to the eutrophication potential, acidification poten-
tial, global warming potential and photochemical ozone creation potential; whereas
the resource depletion and ozone depletion are affected by urea-formaldehyde resin
adhesive, amongst which urea was the major contributor. Recently in 2018, Chang
et al. [129] utilized the life cycle assessment approach to investigate the production
chains that produces plybamboo. They reported that the bleached glue-laminated
bamboo boards have a lower environmental impact than their heat-treated coun-
terparts. Gu et al. [130] in their study revealed that the bamboo fiber reinforced
composites are generally more eco-friendly than the flax fiber reinforced compos-
ites. Earlier in 2003, Thwe and Liao [131] showcased the environmental effects on
bamboo-glass/polypropylene hybrid composites. They specifically reported that the
environmental degradation process of bamboo fiber reinforced composites can be
delayed by adding a small amount of glass fiber. Hung et al. [132] provided the
natural weathering properties of acetylated bamboo plastic composites and indi-
cated that the durability and decay resistance of bamboo plastic composites can be
enhanced through the acetylation process of the bamboo reinforcement.
240 A. Verma et al.

5 Conclusion and Future Perspective

Lifecycle assessment scrutiny has been performed for various thermosetting and
thermoplastic bamboo composites; but at the same time there is a whole lot of studies
left to be done on the bamboo based natural matrix composites.

Acknowledgements Academic support from the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India is
highly appreciable.
Conflicts of Interest “There are no conflicts of interest to declare by the authors.”

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Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo
Fiber Composites

H. Mohit, H. Babu Vishwanath, G. Hemath Kumar, V. Arul Mozhi Selvan,

M. R. Sanjay, and Suchart Siengchin

Abstract The plant fiber-reinforced polymer composites have been utilized broadly
in various engineering fields in recent times, because of its comparative benefits such
as sustainability and recyclability. They have shown interest in different fields of
engineering, as it is the capability to provide lower weight materials against metallic
and synthetic materials. In recent years, both synthetic and metallic materials are
presented replaced with plant reinforced polymer composites in many automobile
components manufacturing industries. Among the different types of natural fibers,
bamboo is one of the most fast-growing renewable resources and possesses huge
potential to utilized as feedstock material to the biorefinery. In this present investiga-
tion, a new wind turbine blades are fabricated from bamboo fiber reinforced polymer
composites to improve the annual generation of electricity. Both structural and aero-
dynamic factors are examined as design parameters in the optimization process. The
design of airfoil also employed in optimization procedures to enhance structural and
aerodynamic characteristics from airfoil theory. Blade element momentum theory
is applied to determine aerodynamic characteristics and classical laminate theory is

H. Mohit (B)
Natural Composite Research Group Lab, The Siridhorn International Thai-German Graduate
School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok,
Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
H. B. Vishwanath · G. H. Kumar
Composite Research Center, Ambattur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
V. A. M. Selvan
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli, India
S. Siengchin
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok
(KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
M. R. Sanjay
Natural Composites Research Group Lab, Academic Enhancement Department, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), 1518 Pracharat 1, Wongsawang Road,
Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 247

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_14
248 H. Mohit et al.

used to calculate mass per unit length and stiffness of the section. A techno-economic
model also developed and showed that there is a decrement in the cost of blade mate-
rial. The results also depict that the structural, aerodynamic, and techno-economic
performance of the newly developed wind turbine blade is enhanced as compared
with conventional plastic.

Keywords Aerodynamic · Bamboo fiber · Epoxy nanocomposites · Structural ·

Techno-economic analysis · Wind turbine blade

1 Introduction

The utilization of synthetic fibers has controlled the present past of reinforcement
application, whereas natural fiber reinforcement showed a good alternative to replace
synthetic fibers from different applications [3]. Bio-based polymers and biodegrad-
able plastic products from renewal sources could produce eco-friendly and sustain-
able products than the present market which is regulated from petroleum-based prod-
ucts [15]. Researchers have utilized both hard and softwoods to extract the fibers as
reinforcement materials in many composite applications [3]. In certain developing
countries, the plant fibers have crucial economic importance, such as cotton, jute,
and sisal in some African, Bangladesh and Tanzania respectively [11]. The various
nations where there is a lack of forest sources and crops from agriculture have been
applied for the research and development of polymer-based laminates. Bamboo is
one type of agricultural crop, which was for the development, and design of polymer
laminates [4]. Bamboo fiber is observed as an abundant material in South America
and Asia. In Asian, the fibers not been depicted full to its extent as it is noticed as
nature-based material. These types of materials involved as the backbone for the
social and economic background of society as used to take many months to cultivate.
Currently, the bamboo fiber is considered as an essential plant fiber with higher
potential to utilized as reinforcement material in composite industries. Its mechan-
ical characteristics, fiber extraction, variation in structural properties, modification
in chemical constituents, and thermal characteristics create it versatile for applica-
tion in polymer material company [16]. The various types of techniques have been
developed by scientists for the extraction of bamboo fiber as reinforcement material
in composites. The alkaline treatment is applied as a method for the extraction of
fiber from bamboo and optimizes the bamboo fiber separation for the production
of bamboo fiber-based polymer composites. The scientists studied the modifica-
tions possessed in the fine structure of bamboo fiber because of the treatment with
different content of alkali solution [6]. Thermoplastic polymer and bamboo fibers
blended laminates were manufactured, and thermal and microstructural characteris-
tics of hybrid composites compared with pure polymers [27]. The trade and business
of bamboo products as panels, household materials, decorating products have an
informative impact on both economic and overall environment advancement.
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 249

The depletion of non-renewable energy sources has become a significant problem

throughout the world. The production of renewable energy, usually the generation
of power from wind observed as a vital energy source. It is noted that electricity
produced from the turbine is proportionate to the swept volume of rotor blades. The
large wind turbines tend to average wind speeds with increases in the height of the
tower. In the year 1980s, conventional wind turbine sizes raised from approximately
50 kW with a diameter of rotor (10–15 m) as compared with conventionally 5 MW
turbines with a diameter of rotor (120 m) [7, 21].
Presently, the design technique for the massive scale of the wind turbine blade
is classified into two divisions as structural and aerodynamic performance. Both
aerodynamic and structural performance affects the external geometry and internal
configurations, respectively. The most common technique is to model outer shape,
to improve the extraction of power and efficiency of structural characteristics. The
architectural and aerodynamic optimization techniques have been preferred broadly
in many investigations [8, 24]. Benini and Toffolo [1] preferred a method to optimize
wind turbine by comprising a multi-objective algorithm and BEM (Blade Element
Momentum) theory. Their motive is the potential trade-off within the annual produc-
tion of energy and energy costs. Xudong et al. [25] conducted an optimization on
wind turbine blades based on aero-elastic code and BEM theory to reduce the cost
of energy. The design parameters of the wind turbine blade were a twist, chord, and
thickness dispersion with a fixed diameter of the rotor. The structural optimization for
wind turbine blade design also considers stability, strength, vibration, and price [17,
26]. The finite element method (FEM), which can transform factors like materials
characteristics, angle of the fiber, specific thicknesses of layer, and internal geom-
etry configuration from parametric modeling process. One method to optimize wind
turbine blades to decrease their total weight. The lightweight blade not only reduces
the load for complete turbine systems but also contains certain remunerative advan-
tages. Hu et al. [10] investigated structural optimization to decrease the weight of
the blade and the cost of material. Liao et al. [14] applied FAST (wind turbine blade
software) and PSO (Particle Swarm Optimization) method to determine structural
characteristics and decrease the total weight of the blade, respectively. Zhu et al.
[28] comprised the PSO method and FEM to minimize the total weight of 1.5 Mega
Watt (MW) blade. Zhu et al. [29] applied FEM for structural analysis, BEM concept
for aerodynamic examination, and multi-target genetic procedure to verify the effec-
tiveness of optimization technique. The design parameters were twist and chord
distribution, several layers, location of shear webs and spar cap to minimize blade
weight and maximize annual energy production.
Generally, the polymers composites reinforced with glass fibers are mainly applied
for the fabrication of wind turbine blades. The polymers incorporated with carbon
fiber has improved the structural characteristics of the blades as well as it attained
higher cost than other synthetic and natural fibers [5, 18]. For the architectural design
challenge, tip deflection and structural stability should meet the necessary design
constraints—the aerodynamic problem to express higher energy from the mean speed
of wind regions. The present investigation aims to design a technique combining
structural and aerodynamic optimization on bamboo fiber wind turbine blades applied
250 H. Mohit et al.

in lower wind speed regions. By enhancing structural and aerodynamic characteristics

of the wind turbine blade, the manufacturing process and shape of geometry are
fixed as design parameters. More necessarily, initiating airfoil design in the process
of optimization could grant to both structural and aerodynamic characteristics. The
motive is to deal with the design procedure to collect optimal characteristics of
wind turbine blades mainly focused on airfoils. Every airfoil is highly influenced
by structural and aerodynamic performances of wind turbine blade section, due to
optimization concentrates on each part of the blade. The primary target is to enhance
the structural and aerodynamic performance of the fabricated wind turbine blade.
This chapter investigates on blade sections fabricated from bamboo fiber polymer
composites and airfoils design simultaneously containing structural and aerodynamic
combined optimization and techno-economic analysis.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Fabrication of Bamboo Fiber/Al-SiC Epoxy

Nanocomposite for Wind Turbine Blade

Firstly, bamboo fiber was supplied from Composite Research Center, Ambattur,
India. The Fibers was soaked in sodium chloride (NaCl) solution for 48 h under
atmospheric condition (40 ± 3 °C temperature and 1 atm pressure). After the
soaking process, the fibers were treated with 0.1 N NaOH solution. Finally, treated
bamboo fiber was converted into nano form using industrial grinder and nanoparti-
cles separated from nanomesh (average size 50 nm), termed as bamboo nanofibers
(BNF).
In step 2, aluminum alloy (Al6061 1 μm) and silicon carbide (SiC, 150 μm),
purchased from Carborundum Universal Kochi, India, and the particles are combined
in horizontal type of high energy ball mill, by selecting balls to powder weight ratio,
milling speed and time as 10, 200 rpm and 180 h respectively. The nanoparticles of
an average size of 52.74 nm were separated from nano sieve. Two different types of
epoxy nanocomposites were fabricated, as BNF and BNF/Al-SiC. In these type of
nanocomposites, the matrix is an epoxy polymer (LY556), and hardener (HY951)
both are comprised in the ratio of 10:1 by reinforcing either 10 wt.% of BNF or
both BNF/Al-SiC. An ultrasonicator probe has been utilized to achieve uniform
dispersion of nanoparticle in epoxy polymer under an ice bath to avoid overheating.
The sonication was performed for 120 min, frequency of 24 kHz, and electrical
power of 400 W as per the manufacturer standard. After the fabrication of epoxy
nanocomposite, the sample was placed in a muffle furnace for 24 h under 60 ± 2 °C
to remove the residual stress and moisture content.
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 251

2.2 Nanocomposites Characterization

The mechanical characteristics of epoxy hybrid nanocomposites were determined

in terms of tensile and Rockwell hardness. The tensile property of hybrid epoxy
nanocomposites was tested in Tinius Olsen (H-50kN), Universal testing machine
according to ASTM D 3039/3039 M-17 under the crosshead speed of 2 mm/min.
The test was performed at room temperature (30 ± 2 °C). Rockwell hardness of the
composite materials also measured using Wilson Wolpert Hardness Tester, according
to ASTM D 785-08 standard with an indenter load of 3 kg and dwell for 15 s. The
density of the epoxy hybrid nanocomposites was measured using ASTM 1505-10
standard under room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The characteristics of a
new type of composite materials are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Material properties of BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy nanocomposite material as
compared with glass fiber epoxy
Property BNF epoxy BNF/Al-SiC epoxy Glass fiber epoxy
Density in kg/m3 1139.52 2377.68 2069.47
Superficial hardness in kgf/mm2 29.02 106.23 92.46
Elastic modulus in x-direction (Ex ) in 1404.00 3942.00 3431
MPa
Elastic modulus in y-direction (Ey ) in 1047.60 1868.40 1626.2
MPa
Elastic modulus in z-direction (Ez ) in 1047.60 1868.40 1626.2
MPa
Shear modulus in xy-direction (Gxy ) in 594.00 842.40 733.2
MPa
Shear modulus in yz-direction (Gyz ) in 442.53 627.59 546.23
MPa
Shear modulus in xz-direction (Gxz ) in 594.00 842.40 733.2
MPa
Tensile strength in x-direction (Tx ) in 441.56 730.13 635.49
MPa
Tensile strength in y-direction (Ty ) in 17.55 29.02 25.26
MPa
Tensile strength in z-direction (Tz ) in 17.55 29.02 25.26
MPa
Shear stress in xy-direction (τxy ) in 34.15 85.71 74.60
MPa
Shear stress in yz-direction (τyz ) in 19.90 49.97 43.49
MPa
Shear stress in xz-direction (τxz ) in 34.15 85.71 74.60
MPa
252 H. Mohit et al.

Table 2 Geometry of baseline wind turbine blade

Span position in m Twist in deg Chord in m Thickness in % Airfoil
2 18 2.5 100 Circle
14.7 10.5 3.64 45 DU00-W2-401
18.5 7.3 3.21 40 DU00-W2-350
27.8 2.9 2.46 35 DU97-W2-300
52.3 −1.65 1.18 30 DU91-W2-250
67 −1.7 0.04 25 DU93-W2-210

Table 3 Characteristics of
Class of wind III
wind turbine
Power (rated) in MW 5
Speed of wind (rated) in m/s 9
Wind speed (cut in) in m/s 3
Wind speed (cut out) in m/s 20
Blade number 3
Ratio of tip speed (design) 10.7
Diameter of rotor in m 122.3
Type of control Various speed and pitch
Power coefficient (maximum) 0.463
Pre-bend under tip of blade in m 2.5

3 Model of Wind Turbine Blade

A general 5 MW horizontal axis low-speed wind turbine blade has been selected for
a present this investigation. The wind turbine blade fabricated from BNF epoxy, and
BNF/Al-SiC epoxy has an approximate weight of 9600 kg, and 13,552 kg respec-
tively. The wind turbine blade baseline is explained from the distribution of twist,
chords, and chosen airfoils. The details of each factor influenced by the wind turbine
blade are shown in Tables 2 and 3.

4 Aerodynamic and Structural Model Description

Glauret [9] described the BEM concept comprising the blade element theory with
momentum theory. The momentum theory targeted to examine both tangential and
axial inducing speed by initiating angular and axial induction parameters—blade
element theory assigned to estimate the aerodynamic load effecting on every element
of the blade. The induced speed affects the angle of attack of the airfoil, which is
acquired in the wind turbine blade and hence influences the aerodynamic loads. The
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 253

BEM methods provide a method to determine the aerodynamic characteristics of

blade elements using the iteration process. They have an effect on incited speed
around the tip of the blade. Hence, Prandtl’s tip loss elimination has been included
to simulate the rotor of a wind turbine blade is employed [26]. To collect the aerody-
namic characteristics of a wind turbine blade, both drag and lift constants of an airfoil
in every section of the blade is essential to adopt. Rfoil software has been applied to
design the airfoil characteristics, due to XFoil does not have good agreement with
tunnel experiments under a higher angle of attack. The classical laminate concept
(CLC) has been introduced in the design technique to determine the characteristics
of composite material blades. CLC model can evaluate the overall effectiveness of a
structured wind turbine blade fabricated from composite laminates. Bir [2] generated
a pre-processor PreComp software using FORTRAN to determine the blade struc-
tural characteristics, which mainly depend on CLC. The PreComp requires certain
input documents as interior architectural layout, the shape of the blade, and composite
materials characteristics. Moreover, PreComp offers specific interior geometry and a
conventional layup of materials. In this investigation, PreComp is used to determine
the structural features of different sections of the blade.
The Blade element momentum code is confirmed among the aerodynamic design
of the wind turbine blade with 61.5 m (length) and rated power of 5 MW. Aerody-
namic characteristic is performed by employing wind speed between 3 and 20 m/s
and tip speed ratio of 10.6 [26]. The density of air considered as 1.215 kg/m3 whereas
the tilt and cone angles of the blade were eliminated. Aerodynamic performance of
NACA series airfoils collected by reviewing RFoil software for particular Reynold’s
number. The power graph evaluated from the BEM code shows the rated wind speed
as 8 m/s. Hence prediction from blade element momentum code for present investi-
gation contemplated as acceptable. CLC code employed in PreComp is confirmed at
structural characteristics of geometry and layup scheme of a wind turbine blade due
to the power distribution of blade areas as restricted. All stiffness for every direction
and mass per unit length of wind turbine sections is estimated by employing blade
shape with length ranging from 12.4 to 61.5 m. Figure 1a, b displays the compar-
ison between mass per unit length and stiffness distribution estimated by CLC code
employed in PreComp. As observed in Fig. 1, the distribution of stiffness in every
section and weight per length are in the right consistency with the modeled wind
turbine composite blade.

5 Description of the FE Model

Finite element design of conventional wind turbine blade fabricated from APDL
(ANSYS software) using BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy, as explained in the
above section. The maximum deflection in blade tip for BNF epoxy and BNF/Al-SiC
epoxy are estimated as 5.15, and 3.97 m. These blades tip deflection is comparably
lower than the conventional ones, as observed from Yang et al. [26] under the rated
speed of 8 m/s.
254 H. Mohit et al.

Fig. 1 Comparison between mass per unit length and stiffness distribution collected original blade
and CLC code

6 Optimization Process and Modeling

This investigation targeted to suggest the combined aerodynamic and structural opti-
mization techniques to enhance the characteristics of wind turbine blades applied
in lower wind speed regions. Aerodynamic characteristics of blades acquire lower
load and good AEP (Annual Energy Production). Structural features require smaller
deformations and lower weights of the wind turbine blade. The architectural and
aerodynamic characteristics are influenced by each other, and hence, the optimiza-
tion technique should be combined. Airfoil theory is used to form specific designs of
airfoils, and quantities of chord and twists were estimated from BEM simultaneously.
Then, CLC and BEM concepts are used to determine structural and aerodynamic
characteristics for every cross-section and can be optimized separately.
PSO method is one of the popular ways which broadly applied to resolve the issues
and can determine overall optimum conditions [23]. The design procedure initiates
the PSO method, finite element software (ANSYS), RFoil, BEM, and PreComp code.
Three modules combined in particle swarm optimization procedure by employing
MATLAB software, a structural examination from PreComp, aerodynamic analysis
depend on RFoil and BEM code and validation of extreme strength from ANSYS.
Figure 2 displays the optimization flow chart using a particle swarm optimization
technique. The aerodynamic parameters are applied to regulate the profiles of the
airfoil and structural parameters to control the number of layers and configuration in
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 255

Fig. 2 Optimization process flow chart

every section of the wind turbine blade. The BEM concept is applied to estimate the
twist and chord for each airfoil in the design procedure and determine the thrust and
torque of each section of the wind turbine blade. Also, the PreComp code selected
to determine the stiffness and weight of wind turbine blade parts. The factors such
as airfoil, twist angle, length of the chord, interior configuration of blades, material
properties and distribution of layup. A wind turbine blade profile made from APDL
and performed a finite element method analysis using ANSYS software.
256 H. Mohit et al.

7 Wind Turbine Blade Performance Simulation

and Modeling

The power produced by wind turbines mainly depends on the speed of the wind,
mechanical, aerodynamic, electrical characteristics, and swept area. A simple math-
ematical equation generated from MATLAB software to develop a proposed design
procedure [12]. The generated model for a wind turbine can be employed in the
following three subdivisions, such as mechanical power (mechanical performance),
power coefficient (aerodynamic performance), and electrical performance.

7.1 Subsystem of Mechanical Power

The mechanical power of the wind turbines can be determined from Eq. (1)

1
Pm = × C p ρ Av 3 (1)
2

where Pm is the mechanical power of wind turbine, A is swept area of the wind
turbine, and Cp is the power coefficient of wind, ρ is air density in kg/m3 , and v
is the speed of wind in m/s. Torque coefficient (CQ ) and mechanical torque (Tm )
determined from Eqs. (2) and (3), respectively.
 
Pm 1 R
Tm = = × C p ρ Av 2 (2)
ω 2 λ
Cp
CQ = (3)
λ

7.2 Coefficient of Power (Aerodynamic Performance)

The coefficient of power (Cp ) depicts the amount of power that can be developed
from the wind. Cp is determined by using Eq. (4) [22]:
 
C2 C
− 5
C p = C1 − C 3 β − C 4 e λ1 + C 6 λ (4)
λ

where C1 = 0.5176, C2 = 116, C3 = 0.4, C4 = 5, C5 = 21 and C6 = 0.0068 are the

constant coefficients, β is pitch angle and λ is tip speed ratio [13]. Speed of wind can
be calculated from Eq. (5)
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 257

R×ω
λ= (5)
v

where ω is the rotational speed of wind turbine in rad/s, R is the radius of a wind
turbine in m, v is the speed of wind in m/s. The factor λ1 can be expressed from
Eq. (6)

1 1 0.035
= − 3 (6)
λ1 λ + 0.08β β +1

7.3 Electrical Energy Using Generator

The following procedure in the design procedure is converting mechanical into elec-
trical energy. A permanent magnet generator is designed with six magnetic poles
and considered efficient even for the lower speed of rotation. The subsystem has
considered for iron, copper losses, electrical, frequency, induced current, induced
voltage, efficiency, and total electrical power. Table 4 represents the mathematical
formulations to determine the electrical power. All mathematical formulations are
shown in MATLAB scriptlet for the determination of total electrical energy [22].

Table 4 Formulations for various factors applied in simulation

Factor Mathematical Factor Mathematical
formula formula
  Pm
Fitch factor k p = sin 180Pη Induce current I = 3×E L N
2Q

Distribution factor sin(q α2 ) Copper losses Cu

Plosses = 3R I 2
kd = q×sin( α2 )

Winding factor kw = kd k p Iron losses Fe

Plosses =
2
kh Bmax f elec +
2
kc Bmax 2 +
f elec
3/2 3/2
ke Bmax f elec
ω
Mechanical frequency f mech = 2π Total losses total =
Plosses
Plosses + Plosses
Cu Fe

ω
Electrical frequency f elec = 4π ×p Net power from Pt = Pm − Plosses
total

generator
Pt
Induced phase voltage ELN = Efficiency of η=
√ generator
Pm
2π f elec nφkw
√
Induced line voltage E L L = 3E L N
258 H. Mohit et al.

8 Techno-Economic Formulation

A techno-economic model offers price benefit of dissimilar materials or techniques

which could be applied to evaluate the feasibility of new schemes depend on technical
viability and economic possibilities. Many frameworks and guidelines for techno-
economic examination are utilized to present investigation, containing changes to
consider for cost parameters combined in wind turbine blades. Techno-economic
design concentrates on materials (prices of procured materials, schedule of laminates,
scraps, consumables, adhesives), fabrication process (cost of equipment and tooling,
infusion factors, time for curing, labor, overhead and electricity price), and disposal
(prices for landfill disposal and any recycling opportunity for thermoset polymer
wind turbine blades). The techno-economic model established to consider the cost
of unique designs (varying blade materials). The assumptions formed during the
advancement of the techno-economic model, which did not affect the comparison
within different types of polymers utilized in the fabrication of wind turbine blades.
A conservative method for composite laminate design considered from the NREL
blade and resulting price and weight of wind turbine blade in this designed model
may be quietly lower than conventional blades.
The techno-economic model is applied to fabricate blade, which contains bamboo
nanofiber, aluminum silicon carbide, polymer systems (resin and hardener), and blade
fabrication consumables. Generally, the prices of the material quoted in weight, hence
computing the total weight of every component applied in the blade. The model
assumes that wind turbine blades fabricated from the wet layup molding process,
as this, along with the prepreg lamination process, consider for above 90% of wind
turbine blade fabrication throughout the world [20].
However, the waste materials quantities were assumed to be similar for these
polymer systems. In the same manner, the 5 wt.% of epoxy nanocomposite material
applied in the spar car because the cutting of fabric depends on the design of the wind
turbine blade. From recent research, it was presumed that both the wind turbine blades
have a similar schedule of laminate. The schedule of laminate for the NREL wind
turbine blade developed depends on the actual blade model shown in Fernandez
et al. [7]. A little modification to consider for the assumption that wind turbine
blades made entirely from BNF and BNF/Al-SiC without any synthetic fibers in
the spar caps. The material cost, total weight, and density of these three types of
nanocomposite materials ranging between $100–$1000, 9600–14,000 kg and 1120–
2175 kg/m3 respectively, which is comparatively lower than conventional equipment
(cost of $2000, the total weight of 14,500 kg and density of 2200 kg/m3 ). Material bills
show information and depict the comparison of relative prices within BNF epoxy,
BNF/Al-SiC epoxy, and the baseline conventional materials. The fabrication process
steps with tooling prices, laborer numbers, consumables, capital equipment costs
and power requirements for the BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy nanocomposite
wind turbine blades are shown in Table 5 [17].
The annual fabrication rate of 200 blades depends on labor time per blade and
cycle. Presently, this is polymer-agnostic input in the model; moreover, an outcome
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 259

Table 5 Fabrication price for model affects all the processes

Factor Quantity
Annual volume of production 200 blades
Length of wind turbine blade 61.5 m
Labor direct costs $25 per hour
Materials cutting charge @ 4 labours per station, 40 non-gating hours, and $306,000
148 kW of power
Trailing and leading edge shear web @ 6 labours per station, 27 non-gating $204,000
hours, and 310 kW of power
Others (spar cap, both low and high pressure skin, assembly, demold, trim, $10,143,800
overlay, postcure, root tools and hardware, surface preparation, paint, surface
finish, inspection and shipping preparation) @ 4 labours per station, 50
non-gating hours and 172 kW of power
Effects on costs and salary 32.3%
Mean labor and downtime of equipment 18%
No. of days of working per year 300 annually
No. of hours of working per day 24
Rate of recovery 12%
Recovery life of equipment 120 months
Recovery life of building 384 months
Capital period of working 90 days
Electricity cost $0.08 per kWh
Building space cost $700 per m2
Inflation (expected) 0.48%
Rate of tax (corporate) 18%
Development of research 1.20%

of faster gatting times, the number could increment for thermoset blades. The input
factors computed for single processes and stations, designed model drags material
information from variable prices—direct labor, material, utility, and fixed prices—
tooling, maintenance, equipment, capital cost, and building.
The wind turbine blade and iterative optimization procedure are displayed in
Fig. 3. It could be observed the optimum outcomes converged when iteration numbers
attain 140 with 16.256 s of computational time.

9 Results of Airfoil Design

After the completion of the optimization procedure, the output contains the length of
the chord, airfoils, internal structural configuration, twist angle, and distribution of
layup for every section of the wind turbine blade. The aerodynamic characteristics
260 H. Mohit et al.

Fig. 3 Iterative course for

every section blade under the
optimization process

and designed airfoils are compared with NACA 8412 airfoil series shown in Fig. 4a–
e. Figure 4a–e display the ratio of lift to drag and profile of airfoils at different
thickness compared under actual airfoil in similar operating case.
The NACA 8412 airfoils and lift to drag coefficient of the airfoil in every angle
of attack, lift to draft ratio of the optimum airfoil at 25% of thickness lower than
actual airfoil under the 8–12 angle of attack. Aerodynamic performance of airfoils
outcome in lower thrust and more abundant torque under the optimum twist.

10 Structural and Aerodynamic Design Outcomes of Wind

Turbine Blade Section

The internal configuration, distribution of layup, and aerodynamic performance for

23 sections of the wind turbine blade are completed after the process of optimization,
which explains all parts of the wind turbine blade. Figure 5 displays the optimum
interior configuration of a wind turbine blade at a thickness of 30% and Table 6
exhibits information. The new chord of wind turbine blade under the thickness of
30% compared to the actual one reduces 0.0215 m. Optimum twist increments are
1.6° than the actual one. Smaller chord will tend to decrease thrust and weight.
New twist quantity will warranty the airfoil (new) utilized in section may gain more
power from wind resources [26]. Table 6 exhibits the structural and aerodynamic
characteristics performance of the blade section under 30% of the thickness. In
aerodynamic characteristics, the torque of new blades is higher and thrust is lower
than actual. It states that the blade section can generate more power and more loads
than real ones. From structural performance, stiffness of edge, flap, and GJ wise
directions are enhanced and weight per unit of the section is lower than the actual
one. Fewer forces and more considerable stiffness will lead to smaller deformations.
Moreover, lower weight can reduce gravity force and improvement in fatigue life.
Thrust and torque in ultimate case displays the torque of new wind turbine blade
improves and thrust reduces around 26.23% as compared with that of an actual wind
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 261

Fig. 4 Comparison of lift to drag ratio and airfoil profiles between actual and optimum condition
a 40% thickness and Re 5 × 106 , b 35% thickness and Re 6 × 106 , c 30% thickness and Re × 106 ,
d 25% thickness and Re 4 × 106 , and e 21% thickness and Re 3 × 106
262 H. Mohit et al.

Fig. 5 Structural configuration of wind turbine blade sections under 30% of the thickness

Table 6 Number of layup and configuration details of 30% thickness section of wind turbine blade
Actual BNF epoxy BNF/Al-SiC epoxy
Chord in m 2.45 2.68 2.95
Twist in deg 2.82 3.08 3.39
Width of spar in c−1 0.64 0.71 0.78
Width of web in c−1 0.48 0.52 0.57
UD thickness of spar at suction surface 57.20 62.46 68.87
UD thickness of spar at pressure surface 57.20 62.46 68.87
UD thickness of trailing edge at suction surface 24.96 27.26 30.05
UD thickness of trailing edge at pressure surface 24.96 27.26 30.05
M in kNm 35.10 38.33 42.26
T in kN/m 11.72 12.80 14.11
Weight in kg/m 238.26 260.19 286.85
EI1 in GPa 0.29 0.32 0.35
EI2 in GPa 0.93 1.01 1.11
GI in GPa 0.55 0.60 0.67
M_ex in kNm 1183.06 1291.90 1424.32
T_ex in kN/m 451.70 493.26 543.82

turbine blade. About 4.17% improvement when compared with recent literature,
Yang et al. [26]. The comparison shows that a new wind turbine blade in extreme
cases has higher performance than the actual one.
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 263

11 Results of Blade Design

The twist angle and length of the chord distribution of new wind turbine blade
required from the optimization process are displayed in Fig. 6a, b, respectively.
The optimized wind turbine blade areas are ranging between 45 and 25% thickness
sections. The length of a chord of new wind turbine blade reduces slightly, due to the
design constraints acquires balance cross-sectional stiffness not lower than an actual
blade. The decrement of a chord can tend to lower weight and lighter thrust for wind
turbine blades.
Twist of new wind turbine blades in all parts improves because of a new type
of airfoils chosen in the design technique. With the increment in a twist, airfoils of
every wind turbine blade could generate in the optimum angle of attack and warranty
that the wind turbine blade has higher aerodynamic performance. As displayed in
Fig. 7a, b the width of the shorter spar requires thicker layers to consider structural
constraints like the area from the wind turbine blade under 20 m, around span as
compared with conventional wind turbine blade. From 20 to 67 m along the span of

Fig. 6 Comparison of twist angle and chord length distribution between BNF epoxy, BNF/Al-SiC
epoxy, and actual wind turbine blade

Fig. 7 Distribution a web and spar width of baseline and actual wind turbine blade and b thickness
of baseline and actual wind turbine blade
264 H. Mohit et al.

a wind turbine blade, spar width of the optimum blade and layer spar of optimum
blade shorter and thicker than conventional wind turbine blade, respectively. The
primary reason is the trailing edge addition, which enhances section characteristics
and also has a lower effect on total weight.

12 Structural and Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Wind

Turbine Blade

Figure 8a–c exhibit edge, flap and torsional stiffness distribution for new (BNF
epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy) and actual wind turbine blade. The bending stiffness
(section) of the new wind turbine blade improves as compared with the actual one,
specifically in the range of length between 13 and 30 m. Hence, the new wind turbine
blade has a higher capability of deformation resistance. Figure 8 displays the part
of the weight per unit length for the actual and new wind turbine blade. The part of
weight per length of the wind turbine blade reduces slightly. The primary reason is
the constraint acquires balance stiffness not lower than the actual blade. The total
weight of new wind turbine fabricated from BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy
nanocomposites, decrease by 34.37%, 11.85%, and 6.07% respectively as compared
with the actual blade.
Figure 9a, b exhibits thrust and torque distribution for both new and real wind
turbine blades. The outcome display the torque of every new wind turbine blade,
which is higher than actual, also offers a high amount of generation of electricity. The
thrust of every new wind turbine blade lower than real, which reduces aerodynamic

Fig. 8 Structural performance distribution between the actual blade and new blade under optimum
condition a edge-wise, b flap-wise, c torsional stiffness and d weight per unit length
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 265

Fig. 9 Thrust force and torque distribution between actual and new wind turbine blade under
optimum condition

forces depicting the rotor from wind sources. Figure 10a displays a comparison of
power within actual and optimum. While comparing with a real wind turbine blade,
the new blade attains rated power under 7.6 and 10.4 m/s lesser than the actual blade.
Hence, a new wind turbine blade has a higher performance at the lower speed of the
wind and can generate more energy than the real wind turbine blade. The comparison
is given in Fig. 10b exhibits that generation of electricity of new wind turbine blade
is higher than the actual one. With a yearly average speed of wind of 7 m/s, annual
energy generation of blade fabricated from BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy
nanocomposites are 9.12 GW, and 9.06 GW, with an increment of 9.51%, and 2.75%
respectively as compared with existing literature from Yang et al. [26]. The outcomes
266 H. Mohit et al.

Fig. 10 Comparison of new wind turbine and conventional blade under optimum condition a power
in kW, b energy production in kWh and c blade deflection in m

display that a new wind turbine blade has a higher aerodynamic characteristic than
actual in lower wind speed. Figure 10c shows a comparison of wind turbine blade
deformation between real and newly developed wind turbine blades.
The deflection of a new wind turbine blade fabricated from BNF epoxy and
BNF/Al-SiC epoxy nanocomposites is 3.93 m and 3.76 m, which has 27.15%,
30.62%, and 32.77% respectively than recent literature observed in Yang et al. [26].
By employing 2.5 m (pre-bend) under the tip of the blade, real deformations of newly
developed blade fabricated from BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy nanocompos-
ites has decreased by 4.37 m, 4.26 m and 4.18 m as compared with recent literature
by 7.02%, 9.38% and 12.11% respectively. Hence, the new wind turbine blade has
higher characteristics in avoiding collisions within the tower and the tip of the blade.
As observed in Fig. 11a, b Tsai-Wu parameters prevailed in 3rd ply of wind
turbine blade eliminates first skin, fabricated from polymer nanocomposites (BNF
epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy). The outcome display that the new wind turbine
blade has higher performance in failure criteria due to the aerodynamic performance
and structural efficiency.
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 267

Fig. 11 Tsai-Wu failure parameters of the new wind turbine blade a BNF epoxy, and b BNF/Al-SiC
epoxy
268 H. Mohit et al.

13 Techno-Economic Analysis

The price of the wind turbine blade of length 61.5 m is estimated using techno-
economic model as 12.41 $/kg for epoxy polymer which is slightly lower than the
expected price for conventional wind turbine blade manufacturer in the United States
of America and signify a 2.3% of decrement in fabrication cost when compared
with traditional material of blade shown in Table 7. The nanocomposite materials
and direct labor charges are the factors for the contributors to wind turbine blade
price. The cost of scrap materials contains 10.6% of materials cost and 3.6% of total
manufacturing price with the effect of maximum savings from reduced wastes and
higher tolerances, by producing the condition for automation during the fabrication
process.
The influence of economic scales are perceived with the same trends down to 200
blades annually (approximately) and within the 200 and 1000 wind turbine blades,
the minimal decrement in the total cost. Furthermore, the smaller fabrication of 100
blades, an increment in the price of blades over the scenario of baseline (200 blades
annually) by 24%. These observations present the model which does not exhibit any
bias in huge-volume fabrication run. Hence it is predicted that the material price
occurs in the total amount of the wind turbine blade. These outcomes are similar to
the results observed by Murray et al. [17] and Schubel [20].

Table 7 Cost comparison of

Cost BNF epoxy BNF/AlSiC Conventional
wind turbine blade fabricated
epoxy material
from BNF, and BNF/Al-SiC
epoxy nanocomposites Cost of capital $36,036.04 $36,036.04 $37,837.84
Overhead $11,727.71 $11,727.71 $12,314.10
labour cost
Maintenance $3411.69 $3411.69 $3582.27
cost
Building cost $9595.39 $9595.39 $10,075.16
Tooling cost $4477.85 $4477.85 $4701.74
Equipment $5757.24 $5757.24 $6045.10
cost
Utility cost $4051.39 $4051.39 $4253.96
Direct labour $69,939.77 $69,939.77 $73,436.76
cost
Material cost $15,580.77 $80,570.93 $80,399.48
Total Cost $160,577.85 $225,568.01 $232,646.41
Applications and Drawbacks of Bamboo Fiber Composites 269

14 Conclusion and Drawbacks

This investigation adopted a technique for the fabrication of wind turbine using novel
polymer nanocomposite materials. The following conclusions have been derived. The
2D airfoil was transferred into 3D structural-aerodynamic wind turbine blade and
established in the particle swarm optimization method. The aerodynamic properties
of every airfoil production depicted by RFoil software. The structural performance
and aerodynamic loads of different sections of the blade are created and determined
from CLC and BEM models. This technique is successful in incrementing in annual
energy from 2.5 to 9.61% as compared in recent literature by considering a change in
airfoils profile, twist and chord distribution along the span of the wind turbine blade.
The higher stiffness values tend to lower deflection, and the wind turbine blade’s
total weight decreased from 5 to 34% by reducing chord length and mass per unit
length. From the techno-economic model, the BNF epoxy, and BNF/Al-SiC epoxy
nanocomposites can decrease the total cost of the blade by 5.1% when compared with
the conventional one. Thus, the utilization of bamboo fibers epoxy nanocomposites
in the wind turbine blade is shown higher aero-structural characteristics and the most
cost-efficient solution.
From the wide applications of bamboo fiber-reinforced composites in construc-
tion, sports, automotive, aerospace, railway industries, and other miscellaneous prod-
ucts, these materials provide significant problems in full-scale usage and their devel-
opment. Various major problems are poor moisture resistance, lower mechanical
characteristics, lower fire resistance, varies with the type of fiber and its processing
methods. Another important issue is associated with the advancement of bamboo
fiber-reinforced composites is adhesion between matrix and fiber, which has the
highest effect on delamination. The machining of these types of bamboo compos-
ites, also challenging due to delamination and fiber pullouts, are the general issues
examined by investigators during the machining applications [19].

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Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced
Concrete Composites and Their
Applications in Modern Infrastructure

Kazi Faiza Amin, Asrafuzzaman, Ahmed Sharif, and Md Enamul Hoque

Abstract Bamboo is a renewable, eco-friendly, green material that grows perenni-

ally all over the world. Being a material of low cost, lightweight, and high strength to
weight ratio compared to steel, bamboo caught great attention of the researchers to
use it as a sustainable reinforcement in concrete. The use of bamboo in construction
had started in ancient times. However, the practice of using bamboo as a reinforce-
ment in concrete is still at its nascent age. This chapter addresses the assessment of
bamboo reinforced concrete composite in infrastructural performance as a substitute
for steel-reinforced concrete. Bamboo/bamboo fiber reinforced concrete beams and
slabs have shown promising results to be used as the infrastructural components.
It is evident from the studies that the bamboo has superior mechanical properties.
However, still some issues need to be resolved such as durability, interface bonding
in concrete, and stiffness. Further in-depth research work is required to establish the
usability of bamboo as reinforcement in concrete infrastructure.

Keywords Bamboo fiber · Green material · Eco-friendly · Concrete · Modern

infrastructure

K. F. Amin · A. Sharif
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology (BUET), Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Sharif
e-mail: [email protected]
Asrafuzzaman
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and
Technology (RUET), Rajshahi 6204, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]
Md Enamul Hoque (B)
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST),
Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 271

M. Jawaid et al. (eds.), Bamboo Fiber Composites, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8489-3_15
272 K. F. Amin et al.

1 Introduction

Socio-economic and environmental awareness strongly encourages the proper use

of natural resources [1]. Among the natural resources, bamboo is considered to
be one of the fastest-growing plants on the earth. Bamboo fiber is sourced from
its stem and it has an annual worldwide production of 10,000,000 tons [2]. Thus
it has caught special attention owing to its reusability, mechanical characteristics,
sustainability as well as its utilization as reinforcement in composite materials [3].
As a construction material bamboo has been used for centuries in certain areas of
the world but its use as a reinforcement in concrete had received little consideration
[4]. In 1964, a feasibility test of using bamboo as the reinforcing material in concrete
elements that were precast was done out at the U. S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station [5]. Recently, bamboo has been considered for reinforcement
in soil–cement pavement slabs [6]. Owing to its’ availability in subtropical and
tropical regions, this replacement is generally cost-effective as bamboo is much
cheaper than steel reinforcements [7]. Besides, due to its superior properties such
as low weight to strength ratio, high tensile strength, hollow cylindrical shape, high
Maxwell’s strength, less expenditure, easy availability, and environment affability
during service, bamboo is persistently becoming appealing to scientists and engineers
for its use as reinforcement in concrete in construction industries [8]. Nevertheless,
it is imperative to note the restrictions of bamboo reinforcement; specifically, its
low elastic modulus and high water absorption rate are limiting factors in many
reinforcements uses.

2 History of Bamboo Reinforced Concretes

The utilization of natural fiber as reinforcement has gained prominence since the
1990s [9]. However, the implementation of bamboo as a reinforcement in concrete
is not a new idea. Hou-Kun Chow was the first to test the raw bamboo with a small
diameter as reinforcing materials in concrete at MIT in 1914 [10]. Afterward, in 1935,
the researchers from Stuttgart examined the possible utilization of raw bamboo in
concrete. Unfortunately, they were unsuccessful in using full-scale owing to the de-
bonding of bamboo from the matrix of concrete because of water absorption that led to
swelling [11]. In another instance, Clemson university carried out extensive research
in 1950 by employing bamboo culms of small diameter as concrete reinforcement
[11]. However, most of the bamboo reinforced concrete structures collapsed soon
after the construction owing to swelling and shrinkage of the raw bamboo and deteri-
oration over time because of the fungal and pest attacks [10]. More recently, the work
on bamboo reinforcement in concrete was performed in Brazil between 1995 and
2005 [12–14]. To determine the most suitable species to be used as reinforcement in
lightweight concrete beams, seven species of bamboo were studied. The outcome of
this research evidenced that significant load-bearing capacities were obtained by the
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 273

concrete beams with bamboo compared to non-reinforced beams. Moreover, strength

parallel to steel-reinforced concrete was also observed [10].
Early studies indicated the use of bamboo bars or bamboo splints as reinforce-
ment in concrete [7]. From the test results of these studies Glenn [15] expressed a
set of deductions along with construction codes using splints and bamboo canes as
reinforcing material in concrete. Glenn emphasized problems concerning bamboo
reinforcement such as (a) low ductility, premature brittle failure, and high deflection;
(b) lower ultimate load capacity in comparison to structures that are reinforced with
steel; (c) problems associated with bonding such as swelling and extreme cracking of
bamboo; and, (d) the requirement for using asphalt emulsions. Glenn recommended
the usage of bamboo reinforcement up to 4% in a concrete beam considered the
tensile stress of bamboo is between 34 and 41 MPa and allowable stress values for
concrete beams are between 55 and 69 MPa. Another study promulgated a permis-
sible stress methodology for producing bamboo reinforced concrete similar to the
existing method for steel-reinforced concrete [4]. Geymayer and Cox acknowledged
the exceptional and restricted adhesion behavior of bamboo and recommended that
the bond strength of the reinforcing bar should be 44 N/mm. A significant number of
research articles based on bamboo reinforced flexural specimens ratify the rudi-
mentary standard of the design approach suggested by Geymayer and Cox [4].
Albeit specific analysis of bond was not included in these experiments, they endorsed
coating of bituminous paint with sand to be used as a topcoat for the treatment of
bamboo splint reinforcement [16]. In separate studies, Ghavami and Maity concluded
the importance of providing minimal bamboo reinforcement and suitable surface
treatment for bonding improvement [13, 17]. Furthermore, Ghavami observed that
compared to unreinforced concrete beams, the ultimate capacity of beams reinforced
with splint bamboo (3% addition) increased four-fold [13]. However, no character-
istic dissimilarity concerning bamboo or steel-reinforced beams performance was
apparent in those investigational studies [7]. The findings of research on the use of
bamboo from the last century until today imply that green bamboo is a possible
replacement for steel in reinforced concrete structures [10]. However, problems
such as durability issues, swelling due to absorption of water, concrete and bamboo
possessing dissimilar coefficient of thermal expansion, green bamboo being easily
affected by the alkaline nature of concrete, along with the inadequate adhesion in
between concrete matrix and green bamboo are still major concerns that require
further study and research [10].

3 Comparison Between Bamboo-Reinforced

and Steel-Reinforced Concretes

The most common reinforcement used in concrete is steel which is very different
in contrast to bamboo reinforced concrete. Major dissimilarities amid traditional
reinforcing steel and bamboo are mentioned below:
274 K. F. Amin et al.

1. Steel and bamboo are completely different materials based on their ductility
and brittleness. Steel is considered ductile whereas bamboo is elastic brittle in
nature. As a result, allowable stress is limited to the bamboo-based margin of
safety design [7].
2. Compared to steel, bamboo has a 10% less longitudinal tensile modulus and
strength [18]. Due to the low modulus, serviceability concerns such as deflections
and crack control are quite important and naturally administer design even though
the permissible strength is very low [7].
3. Anisotropy is one of the major characteristics of bamboo that leads to intricate
interactions with contiguous concrete. For example, (a) the thermal expansion
coefficient of bamboo varies in comparison to that of steel and concrete, which
have an effect on the consistency with the surrounding concrete and have a major
influence on the composite bond behavior. (b) Dimensional instability and conse-
quent requirement of specific treatment to prevent moisture transmission make
bamboo dissimilar to steel. Non-uniform dimensional stability (transversely and
longitudinally) leads to the anisotropic property [7].
4. Though corrosion does not affect bamboo, exposure to (a) inconsistent
hygrothermal surroundings; and (b) an alkali rich atmosphere increases vulner-
ability to deterioration. In an embedded concrete climate both the mentioned
conditions are prevalent [7].
5. Due to vulnerability to termites and fungal attacks, bamboo quickly degrades
when subjected to a high level of humidity which does not happen in the case of
steel [7].

4 Surface Treatment and Bonding Issues

in Bamboo-Reinforced Concretes

Pretreatment of natural fibers can play a major role in increasing bonding strength
[19]. Bamboo, being a natural fiber also needs surface treatments to ensure proper
bonding that is required for adequate stress transfer between reinforcement and
concrete. This guarantees that the reinforcing bars do not slip comparative to the
underlying concrete mandatory for their performance as a composite. The bond
formation process defines the anchoring of the reinforcing bars and controls the
crack pattern and stiffness. Numerous problems occur due to a lack of adequate
anchoring ability, in general on beam-column joints, cantilever brace, lap splices in
conventional construction architecture [20]. Commonly, pull out tests are required
to measure the bond strength between concrete and reinforcing material. However,
specific pull out test methods for bamboo are unavailable [20]. As a result, successful
measurement of bond strength is limited. Besides, many problems such as contrac-
tion/shrinkage, absorption of water, variety of species, etc., have an impact on the
effectiveness of bamboo in cement composites. Through micro cracks in concrete,
moisture is absorbed by green bamboo from the concrete and the adjacent atmo-
sphere. This results in bamboo swelling, which causes local internal tension and
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 275

degrades the underlying concrete [20]. Also, moisture reduction causes bamboo
shrinkage contributing to the formation of cavities. Owing to this constant process of
shrinking and bulging (swelling) of bamboo, the appropriate bond between concrete
and bamboo cannot be formed which imposes a significant constraint on its use
as reinforcement instead of steel [13]. Chemical treatment is therefore required to
make the bamboo surface impervious and to augment the bond strength proposed
by various researchers for the construction of different structural components. A
summary of them is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Summary of
Investigations by researchers Treatment processes
bamboo surface treatment to
(chronologically)
enhance reinforcement with
concrete [20] Glenn [15] Emulsion of asphalt
Kankam et al. [16] Bitumen
Ghavami [13] Negrolin (asphalt-water
based paint)
Negrolin mixed sand
Negrolin mixed sand and wire
Sikadur 32 Gel (epoxy
adhesive)
Terai and Minami [21] Synthetic resin
Synthetic rubber
Sakaray et al. [22] Water-resistant coating
Javadian et al. [23] Epoxy coating (water-based)
Epoxy coating (water-based)
mixed with fine sand
Epoxy coating (water-based)
mixed with coarse sand
Exaphen (aromatic
intermediate of polyol used
as adhesive)
Exaphen mixed with coarse
sand
Enamel
Nindyawati and Umniati [24] Water-resistant paint
interspersed with sand
Dey and Chetia [25] Epoxy coated bamboo (sand
rolled)
Epoxy coated bamboo (coir
rolled)
Copper chrome boron
Mali and Datta [26] Bondtite (epoxy) chemical
adhesive with sandblasting
process
276 K. F. Amin et al.

5 Recent Studies on Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced

Concrete Structures

Natural fibers have emerged as a popular choice for reinforcement in composite mate-
rials [27]. Numerous research studies are done to identify the potential of bamboo
reinforcement in concrete to be used in structural components. Some of the impor-
tant studies and their findings are summarized here. In this context, Chow studied
bamboo splints (small diameter) as of reinforcement for concrete beam installa-
tions that yielded promising performance [28]. The bamboo used as a reinforcement
in the life-sized building was studied by Glenn [15]. However, he noted that, in
theory, the findings were feasible but, due to numerous bamboo-related drawbacks,
the building fell down within a couple of days. Mansur and Aziz [29] carried out
several experiments using a woven mesh consisting of bamboo splints on cement
composites. Their research work showed that mesh shaped bamboo improved the
ductility and toughness of the mortar and also enhanced its bending, impact, and
tensile strength. In another study, the effect of using bamboo reinforcement on a
two-way concrete slab was performed. Higher tensile strength was documented for
seasoned bamboo relative to unseasoned bamboo. They recommended using less
than 4% bamboo reinforcing for concrete constructions. They proposed that addi-
tional research should be undertaken to determine the lasting properties of bamboo
[22]. A study by Janssen [30] demonstrated the drawbacks of the use of bamboo
in a structure made of concrete. The detected drawbacks were adhesion strength, a
sleek wall of the culm, and absorption of water in the bamboo. Among all the draw-
backs, inadequate bonding was found to be the main concern. Terai and Minami [31]
have researched the usage of bamboo as support in pillars and beams. They found
that the bamboo reinforced beam had an identical cracking configuration to that of
conventional reinforced beams. Maity [17] compared the non-reinforced columns
and beams with bamboo reinforced counterparts. It has been established that 8%
of bamboo reinforced columns provide identical strength and performance as the
conventional RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) columns. Puri et al. [32] built a
mesh shaped bamboo reinforced wall panel. They noted that the flexibility of the
walls increased owing to the bamboo mesh addition. Furthermore, the wall produc-
tion cost can be substantially reduced by up to 40% and the dead load can be decreased
by up to 56% relative to traditional brick walls, they concluded. The experimental
assessment of the concrete slab panel reinforced with bamboo was studied by Mali
and Datta [26]. It was reported that the load-bearing and deformation capability of
the newly enhanced bamboo slab panel increased compared to the standard PCC
(Portland Cement Concrete) and RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) slabs. More-
over, the flexural efficiency has shown noteworthy development. The descriptions of
various bamboo reinforced concrete structures are given below.
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 277

5.1 Bamboo Strip Reinforced Concrete Beams

It has already been established that as an alternative to steel, bamboo due to its’
low-cost, can be utilized as a reinforcement in concrete for building construction.
Budi et al. [33] studied the flexural properties of V-notched bamboo strip reinforced
concrete beams (Figs. 1 and 2). They used a specific bamboo for this purpose known
as Ori bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea). The result of the flexural test revealed
several important findings. Both the V-notched bamboo reinforced beams and steel-
reinforced beams exhibited flexural tension failure that was evidenced from the
vertical cracks originating from the tensile regions of the concrete beam specimens.
None of the beam specimens showed shear failure, however.

Fig. 1 V-notched bamboo strips bars [33]

Fig. 2 A model of notched bamboo strips in the concrete beam [33]

278 K. F. Amin et al.

This study further observed that the analytical moment is lower than the exper-
imental flexural moment. Ultimately, the shortening of the notch distances of the
bamboo strip in the tensile region improved both the analytical and experimental
moments (Fig. 3). They summarized that the ultimate moment of resistance improved
owing to the increased quantity of notches. This increase in the number of notches
also enhanced the beam’s failure loads. They concluded that the utilization of bamboo
strip notches as stress reinforcements can escalate the flexural capability of concrete
beams.
In another study, Budi and Rahmadi [34] used Wulung bamboo as reinforcement
in concrete to examine the flexural properties. In this case, too, the efficiency of
the notched bamboo strip reinforced concrete beam was improved in comparison to
the bamboo reinforcement without the notch. Bamboo strips with different types of
patterns such as plain strip, wired strip, and corrugated strip (Figs. 4 and 5) were
used as reinforcement in concrete to study the flexural properties and compared
with the conventional steel-reinforced concrete by Qaiser et al. [35]. The goal of

Fig. 3 A comparison chart

of experimental flexural
moment and analytical
moment ultimate [33]

Fig. 4 Semi-circular corrugated bamboo strips [35]

Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 279

Fig. 5 Wire-wrapped bamboo strips [35]

their investigation was to establish various kinds of bamboo reinforcement strip

mechanics as well as to find out how the action of bamboo in strengthened beams
are influenced by the mentioned patterns under the circumstances of pure bending.
In this experiment, strips (specimens) of 3 types were arranged. The first type
included an unaltered bamboo strip specimen. Half-circular corrugated strip of
bamboo of 25 mm, 10 mm and 5 mm pitch, width, and depth respectively, formed
the second category specimen and the final category of the specimen (bamboo strips)
comprised of thick tie wire (2 mm) enclosed bamboo strip having a pitch of 25 mm
pitch and allowance of 10 mm. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the samples.
The pullout test result is summarized in Table 2 that specifically indicates that
the bond strength of the simple strips was weaker than that of the treated bamboo
samples. Wired bamboo provided slightly more slip resistance relative to plain strips,
but displayed comparatively lower values than the strips that are corrugated. This
analysis indicated that semi-circularly corrugated strips had the highest slip resistance
of all types of samples.
The load–deflection curves for different notched bamboo reinforced samples are
demonstrated in Fig. 6. The slip resistance for wired samples demonstrated that the
wire was attached to the concrete covering the strip and provided a large amount
of slip resistance that was as high as 17% relative to the simple bamboo strips. On
the contrary, corrugated strips display a bond strength increase of as much as 80

Table 2 Pullout strength test observations [35]

Description Specimen No. Failure force (N) Bond stress (MPa) Mode of failure
Crude bamboo 1 2950 0.160 Slippage
(plain) 2 2930 0.159
3 2925 0.153
Corrugated 1 5404 0.293 Breakage
bamboo 2 5300 0.287
3 5123 0.278
Wired bamboo 1 3429 0.185 Slippage
2 3515 0.190
3 3323 0.180
280 K. F. Amin et al.

Fig. 6 Load–deflection profiles for several concrete beams [35]

percent relative to plain strips. This may be attributed to the fact that concrete filled
the indentations and reinforced the bonding.
Further comparison of their final loading capacity showed that the wired bamboo
reinforced specimen indicated an 11% increase and the corrugated reinforced bamboo
specimen exhibited around 80% increase as compared to the plain bamboo reinforced
beam [35]. Based on their research they concluded that bamboo can theoretically be
used as a steel substitute where it comes to impermanent or low-grade infrastructure in
underdeveloped areas where the supply of steel is minimal and where it is very costly
to construct buildings with steel reinforcement. However, further research work is
essential for a conclusive decision on the utilization of bamboo as an infrastructural
material.

5.2 Concrete Beam Reinforced with Bamboo Fiber

For steel-reinforced concrete, once the strain (tensile) exceeds the extreme level, a
state of tension develops in that region and it cracks. As a result, the vapor of water and
destructive ingredients move in and thus, the reinforcement corrodes which in turn,
impairs the concrete. Dewi et al. [36] studied the addition of Ori bamboo fiber in the
tension region. The fibers were paint coated and sand-covered to avert hygroscopic
characteristics and to increase fiber weight to stop it from floating when embedded
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 281

Fig. 7 Bamboo fiber embedded in concrete [36]

in the concrete mixture (Fig. 7). The result showed that the bamboo fibers minimized
the concrete crack length and improved the post-cracking load efficiency of the beam.
In this experiment, they varied the amounts of bamboo fiber contents to
40 g/volume and 150 g/volume. The Load–deflection curves of the specimens were
compared and showed a noteworthy result (Fig. 8).
The figure showed that the crack load increased owing to the addition of fiber.
Compared to concrete (without fiber) and specimen with 150 g fiber content, the spec-
imen with 40 g fiber content displayed a higher load-carrying ability. They established
that the increase in fiber content beyond a certain amount reduces the load efficiency
of the beam significantly. The beam deflection and crack widths are summarized in
Table 3. Bamboo fiber addition reduced the crack width of the reinforced concrete
beams, in turn, reducing crack growth and propagation. Moreover, it also increased
the post-crack load-carrying capacity. However, increasing fiber content to a certain
amount (150 g) could cause a reduction of workability and quality of concrete.

Fig. 8 The illustration of

load–deflection profiles with
alteration of fiber amount
[36]
282 K. F. Amin et al.

Table 3 Comparison of
Amount of fibers Width of crack Average deflection
crack behavior of bamboo
(average) (mm) (mm)
reinforced concrete with
normal concrete [36] 40 g 4.67 15
150 g 5.33 18
Without fiber 11 20

5.3 Bamboo Reinforced Concrete Masonry Shear Walls

The utilization of Tonkin cane bamboo as reinforcement in the concrete masonry

wall was studied by Moroz et al. [37]. Figure 9 indicates such an illustration.
They compared this bamboo reinforcement with the conventional steel reinforce-
ment and observed the possibility of utilizing bamboo as a replacement to steel
as reinforcement in buildings in areas where bamboo is more cost-effective than
steel. They reported that the bamboo reinforcement in shear walls of concrete blocks
resulted in improved shear efficiency and ductility relative to unreinforced masonry.
The introduction of vertical bamboo reinforcement even without horizontal counter-
parts delivered increased shearing capability. At the same time, parallel to unrein-
forced masonry, it also provided ductile failure. However, they specifically mentioned
that steps must be taken to avoid the accumulation of bamboo moisture in the cement
matrix.
As expected, the ultimate strength of two of the walls was decreased due to
swelling. They expressed that bamboo reinforcement having cracks in the longitu-
dinal direction has to be fully water-resistance such that moisture penetration through
cracks is hindered to stop swelling. So, they suggested that splints must be cut from

Fig. 9 Typical bamboo bond in-wall specimens [37]

Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 283

bamboo in such a way to exclude cracks in the longitudinal direction to avoid this
complication. However, they could not provide any long term properties of masonry
walls that are reinforced with bamboo.
In another study, the energy and thermal performances of an innovative lightweight
bamboo-steel wall structure were investigated by Li et al. [38]. In their study, a
prototype housing was built utilizing a steel bamboo-composite wall that was fabri-
cated before and a simulated experiment was undertaken to find out its performance
enhancement in comparison to widely used brick wall structures in cold and hot
season in China. The reinforced steel-bamboo wall consisted of multiple layers
comprising of expanded polystyrene, cement mortar, carbon steel, bamboo plywood,
and wool as demonstrated in Fig. 10. The bamboo layer depth, the void within the
framework, and the carbon steel were cautiously designated to develop the struc-
tural firmness such as improved load-bearing capacity, rigidity, and ductility. The
mineral wool was utilized as insulation material as it has better thermal and flame-
resistant characteristics plus it is ideal for cavity filling [39, 40]. The steel-bamboo
wall with high thermal output as well as increased U values (Thermal Transmit-
tance) was observed with the help of simulation analysis suggesting a lesser heating
requirement in the winter.
Also, it had shown high tolerance to outdoor temperature variations that led to
lower indoor temperatures throughout the summer night and thus decreases the need
for cooling energy. However, according to the sensitivity analysis, the effect of the
choice of insulation materials on energy savings is important. Therefore, materials
with low thermal conductivity were recommended to attain a high energy perfor-
mance. They recommended further investigation to assess the energy and thermal
efficiency of this steel-bamboo construction framework in various environments and
at varying rates of natural ventilation (air infiltration).

Fig. 10 Cross-sectional view of a wall structure composed of steel-bamboo composite [38]

284 K. F. Amin et al.

5.4 Lightweight Bamboo Reinforced Slabs

Bending/flexural performance of bamboo-steel composite slabs was studied by Li

et al. [41]. Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) of thickness 10–25 mm was
used. This type of slabs is used in a concrete framework and ground flooring in
China. The composite slabs consisted of cold-rolled thin-walled steel channels and
Moso bamboo (Fig. 11). The composite slabs were manufactured using three types of
connections: adhesive joint connection, self-tapped screw connection, and stability
enhanced joint with bamboo laths bonded on both sides of cold-rolled steel channels.
They studied the prospective use of bamboo-steel reinforced slabs to be utilized
as slab flooring. They noted that the steel channel buckled and caused the failure
of the adhesive-bonded slab but the slab reinforced by self-tapped screws indicated
greater bearing capability. Moreover, the composite slabs connected by self-tapped
screws and bamboo laths showed improved bearing capacity, rigidity, and strength.

Fig. 11 Schematics of bamboo–steel composite slabs. a Adhesive joint connection, b self-tapped

screw connection, and c bamboo laths bonded on both sides of cold-rolled thin-walled steel [41]
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 285

Fig. 12 Load–deflection
profiles of RCS, BSC, and
BSB slab specimens [42, 43]

The outstanding mechanical characteristics of this type of slabs conformed with the
basic specifications of the floor slabs. They concluded that this type of composite
slabs were preferable to wood or concrete slabs in low rise buildings.
Wibowo et al. [42, 43] examined the structural performance of lightweight bamboo
reinforced concrete slabs with Styrofoam infill panels also known as EPS (expanded
polystyrene) to be used in architecture and building construction. The slab samples
consisted of three kinds of bamboo reinforced concretes such as BSC (with EPS
infill panel and concrete stud), BSB (with EPS infill panel and bamboo stud), and
RCS (regular RC slab). The load–deflection curve of the three specimens delivered
a promising result as presented in Fig. 12. The load capacity of the RCS sample was
23.2 kN, whereas the samples with EPS infill panel e.g. BSC and BSB showed 21.6
kN, and 22 kN, in that order. As a result, bending strength reduced by 6% owing
to the addition of EPS infill but compared to regular slabs they were around 27%
lighter. They concluded that slab performance was enhanced since the weight was
decreased while the strength dropped by an insignificant amount. However, further
studies were suggested to strengthen the load–deflection mechanism of EPS infilled
panel reinforced bamboo slabs due to reduced ductility complications.
Chithambaram and Kumar [44] studied the bending characteristics of fly-ash
integrated Ferro-cement slab panels reinforced with bamboo. As a substitute for
cement in concrete, fly-ash can be used. To determine the impact of fly-ash on
the bending behavior of Ferro-cement hybrid slabs, 40 mm and 50 mm thick test
panels were considered. They inferred that for both slabs the primary crack loads
and ultimate loads were identical and all the slabs exhibited a significant ductility
prior to the final flexure failure as observed in Figs. 13 and 14. According to their
recommendation, the use of bamboo and fly-ash as substitutes for steel and cement
respectively can be beneficial for roof slab panels. They suggested that sustainable
use of fly-ash and bamboo waste could preserve the environment without hampering
slab panel’s structural integrity.
In another experimental study, polyvinyl waste (PW) as a fractional substitu-
tion of fine aggregates were utilized to investigate the structural behavior of foamed
concrete slab strengthened with bamboo reinforcement [45]. Strength in compres-
sion, growth pattern of crack, load–deflection performance, and the ultimate moment
286 K. F. Amin et al.

Fig. 13 Load–deflection
profile of Ferro-cement slab
(40 mm thickness) without
fly-ash; S in the figure refers
to bamboo reinforced cement
mortar Ferro-cement slab
[44]

Fig. 14 Load–deflection
profile of fly-ash integrated
Ferro-cement slab (40 mm
thickness); SF in the figure
refers to bamboo reinforced
fly-ash cement mortar
Ferro-cement slab [44]

characteristics were analyzed. The polyvinyl waste (PW) addition instead of sand
increased the strength in compression of the foamed aerated concrete samples. PW
showed a densifying effect on the substance matrix. They recommended that densifi-
cation augmented as the percentage of PW increased instead of sand. It was noticed
that there was a significant improvement in compressive strength with an increasing
amount of sand substitution with PW at various time of curing (Fig. 15).
In addition to compressive strength, all the samples with PW as a fractional substi-
tute of sand demonstrated failure by shear bending compared to diagonal shearing
for the slab samples with 0% PW in the mix. Moreover, lower values of deflection
were reported for samples with polyvinyl waste as a fractional substitute of sand.
Higher failure loads were observed for a high proportion of PW (Fig. 16). Based
on their experimental result on the bending moment, they also concluded that an
increased amount of sand replacement with PW caused better flexural efficiency of
the slab samples.
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 287

Fig. 15 Relation of percent

sand replacement with PW
on the compressive strength
on the foamed aerated
concrete [45]

Fig. 16 Load–deflection
profile for slab specimens
[45]

In another research effort, the combination of bamboo culm/strip with self-

compacted concrete slabs (SCC) was studied [46]. The primary objective of this
research was to inspect the impact of longitudinal bamboo reinforcement on the ulti-
mate flexural capabilities of bamboo reinforced self-compacted concrete (BRSCC)
slabs. Self-compacted concrete, a modern type of concrete manufacturing tech-
nology, also provides various economic benefits over traditional standard concrete
(NC). In the case of SCC, there is no necessity for mechanical vibration, because
the key prerequisite inside the construction mixture is to have a concrete matrix of
high fluidity [47, 48]. Since there is no need for mechanical vibrators, the operational
cost of construction projects will be reduced. For the NC test specimen, a blend of
cement: fine aggregates: coarse aggregates in 1:1.5:3 ratio and for the SCC test spec-
imen, a blend of cement: fine aggregates: coarse aggregates in 1:2.7:1.8 were used.
The species of bamboo that was utilized as reinforcement was Bambusa vulgaris.
Bamboo reinforced SCC slabs exhibited decreased post-cracking stiffness than NC
slabs, and they explained that due to the existence of a comparatively lower amount
of coarse aggregate. They observed that for a very small amount of reinforcement
(longitudinally), the deformation capacity of the reinforced bamboo SCC and NC
slabs can be improved. They also mentioned that the failure performance of bamboo
288 K. F. Amin et al.

reinforced SCC slabs was significantly better than those made from the standard
concrete. Lastly they concluded that bamboo combined with SCC mixture can be
applied as reinforcement in concrete slabs to be used in countryside building that
can prove to be a fruitful substitute for attaining and upholding sustainability.
Another investigation by [49] assesses the integration of bamboo fiber (instead
of bamboo culm/splint) in the self-compacting concrete. They have confidently
concluded that to improve concrete load-bearing capability (post-cracking), strength,
and ductility, the bamboo fibers can be used as a novel fiber in SCC. They have added
that incorporating bamboo fibers of 1.0% by weight produces a substantial improve-
ment in long-term compression and split tensile strength in concrete as well as flexural
properties. According to them, the average increase in the strength showed that 1%
of the fiber inclusion is the optimal fiber value for a specific aspect ratio from the
compressive and split tensile strength view.
The strength of bamboo reinforced slabs was also studied by Suppiah et al. [50].
They compared the bamboo reinforced slabs with steel reinforcement and slabs
lacking any reinforcement. According to their test results, they recommended using
the Bamboo Vulgaris family as reinforcement instead of steel in low-cost construc-
tion. They concluded that coal tar creosote-treated bamboo showed increased strength
characteristics and impedes fungus attacks. Furthermore, it produces lesser load
carrying capability and greater deflection than the steel-reinforced panels. In a similar
study, Semantan bamboo (Gigantochloa scortechinii) was used as reinforcement in
the slabs [51]. It was evident from the analysis that a higher percent of reinforcement
was able to account for more loads. The analysis also found that cracking happens
much later than those with a lesser proportion of bamboo reinforcement.
It is already established that usage of bamboo (splint/fiber) as reinforcement in
concrete slab lowers the weight of the concrete composite. To make it more econom-
ical Wibowo et al. [42, 43] used Styrofoam lamina filler with bamboo reinforced
concrete slab to make it more lightweight. They recommended the use of Styrofoam
as a panel filler inside the concrete to lessen the self-weight of the concrete and
to enhance the sustainability of the structural elements. Moreover, Styrofoam is an
environmentally friendly and recyclable material, which is an added advantage. The
flexure strength test was performed on Styrofoam lamination filled bamboo rein-
forced concrete slab. The outcome revealed a 15% reduction in flexural strength but
a 20% reduction in weight relative to standard reinforced concrete slabs of the same
dimension. According to their recommendation, it would give good performance in
real-world infrastructural design as the bending capacity of normal concrete struc-
tures when designed with minimal reinforcing materials are generally much greater
than the prerequisite amount. Nonetheless, they added that such lightweight concrete
structures had unsatisfactory deformation capability and strength as a result, they are
quite prone to earthquake damage. So, they recommended further investigation to
address the issue.
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 289

5.5 Bamboo Panel Incorporated Thermally Insulated Roof

Slab System

One of the biggest problems of traditional reinforced concrete roof slab is the thermal
disquiet in the adjacent area below the roof slab. Utilization of synthetic materials
such as polystyrene which is thermally insulative showed promising results providing
thermal comfort. However, it has a negative environmental impact. Hence it is neces-
sary to find an eco-friendly insulation system for the concrete roof slab. Chandra
et al. [52] in their study tried to develop an innovative roof slab insulation design
that utilizes a layer of bamboo due to its thermally insulative property and assess the
effectiveness of the slab insulation system in tropical climatic conditions. Since it is
already established that the thermal insulation property of bamboo is quite good [53],
they researched the consequence of air trapping by cutting the bamboo (transversely)
and determined the outcome of the number of bamboo layers in the concrete slab
and its thickness. One of the fabricated model using the bamboo insulation system
is shown in Fig. 17.
To analyze thermal performance, 25, 50, and 75 mm insulation thickness was
proposed, and to determine the outcome of the number of layers, they examined two
layers of 37.5 mm bamboo [52]. A visual illustration of the structural arrangement
similar to Nandapala and Halwatura system [54] is shown in Fig. 18.
Their analysis found that 25 mm insulation thickness displayed maximum thermal
efficiency and that ultimate thermal efficiency is not influenced by several layers of
bamboo. Besides, 25 mm insulation thickness showed a substantial amount of heat
drop. They calculated that compared to the slab without insulation (125 mm thick),
the ultimate heat gain decrease owing to the 25 mm insulation thickness was 53%
(the heat flow graph obtained from their experiment is shown in Fig. 19).

Fig. 17 Bamboo insulated

concrete slab system [52]
290 K. F. Amin et al.

Fig. 18 Schematics of the bamboo insulation layer [52]

Fig. 19 Heat flow of

bamboo insulated and
uninsulated scenarios [52]

They recommended that the unique thermally insulated concrete slab with 25 mm
thickness may be utilized efficiently to guarantee interior thermal comfort. Moreover,
due to its potential to endure any stress on the roof, the roof slab with bamboo
insulation design is thought to be structurally strong. Moreover, it is considered as a
thermally insulated eco-friendly solution [52].
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 291

5.6 Bamboo Fiber-Based Composite Reinforced Structural

Concrete Beam

Hebel et al. [55] focused on the concept of fabricating bamboo fibers from its culms
that are appropriate for structural usage as a unique composite material. The notable
feature of this bamboo-based composite reinforcement is that the bamboo fibers
cannot absorb water due to epoxy matrix coating hence reduces swelling problems
while increasing bonding properties with concrete mix and durability. Moreover,
abundant source of bamboo fiber, renewability, biodegradability, and low production
cost compared to traditional synthetic fiber materials are added advantages.
Javadian et al. [10] in their experiment investigated the prospect of using the
advanced bamboo-composite as reinforcement for the beam of concrete. Moreover,
assessment of moisture absorption, bulging, shrinkage, and resistance to chemical
attacks were conducted. The bamboo species selected for this research work was
“Dendrocalamus asper” also recognized as Petung Putih bamboo widely available
in the Java island of Indonesia and used for small housing projects. The epoxy-
based thermosetting polymer was chosen for the matrix phase of the bamboo-based
composite. The epoxy materials were chosen based on a low amount of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), adequate mechanical properties, and source sustain-
ability. A patented technology was followed to produce the bamboo composite
samples that were developed by the authors [56]. For producing the composite
samples, the hand lay-up method was utilized. The epoxy resin-infused bamboo fiber
packs were positioned into the hot-press mold [10]. Figure 20 shows the bamboo
composite sample prepared in their study.
In conjunction with sand particles, a water-based epoxy matrix consisting of
two constituents was used. The waterproof system improved the stress transference
between concrete and bamboo reinforcement by hindering water and moisture from
the interfacial region. Additionally, the introduction of sand aggregates roughened the
reinforcement surface. As a result bond strength augmented by generating mechan-
ical keying with the present concrete matrix [23]. The force–displacement graphs for

Fig. 20 Bamboo composite

concrete beam [10]
292 K. F. Amin et al.

non-reinforced and bamboo reinforced concrete beam are shown in Fig. 21a and b,
respectively. This model assured that the probability of catastrophic collapse is very
low due to cautionary signs of the concrete crushing prior to the ultimate collapse
when the rupture of the bamboo-composite reinforcement occurs [10]. The analysis
also revealed that the non-reinforced beams went through failure prior to reinforced
concrete beams at lesser ultimate failure loads.
The average water absorption characteristics of the composite sample reinforced
with bamboo are displayed in Fig. 22. Water absorption has reached a maximum
of 0.5%. The poor water absorption rate illustrates the greater hindrance of the
composite bamboo specimens to moisture and water penetration, even under intense

Fig. 21 Force–displacement graphs for a non-reinforced and b bamboo-composite reinforced

concrete beam [10]

Fig. 22 Water uptake versus time graph for bamboo-composite reinforcement [10]
Bamboo/Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Composites … 293

Fig. 23 Relation of elastic modulus and tensile strength with tensile capacity retention [10]

environment. They concluded that the surface of all reinforcements was applied with
water-resistant coatings that reduced moisture influx and absorption of water. Two
major functions of water-resistant coatings are (i) increasing the adhesion strength
of the reinforcement and (ii) preventing the water from permeating into the bamboo-
composite reinforcement while in concrete [10].
Moreover, the alkali resistance test of bamboo composite in concrete was carried
out to evaluate tensile capacity retention of the concrete [10]. The tensile capacity
retention (Ret ) for the modulus of elasticity as well as the tensile strength of the spec-
imen is displayed in Fig. 23. A similar trend in the reduction of both tensile properties
was observed. However, owing to alkaline solution exposure, the elastic modulus was
influenced more than the tensile strength. Eventually, the tensile properties reached
a stable condition after one-month exposure to the alkaline solution.
Based on this investigation, Javadian et al. [10] recommended that for affordable
low-story buildings, bamboo-based composite reinforced concrete could be used.
Because the ductility requirement is low for the low-rise buildings and secondary-
element failure of those composites delivers adequate cautionary signs of breakdown.
In another study, bamboo fiber vinyl-ester composite plate (BFVCP) was used for
the strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) beams [57]. The outcomes exhibited
that the highest tensile strength of the specimen was obtained using the fiber volume
fraction of 40%. However, the drawback of this study is due to the short bamboo fiber
length which causes insufficient anchorage length bonded along the tension zone of
the beam. Consequently, limited improvement in the beam structural capacity was
achieved. They recommended that BFVCP may be used for the external strengthening
of a weakened beam.
294 K. F. Amin et al.

6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Reinforced concrete is being used as building materials from the time immemo-
rial. The most prominent reinforcement for concrete for infrastructure construc-
tion is steel. However, limited availability of steel in developing and underdevel-
oped countries, increasing cost and energy associated with steel production, and
last but not least, its sensitivity to corrosion raised the concern for finding alterna-
tive natural materials for concrete structure reinforcement. Evidently, the utiliza-
tion of bamboo/bamboo fiber as reinforcement boosts the infrastructural perfor-
mance. Bamboo reinforced concrete beams and slabs used in masonry walls,
roofing, pavement, etc. are showing promising outcomes due to their durability,
reduced weight, and environmental friendliness. However, more significant research
works are required to assert the potential of bamboo as a reinforcing material for
construction infrastructures.

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