Food Chemistry: X 25 (2025) 102071

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry: X
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/food-chemistry-x

Progress in flavor research in food: Flavor chemistry in food quality, safety, and
sensory properties

1. Introduction In this special issue, a total of 71 articles regarding the modern flavor
chemistry of food were collected between June 2023 and April 2024.
Flavor is a critical quality attribute in food and is a primary driver for
consumer acceptance and food purchasing decisions. The development 2. Articles published in this issue
of flavor in food is a complex process, involving numerous chemical
molecules, including volatiles, non-volatiles and high-molecular weight 2.1. Flavor chemistry in raw agricultural commodities
compounds (Ohloff et al., 1985). The sensation of flavor results from
simultaneous stimulation of our chemical senses, mainly odor and taste, Sugars and organic acids are significant chemical components in
triggered by these chemicals originally present in raw food material or fresh fruits, contributing to their balanced sweetness and sourness. The
generated during food processing and storage. Traditional flavor total soluble solids to titratable acidity (TSS/TA) ratio is commonly used
research focused on identifying key odor-active and taste-active chem­ to assess the flavor quality and ripeness of fruits (Li et al., 2016).
icals in food, which are less than a few hundred compounds (Dunkel However, efforts have been made to measure individual sugars and
et al., 2014). Advances in analytical techniques and artificial intelli­ organic acids for a better understanding of fruit flavor, because each
gence (AI), which can handle large datasets, have led recent flavor compound may have a different taste activity value (TAV), and their
research toward a more systemic assessment of flavor-related chemicals. contents and ratios vary among fruits. Sugars, acids, and their pro­
This includes the measurement of compounds that are tasteless and portions and distribution were examined in a cherry species (Prunus
odorless but impact flavor perception (e.g., flavor enhancers) and pseudocerasus) by high-performance liquid chromatography–ultravio­
compounds that interact with other molecules to modify flavor profile let/refractive index detection (HPLC–UV/RID) (Zhou et al., 2023). With
(Cai et al., 2024; Kuroda, 2024; Ronningen et al., 2018). Studies on the support of sensory evaluation and the TSS/TA ratio, key indicators of
flavor precursors and flavor synthetic pathways have also increasingly cherry flavor, including glucose, fructose, and maltose were identified,
been introduced in fresh fruits and vegetables, as well as processed food and new cherry grading criteria were proposed. Liu, Song, et al. (2024)
products (Diez-Simon et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2019). With explored alterations in flavor-related compounds in yellow and white-
these trends, a new omics subdiscipline named ‘flavoromics’ was born in fleshed loquats (Eriobotrya japonica) using HPLC–UV/RID and LC–MS-
2008 and has addressed various challenges in food flavor research (Cai based metabolomics approach. Differentially accumulated metabolites,
et al., 2024). Flavoromics combines analytical chemistry, sensory eval­ including sugars and organic acids (e.g., malic acid), were found in lo­
uation, and data science to comprehensively understand the relation­ quats of different colors and at different development stages.
ships between chemical compositions and flavor traits in food. To Interestingly, one collected article used a targeted metabolomics
characterize a wide range of compounds, including unknown molecules strategy, and reported the identification of ethyl vanillin, a ‘synthetic’
that might affect flavor formation and regulation, flavoromics often vanilla flavoring compound, in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) (Song
employs untargeted chemical analysis using analytical techniques such et al., 2023). It was the first time that ethyl vanillin had been observed in
as gas chromatography–ion mobility spectrometry (GC–IMS), gas chro­ natural food. The presence of ethyl vanillin in strawberry was thor­
matography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and liquid chromatogra­ oughly confirmed by multiple analytical techniques including GC–MS/
phy–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC–HRMS) (Castañeda et al., MS, LC–HRMS and LC–MS/MS with the use of isotope-labeled ethyl
2024; Wei et al., 2023). A similar term, sensomics, uses a combination of vanillin and a global metabolite library (NIST). The same research group
sensory evaluation and instrumental analysis, like flavoromics, while published another article regarding the discovery of a novel bitter-
sensomics concentrates on the identification and quantification of masking compound in allspice (Pimenta dioica) using sensory-guided
aroma-active compounds at the molecular level, which is assisted by isolation (An et al., 2024). The structures of the isolated molecules
experiments such as aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) and aroma were determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and LC–HRMS,
recombination and omission (Han et al., 2024; Steinhaus & Schieberle, and one molecule exhibited promising bitter masking activity against
2007). Multi-omics, the integration of more than one omics approach (e. quinine, as determined by sensory evaluation. Molecular docking anal­
g., metabolomics with transcriptomics), is another emerging trend to ysis indicated that the compound could act as an antagonist of one of the
understand in-depth biochemical mechanisms and regulatory processes bitter receptors, TAS2R14.
behind the flavor phenotypes of food across different biological layers In addition to the above topics, the flavor qualities of buckwheat
(Habibi et al., 2024). (Fagopyrum spp.) (Li, Wei, et al., 2024), pear (Pyrus spp.) (Zhang, Bai,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2024.102071

Available online 6 December 2024

et al., 2024), wampee (Clausena lansium) (Zhao et al., 2023), vanilla aromas of black tea in different regions. In another study, the aroma
beans (Vanilla planifolia) (Yeh et al., 2024) and pepper seeds (Capsicum profiles of Italian wines were determined by GC–IMS during sponta­
annuum) (Chen et al., 2024) were assessed by characterizing flavor- neous and inoculated fermentation processes, demonstrating that
related compounds using gas chromatography with flame ionization spontaneous fermentation effectively enhanced the aroma characteris­
detection (GC–FID), GC–MS, GC–IMS, HPLC–UV/RID and/or LC–MS/ tics of wine, with increased levels of corresponding volatiles, showing its
MS, followed by multivariate statistical analysis. One study employed aging potential (Wang, Yin, Shao, et al., 2023). Barba et al. (2024)
widely targeted metabolomics and annotated nearly 1000 metabolites in examined the effect of sugar alcohols on the release of aroma com­
pear (Zhang, Bai, et al., 2024). The relationship between metabolites pounds in soda beverages using GC–MS and NMR, which may help guide
and sensory attributes was uncovered through statistical correlation the use of sugar alcohols and aroma volatiles in the formulation of sugar-
network analysis, and key sensory-related metabolites in pear were free or reduced-sugar beverages. Additionally, a new sample prepara­
identified based on gene significance and module memberships. Another tion technique, called dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, was
study examined flavor precursors and downstream aroma volatiles in introduced and applied to the determination of toxic α-dicarbonyl
pepper seeds, demonstrating that certain fatty acids and amino acids compounds, such as glyoxal and methylglyoxal, in sesame oil, which has
were highly correlated with the formation of pepper aroma (Chen et al., potential for use in the quality and safety control of oil (Lee et al., 2024).
2024).
2.3. Application of multi-omics in food flavor
2.2. Flavor chemistry in processed foods
Several studies in this issue utilized multi-omics strategies to support
Fifty-five out of the 71 articles in this special issue studied flavor and confirm their hypotheses across different biological layers in food
chemistry in processed food products, including marinated and stewed products, such as tea (Li et al., 2023; Liu, Huang, et al., 2024), cheese
beef (Liu, Deng, et al., 2024; Li et al., 2024), cooked pork (Cheng et al., (Xue et al., 2024) and fermented foods (Liang et al., 2023). An integrated
2023), sausages (Shao et al., 2024; Sui et al., 2024; Wang, Sui, Liu, et al., metabolomics-transcriptomics approach was employed in oolong tea
2023), chicken soup (Wang, Wu, et al., 2024), porridge (Liu, Wang, research, revealing dynamic changes in metabolites and flavor forma­
et al., 2024; Wang, Chen, et al., 2024), plant-based meat (Nam et al., tion during tea manufacturing process (Li et al., 2023). Differentially
2024), sauerkraut (Wang, Liu, et al., 2024; Wang, Sui, Lu, et al., 2023), expressed metabolites and genes were associated, and central metabolic
coffee (Hong et al., 2024), yogurt (Fan et al., 2024), tea (Li et al., 2023; pathways and network (sugar, amino acid and flavonoid metabolism)
Liu, Huang, et al., 2024; Long et al., 2024; Ma et al., 2024; Ouyang et al., altered during different tea processing steps were identified. Another
2024; Qingyang et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2024; Yan et al., 2024; Zhao et al., study examined variations in metabolite profiles and bacterial commu­
2024), wine (Chen et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024; Qin nities in Liupao tea during tea processing using a joint metabolomic and
et al., 2024; Wang, Yin, Shao, et al., 2023; Xi et al., 2024; Zhang, Liu, metagenomic analysis (Liu, Huang, et al., 2024). The two omics datasets
et al., 2024), soda (Barba et al., 2024), a fruit by-product (Luo et al., were correlated, and the results indicated that metabolic changes in
2024), and processed oil (Jeong et al., 2024; Lee et al., 2024; Lin et al., Liupao tea were not primarily derived from bacterial activities, but
2024; Zhang, Chen, et al., 2024). rather from other processing conditions, such as high temperature and
For solid processed foods, key odorants associated with the warmed- humidity. A combination of metabolomics and metagenomics was also
over flavor of stewed beef after refrigeration and reheating were char­ used in yak cheese (Xue et al., 2024), and fermented dairy and vegetable
acterized using a sensomics approach, which combined sensory evalu­ products (Liang et al., 2023) to elucidate the fundamental mechanisms
ation with GC–IMS/MS analysis (Liu, Deng, et al., 2024). Shao et al. behind the flavor formation of these products in different contexts.
(2024) explored the effect of different starter cultures on the microbial
communities and flavor compounds of fermented sausages using 16S 3. Concluding remarks
rRNA gene sequencing and chemical analysis, demonstrating that a
mixed starter (L. plantarum CQ01107 with S. simulans CD207) enhanced Chemicals in food are the end products of cellular signaling processes
the flavor of fermented sausages by generating a high level of umami in raw foods or products generated during processing and storage in
taste-related compounds. With growing attention on plant-based foods, processed foods. These chemicals directly reflect food phenotypes, such
one study utilized a soybean by-product as an additive for the produc­ as flavor, which is linked to food quality, safety and sensory properties.
tion of plant-based patties and assessed the quality of the patties via This special issue presents recent advances in the flavor chemistry of
physicochemical measurements and GC–MS analysis (Nam et al., 2024). food and introduces the most up-to-date technologies and approaches
The developed patties showed increased water-holding capacity, for food flavor research. However, challenges remain in the field, as
improved texture profiles and lower levels of undesirable flavor volatiles flavor is a complex trait influenced by numerous compounds, their
(e.g., benzaldehyde, nonanal, 2-heptanone) compared to control patties levels, compositions, interactions and reactions. Future advancements in
without the soybean by-product. Luo et al. (2024) introduced a novel analytical techniques, along with the application of AI technologies such
fermented food using a pineapple by-product and whey protein. The as machine learning and deep learning algorithms, are expected to
effect of fermentation on the product quality was clarified by measuring enhance the measurement and assessment of food flavor from large and
changes in carbohydrate and amino acid profiles, organoleptic proper­ complex datasets across various research topics. Finally, the guest edi­
ties, and the microbial community of the product. tors sincerely thank the authors, reviewers, editors, editorial office, and
For liquid processed foods, the influence of roasting conditions on all those who contributed to this special issue.
the physicochemical properties and flavor quality of coffee (Coffea
arabica) was assessed by analyzing caffeine, chlorogenic acid, total Declaration of competing interest
flavonoid content, antioxidant capacity, flavor, and flavor compounds
using various instruments such as HPLC–UV, electronic tongue, elec­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
tronic nose, and GC–MS-olfactometry (GC–MS-O) (Hong et al., 2024). interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Ouyang et al. (2024) employed untargeted volatile analysis using two- the work reported in this paper.
dimensional gas chromatography-olfactometry–quadrupole-time-of-
flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-O–QTOF-MS) to exhaustively char­
acterize the odorants of black tea from different provinces in China. A
total of 190 volatiles were identified in the tea, and among them, 23
compounds were confirmed as key odorants contributing to the distinct

2
J. Sung et al. Food Chemistry: X 25 (2025) 102071

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Department of Biology, School of Arts and Sciences, Tufts University,
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c
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Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, 100 Cedar Street, Athens,
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vanilla beans (Vanilla planifolia) from Taiwan. Food Chemistry: X, 24, Article 101761. Corresponding author.
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