CHAPTER 2.

PLAY
INTRODUCTION

2.1 PLAY
Play is a socio-dramatic interaction among children that is marked by reciprocal function, imaginative
use of language, symbolic representation, free choice and episodes sustained over time (Rand, 2021).
According to Frobel (1887) play is the highest expression of human development in childhood for it
alone is the free expression of what is in child’s soul. Children have an intimate ability to be curious and
to investigate and to play to find out things out.

Naturally play is away of children collaborating together to find out things that they might not be in
knowledge of. Sigmund Freud 1961 has supported that children repeat everything that has made great
impression on them in real life and in so doing they create the strength of the impression and make
themselves Master of the situation. Play is child’s Monte-soon 1967, p180. Define play-based learning.

2.2 ACQUISITION OF NUMERACY SKILLS.

Through a child’s journey to develop and acquire numeracy skills, a complex progressive journey which
goes far beyond memorization. Of mathematical facts, it is actually true to say that acquiring numeracy
skills is a multifaceted development stage. Therefore, numeracy is the knowledge, skills, behaviors and
dispositions that students need in a wide range of situations. It involves recognizing and understanding
the role of mathematics in the world.

Having the dispositions and capacities for use of mathematical knowledge and skills purposefully or
rather in their clarity life the mathematical ideas with which young children interact must be meaningful
in the context of their current lives. Children start learning numeracy skills from the time they are born,
to the time when they are in the early stages/levels of education. These skills involves understanding
numbers, counting, solving, noticing patterns, adding and subtracting numbers and so on. (Douglas
&Julie Sarama, 2023) educators and parents play an important role in the process of numeracy skills
acquisition. Early mathematical learning can and should be integrated in children’s everyday activities
through encounters with patterns, quality and space. Giving children ample and developmentally
appropriate opportunities to practice their skills in mathematics, can strengthen the link between
children’s early abilities’ in mathematics and in acquisition of mathematical knowledge in schools.
(Arthur J. 2024).

The foundational concept of acquisition of numeracy skills includes; number sense which is the bedrock
of numeracy which involve the abilities to recognize identify, compare them and understand how the
relate to each other;

Counting- which involves understanding the sequence of numbers and the one on one correspondence
between numbers objects.
Understanding operation s which add up to the grasping meaning of basics arithmetic operations which
includes: (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) understanding the relationship between
them.

; Arithmetic which introduces basic concepts of addition & subtraction through concreate expressions-
manipulatives can be used.

; Spatial reasoning- builds a foundation for understanding geometric concepts. Special reasoning can be
developed by understanding special relationships that is in, out, under and over.

; Pattern recognition- identifying and creating patterns with objects sounds and movements. This helps
children develop logical thinking and problem solving skills.

2.3 TYPES OF PLAY

2.3.1 STRUCTURED PLAY

Structured play is a type of play that is well organized and guided a times by adults or educators,
rottenly characterized by the tendency to have

- Specific rules
- Clear goals or objectives
- Follows direction from adults.

Structured play will greatly help learners to:

- Develop discipline and focus by the tendency that there are rules to be followed this will help
children to learn to concentrate and stay on task
- Develop their skills. Structured play are known by the tendency of targeting specific skills, an
example is problem-solving skills, critical thinking and motor skills.
- Build their social skills. Many of these plays- structured plays involves teamwork-learners
grouped together to work on a play and cooperation amongst the team members featuring and
fostering social development.
- Develop cognitive ability. Cognitive skills or ability are the capabilities of being able to think,
learn and understand. As well as interacting with the world around us. Activities in plays like
puzzles and the board games enhances cognitive abilities because these games enhance
problem solving, spatial reasoning memory concentration and visual perception. Board plays
enhances strategic thinking, critical thinking memory attention & focus, decision making and
social skills.
- Build their confidence. Well the structured plays have goals by achieving these goals learners are
able to boost and or maintain their self-esteem.

2.3.2 UNSTRUCTURED PLAY

Unlike structured play, unstructured play are usually learners directed plays. These types of play are
usually spontaneous which means they usually arise from the pupils own interest and imagination. In
this type of games adults do not impose rules and goals for the games but rather the learners do.
Unstructured plays are also open-ended which is the tendency for not to have a specific desired
outcome. Pupils create as they explore on their freewill. This games are usually led by the children. The
children have the freedom to decide the activities and the duration of the game selecting what activities
would fit well. These games are free from adult’s direction.

The leaners might choose to build forts with bags and clothes, they can play imaginative roles like
superheroes, and they can draw and paint exploring nature without the monotony of direction. The
structured play usually helps learners to:

- Boost the creativity and imagination.

- Develop problem solving skills.
- Enhance social and emotional skills
- Promote physical development
- Foster independence and self-confidence and reliance.

2.3.3 MANIPULATIVE PLAY

This game focus on children using fingers and hands during play to interact with objects that can be
manipulated.

Characteristics of manipulative play

1. Focuses on children interacting with objects, exploring and discovering how the objects
work.
2. These plays of manipulative objects boosts dexterity, hand eye coordination and the small
muscle movement in the hands and fingers.

2.3.4 DRAMATIC PLAY

Same as the word drama, dramatic games are plays related to kids based on how they can pretend.
Their pretext is based on a market or money counting activities including the measuring of items and
determine quantities using the available measuring items. This naturally incorporates mathematical
concepts like counting, patenting and basic operations into their pretend play scenarios, this eventually
making learning interesting and engaging by incorporating this real-life experience situations like for
example pretending to be an attendant in store or preparing a meal. All these activities involve counting,
measuring and estimating which involves the understanding of numbers and their applications as well as
volume.

DRAMATIC PLAY AND NUMERACY SKILLS.

- Dramatic play gives learners a touch of the real life context. They practice numeracy skills in a
familiar setting.
- This type of play boost the ability of active engagement as opposed to traditional worksheet
dramatic encourages active participation and problem solving as young children naturally
incorporate math concepts into their play.
- Boost social interaction through collaboration play allows learners to discuss negotiate
quantities which further enhances the grasp of numbers and mathematical operations
 EXAMPLES OF DRAMATIC PLAY
- Pretend store
- Restaurant play
- Building with blocks
- Baking play

Teachers can facilitate numeracy learning by providing the relevant props, asking open ended questions,
modeling mathematical language and the use of appropriate numeracy vocabularies to boost learners
understanding.

2.4 PLAY-BASED LEARNING

Play based learning is an educational approach which incorporates play as central component of the
learning process. It recognizes the idea that learners understand s well by actively engaging and
exploring meaningful and enjoyable contest. While children play they engage in imaginations taking risks
and learning how to solve problems which always support child development.

- Vygotsky, considered play as acritical social tool. He argued that play helps learning, posting
more stress on pretext play where learners practice new roles and develop higher cognitive
skills within their areas of proximal development through interactions with others.
- According to Piaget, identifies different stages of play based on cognitive development with
early play focused on sensory exploration and later stages involving more couples. Symbolic
representation and rule-based games.
- Froebel, defines play as the highest expression of child development, where young leaners learn
through self-directed exploration and creative expression. He believed that play was absolutely
vital in the learning process.
- (UNICEF 2010) free lay is when children have full freedom to play with whatever they want.
They bear the freedom to choose everything and select their play materials, interest area and
even the plot.
- Zaman says that free play is important for learning problem solving skills “they can try to solve a
problem or come up with a solution on their own while playing. They need to express their own
way of thinking while playing.”

2.4 LEARNING AREAS

On the other hand guided play refers to learning experiences that combines the Childs directed nature
of free play with a focus on learning outcomes and adult mentorship. (Weisberg et al, 2016) children
thrive when they engage in free play, which involve active engagement and is fun, voluntary and
flexible. (Burghardt) emphasizes that guided play leaves the focus of control with the child, allowing for
self-directed exploring while enhancing learning enjoyment.

Play-based learning significantly impacts various learning areas. Those impacts includes:

I.) Cognitive development

-pupils will always actively strategizing and finding solutions during play enhancing their problem solving
abilities. Play encourages children got analyze situations, make decisions and consider different
perspectives boosting critical thinking and creativity through imaginative play.
II.) Social emotional
Turn taking listening skills and expressing their needs improves communication among children.
Collaborative play experiences teach. Pupils to work together towards common goals, developing
cooperation and teamwork skills. And also play boost empathy and perspective thinking which is
acquired when learners understand their role well in play.

III.) Language development

Vocabulary acquisition, grammar, and syntax and storytelling can all be acquired through play based
learning. Play provides opportunity to use new words of concept in a natural context enhancing
vocabulary development; while engaging in conversations during play the pupils practice proper
grammar and sentence structure. Language development is also promoted through imaginative play
encouraging pupils to narrate stories which improve their language properties and skills.

IV.) Physical development

This involves motor skills coordination and balance is acquired during manipulative play

V.) Early literacy and numeracy

Play activities which involves counting, sorting and patterning can introduce basic math concepts.

Through play pupils also acquire literacy skills. This happens through play with words and books and can
foster literacy skills.

2.4.2 Teaching strategies

Facilitation and guidance should be appropriate during play based learning to improve the quality of the
teaching and learning environment.

These involve:

I. Creating a stimulating learning environment.

This can be achieved through providing effective and diverse material which helps in offering a
variety of open ended materials example; blocks, art supplies and creativity. Teachers can also
incorporate dramatic play props, sensory materials and manipulative pays caters for different
learning styles. Also the learning space should be encouraging enough, creating a designated
play areas that spark imagination and exploration, such as pretend kitchen a building zone or an
art corner. Educators must ensure the learning space is safe, easily accessible to both teachers
and learners and its inclusive enough.

II. Educators should facilitate play effectively and efficiently

There should be a proper observation of children play activities, so as to effectively understand their
interests and the level of development while asserting on their learning progress. Observation can
enhance future planning and interventions to be done. Educators should actively participate in ply with
children when appropriate. Although teachers and facilitators should be careful to allow learners to lead
to direction of the play. Keep asking appropriate questions especially open ended questions.

Facilitators should also provide support and guidance when needed, but gradually withdrawing
assistance as children become more confident in handling the games alone. Always extend the game by
using the introduction of new ideas, materials or challenges-scaffolding.
III. Facilitators should guide the learning process/experience
This can happen by various ways such as; integrating curriculum; which involves connecting play
activities to specific learning objectives and curriculum goals, embedding literacy, math and
science concepts into play-based experiences.
Promoting social-emotional development; which includes the facilitation of opportunities for
children to practice social skills that is sharing, cooperation and conflict resolution. Encouraging
reflection would also help guide the learning experiences by providing opportunities for children
to reflect on their play experience and make connections to this learning.

2.4.3 The role of the teacher in play-based learning;

i. Facilitation
Teachers are hoped to providing a platform for learners to play and provide support to the
learner’s process of acquiring numeracy skills.

ii. Observing
Teachers should be keen to observing children’s play to access their development and identity
learning needs. During observation the teacher is able to understand the learning styles and
educational needs of each learner hence providing a platform for improving the teaching and
learning experiences

iii. Guiding
Educators are expected to provide efficient and effective guidance to learners and support when
necessarily needed but being careful to allow learners to take lead in the play activities.

iv. Collaboration
Facilitators should work with children to extend their play and connect it to learning or lesson
objectives.

v. Assessing learning progress

vi. Planning by designing the learning environment and planning activities that will enhance
learning experience.

2.4.4 Learning materials

In the context of play-based learning the teaching and learning materials should be carefully
chosen to encourage exploration, creativity and discovery of new ideas amongst learners.

The materials can be identified as;

I. Open ended materials.
These can be used in many ways allowing learners to use their imagination and creativity
examples of open-ended materials
 - Blocks which can be wooden or plastic
- Art supplies, paper, crayons, paint and clay
- Natural materials which can be sticks, stones, leaves and water
- Loose parts i.e buttons, shells, fabrics, and scraps

II. Dramatic play props

Dramatic play props materials encourages role—playing and imaginative plays
Example involves;

- Dress-up clothes
- Kitchen sets
- Toy tools
- Puppets

III. sensory materials

These materials engages children’s senses and promote exploration
Example;

- sand and water tables

- play dough
- sensory bins filled with rice beans or other textures

IV. manipulative material

These materials helps children develop fine motor skills and problem-solving abilities
Example;
- puzzles
- construction sets
- beads and strings
- sorting toy’s

V. literacy and numeracy materials

These materials integrate literacy and numeracy and concepts into play e.g.
- books
- letter and number
- blocks
- games
- writing and drawing material

All these materials should be considerably accessible, sate, varying to cater for different
interests and learning styles and as well be integrative to play environment in a way that
supports learning goals.
 2.5 Teacher training
1. knowledge of child development
Child development matters lot it helps educators to have:

- Tailored teaching which is geared by the understanding of how pupils develop cognitively,
socially and emotionally and physically allowing educators to create age appropriate and
developmentally appropriate lesson activities. Helping teachers understand what children are
capable of at different stages preventing them from setting unrealistic expectations or
underestimating their potential..
- An ability to identify and address children’s needs
This ability helps facilitators to notice when learners are experiencing delays or difficulties in
development.it is also a lee way to understanding/identifying of potential problems which gives
on allowance for timely and strategic intervention and support.
- Knowledge of child development helps educators to create a supportive environment which is
sate, nurturing and stimulating learning environment that is able to meet the specific needs of
each child. This would foster empathy and understanding allowing teachers to respond
effectively to children’s behavior and emotions.
- Knowledge of child development help facilitators practice informed curriculum and activity
planning.

This happens when educators gain the motivation that development stages considered during
planning activities that will engage children and promote their learning.

Knowledge of play-based learning. Teacher training must provide a solid training in the foundations of
theories that support play based learning. This involves piagets and Vygotsky’s establishment. This
involves the elaborate understanding of how play contributes to cognitive, social, emotional and
physical development.

This knowledge would also help teachers to understand properly how to create stimulating and
engaging learning environments, selecting appropriate materials and resources facilitating and guiding
play experiences and observing and assessing children learning during play. This is literally the ability to
develop practical skills.

The knowledge of play-based learning would efficiently help learners to understand their ever changing
roles in the teaching and learning process. From teachers to facilitators allowing learners to have a
platform for properly monitored learning and portable open-ended questions.

Teachers training should be able to address the challenges of misconception and learning challenges.
There are so many challenges related to play-based learning. Although these challenges are there, there
are wide ranges of misguided thinking concerning play-based learning. By properly training teachers
they. will be able to integrate play into the curriculum with confidence and without fear while
emphasizing on observation and assessment.
 2.6 MEASURES OF NUMERACY SKILLS
On the issue of acquiring numeracy skills let us discuss the following facts;

I. The understanding of major concepts.

In this face we check if the learner can differentiate between numbers, if they grasp concepts
like more or less, bigger or smaller and ordinal number and can they apply scenarios of play in
these concept.

II. Problem solving skills

Can the child use counting strategies in the prowess to provide a solution to the simple
mathematical problems especially within the play? Do they demonstrate flexible thinking when
faced with different play-based challenges involving numbers? And can they adjust their
strategies to find solutions in different play scenarios.

III. Participation and initiatively

Does the learner actively participate in play-based numeracy/mathematical activity? Have they
shown curiosity and enthusiasm for exploring mathematical concepts through play? And can
they initiate their own play-based numeracy activities or ask questions related to numbers
/mathematics

IV. Language and communication

Can the child verbally express the way they have understood numeracy concepts during play?
And how is their vocabulary in relation to mathematics when describing their play actions.
To access these concepts of conceptual understanding, problem solving, participation and
initiation and language and communication the scale used to measure acquisition shall range
from
Exceeding expectation to show they have understood properly and have acquired the skills.
Meeting expectations to show that the learners have understood and there is need for more
practice to avoid forgetting
Approaching expectations would be used to show that a learner is not fully equipped within the
intended/desired skill and there is need for more practice.
While below expectation would mean they have not understood or acquired the desired skills
properly.

2.7 Factors affecting classroom management and

planning (intervening variables)
2.7.1 Class size
Although most of our schools have a larger number of learners, research has shown that
learners well acquire numeracy skills through play in the case where the class size is smaller and
manageable
This is because it offers room for individual attention from facilitators to which leads to further
understanding and increased opportunity for practice which also boost learning and
understanding as far as numeracy is concerned.
Although the class size can be of greater effect, teacher, quality remains a factor even with a
smaller size.

2.7.2 Learning material

Proper selection of learning material would as well influence acquisition of numeracy skills.
Research has shown that effective selection of play materials would boost the collaboration,
interest and value for the play among learners evoking creativity and the love for the activity
which amounts to the acquisition of numeracy skills. Materials that are not carefully selected
will lead to drawing the attention of learners to a different direction and even lead to loss of
interest for the game and eventually not achieving goals of the play, during the intent or
acquiring numeracy skills

2.7.3 Parental involvement

Parental involvement goes a very great distance in the prowess to acquire numeracy skills.
Parents who are effectively involved in the matters concerning their children’s education help a
lot in the process. Parental love, care, home-based and school-based support are really a very
important factor in the learning process of a child. Parents can also engage in play activities
through collaboration by the teacher and parents to ensure there is meaningful play amongst
children both in school and at home creating a collaborative environment for learning both at
home and in school leading to the acquisition of numeracy skills.