Grammar I Graciela Palacio place verbs, since they take three arguments or nominals.

la Palacio place verbs, since they take three arguments or nominals. Although give, tell and put are
LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015) similar because of the number of arguments that they take (i.e. they are all three-place verbs),
they are not alike in another sense which we will discuss presently.
LESSON 5:
ARGUMENTS AND PREDICATORS If we specify the number of arguments that a verb combines with, what we are
describing is the argument structure of that verb. The argument structure of a verb specifies
VERBS AND THEIR ARGUMENTS the number of arguments that the verb takes. It is represented in the following way:
Let us consider the following sentences:
1. John sneezed. 1. argument structure of sneeze: <1>
2. John killed Bill. 2. argument structure of kill: <1, 2>
3. John gave Bill the book. 3. argument structure of give: <1, 2, 3>
4. John told Bill the truth. 4. argument structure of tell: <1, 2, 3>
5. John put the book on the table. 5. argument structure of put: <1, 2, 3>

Whenever we want to analyse a simple sentence, we must first identify the verb, the TO SUM UP:
conjugated verb. From a semantic point of view, the verb is the most important element of the When confronted with a sentence such as 1. above (i.e. John sneezed), you will be expected
sentence because it determines the number of elements that go with it. Haegeman (1991) to:
compares the verb to the script of a play, in the sense that its meaning determines the number 1. look for the verb and underline it
of actors or participants that will be needed if we want to represent its meaning. 2. think of the meaning of this verb and of the number of entities (people or objects)
Suppose we want to represent the meaning of the verb sneeze. One actor/participant that you would need to represent its meaning, and
would be enough to perform the action of sneezing (e.g. John sneezed). 3. state its argument structure.
In the case of the verb kill, we would need two actors/participants, one to perform the
action of killing and another actor who will be affected by the same action (e.g. John killed The semantic analysis of the following sentences should look as follows:
Bill). 1. John sneezed.
In the case of the verb give, we would need three participants, the person who Semantic analysis:
performs the action of giving, an object that will change hands and a receiver of the object Predicator: sneeze (one-place verb)
(e.g. John gave Bill the book or John gave the book to Bill). Arguments: John (only one)
Argument Structure of sneeze: <1>
The same would happen with verbs of communication (e.g. John told Bill the truth).
There will be a sender of a message, a receiver of the message and the message itself. Verbs 2. John killed Bill.
of giving and verbs of communication are alike in the sense that both require three entities. Semantic analysis:
Notice that we are using entity to refer to animate and inanimate things, i.e. people and Predicator: kill (two-place verb)
objects. In both cases there is an entity that goes from one participant to another. Arguments: John, Bill (two arguments)
Argument Structure of kill: <1, 2>
Verbs like put also require three entities, somebody who performs the action, i.e. an
agent, an entity that will be placed somewhere and a place or location (e.g. John put the book 3. John gave Bill the book.
on the table). Verbs like put are, however, syntactically different from verbs of giving and Semantic analysis:
verbs of communication. Predicator: give (three-place verb)
Arguments: John, Bill, the book (three)
We will refer to the verb as the predicator of the sentence. The verb performs the Argument Structure of give: <1, 2, 3>
role of predicator. Predicator is a semantic label. When we say that the verb is the predicator
we are doing a semantic analysis of the sentence, we are paying attention to its meaning. The 4. John told Bill the truth.
nominals or elements that go with it will be referred to as arguments. Again argument is a Semantic analysis:
semantic label. Predicator: tell (three-place verb)
Arguments: John, Bill, the truth (three)
Verbs like sneeze, which need only one actor or argument, will be called one- Argument Structure of tell: <1, 2, 3>
argument verbs or one-place verbs because there is only one place or position to be filled in.
Verbs like kill, which take two nominals or arguments, will be called two-argument verbs or 5. John put the book on the table.
two-place verbs because there are two positions to be filled in, one before the verb and one Semantic analysis:
after the verb. Verbs like give, tell and put will be called three-argument verbs or three- Predicator: put (three-place verb)

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Arguments: John, the book, on the table (three) Semantic analysis:
Argument Structure of put: <1, 2, 3> Predicator: fond (two-argument adjective or two-place adjective)
Arguments: John, Mary
Notice that when we isolate the predicator we use the bare form of the verb, i.e. the Argument Structure of fond: <1, 2>
verb without tense. One thing is the meaning of the verb, another thing is the tense. Notice
too that if a one-place verb, i.e. a verb that requires only one argument, appears with two There are no three-place adjectives. Notice too that in the previous sentences (John is tall/
arguments (e.g. *John sneezed the handkerchief) the sentence is ungrammatical. The same John is fond of Mary) the verb is be. The verb be, however, has no semantic content (i.e. no
would happen if a two-place verb appears with only one argument (*John killed) or if a three- meaning) so it does not count as the predicator of the sentence. It is the carrier of tense,
place verb appears with only two arguments (*John put the book). The asterisk at the though. According to Haegeman and Guéron (1999) be is said to function as a copular verb:
beginning of the sentence is a convention to express that the sentence is not well-formed. it establishes a predicative relation between the predicate and its argument There are
languages such as Hebrew where the verb be is optional if the sentence is in the present. They
Verbs are not the only elements that can function as predicators. Adjectives, nouns say something like John tall or John fond of Mary.
and prepositions can also function as predicators and they also take arguments. We will now
consider each category in detail. NOUNS AND THEIR ARGUMENTS
Nouns and noun phrases usually function as arguments. There is one exception,
TO SUM UP: though. In the following sentence:
The elements that can function as predicators are:
1. verbs John is a doctor.
2. adjectives
3. nouns the indefinite noun phrase a doctor functions as the predicator, i.e. it has a predicative
4. prepositions function. We are ‘predicating’ (i.e. saying) something about John, the fact that he is a doctor.
Sentences like this are called predicative sentences. The noun John, on the other hand, has a
ADJECTIVES AND THEIR ARGUMENTS referential function, in the sense that the noun is used to refer to an individual, John.
If we wanted to represent the meaning of the sentence John is tall, one actor would be
enough. We will refer to tall as a one-place adjective. The semantic analysis of a sentence If we wanted to represent the meaning of the sentence John is a doctor, one actor would be
where the predicator is a one-place adjective should look as follows: enough, as long as he had the necessary attributes that could help us identify him as a doctor.
The semantic analysis of the sentence should look as follows:
1. John is tall.
Semantic analysis: 1. John is a doctor.
Predicator: tall (one-place adjective) Semantic analysis:
Arguments: John (only one) Predicator: a doctor (one-argument noun phrase)
Argument Structure of tall: <1> Arguments: John
Argument Structure of a doctor: <1 >
But adjectives can also be two-place, i.e. they can also take two arguments. This is the
case of adjectives such as envious, fond, afraid, sure, aware, which are derived from or We will make a distinction between predicative sentences, such as the one provided above,
related to two-place verbs. Consider the following sentences: and identificational or equative sentences such as:

1. John envies Mary. 1. John is my brother.

2. John is envious of Mary. 2. Mr. Brown is the dean.

The verb envy is a two-place verb. The adjective envious, which is related to the verb envy, Notice that in these sentences the two phrases are definite noun phrases and that we can
inherits the same number of arguments. Notice that in the case of the adjective a preposition reverse the order and still get a grammatical sentence:
has to be inserted before its second argument, in this case of. We find the same type of
relation between the verb like and the adjective fond (John likes Mary/ John is fond of Mary), 1. My brother is John.
between the verb fear and the adjective afraid (John fears storms/ John is afraid of storms), 2. The dean is Mr. Brown.
between the verb know and the adjective aware (John knows that Bill is a liar/ John is aware
that Bill is a liar). The semantic analysis of a sentence where the predicator is a two-place This reversal of order is not possible when the indefinite noun phrase has a predicative
adjective should look as follows: function:

1. John is fond of Mary. 3. *A doctor is John. (ungrammatical because a doctor has a predicative function)

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 Grammar I Graciela Palacio
In the presence of an equative sentence, we will say that the predicator is be, and that it LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015)
combines with two arguments. Equative sentences will be the only case in which we will
consider be as the predicator. Example: LESSON 6:
SUBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS
Mr. Brown is the dean.
Semantic Analysis. There is a universal principle called the Extended Projection Principle (EPP), which
Predicator: be (equative sentence) states that every verb must have a subject, explicit or implicit. Now if every verb must have a
Arguments: Mr. Brown, the dean subject, the subject does not help us to distinguish different types of verbs. What helps us to
Argument Structure of be: <1,2> distinguish different types of verb are the elements that follow the verb and which are
lexically required by it. Those elements we will call complements. Subject and complement
PREPOSITIONS AND THEIR ARGUMENTS are syntactic notions.
Prepositions also take arguments. Prepositions such as in, on are two-place prepositions in the
sense that they relate two arguments, e.g.: VERB COMPLEMENTS

John is in the room. A verb such as sneeze, which takes only one argument, will have no complements. A
The book is on the table. verb such as kill, which takes two arguments, will have one complement. Verbs such as give
and tell, which take three arguments, will have two complements. A verb such as put, which
The semantic analysis of the sentence John is in the room should look as follows: takes three arguments, will also have two complements. Notice that the number of
complements that a verb takes is generally the number of arguments minus one.
1. John is in the room.
Semantic analysis: Notice that in the case of the lexical category verb, complement can be defined in two ways:
Predicator: in (two-place preposition)
Arguments: John, the room 1. the element that follows the predicator (in this case the verb) and which creates a
Argument Structure of in: <1, 2> subcategory within the category, in the sense that it allows us to distinguish
different types of verb. In this sense the subject is never a complement. If every
Lesson 5 Activity 1: (to be discussed in class) verb must have a subject, the subject doesn’t help us to distinguish different types
Analyse the following sentences from a semantic point of view: of verb.
1. Laura told us a very strange story. 2. an element that is lexically required by the meaning of the verb.
2. My mother keeps the sugar in the fridge.
3. The student’s knowledge of Latin was quite good. We will later discuss another type of category, the functional categories, in which case the
4. The student was good at Latin. complement is the element that follows the category but which is not an argument of that
5. Ann said that she was exhausted. (Here you will have to do two semantic analyses, category.
one for the predicator say and one for the predicator exhausted)
The complements that a verb takes are represented by means of a frame (cf. in Spanish: un
Lesson 5 Activity 2: (to be handed in as Assignment 5) marco) which is called subcategorization frame (cf. in Spanish: marco de
Analyse the following sentences from a semantic point of view subcategorización). The subcategorization frame includes information about:
1. Laura placed the book on a shelf.
2. The boy ate the sandwich. 1. the number of complements that a predicator takes and
3. The child was very innocent. (= naïve) 2. the type of complements (i.e. the category of the complements) that a predicator
4. The man was innocent of any crime. (= not guilty of any crime) takes.
5. John is in London.
The subject is an argument but it is never a complement so it is never part of the
REFERENCES: subcategorization frame (Haegeman 1994: 45). The following are examples of
Haegeman, L. (1991) Introduction to Government and Binding Theory, Blackwell. subcategorization frames:
Haegeman, L. & J. Guéron (1999) English Grammar: A Generative Perspective, Blackwell.
Hurford, J. & B. Heasley (1983) Semantics: a coursebook. CUP. John sneezed.
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language. Longman. Subcategorization frame of sneeze: V [ ]

Page 5 of 5/ Lesson 5 Page 1 of 5/ Lesson 6

The V that is outside the square brackets states the category of the predicator. Sneeze is a PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENTS
verb. Within the brackets, the line indicates the position of the verb. Sneeze has no
complements so it not followed by anything. John is in the kitchen.

John killed the bear. Subcategorization frame of in: P [ DP]

Subcategorization frame of kill: V [ DP 1] The preposition in takes two arguments but only one complement, a determiner phrase (DP).

The verb kill has two arguments but only one complement, the determiner phrase (DP) the NOUN COMPLEMENTS
bear.
In the following sentence:
John gave the boy the book./ John gave the book to the boy.
The enemy destroyed the city.
Subcategorization frame of give: V [ DP DP] or V [ DP PP]
the verb destroy takes two arguments (the enemy and the city) and one complement (the city).
The verb give has two frames. In both frames, give takes two complements but in the first If the sentence is transformed into a phrase, it can become part of a larger sentence as in:
frame the two complements are determiner phrases (DP DP). In the second frame one of the
complements is a determiner phrase and the other complement is a prepositional phrase (DP The enemy’s destruction of the city occurred at dawn.
PP)
The noun destruction inherits the arguments of the verb destroy, so that it will also have two
John put the book on the table. arguments (the enemy and the city) and one complement (the city). Notice that the main
predicator of the sentence is occurred. What we are doing is analysing the phrase the enemy’s
Subcategorization frame of put: V [ DP PP] destruction of the city internally. The subcategorization frame of destruction would be as
follows:
The verb put takes two complements, a determiner phrase and a prepositional phrase. Put has
only one subcategorization frame. Subcategorization frame of destruction: N [ PP]

The other lexical categories that we have discussed so far (adjectives, nouns and prepositions) ADJUNCTS
can also take complements. The complement to these other categories will still be defined as Consider the following sentences:
an element that is lexically required by the meaning of the word. The complements to
adjectives, prepositions and nouns will also help us to create subcategories with the category. John killed Bill in Central Park yesterday.

ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS The verb kill is a two-place verb, it takes two arguments (John and Bill) and one complement
(Bill). In Central Park and yesterday are not required by the meaning of kill. In Central Park
John is tall. gives us the location of the whole event of killing and yesterday the time at which the event
occurred. It would also be possible to add to the previous sentence an adjunct of reason
Subcategorization frame of tall: A [ ] (because he hated him).

The adjective tall takes only one argument and no complements. These elements that modify the whole event are called adverbial adjuncts. The label
adjunct is a syntactic label. Adjuncts are in opposition to complements. Adjuncts will not
John is fond of Mary. be part of subcategorization frames.

Subcategorization frame of fond : A [ PP] The following is a list of adverbial adjuncts. It is not an exhaustive list, though:

The adjective fond takes two arguments and only one complement, the prepositional phrase of 1. Adverbial adjunct of time: I haven’t seen John since Monday.
Mary (PP). 2. Adverbial adjunct of place: John killed Bill in Central Park.
3. Adverbial adjunct of manner or speed: She buttered the bread slowly.
4. Adverbial adjunct of reason or cause: She was late because she overslept.
5. Adverbial adjunct of company: She went to the cinema with her boyfriend.
1
DP stands for determiner phrase, a phrase whose head is the determiner the. Determiners and determiner
phrases will be discussed presently when the functional categories are introduced.

Page 2 of 5/ Lesson 6 Page 3 of 5/ Lesson 6

 6. Adverbial adjunct of purpose: The thief wore gloves so that he would leave no 4. The student was good at Latin.
fingerprints. 5. The mobile cast a shadow on the wall.
7. Adverbial adjunct of result: The thief wore gloves so that he left no fingerprints.
8. Adverbial adjunct of condition: If he comes, tell him that I’m out. Lesson 6 Activity 3: (to be discussed in class)
9. Adverbial adjunct of concession: The match was played in spite of the rain. Do the following sentences contain any adverbial adjuncts? If so, what type are they?
10. Adverbial adjunct of frequency: She reads the newspaper every day. 1. Lucy keeps the money in a box.
11. Adverbial adjunct of instrument 2: She cut the bread with a knife. 2. He did it because of her insistence.
3. She kissed her mother on the platform.
4. I have often told them to relax.
POSTMODIFIERS TO NOUNS 5. Although he is poor, he is happy.
In the same way that we have to make a distinction between complements and adjuncts, we 6. He is poor but he is happy.
will also have to make a distinction between complements to nouns and postmodifiers to 7. The match will be played in spite of the rain.
nouns. In the phrase: 8. The match will be played although it is raining.

a student of physics Lesson 6 Activity 4: (to be handed in as Assignment 6)

State the subcategorization frame of the following predicators:
of physics is a complement to the noun student because a student of physics is somebody who 1. Laura placed the book on a shelf.
studies physics. But in: 2. The boy ate the sandwich.
3. The child was very innocent. (= naïve)
a student with long hair 4. The man was innocent of any crime. (= not guilty of any crime)
5. John is at the office.
with long hair is a postmodifier. A student with long hair is not somebody who studies long
hair, it is somebody who studies something and who happens to have long hair. Notice that References:
complements to nouns and postmodifiers to nouns may coexist as in: Haegeman, L. (1994) Introduction to Government & Binding Theory, second edition.
Blackwell.
a student of physics with long hair

If both appear the complement must come first because it has a closer relationship with the
noun.

Some authors use the label adnominal adjunct for postmodifiers to nouns. Again the
important thing is that postmodifiers to nouns or adnominal adjuncts are in opposition to
complements.

Lesson 6 Activity 1:
Be ready to answer the following questions in class:
1. What does the Extended Projection Principle state?
2. How can we define a complement?
3. Why isn’t the subject a complement?
4. What kind of information does a subcategorization frame include?
5. What is an adjunct?

Lesson 6 Activity 2: (to be discussed in class)

State the subcategorization frame of the following predicators:
1. Laura told the children a very strange story.
2. My mother keeps the sugar in the fridge.
3. The student’s knowledge of Latin was quite good.

2
It is debatable whether the instrument is really an adjunct or a complement.

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Grammar I Graciela Palacio I believe that he is a liar.
LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015) Sue thinks that the film is excellent.
She seems happy.
LESSON 7: She looks happy.
STATES VS EVENTS
WHICH VERBS TEND TO DENOTE EVENTS?
A state is a situation that holds or exists, without change, for some time. States lack stages or
phases and they are durative. Examples of states are be happy, own a house, have green eyes, 1. Verbs which denote activities. Activities are situations such as walk in the park, work,
etc. This information can be expressed by means of features, semantic features in this case, which are durative but which do not culminate 2, e.g.:
e.g.: John is working.
Ann is playing in her room.
Own a house: [- stages], [+ durative] 1
When these verbs combine with be + ing they express what is known as imperfective
States can also be represented graphically by means of an unbroken line, e.g.: aspect, i.e. they present a situation as on-going, in progress, without including the
culmination point.

Events, on the other hand, are dynamic situations. They happen, occur or take place at a 2. Momentary verbs such as hiccough, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, sneeze, tap wink, etc. These
certain time and in a certain place. They don’t exist as concrete objects do. They involve are verbs that denote events that have little duration, that being the reason why they are
participants. Examples of events are a party, a demonstration, a meeting, a lesson, an invasion, called ‘momentary’. When they are used in the imperfective aspect, they denote a series of
etc. events, rather than a single event. Compare:

WHICH VERBS TEND TO DENOTE STATES? He nodded. (a single event)

He was nodding. (a series of events, a repeated movement)
1. The verb be:
He jumped clear of the car. (a single event)
The whale is a mammal. (permanent characteristic) (cf. Spanish: ser) He was jumping for joy. (a series of events, a repeated movement)
I am tired. (temporary state) (cf. in Spanish: estar)
3. Transitional-event verbs such as die, arrive, leave, fall, land, stop, etc. These verbs
2. Verbs of perception such as see, hear, smell, taste, feel when they refer to a situation which resemble momentary verbs in that they also denote events that have little duration. However,
involves no energy or will. Consider the following examples: when used in the imperfective aspect, they express that the entity is approaching a transition
into a new state (i.e. a change into a new state) rather than the transition itself.
I can see somebody at the door.
From here, I can hear the noise of the traffic. The man was dying.
Can you smell something burning? The helicopter was landing.
I can taste the garlic in this stew. The bus is stopping.
I feel sad.
4. Verbs of attention, which contrast with verbs of perception, such as look, listen, smell, taste,
3. Verbs that express emotions such as like, love, dislike, hate, loathe, detest, hope, want, etc. and feel, e.g.:
These verbs are called modality verbs and they express what is technically called volition:
I’m looking at some photos.
I like chocolate. Listen to me.
I want to go to the cinema. Smell this perfume to see if you like it.
Taste this. (cf. probá)
4. Verbs that express knowledge or lack of knowledge such as know, believe, think, expect, Feel this material to see if it is soft enough for the baby.
seem, find, etc. These verbs are another type of modality verbs and they express cognition:

1 2
Durative is a feature, the + or – sign placed before the feature is a value for that feature. The [+] value A situation that culminates is said to be telic. A situation that does not culminate is called atelic. See lesson 43
indicates that the feature is present, the [–] value indicates that the feature is absent. (Inflectional Categories of the Verb).

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We look at something because we want to, not simply because we have got eyes. We listen to Sometimes a verb is [- durative] and cannot combine with the imperfective aspect but as long
somebody or something again because we want to, not simply because we have got ears. All as there is a change of state, the situation can be regarded as an event and it is therefore [+
these actions are done voluntarily. dynamic], e.g.:

5. Process verbs such as change, grow, get, turn, etc. I’ve found the keys. (change of state: now I know where they are)
*I’m finding the keys.
It is getting late.
The weather is changing for the better. TESTS TO TELL DYNAMIC VERBS FROM STATIVE VERBS:
The little boy grew tired. 1. Dynamic verbs can be combined with –ing to express what is technically called imperfective
He turned traitor. aspect. Stative verbs cannot:

STANCE VERBS He is persuading her to come.

Stance verbs (e.g. sit, stand, lie, live, stay and carry, hold, keep, wear) are very special verbs. *He is believing that I came.
They can denote states or events.
2. Dynamic verbs can be used in the imperative. Stative verbs cannot:
They are interpreted as stative when they denote a position or location:
Persuade him to come.
The books were lying on the table. (temporary position) Buy a TV.
The town lies on the coast. (permanent position) *Believe that he came.
*Like grammar.
At the moment, I’m living with my parents. (temporary location)
My brother lives in London. (permanent location) 3. Dynamic verbs accept manner adverbials such as carefully, attentively, conscientiously,
painstakingly 3, etc. Stative verbs don’t:
Notice that although they can combine with -ing (imperfective aspect), they are still interpreted
as stative verbs denoting a temporary position. However, when they combine with an adverbial He painstakingly persuaded me to come.
particle such as up, down, back (e.g. stand up, sit down, etc) they are recategorized as dynamic, *He painstakingly believed that I came.
because they denote a change of state:
John carefully washed his car.
She sat up in bed. *John carefully knew Greek.
Sit down.
She sat back and relaxed. 4. Dynamic verbs accept the negation of permission. Stative verbs don’t:

Note 1: He may not go to the cinema. (may has to be unstressed, the stress falls on not)
Notice that hope is a modality verb expressing volition, whereas expect is a modality verb *He may not believe that I came. (= he has no permission to believe…)
expressing cognition.
He may not believe that I came. (this is possible because if may is stressed it expresses
I can’t go out now. I am expecting a phone call. (I know that somebody will call) possibility: = It may be the case/ it is possible that he doesn’t believe that I came)
I hope I can find a parking space. (I want to find a parking space but I do not know if
there will be one.) 5. Dynamic verbs can be pronominalized by do so. Stative verbs cannot:

Note 2: John persuaded me to come but Mary didn’t do so.

Verbs of perception are complex. According to Smith (1991) they denote states if they refer to *John believed that I came but Mary didn’t do so.
a situation which involves no energy or will (see previous examples) but they can also denote
events when they refer to a change into a state of perception, e.g.: 6. Dynamic verbs can become the focus of pseudo-cleft sentences (i.e. emphatic sentences
which contain a -wh clause). Stative verbs cannot:
I can see somebody at the door. (stative)
Suddenly, I saw John. (dynamic) What he did was persuade me to come.

Note 3:
3
Painstaking: adj. [usually before noun] needing a lot of care, effort and attention to detail: The event had been
planned with painstaking attention to detail. Painstakingly: adv.

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 *What he did was believe that I came. 5. John put the book on the table.
Semantic analysis:
What you must do is learn Spanish. Predicator: put (three-place verb)
*What you must do is know Spanish. Arguments: John, the book, on the table (three)
Argument Structure of put: <1, 2, 3>
7. Dynamic verbs can be used as the complement of verbs such as persuade or commanded: Proposition: dynamic

I persuaded Mary to wash her car. 6. John is tall.

*I persuaded Mary to know Greek. Semantic analysis:
Predicator: tall (one-place adjective)
This is a first characterization which will leave you with a lot of questions. What we will see Arguments: John (only one)
later is that what can really be characterized as stative or dynamic is the type of situation that Argument Structure of tall: <1>
the sentence expresses. And very often this characterization does not depend on the verb alone Proposition: stative
but on the verb and the elements that combine with it. The verb and the number of elements
that combine with it form what is called in semantics the proposition. If a verb is dynamic, we 7. John is fond of Mary.
will say that the sentence expresses a dynamic (or movement) proposition. If a verb is stative, Semantic analysis:
we will say that the sentence expresses a stative (or locative) proposition. Predicator: fond (two-place adjective)
Arguments: John, Mary
From now onwards, you will have to state in the semantic analysis if the proposition expressed Argument Structure of fond: <1, 2>
by the sentence is stative or dynamic. The semantic analysis of a sentence should look as Proposition: stative
follows:
8. John is a doctor.
1. John sneezed. Semantic analysis:
Semantic analysis: Predicator: a doctor (one-argument predicative determiner phrase)
Predicator: sneeze (one-place verb) Arguments: John
Arguments: John (only one) Argument Structure of a doctor: <1 >
Argument Structure of sneeze: <1> Proposition: stative
Proposition: dynamic

2. John killed Bill. Now how can you justify your analysis? Here you have some help:
Semantic analysis:
Predicator: kill (two-place verb) Possible justifications for stative propositions:
Arguments: John, Bill (two arguments)
Argument Structure of kill: <1, 2> 1. I know the truth.
Proposition: dynamic The proposition is stative because know is a modality verb expressing cognition or

3. John gave Bill the book. 2. I love chocolate.

Semantic analysis: The propositon is stative because love is a modality verb expressing volition or
Predicator: give (three-place verb)
Arguments: John, Bill, the book (three) 3. I am aware that he is dishonest.
Argument Structure of give: <1, 2, 3>
The main proposition is stative because aware is a modality adjective expressing
Proposition: dynamic
cognition.
4. John told Bill the truth.
4. I am glad that you can come to my party.
Semantic analysis:
Predicator: tell (three-place verb) The main proposition is stative because glad is a modality adjective expressing
Arguments: John, Bill, the truth (three) volition.
Argument Structure of tell: <1, 2, 3>
Proposition: dynamic 5. The tiger in that cage is dangerous.

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 The proposition is stative because dangerous is an adjective denoting a property and The proposition is stative. Know is a modality verb expressing cognition.
because the verb be is a typical stative verb.
4. I knew John’s car immediately.
6. From my bedroom, I can see a river and lovely park. The proposition is dynamic. Know means “recognize” here and it denotes an event.
The proposition is stative because see is a very of perception. Notice the presence of the adverb immediately.

Possible justifications for a dynamic or movement proposition: Lesson 7 Activity 1:

Be ready to answer the following questions in class:
1. The door opened. 1. What is a state?
The proposition is dynamic. Open denotes a change of position. 2. What is an event?
3. What’s the difference between a verb of perception and a verb of attention?
2. John opened the door. 4. What is a momentary verb?
The proposition is dynamic because there is a causative meaning in the sentence. It can 5. What is a transitional event verb?
be paraphrased as John caused the door to change its position. 6. What is a modality verb? How many modalities can we distinguish?
7. Mention at least three tests that help you distinguish a stative from a dynamic verb.
3. The snow melted. 8. Some verbs such as find, which are [- durative], cannot be used in the imperfective
aspect. Is that an indication that the verb denotes a stative situation?
The proposition is dynamic. Melt denotes a change of state. The snow went from one
state to another. There is movement.
Lesson 7 Activity 2: (to be discussed in class)
Analyse the following sentences from a semantic point of view:
4. The sun melted the snow.
1. Can you taste the food to see if it has enough salt?
The proposition is dynamic because there is a causative meaning in the sentence. It can 2. Jack ran a race.
be paraphrased as The sun caused the snow to change its state. 3. Jack won the race.
4. Lucy is rude.
5. The child is crying. 5. Lucy is being rude.
The proposition is dynamic because the sentence denotes an activity. The semantic
features are [+dynamic], [+durative], and the situation does not culminate. Besides cry Lesson 7 Activity 3: (to be handed in as Assignment 7)
is a verb of emission. Verbs of emission require an input of energy. Analyse the following sentences from a semantic point of view:
1. I’m learning Japanese.
6. He went to the supermarket. 2. I know Japanese.
The proposition is dynamic because go is a verb of directed motion. The subject is an 3. I know Peter.
entity that traverses a path. 4. I met him at a party.

7. The baby is crawling.

The proposition is dynamic because the sentence denotes an activity. The semantic REFERENCES:
features are [+dynamic], [+durative], and the situation does not culminate. Besides Nilsen, D & A. P. Nilsen (1975) Semantic Theory: A Linguistic Perspective. Rowley, Mass:
crawl is a verb of manner of motion. Newbury House.
Smith, C. (1991) The Parameter of Aspect. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
More complex examples: Leech, G. (1971) Meaning and the English Verb (second edition). Longman.
1. Fish swim.
Although swim in isolation is a verb that would denote an activity, in this case the
proposition is stative because it has been combined with simple present. The sentence
denotes a property of fish.

2. I saw John yesterday.

Although see is a verb of perception, the proposition is dynamic because it has been
combined with simple past so the sentence denotes an event.

3. John knows the truth.

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Grammar I Graciela Palacio a) verbs and adjectives that express emotions (modality verbs and modality adjectives
LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015) expressing volition), e.g.:

LESSON 8: Modality verbs expressing volition:

SEMANTIC OR THEMATIC ROLES Tom liked the play.
We respect the truth.
The verb is the most important element in a sentence because it determines the number of Everyone hates John.
elements that go with it. Haegeman (1991) compares the verb to the script of a play, in the Mary envies John’s talent.
sense that its meaning determines the number of actors or participants needed to represent its Angie loves French films.
meaning. In the same way as actors in a play are assigned roles, the verb also assigns roles to
its arguments. These roles are semantic roles. For example, in the sentence: Modality adjectives expressing volition:
The workers are angry.
The man killed the bear. Tom is unhappy.

the man is described as the agent (i.e. the entity that performs the action that causes the bear to b) verbs and adjectives that express knowledge, belief or expectation (modality verbs and
be dead) and the bear is the patient (i.e. the entity affected). modality adjectives expressing cognition)

Technically speaking, these roles are called thematic roles or theta roles. Now linguists do Modality verbs expressing cognition:
not agree with respect to the type and number of theta roles that should be recognised. We will He knows the truth.
first consider the most common thematic roles that we find in the literature on the subject. Jane believed the story.

1) Agent: Modality adjectives expressing cognition:

The agent has to be an animate being. It is the causer of the happening denoted by the verb, I'm aware that he has done it.
the doer of the action. An element of volition or causation is present. Notice that agents Tom was sure that Mary had done it.
combine with dynamic verbs, it is not possible to have a doer of an action if there is no
action: c) verbs of perception (see, hear, smell, taste, feel), which contrast with verbs of attention:

Margaret is mowing the grass. I can see somebody at the door.

The gamekeeper wounded him. Did you hear him go out?
Jack fell down on purpose. (on purpose: volitional adverbial). Can you taste the garlic in this stew?
I could smell (that) he had been smoking.
Verbs of attention (look, listen, smell, taste, and feel) take agentive subjects, for example: I feel disappointed.

I'm looking at some photographs. 4) Patient:

We listened carefully but heard nothing. The entity that exists before the action is performed and that is affected by it.
(You) Smell this and tell me what it is.
He tasted the soup to see if he had put enough salt in it. Norman smashed a window in his father's car.
She felt the material to see if it was soft enough for the baby. I'm digging the ground.
I baked some potatoes.
2) External Causer:
The unwitting (= unintentional) cause of an event. It is generally inanimate, e.g.: The fish is frying.
The fish is being fried. (passive sentence)
The avalanche destroyed several houses.
The electric shock killed him. 5) Resultant:
The entity that does not exist before the action is performed but which is the result of that
3) Experiencer: action.
The living entity that experiences something. Experiencer subjects occur with stative verbs
and adjectives. They contrast with agents and causers. We find experiencer subjects with: I'm digging a hole.
Baird invented television.
John has painted a new picture.

Page 1 of 8/ Lesson 8 Page 2 of 8/ Lesson 8

 I gave Martha the money.
6) Theme: I gave the money to Martha.
a) the entity located somewhere: I told Martha the truth.

The pencil was on the table. Tom was given a radio. (notice that this sentence is in the passive voice)
The pencil was lying on the table.
The label goal can also be used as a synonym of destination with verbs such as go or take:
b) The abstract entity that is metaphorically located in someone’s mind. An abstract entity
may be an idea, a thought or a belief: John took the children to the park.
John went to the station.
John believes that Mary is clever.
Bill thinks that Lucy is pretty. 9) Beneficiary (or Intended Recipient):

We will refer to this role as theme/proposition in the sense that the idea, belief, etc., She made Bill a cake. (She made a cake for Bill)
expresses a proposition that can be said to be true or false, i.e. that can be assigned a truth I cooked him some sausages. (I cooked some sausages for him)
value. Notice that in this case the argument is not a determiner phrase but a noun clause,
something like a sentence but within another sentence. It is called a clausal argument. In this case, the paraphrase is with the preposition for.

c) the entity that undergoes motion. In this case, the verb must be dynamic, a verb of motion: 10) Locative:
The argument denotes a place or location. The sentence can sometimes be paraphrased by
John went to the cinema. means of the word there (existential there), e.g.:
Jack fell down. (accidentally)
The ball rolled down the hill. Los Angeles is foggy. (There is fog in Los Angeles)
This jar contains coffee. (There is coffee in this jar)
John put the book on the table.
We rolled the ball down the hill. My tent sleeps four people. (Four people can sleep in my tent)
Tom has my notes. (Where are my notes?)
d) the entity characterised, especially if there is an adjective after the verb be, e.g.:
She swam the river. (She swam across the river)
The boy is clever. The horse jumped the fence. (The horse jumped over the fence)
That restaurant is expensive. He passed a cyclist. (He passed by a cyclist)

In this case, the subject can also be viewed as an entity located somewhere, an entity located Notice that in the paraphrases given above there is always a prepositional phrase that
in a certain set, in the sentences above the set of clever people or the set of expensive things. expresses location.

7) Instrument: 11) Source:

The entity (generally inanimate) which an agent uses to perform an action or instigate a The entity from which something moves, typically introduced by the preposition from:
process. Notice that the preposition with appears in the paraphrase:
John returned from Paris.
A stone broke his glasses. (Somebody broke his glasses with a stone)
A gun wounded him. (Somebody wounded him with a gun) 12) Eventive:
The computer has solved the problem. (Somebody has solved the problem with a The argument denotes an event. Event nouns (i.e. demonstration, arrival, lesson, party,
computer) mass, rally, etc.) are related to dynamic verbs that also denote events. They are abstract
nouns.
We employ a computer for our calculations. (We do our calculations with a computer)
He nodded his head. (He said "yes" with his head) The meeting was yesterday.
He shook his head. (He said "no" with his head) The match is tomorrow.
The Norman invasion was in 1066.
8) Recipient or Goal

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THETA GRIDS The verb consider is a two-place verb, it has two arguments (I and that the book is expensive)
We said before that the meaning of a verb determines the number of actors or participants that and it assigns a theta role to each, I being an experiencer and that the book is expensive a theme/
will be needed if we want to represent its meaning. We also said that the verb assigns semantic proposition. Within the second argument, which is a complement, the book gets the theta-role
roles to its arguments and that technically speaking these roles are called thematic roles or of theme from expensive. The same happens in the second sentence, where there is no verb be.
theta roles. The number and type of roles that a verb assigns to its arguments is represented by
means of a grid called theta-grid. The semantic analysis of a sentence will have to include Finally consider the following example:
everything we have seen plus the theta grid. Let’s consider some examples:
The book is on the table.
The rioters smashed a shop window.
Semantic analysis: Here the predicator is the preposition on. It takes two arguments (the book and the table). When
Predicator: smash (two-place verb) the preposition on combines with the determiner phrase the table it transforms an object, the
Arguments: the rioters, a shop window table, into a place or projected area. The book receives the role of theme from the prepositional
Argument structure of smash: <1, 2> phrase on the table.
Theta-grid of smash: <agent, patient>
Proposition: dynamic. The rioters caused the shop window to change its state. THE THETA-CRITERION
The number of theta roles that a predicate has to assign determines the number of arguments
Bill took the children to the zoo. that a predicate takes. The one-to-one relation between thematic roles and arguments is referred
Semantic Analysis: to as the theta-criterion. The Theta-criterion states:
Predicator: take (three-place verb)
Arguments: Bill, the children, to the zoo a. Each argument must be associated with one and only one theta-role.
Argument structure of take: <1, 2, 3 > b. Each theta role must be associated with one and only one argument.
Theta-grid of take: <agent, theme, goal>
Proposition: dynamic. The sentence can be paraphrased as Bill caused the children to be at the IN WHAT WAY ARE THETA ROLES USEFUL?
zoo. Sometimes theta roles help us decide which the syntactic units of the sentence are. Take for
example the sentence I think Mary pretty. Think is a two-place verb which has two theta-roles
Note 1: we will write the theta-grid of the verb immediately after the argument structure to assign, experiencer to its subject and theme/proposition to its complement, in the sense that
because there is a correlation between the number of arguments and the number of theta-roles ‘somebody thinks something’. It is not that I think Mary. We don’t think people. What we have
that the verb can assign. (cf. the theta-criterion discussed below) is an idea located in our mind. What I think is that Mary is pretty.

NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND PREPOSITIONS AS THETA-ROLE ASSIGNERS THE VERB ‘CONSIDER’

Lexical verbs are not the only elements that assign theta-roles. Nouns, adjectives and Let’s discuss the following sentences:
prepositions are also theta-role assigners. Consider the following example:
John considered the problem.
The enemy destroyed the city. John considered the problem difficult.

The verb destroy is a two-place verb. It takes two arguments (the enemy and the city) and only In the two sentences consider is a two-place verb, which takes two arguments and one
one complement (the city). The verb destroy assigns a theta-role to each, the role of agent to complement. There are, however, two verbs consider. The difference lies:
the enemy and the role of patient to the argument that functions as complement, i.e. the city. If a) first, in the type of complement that the verb takes. In the first sentence, the complement
the sentence is nominalized and becomes part of a larger structure as in: is a determiner phrase (the problem), whereas in the second sentence the complement
is a small or verbless clause (the problem difficult), a small clause being a structure of
The enemy’s destruction of the city occurred at dawn. predication without a verb (i.e. difficult is predicated of the problem)
b) secondly, in the meaning. In the first sentence, consider is a dynamic verb which means
the noun destruction will also assign two theta roles to its arguments the enemy and the city, ‘give attention to’ or ‘think about something in order to make a decision’. The two
the same theta roles as the verb destroy. theta-roles that it assigns are agent and theme. John is an agent because it is animate
and it performs the action voluntarily. In the second sentence, however, consider means
Consider now the following pair of sentences: ‘think’ or ‘have the opinion’. It is a stative verb and the theta roles that it assigns
are experiencer and theme/ proposition. The idea is the abstract object located in John’s
I consider [that the book is expensive.] mind. The second theta role is assigned to the whole unit the problem difficult. It is not
I consider [the book expensive.] that John thought the problem, John thought that the problem was difficult.

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Rothstein (1995) notes that we can say John considers that problem difficult, even though he REFERENCES:
has never considered the problem (itself) at all. Haegeman, L. (1991) Introduction to Government and Binding Theory, Blackwell.
Haegeman, L. & J. Guéron (1999) English Grammar: A Generative Perspective, Blackwell.
THETA-ROLE ASSIGNMENT Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the
Consider the following sentences: English Language. Longman.
1. John kicked the bucket. (cf. Juan pateó el balde) (literal meaning) Radford, A. (1997) Syntactic Theory and the structure of English: A minimalist approach.
2. John kicked the bucket. (cf. Juan estiró la pata) (idiom) CUP.
Rothstein, S. (1995) Small Clauses and Copular Constructions, in A. Cardinatelli and M. T.
In the first sentence the verb kick assigns first a theta role to the bucket, the theta-role of affected Guasti (eds.) Syntax and Semantics, Volume 28, Small Clauses, 27-48, Academic Press.
participant or patient. Then the two together, i.e. kick + the bucket, will assign a theta-role to
John, the role of agent.

In the second sentence kick the bucket means die so the theta-role that John receives from the
idiom is not agent but affected participant or theme (in the sense that it is an entity that
undergoes motion, it goes from the state of being alive to the state of being dead).

Consider these other examples:

3. John threw a party. (John is an agent)
4. John threw a fit. (John is an affected participant) (cf. Tuvo un ataque de nervios)

TO SUM UP:
The predicator first assigns a theta-role to the argument that follows it and then the two
elements together (i.e. compositionally) assign a theta role to the subject.

Lesson 8 Activity 1: (to be discussed in class)

Do the semantic analysis of the following sentences:
1. The man made a fire.
2. John gave Peter a radio.
3. Peter was given a radio. (Passive sentence)
4. He gave the door a kick.
5. The demonstration was yesterday.
6. Tom was sure that Mary had stolen the money. (Here there are two predicators)

Lesson 8 Activity 2: (to be discussed in class)

Account for the ungrammaticality of:
1. *John believed what I said but Mary didn’t do so.
2. *John carefully knew Greek.
3. *Yesterday it was my birthday.

Lesson 8 Activity 3: (To be handed in as Assignment 8)

Do the semantic analysis of the following sentences:
1. We loved the film.
2. We went to the theatre yesterday.
3. John was working at that time.
4. She knitted me a sweater.

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Grammar I Graciela Palacio nominative case and PRO isn’t, because if it were in the nominative case it would be
LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015) pronounced in the same way (i.e. I). Some linguists say that PRO has null case, whatever that
may mean.
LESSON 28
VERBS AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS (PART I)
3. I want [ CP Ø you to arrive on time].
WANT-TYPE VERBS:
Semantic Analysis: In sentence 3 want is also followed by a Complement/DO. The complement/DO is a Non-
Argument structure of want: two-place verb, it takes two arguments, <1, 2 > finite, Subordinate, Noun Clause (Infinitival), a complementizer phrase, the head of
Theta-grid: <experiencer, theme> which is a null or silent complementizer. The subcategorization frame would be the same as
Type of proposition: stative (want is a modality verb expressing volition) in the previous sentence:

Syntactic Analysis: want: v [ CP]

Number of complements: one
The category of the complement varies according to the sentence in which the verb occurs. There is a difference though between sentence 2 and sentence 3. In sentence 3, the non-finite
clause has an explicit subject (you).
Possible patterns for the verb want
1) I want a sandwich. English is exceptional in this sense since in most languages infinitives cannot have explicit
2) I want to eat a sandwich. subjects. In Spanish, for instance, we would be forced to use a finite clause (pro quiero que
3) I want you to arrive on time. (vos) llegues puntualmente).
4) I want for you to arrive on time.
5) I want this letter to be sent first class. When want has an explicit subject it is not a control verb. There is no silent subject, no PRO
6) Mother wants you on the phone. to be controlled.
7) You are wanted on the phone.
The theta-role of the subject of the non-finite, subordinate noun clause is not determined by
Let us look at each of the sentences: want. Want imposes no restrictions on it. Notice that it can be animate as in the example
(you) or inanimate (as in I want [Ø the train to arrive on time]). The subject of the non-finite
1. I want [ DP a sandwich]. clause gets its theta-role from the verb of the non-finite clause (in this case arrive).

Here want is followed by a Complement/DO, which is a determiner phrase (DP). This DP Want does not allow a passive in this case (*You i are wanted you i to arrive on time). Since
contains a hidden verb (I want to eat a sandwich). The subcategorization frame would be the the clause is a CP, you cannot be extracted out of it.
following:
4. I want [ CP for you to arrive on time].
want: v [ DP]
In this sentence want is followed by a non-finite, subordinate noun clause (infinitival)
2. I i want [ CP Ø PRO i to eat a sandwich]. introduced by the explicit complementizer for. The clause has an explicit subject. The
subcategorization frame would be as follows:
Here want is also followed by a Complement/DO, but its complement is not a determiner
phrase but a Non-finite, Subordinate, Noun Clause (Infinitival) with a silent subject. want: v [ CP]

The hypothesis is that there is a null (i.e. silent) complementizer (Ø). The clause is therefore
a complementizer phrase (CP). The subcategorization frame would be the following: 5. I want [ CP Ø this letter i to be sent this letter i first class].

want: v [ CP] Here want is followed by a non-finite, subordinate, noun clause (infinitival). There has
been internal passivization, i.e., passivization within the complement, e.g.:
In this case want is a control verb. The silent subject of the subordinate clause, PRO, is
controlled by the grammatical subject of the sentence. This is a case of subject control. What I want [somebody to send this letter first class].
we mean by subject control is that PRO gets its reference from I. If I is a first person, I want [this letter i to be sent this letter i first class].
singular, common gender pronoun, then PRO is also a first person, singular, common gender
pronoun. In other words, they share the same features. They differ, however, in that I is in the

Page 1 of 3/ Lesson 28 Page 2 of 3/ Lesson 28

The fact that the meaning remains the same is a robust test that the complement is a Grammar I Graciela Palacio
constituent. LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015)

6. Mother wants [ SC/ PP you on the phone]/ LESSON 29

VERBS AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS (PART II) (PERSUADE/ TRY)
Here want is followed by a small or verbless clause (SC). Small Clauses are also phrases. In
this case, we can analyse it as a prepositional phrase (PP), its head, i.e. the predicator, being PERSUADE-TYPE VERBS:
the preposition on, or as a Predication Phrase, in which case its head would be a silent Semantic Analysis:
element, a predication head (Pr). The subcategorization frames would be as follows: Argument structure of persuade: three-place verb, three arguments, <1, 2, 3>
Theta-grid: <agent, goal, event>
want: v [ PP] or Type of proposition: dynamic.

want: v [ Pr P] Syntactic Analysis:

Number of complements: two
The category of the complements may vary.
When want is followed by a small clause, it is possible to use it in the passive. Notice that in
sentence 7, the subject of the small clause has been moved out of it to become the subject of Possible patterns for the verb persuade
the sentence: 1) I persuaded him that he should buy a TV.
2) I persuaded him to buy a TV.
7. You i are wanted [ SC/PP you i on the phone]. 3) He was persuaded to buy a TV.
4) John persuaded the candidates to be interviewed by me.
The use of want in the passive is highly restricted but we can provide another example:
Let us look at each of the sentences:
They want [ SC/PP you at the meeting tomorrow].
1. I persuaded [ DP him] [ CP that he should buy a TV].
You are wanted [ SC/PP you at the meeting tomorrow]
In sentence 1, persuade is followed by two complements. The first complement is a DP, the
Which other verbs are similar to want? Would prefer, would like, would love, would hate. second complement is a finite, subordinate, noun clause, a CP. In this subordinate clause
Examples: the verb buy has an explicit subject (he). Persuade imposes some conditions on its first
complement: it has got to be animate, you cannot persuade an inanimate object to do
I would like (for) him to stay here. something. Persuade assigns a theta role to him (goal or affected). The subcategorization
I would hate (for) you to emigrate. frame would be:
I would prefer (for) you to do it.
persuade: v [ DP CP]
Notice that the complementizer for is optional.
2. I persuaded [ DP him i ] [ CP Ø PRO i to buy a TV].
Lesson 28 Activity 1 (to be discussed in class)
1. She has always wanted a large family. In sentence 2, persuade is also followed by two complements. The first complement is a DP,
2. I want him to do it now. the second complement is a non-finite, subordinate noun clause (infinitival), a CP. In this
3. What do you want to do tomorrow? subordinate clause, the verb buy has a silent subject (PRO), whose reference is controlled by
the first complement him. This is called object control. Him is a separate constituent, it is not
Lesson 28 Activity 2 (to be handed in as Assignment 28) the subject of the verb buy. As was stated above, persuade needs an animate complement to
1. I don’t want to do the homework. which it assigns the theta role of goal or affected. The PRO subject of buy receives the theta
role of agent from buy. The subcategorization frame would be:

persuade: v [ DP CP]

3. He i was persuaded [ DP he i ] [ CP Ø PRO i to buy a TV].

Page 3 of 3/ Lesson 28 Page 1 of 2/Lesson 29

In sentence 3, the first argument/complement DP of persuade has become the subject of a Grammar I Graciela Palacio
passive sentence. LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015)

4. John persuaded [ DP the candidates i ] [ CP Ø PRO i to be interviewed PRO i by me]. LESSON 30

VERBS AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS (PART III) (BELIEVE/EXPECT)
In this case we have passivization within the complement clause, i.e. internal passivization.
The subcategorization frame is still the same. BELIEVE-TYPE VERBS:
Semantic Analysis:
persuade: v [ DP CP]. Argument structure: two-place verb, two arguments, <1, 2>
Theta-grid: <experiencer, theme/proposition>
Which other verbs are similar to persuade? Tell, ask, order. Type of proposition: stative (believe is a modality verb expressing cognition)

TRY-TYPE VEBS: Syntactic Analysis:

Semantic Analysis: Number of complements: one
Argument structure of try: two-place verb, two arguments, <1, 2>
Theta-grid: <agent, event/theme> Possible patterns for the verb believe
Type of proposition: dynamic. 1) I believe that he is innocent.
2) I believe him to be innocent.
Syntactic Analysis: 3) He is believed to be innocent.
Number of complements: one 4) I believe him innocent.
The complement is a CP. 5) He is believed dead.
6) I believe in witches/in God/ in reincarnation.
Possible pattern for the verb try 7) I believe in my husband/ in the fundamental goodness of human nature/ in getting
1) Peter tried to open the door. plenty of exercise.
8) I believed everything (that) he told me.
Let us look at the sentence: 9) Don’t believe what you read in the papers.

1. Peter i tried [ CP Ø PRO i to open the door]. Let us look at each of the sentences:

Try is followed by a non-finite, subordinate, noun clause with a PRO subject. The PRO 1. I believe [ CP that he is innocent].
subject is controlled by Peter. It is a case of subject-control. It is not possible for this non-
finite clause to have an explicit subject (*Peter tried Mary to open the door/ *Peter tried for Here believe is followed by a finite, subordinate, noun clause, a CP. The subcategorization
Mary to open the door). Try is called a subject-control verb. The subcategorization frame frame would be:
would be as follows:
believe: v [ CP]
try: v [ CP]
2. I believe [ TP him to be innocent].
Lesson 29 Activity 1: (to be discussed in class)
Analyse the following sentences: Here believe is followed by a non-finite, subordinate, noun clause (infinitival). This non-
1) He told me to open the door. finite clause is defective: it is a TP (or an IP) not a CP. The non-finite verb (in this case an
2) I was told to open the door. infinitive) has its own explicit subject him, a pronoun in the objective or accusative case. In
this case believe is called an exceptional case marking verb, because it determines the
Lesson 29 Activity 2: (to be handed in as Assignment 29) objective or accusative case of the pronoun. The subcategorization frame would be as
1. He attempted an escape. follows:
2. He will attempt to answer all the questions.
believe: v [ TP (or IP)]

3. He i is believed [ TP he i to be innocent].

Page 2 of 2/Lesson 29 Page 1 of 4/Lesson 30

This is a passive sentence. The passive participle believed is followed by a non-finite clause, Theta-grid: <experiencer, theme>
its complement. Notice that only the subject of the non-finite clause has moved to the Type of proposition: stative (expect is a modality verb, expressing cognition)
beginning of the sentence. This movement out of the complement is possible precisely
because the clause is a TP (a defective clause) and not a CP. The subject of the non-finite
clause is now a trace, the trace of the moved element. The moved element has become the Syntactic Analysis:
grammatical subject of the sentence. This movement operation is an instance of argument Number of complements: one
movement. The subcategorization frame is the same as in the previous sentence:
Possible patterns for the verb expect:
believe: v [ TP (or IP)] 1. I expect that he will go.
2. I expect him to go.
4. I believe [ AP him innocent]. 3. He is expected to go.
4. I expect that I will pass the test.
Here believe is followed by a small clause. In the small clause the predicator is innocent, an 5. I expect to pass the test.
adjective. We will consider this constituent a Predication Phrase. The head of the Predication
Phrase is null. Let us look at each of the sentences:

believe: v [ Pr P] 1. I expect [ CP that he will go].

5. He i is believed [he i dead]. In sentence 1, expect is followed by a finite, subordinate, noun clause, a CP. The
grammatical subject of the sentence ( I ) is different from the grammatical subject of the
This pattern is very formal and of very restricted occurrence. Notice, however, the following subordinate clause (he) but both subjects are explicit. The subcategorization frame would be:
instance of use:
expect: v [ CP]
All the crew are missing, believed dead.
2. I expect [ TP him to go].
6. I believe [ PP in witches/in God].
In sentence 2, expect is followed by a non finite, subordinate, noun clause (infinitival).
To believe in something is ‘to be certain that it exists’. Here the complement of believe is a This clause is a TP, a defective clause. The clause has an explicit subject him, which is
prepositional phrase (PP). different from the grammatical subject of the sentence, and which is in the objective or
accusative case. Expect is here an exceptional case marking verb. The subcategorization
7. I believe in my husband/ in the fundamental goodness of human nature/ in getting frame would be:
plenty of exercise.
expect: v [ TP (or IP)]
To believe in someone/ something here means ‘to have confidence in that person or thing’, to
trust somebody/something, to feel sure of the value or truth of something’. 3. He i is expected [ TP he i to go].

8. I believed [ DP everything (that) he told me]. This is the passive version of the previous sentence. Notice that the subject of the subordinate
clause (he) leaves its position to occupy the subject position of the main clause. This is an
Here believe is followed by a DP (everything he told me). The head of this DP is the instance of argument movement. He receives the theta role of theme from the verb go. The
determiner/ pronoun everything, which is followed by a post modifier (a relative clause) (that subject of the subordinate clause is its trace. This is one of the cases in which the subject of
he told me) an infinitive is not PRO. The subcategorization frame is the same as in the previous sentence:

9. Don’t believe [ CP what you read in the papers]. expect: v [ TP (or IP)]

Here believe is followed by a free relative clause or nominal relative clause, i.e. that which 4. I expect [ CP that I will pass the test].
you read in the papers.
Here expect is followed by a finite, subordinate, noun clause, a CP, but the subject of the
EXPECT-TYPE VERBS: main clause ( I )and the subject of the subordinate clause ( I )coincide. The subcategorization
Semantic Analysis: frame would be:
Argument structure: two-place verb, two arguments, <1, 2>

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 expect: v [ CP] Grammar I Graciela Palacio
LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015)
5. I i expect [ CP Ø PRO i to pass the test].
LESSON 31
Here expect is followed by a non finite, subordinate, noun clause (infinitival) with a PRO RAISING ADJECTIVES: sure, certain, likely, bound, unlikely, apt.
subject. In this case expect is a control verb. The clause is not a defective clause, it is a CP.
The silent subject of the non finite clause (PRO) is controlled by the subject. The We are sure [that Brazil will win the cup.]
subcategorization frame would be:
It is sure [that Brazil will win the cup.]
expect: v [ CP] *It is sure [ Brazil to win the cup.]

Lesson 30 Activity 1: (to be handed in as Assignment 30) Brazil is sure [ Brazil to win the cup.]
1. I do believe you are right.
2. Do you expect me to believe you?

We are certain [that John will help us.]

It is certain [that John will help us.]
*It is certain [ John to help us.]
John is certain [ John to help us.]

It is likely [that John will come.]

*It is likely [ John to come.]
John is likely [ John to come.]

It is bound [that there will be a strike.]

*It is bound [ there to be a strike.]
There is bound [ there to be a strike.]

MODEL ANSWER FOR A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE WITH THE ADJECTIVE

‘LIKELY’ WITHOUT ARGUMENT MOVEMENT (OR RAISING)

It is likely that John will come.

Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the main clause:

Main Predicator: likely (one-place adjective)
Argument: that John will come (clausal argument)
Argument structure of likely: <1>
Theta-grid: <theme/proposition>

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Type of proposition: stative (likely is a modality adjective expressing cognition, the source of
modality is the speaker) that John will come (here).

Syntactic representation of the main clause: H (Comp) C (TP)

The main clause is a CP (Complementiser Phrase) introduced by a null complementiser,
which is the head of the phrase. The null complementiser marks the clause as declarative and Syntactic Analysis of the TP:
as finite.
Subject (DP) Predicate (T’)
Ø It is likely that John will come.
Ø John will come (here).
H (Comp) C (TP)
Syntactic Analysis of the Determiner Phrase functioning as Subject:
Syntactic Analysis of the Tense Phrase:
Ø John
G. Subject 1 Predicate (T’)
H (D) C (Proper Noun)
It is likely that John will come.

Syntactic analysis of the Predicate:

It is an expletive pronoun, a slot filler, because since English is a [–null subject] language, the
subject slot has to be filled in. It is not an argument, it has no theta-role (therefore, it has no will come (here)
meaning). It is not referential. It is not an empty category because it has phonological content.
H (T) C (VP)
Syntactic analysis of the Predicate: H (IVIP) C/ ADV C (Adv.)
[Pre] is likely that John will come.
The sentence is a complex sentence, made up of a main clause and a finite subordinate
H(T) C (VP) clause.
H (V) C (AP)
MODEL ANSWER FOR A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE WITH THE ADJECTIVE
‘LIKELY’ WITH ARGUMENT MOVEMENT (RAISING)
Syntactic analysis of the Adjectival Phrase likely that John will come:
John is likely to come.
likely that John will come (here).
Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the main clause:
H (A) C (CP) (Sub/F/ that NC)
Main Predicator: likely (one-place adjective)
Argument: John to come (clausal argument)
Subordinate clause: that John will come Argument structure of likely: <1>
Theta-grid: <theme/proposition>
Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the subordinate clause: Type of proposition: stative (likely is a modality adjective expressing cognition, the source of
Predicator: come (two-place verb) modality is the speaker.
Arguments: John, (here)
Argument Structure: <1, (2) > Syntactic representation of the main clause:
Theta-grid: <theme, locative > The main clause is a CP (Complementiser Phrase) introduced by a null complementiser,
Type of proposition: dynamic. Come is an unaccusative verb, a verb of directed motion. which is the head of the phrase. The null complementiser marks the clause as declarative and
as finite.
Syntactic representation of the subordinate clause as a CP
The subordinate clause is a CP. The complementiser slot is filled in by an overt (i.e. explicit)
complementiser. Ø John is likely to come.
H (Comp) C (TP)
1
‘G. Subject’ stands for grammatical subject.

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Syntactic representation of the movement operations within TP: The analysis of a sentence with bound will be the same as the analysis of a sentence with
likely.
G. S Tense Verb C to theV/Pred C (AP)
Notice that likely and bound are one-place adjectives. We can have two possible sentences:
John [Pres] is likely [ TP John to come] one without argument movement (without raising) and one with argument movement (with
A-movement raising):

It is likely that John will come.

Syntactic Analysis of the Adjectival Phrase: John is likely to come.
likely [ TP John to come.] certain and sure, on the other hand, are two-place adjectives, which can occur with an
H (A) C (Sub/Non F/ Noun C) omitted experiencer argument. With these adjectives we can have three possible sentences:

Notice that the complement to the adjective likely is a TP and not a CP. Its subject John will 1. We are certain that John will come.
move out of it to end up as the grammatical subject of the main clause. John, however, is not 2. It is certain that John will come.
an argument of likely, it is an argument of the verb of the subordinate clause and it gets its 3. John is certain to come.
theta-role from that verb (in this case come)
1. We are sure that John will come.
Subordinate clause: John to come 2. It is sure that John will come.
3. John is sure to come.
Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the subordinate clause:
Predicator: come (two-place verb) In sentence 1 certain and sure are two-place adjectives. In sentence 2, we will say that they
Arguments: John, (here) are still two-place adjectives but that they have occurred in the syntax with only one
Argument Structure: <1, (2) > complement since the experiencer argument is not explicit.
Theta-grid: <theme, locative>
Type of proposition: dynamic. Come is an unaccusative verb, a verb of directed motion. The important thing with respect to sentence 3 is to realize that what appears as the
grammatical subject of the sentence is really an argument of the subordinate or embedded
Syntactic Analysis of the TP: clause. It appears in initial position because it has moved.

Subject (DP) Predicate (T’) Note also that probable has a similar meaning to likely but it is not a raising adjective. We
Ø John to come (here). can say It is probable that John will come but we cannot say *John is probable to come. It is
wrong. This helps to clarify the issue that one thing is meaning and another quite different
thing is syntax.
Syntactic Analysis of the Determiner Phrase functioning as Subject:
Lesson 31 Activity 1: (to be handed in as Assignment 31)
Ø John 1) It is likely that the tickets will be expensive.
2) Tickets are likely to be expensive.
H (D) C (Proper Noun)

Syntactic analysis of the Predicate:

to come (here)
H (T) C (VP)
H (IVIP) C/ ADV C (Adv.)

The sentence is a complex sentence, made up of a main clause and a non-finite subordinate
clause.

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Grammar I Graciela Palacio
LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015) Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the main clause:
Main Predicator: seem (one-place verb)
LESSON 32 Argument: that John was asleep (clausal argument)
RAISING VERBS: seem, happen, turn out, appear. Argument structure of seem: < 1 >
Theta-grid: < theme/proposition>
It seems [that John is happy in New York.] Type of proposition: stative (seem is a modality verb expressing cognition, the source of
modality is the speaker)
*It seems [ John to be happy in New York.]
John seems [ John to be happy in New York.] Syntactic representation of the main clause:
The main clause is a CP (complementiser phrase) introduced by a null complementiser,
which is the head of the phrase. The null complementiser marks the clause as declarative and
as finite.

It happened [that John was reading at that moment.]

*It happened [ John to be reading at that moment.] Ø It seemed that John was asleep.

John happened [ John to be reading at that moment.] H (C) C (TP)

Syntactic Analysis of the Tense Phrase:

It happened [that there was a doctor at the stadium.] G. Subject 1 Predicate (T’)

*It happened [ there to be a doctor at the stadium.] It Ø seemed that John was asleep.

There happened [ there to be a doctor at the stadium.]

It is an expletive pronoun, a slot filler. As English is a [– null subject] language, the subject
slot has to be filled in. It is not an argument, it has no theta-role (therefore, it has no
meaning). It is not referential but it is not an empty category because it has phonological
content.
It turned out [that we were the only guests.]
Syntactic analysis of the Predicate:
*It turned out [ we to be the only guests.]
We turned out [ we to be the only guests.] Ø seemed that John was asleep.
H (T) C (VP)

It appears [that the man is dead.]

seemed that John was asleep.
*It appears [ the man to be dead.]
H (IVIP) C (CP)
The man appears [ the man to be dead.]

Subordinate clause: that John was asleep

Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the subordinate clause:

MODEL ANSWER FOR A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE WITH THE VERB SEEM Predicator: asleep (one-place adjective)
WITHOUT RAISING Argument: John
Argument Structure: <1 >
It seemed that John was asleep.
1
‘G. Subject’ stands for grammatical subject.

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Theta-grid: <theme > (the entity characterized) Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the main clause:
Type of proposition: stative Main Predicator: seem (one-place verb)
Argument: John to be asleep (clausal argument)
Syntactic representation of the subordinate clause as a CP Argument structure of seem: <1>
The subordinate clause is a CP. The complementizer slot is filled in by an overt (i.e. explicit) Theta-grid: <theme/proposition>
complementizer. Type of proposition: stative (seem is a modality verb expressing cognition, the source of
modality is the speaker)
that John was asleep.
Syntactic representation of the main clause as a CP:
H (Comp) C (TP) The main clause is a CP (Complementiser Phrase) introduced by a null complementiser,
which is the head of the phrase. The null complementiser marks the clause as declarative and
Syntactic Analysis of the TP: as finite.

Subject (DP) Predicate (T’) Ø John seemed to be asleep.

Ø John Ø was asleep. H (C) C (TP)

Syntactic Analysis of the Determiner Phrase functioning as Subject: Syntactic representation of the movement operations within TP:

G. S Tense Verb C/V (TP)

Ø John John [Past] seemed John to be asleep.
H (D) C (Proper Noun) A-movement

Syntactic analysis of the Predicate: Notice that the complement to the verb seem is a TP and not a CP. Its subject John will move
out of it, to end up as the grammatical subject of the main clause. John, however, is not an
Ø was asleep. argument of seem, it is an argument of the predicator of the subordinate clause and it gets its
H (T) C (VP) theta-role from that predicator (in this case asleep)

Subordinate clause: John to be asleep

was asleep.
H (IVIP) C/ Pred C (A) Semantic Analysis of the predicator of the subordinate clause:
Predicator: asleep (one-place adjective)
Argument: John
The sentence is a complex sentence, made up of a main clause and a finite subordinate
Argument Structure: <1 >
clause.
Theta-grid: <theme >
Type of proposition: stative
MODEL ANSWER FOR A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE WITH THE VERB SEEM
WITH ARGUMENT MOVEMENT (RAISING)
Syntactic Analysis of the TP:
It seemed [that John was asleep.]
Subject (DP) Predicate (T’)
*It seemed [ John to be asleep.]
Ø John to be asleep.
John seemed [ John to be asleep.]
Syntactic Analysis of the Determiner Phrase functioning as Subject:

Ø John
John seemed to be asleep.
H (Det) C (Proper Noun)

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 Grammar I Graciela Palacio
Syntactic analysis of the Predicate: LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015)

to be asleep LESSON 44
INFLECTIONAL CATEGORIES OF THE VERB
H (Tense element) C (VP)
H (V) C/ Pred C (A) Verbs inflect for:
1. Tense (past or non-past or past and present)
2. Aspect (perfective, imperfective, which in turn can be progressive or resultative)
The sentence is a complex sentence, made up of a main clause and a non-finite subordinate 3. Mood (indicative, imperative, and subjunctive 1
clause. 4. Voice (active or passive)
5. Person (first, second or third) and number (singular or plural)
The verb seem may appear with an extra argument as in It seemed to me that John was
asleep, in which case it might be considered a two-place verb. The semantic analysis would TENSE AND TIME
be along the following lines:
Time is a universal concept, common to all mankind, independent of language. According to
Semantic Analysis Comrie (1985) time can be represented as a straight line, with the past represented
Main Predicator: seem (two-place verb) conventionally to the left and the future to the right, the present being a point of time in
Argument: to me, that John was asleep (clausal argument) constant motion:
Argument structure of seem: < 1, 2 >
Theta-grid: < experiencer, theme/proposition> ______________________0_______________________
Type of proposition: stative (seem is a modality verb expressing cognition, the source of PAST NOW FUTURE
modality is the speaker)
According to Smith (1991), time is a single unbounded dimension. Conceptually, it is
Lesson 32 Activity 1: (to be handed in as Assignment 32) analogous to space. Just as an orientation point is needed to locate situations in space, so an
1) It seems that he likes her. orientation point is needed to locate situations in time. In language the basic orientation point
2) He seems to like her. is the time of utterance, which is always the Present. (capital letters refer to times, italics to
tenses)

Tense is a linguistic expression or grammatical category, one of the inflectional categories of

the verb. It refers to the form of the verb that expresses a time relation. Tenses vary in
different languages. They vary from language to language.

The notion of time is a complex problem in philosophy. And the categoty of tense is equally
an intricate problem in modern linguistics 2.

TENSE VS. ASPECT

According to Smith (1991: 135) tense locates a situation in time, whereas aspect specifies
‘the internal temporal structure of the situation’. To clarify what is meant by ‘the internal
temporal structure’ of a situation let us consider the following sentence:

Last year John built a house in five months.

1
Some grammarians speak of a fourth mood: interrogative.
2
Modern linguists consider tense as a functional category, the functional categories being:
complementizer, negation, tense, aspect, the passive morpheme, and determiner. Certain functional
categories appear as affixes attached to the verb but they are syntactic categories in their own right.

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 In it there are two temporal adverbials, the noun phrase last year and the prepositional
phrase in five months. The word temporal, which appears in the previous sentence to describe a) there are different types of endpoints (natural vs. arbitrary)
both adverbials, has been used in a broad sense, because the type of information that they b) the structure of internal stages may vary since they may be homogeneous or not
convey is completely different. Last year tells us when the event of ‘John building a house’ c) some events lack internal stages because they are instantaneous, i.e. they have no
took place. It locates the event in the past with respect to the moment of utterance, which is duration, in which case I and F coincide, and
always ‘now’. This temporal adverbial is related to the grammatical category of tense. In five d) in the case of states there are no internal stages or phases but an undifferentiated
months, on the other hand, tells us how long the event of ‘John building a house’ took, from period. All these notions will be clarified as we proceed.
the moment it started till it was finished. This temporal adverbial is aspectual, it gives us
information about the event’s duration in quantitative terms, and this is a characterization of Smith (1991) resorts to three semantic features to classify eventualities or situation
the event’s ‘internal temporal structure’. types. These features are [+/- stative], [+/- telic] and [+/- durative]. The first feature to be
discussed is the feature [+/- stative] since it marks the most important distinction, i.e. the
Tense differs form aspect in the sense that tense is a deictic category, whereas aspect subdivision to which I have referred above into states and events. Now what are the defining
is non-deictic. If somebody phones to talk to Mr. Brown and his secretary says ‘He cannot characteristics of states and events?
answer the phone because he is interviewing somebody’, the tense of the subordinate clause
(i.e. because he is interviewing somebody) is present because the event of ‘Mr. Brown A situation is [+ stative] if it lacks dynamism. States have no internal structure, no
interviewing somebody’ is taking place at the moment of speech. The grammatical aspect is change occurs during the period over which they last, i.e. if I own a house for a year there is
manifested by the auxiliary be and the presence of -ing as an affix of the main verb. If the no point during that year during which I do not own a house. They have duration (of at least a
following day the same person phones again, Mr. Brown can apologize to him by saying moment!). States hold or last. They obtain or exist. The following types of situations are
‘Sorry I couldn’t talk to you yesterday but I was interviewing somebody’. The tense has examples of states: [know the answer], [be in the kitchen], [own a house]. Smith’s (1991)
changed and it is now past because the event of ‘Mr. Brown interviewing somebody’ is now abstract schema for a state is as follows:
in the past relative to the moment of speech, but the aspect is still the same. Aspect is non-
deictic because it does not have to change if the situation of utterance changes. (I) -------------- (F)

The I stands for the initial point, the F for the final point. But as can be seen in the schema,
EVENTUALITIES OR SITUATION TYPES the initial point and the final point are in brackets because they do not form part of the state.
States, in fact, have no endpoints. Let me illustrate by means of an example: if I work all day
Language is used to describe both states that exist in the world and things that happen in it, and I grow tired the event of ‘working all day’ that makes me tired is not part of the state of
i.e. events. From now on we will be taking about linguistic states and linguistic events, i.e. the ‘being tired’. If I then sleep for several hours and I get out of the state of ‘being tired’, I am in
representation through language of those ‘real world’ states and events. Some authors use the a new state, but the sleeping was never part of the previous state of ‘being tired’.
term event in a very general way, as a cover term for both states and events. That use we will
deliberately avoid so as not to cause confusion. The cover terms that we will resort to are A situation is [- stative] if it involves agency, activity and change. [- stative ] is
eventuality, a term coined by Bach (1986), and situation type, the term used by Smith (1991). therefore a feature of all events. Events are dynamic situations, they involve an input of
energy. Examples of events are: [laugh], [build a house], [win a race], [sneeze]. As we will
Tenny and Pustejovsky (2000:4) point out that the first to write about different types of see presently, these events receive different names according to whether they have or lack
eventualities was Aristotle in his Metaphysics. ‘These matters were [then] discussed in the duration and according to whether they have a natural or arbitrary final point. These
philosophical literature (Kenny (1963), Ryle (1949)) and from there they found their way into characteristics are expressed in terms of the remaining two features [+/- durative], [+/- telic].
the linguistic literature. Vendler’s (1967) highly influential paper marks the beginning of this
tradition in the lexical semantics literature’. It is precisely Vendler’s classification that Smith A situation is [+ telic] if it has a natural final point, when the final point is reached
(1991) goes back to and to which we will presently turn. there is a change of state or outcome and the event is complete. The word telic comes from
the Greek word telos, which means culmination. They are events that culminate. Examples of
Smith (1991) provides the following abstract schema for eventualities or situation types: telic events are:[eat an apple], [build a house], [walk to school], [win a race], [reach the top].
A situation is [- telic] if it has an arbitrary final point, it can stop at any time. Examples of
…….I……………..F……. atelic events are [walk in the park], [run], [laugh], [swim in the river].

In this general schema, I stands for an initial point, F for the final point. The dots in With respect to the third feature, a situation is [- durative] if it is perceived as being
between stand for phases or stages called internal stages. The dots before I (the initial point) instantaneous. For example [win a race], [reach the top], [cough] are the type of events that
count as preliminary stages, and the dots following F (the final point) count as resultant are perceived as having no duration. Examples of situations that are [+ durative] are [eat an
stages. The schema given above is a skeleton schema that does not represent any particular apple], [build a house], [walk in the park], [walk to school].
type of eventuality or situation. It is just an abstract structure that indicates the full range of
possibilities which will be instantiated by the different situation types. We will see soon that:

Page 2 of 10/Lesson 44 Page 3 of 10/Lesson 44

 If we use features we can say that states are [+ stative] and [+ durative]. The feature Situation Types Example Static Durative Telic Schema
[+/- telic] does not apply to states since we said above that the final point is not part of the
state itself. When it comes to events, Vendler (1967) makes a distinction between activities, States [be tired] [+] [+] (I) ------- (F)
accomplishments and achievements. To this classification Smith (1991) adds a fifth
eventuality/ situation type, that of semelfactives. Activity [laugh] [-] [+] [-] I……….F arb

Activities are [- stative], [+ durative], and [- telic]. An activity such as [walk in the Accomplishment [build a house] [-] [+] [+] I………F nat
park] takes time, it is made up of homogeneous, successive stages or phases and it is atelic,
i.e. it has an arbitrary final point, I can walk and stop at any time and then go on walking. Semelfactive [cough] [-] [-] [-] I
Activities terminate or stop, but they do not finish. There is no outcome. The representation F
of an activity is:
I…………….F arb Achievement [win a race] [-] [-] [+] ...I
F
Accomplishment 3s are [- stative], [+ durative], and [+ telic]. They are made up of
successive stages which are not homogeneous. [walk to school] is not the same type of
It is important to point out that situation types are indicated by a composite (or combination)
situation as [walk to the park] because in the case of [walk to school] with every step or stage
of verb, arguments (including the subject, and adverbials, thus [walk in the park] or [swim in
I am closer to my final destination. They have a natural final point with a change of state or
the river] are activities, whereas [walk to school] or [swim to the shore] are accomplishments,
outcome. If I walk to school I must end up at school, if not I haven’t walked to school. Other
[eat an apple] is an accomplishment but [eat apples] is an activity. I will discuss other
examples of accomplishments are: [build a house], [eat an apple]. The accomplishment
examples of this type latter.
schema is as follows:
I………………F nat
The situation types discussed above are considered by Smith (1991) as basic-level
categorizations. She will also distinguish more complex types called derived situation types
Semelfactives are [- stative], [- durative], in the sense that they are instantaneous or
and shifted situation types.
momentary (the initial point coincides with the final point) and [- telic]. Examples of
semelfactives are [sneeze] [cough] [tap].The semelfactive schema is as follows:
Derived situation types
Derived situation types are more complex than basic-level situation types. Smith
I
considers generic and habituals as derived situation types in the sense that although the basic
F
constellation may be of any type they have the value of a stative. Examples:
Semelfactive situation types are made up of the verbs that Leech (1971) calls ‘momentary’,
Tigers eat meat. (generic)
i.e. hiccough, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap. ‘These verbs refer to happenings so momentary
My cat eats meat. (habitual)
that it is difficult to think of them as having duration’.
The derived situation types are: generic and habituals, multiple-event sentences (e.g. He was
Achievements 4 are [- stative], [- durative], i.e. instantaneous, and [+ telic], e.g.: [reach
coughing all night and the construction called the perfect. Generic and habituals have the
the top], [win a race], [break a glass], [leave], [recognize somebody]. They consist of a single
status of statives since they refer to a pattern of events or states and not to a single event.
stage, which involves a change of state. If somebody wins a race he becomes the winner.
Multiple-event sentences are considered activities and the perfect is considered a stative.
They may have preliminary stages and they may have resultant stages. Their representation is
as follows:
They have complex internal structures. They are called derived because they derive
……..…I (R)……
from other situation types. Each derived situation type has an internal structure which
F
consists of basic-level situations.
Achievement situation types are made up of verbs that Leech’s (1971) calls ‘transitional
Shifted situation types
event verbs’ (arrive, die, fall, land, leave, lose).
Shifted situation types contain the so called aspectual verbs such as begin, start, go
on, continue, finish, etc.
The following table sums up what has been said so far about eventualities or situation types:
VIEWPOINT
Smith (1991) advocates a view of aspect in which she distinguishes two independent
aspectual components, or tiers as it were, situation type and viewpoint. The previous section
3
The translation for the word accomplishment is ‘realización’. was a discussion of situation types. We now turn to viewpoint. The forms that specify each
4
The translation for the word achievement is ‘logro’. aspectual component, i.e. the situation type and the viewpoint, coexist in every sentence.

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 the race or not Another type of marked imperfective is the imperfective resultant (e.g. The
To understand the notion of viewpoint one must think of it as if it were a camera lens, which picture is hanging on the wall). Here the imperfective focuses the resultant stages of a
focuses or makes ‘visible’ either the whole or part of a situation. Smith distinguishes three previous event and the sentence has the value of a state).
basic viewpoints: the perfective viewpoint, the imperfective viewpoint and the neutral.
The neutral viewpoint is a kind of default viewpoint for aspectually vague sentences, i.e.
The perfective viewpoint presents the temporal schema of a situation type in its entirety. It sentences that can have two interpretations. The neutral viewpoint makes visible the initial
presents the situation as a single whole. It spans the entire temporal schema, providing a full point and at least one internal stage of the situation. The general schema for the neutral is:
view of it. The event is presented as closed. Its span includes both endpoints of the event, the
initial point and the final point. Since Smith is trying to provide a universal account of aspect, I.
she provides the following general temporal schema for the perfective:
There is no neutral viewpoint in English. I will anyway provide an example from French for
I F two reasons: first, I want to present the complete proposal; secondly, I find the contrast with
//////////////////// English enlightening.

The following sentences differ in situation type but are similar in viewpoint since they are all Jean chantera quand Marie entrera dans le bureau.
perfective: Jean will sing Fut when Marie will enter Fut the office.

John walked in the park. (activity) In the context of a when-clause the Futur of the main clause has two interpretations. One
They built a house. (accomplishment) interpretation is ‘Jean will start singing at the time of Marie’s entrance’. The other
He coughed. (semelfactive) interpretation is ‘Jean will already be singing at the time of Marie’s entrance’. The first
He won the race. (achievement) interpretation is closed because it expresses inception. The second interpretation is open. In
English there are no aspectually vague sentences so the main clause would not be aspectually
The events are presented as terminated in the case of activities and semelfactives and as vague. We have to resort to two different translations: the use of the verb start or the simple
finished or complete in the case of accomplishments and achievements. Notice that I haven’t future for the closed reading and the use of the progressive for the open reading.
included states. The general schema given above represents the unmarked perfective
viewpoint and as such it does not apply to stative situations because endpoints do not appear Jean will start singing/ will sing when Marie enters the office.
in their temporal schema. It does not apply either to the construction that Smith calls ‘the Jean will be singing when Marie enters the office.
perfect’. Stative situation types and the construction that she calls the perfect will be treated
by her as marked (or parametrized) perfectives. To sum up, in the unmarked cases the perfective viewpoint includes both endpoints of a
situation, the imperfective neither the initial point nor the final point and the neutral makes
The imperfective viewpoint spans only part of the event, providing a partial view of it. It visible the initial point and at least one internal stage of the situation.
focuses on the internal stages of the situation type, including neither the initial point nor the
final point of the event. This type of imperfective viewpoint is called progressive. In MOOD AND MODALITY
opposition to the perfective, the imperfective/progressive presents situations as open. The Grammarians make a distinction between mood and modality. Mood is a grammatical term, a
general temporal schema for the imperfective/progressive is the following: grammatical category, it is one of the inflectional categories of the verb, it is language
specific. Modality, on the other hand, is a semantic term, a universal notion, and it can be
I…////////////////…F expressed not only through the choice of a particular mood but also lexically. The relation
between mood and modality is thus like that between tense and time.
The following sentences differ in situation type but are similar in viewpoint since they are
both imperfective/progressive: Modality can be defined as the attitude of the speaker and/or the subject of the sentence with
respect to the event.
John was walking in the park when….(activity)
They were building a house when…(accomplishment) For the time being, we will distinguish two types of modality: cognitive (or intellectual)
modality and volitive (or emotional) modality. Cognition has to do with what we know or do
The general schema given above represents the unmarked imperfective/progressive viewpoint not know, with what we expect or do not expect. Volition has to do with emotions and
and as such it does not apply to achievements and to semelfactives because they are feelings, with what we like or do not like, with what we want or do not want, e.g.:
instantaneous events that do not have internal stages. Achievements may be used in the
imperfective/progressive (e.g. He was winning the race. I was leaving the building). This is I go to a party and I meet a very nice-looking boy. He asks for my telephone number and says
considered by Smith a marked use of the imperfective progressive, since the use of this that he will phone me on Monday at around 10 p.m. On Monday at 9.55 p.m. I ask my sister
viewpoint focuses the preliminary stages. Nothing is asserted with respect to whether he won please not to use the phone. "I'm expecting a phone call" I say. Expect expresses cognition on

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my part (the speaker's part in this case). The paraphrase would be "I know/think that the boy I Cognition: Meanings: possibility, probability, necessity, predictability.
like will phone". My sister asks me about the boy. I tell her I really like him. "I hope he
phones", I add. Hope expresses volitive modality, again on the speaker's part. It has to do He may come tomorrow. (factual possibility)
with emotions. Notice that these two verbs which express two different notions translate into [It is possible that he comes tomorrow.]
Spanish as espero (Espero una llamada. vs. Espero que llame.)
He must be in his study. The lights are on. (logical necessity) ("Given the evidence,
As it was stated above, modality can be manifested or expressed: there can be no other conclusion".)

(1) grammatically, i.e. through the choice of a particular mood (remember that mood is one By now he will be eating dinner. (predictability, the speaker makes a "forecast about
of the inflectional categories of the verb) or the present" concerning an event not directly observable.)

(2) lexically, i.e. through the use of different lexical items (i.e. modal auxiliaries, modality Volition: Meanings: willingness, intention, promise, obligation, permission, prohibition,
verbs, modality adjectives, modality adverbs, modality nouns and modality prepositional determination, insistence.
phrases).
I will go to the dance, and no one shall stop me. (insistence, strong volition)
(1) Grammatical manifestation of modality:
Who will lend me a cigarette? I will. (willingness, weak volition)
1) The indicative mood, which is used to make statements of fact, expresses cognition, e.g.:
You shall obey my orders. (insistence, strong volition on the part of the speaker)
John came yesterday.
2) Through the use of modality verbs:
2) The interrogative mood (usually called interrogative "form") is a manifestation of
cognition combined with volition since the underlying semantic structure contains the verb Cognition: know, think, believe, doubt, agree, expect, forget, remember, look like, seems, etc.
know and the verb like, e.g.:
Volition: want, like, hate, love, hope, feel like, please, offer, bless, curse, etc.
Did John come yesterday?
[I'd like to know whether John came yesterday.] 3) Through the use of modality adjectives:

I ask because I want (volition) to know (cognition) something. Cognition: sure, certain, clear, possible, probable, necessary, dubious, bound, etc.

3) The subjunctive mood expresses cognition when it is hypothetical or unreal in meaning, Volition: eager, happy, willing, afraid, glad, sad, sorry, fond, good, evil, awful, friendly,
e.g.: precious, beautiful, etc.

If I were rich, I would buy you anything you wanted. 4) Through the use of modality adverbs:
I wish the journey were over.
Cognition: perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly, clearly, obviously, necessarily, apparently,
But it can also express volition, e.g.: etc.

God save the Queen! ["May God save the Queen."] Volition: fortunately, happily, luckily, willingly, eagerly, anxiously, etc.

The subjunctive expresses here the speaker's wish. 5) Through the use of modality nouns:

4) The imperative mood expresses volition, e.g.: Cognition: certainty, knowledge, possibility, probability, likelihood, etc.

Come tomorrow, please. ["I want you to come tomorrow."] Volition: love, hatred, sadness, fear, rubbish, determination, willingness, etc.

(2) Lexical manifestations of modality: 6) Through the use of prepositional phrases that express modality:

1) Through the use of modal auxiliaries: Cognition: in all certainty, to my surprise, by chance, etc.
Volition: to my horror, to my regret, in anger, in despair, etc.

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 Grammar I Graciela Palacio
REFERENCES: LV/JVG 2012 (Revised 2015)
Bach, E. (1986) ‘The Algebra of Events’. Linguistics and Philosophy, 9.1. 5-16.
Comrie, B. (1985) Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. LESSON 45
Leech, G. (1971) Meaning and the English Verb. Longman. MULTI-WORD VERBS
Smith, C. (1991) The Parameter of Aspect. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tenny, C. and Pustejovsky, J. (eds) (2000) Events as Grammatical Objects. CSLI The main category of multi-word verbs consists of such combinations as drink up, dispose of,
Publications and get away with, which we will study under the headings of Phrasal Verb, Prepositional
Vendler, Z. (1967) Linguistics and Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Verb and Phrasal-Prepositional Verb respectively.

PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal verbs are made up of a verb + an adverbial particle. There are two types:

(1) Type I or intransitive phrasal verbs and

(2) Type II or transitive phrasal verbs

(1) Type I or intransitive phrasal verbs:

The plane has just touched down.

He is playing around.
I hope you'll get by.
How are you getting on?
The plane has now taken off.
Did he catch on? [= "understand"]
The prisoner finally broke down.
She turned up unexpectedly.
When will they give in? [= "surrender"]
The tank blew up. [= "explode"]
One of my papers has gone astray.
The news made him reel back.
The two girls have fallen out. [= "quarrelled"]

The particle usually cannot be separated from its lexical verb, e.g.:

*She turned right up at last.

*The news made him reel distractedly back.

(2) Type II or transitive phrasal verbs:

We will set up a new unit.

Shall I put away the dishes?
Find out if they are coming.
She's bringing up two children.
Someone turned on the light.
They have called off the strike.
He can't live down his past.
I can't make out what he means.

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 We pressed home 1 our advantage. Sam gave away his last chance to make his reputation as an actor.
She looked up her friends.
I've handed in my registration. The adverb particle is normally stressed:
They may have blown up the bridge.
Candidates should give in all papers before 12.30. [= “hand in”] She switched on the light.
The light was switched on.
Some combinations, such as give in or blow up, can be either intransitive or transitive. In
some cases, e.g.: give in, there is a substantial difference in meaning: PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
A prepositional verb consists of a lexical verb followed by a preposition with which it is
When will they give in? [= “surrender”] semantically and/or syntactically associated. The preposition, as is to be expected, is
Candidates should give in all papers before 12.30. [= “hand in”] followed by its complement:

and in others, e.g.: blow up, there is not. The transitive phrasal verb includes the meaning Look at these pictures.
causative and has an agentive subject, the causer or instigator of the action: I don't care for Jane's parties.
We must go into the problem.
The tank blew up. [= “explode”] Can you cope with the work?
They may have blown up the bridge. [They may have caused the bridge to blow up.] I approve of their action.
Our representative will call on you in the course of the next week.
With most transitive phrasal verbs the particle can either precede or follow the
complement/direct object when the complement/direct object is a determiner phrase: There are two possible analyses for a sentence with a prepositional verb. If we take the
following example:
They switched on the light.
They switched the light on. Our representative called on Mr. Brown yesterday.

They called up the dean. we can say that call is an intransitive verb followed by a complement of some kind. The noun
They called the dean up. phrase Mr. Brown is the complement of the preposition on and not the direct object of call
on, e.g.:
She took off her jacket.
She took her jacket off. S
Our representative called on Mr. Brown yesterday.
When the complement is a personal pronoun, however, the particle must always follow the IV C (PP) AAT (TN)
complement:
Why should this be so? First, there are good reasons for arguing that there is a phrase
They switched it on. boundary between the verb and the preposition:
* They switched on it.
(a) The preposition can be separated from the verb. The whole prepositional phrase may be
They called him up. fronted, for example in questions and in relative clauses:
*They called up him.
On whom did he call?
She took it off. The man on whom he called was Mr. Brown.
*She took off it.
(b) An adverb can be inserted between the verb and the preposition:
The particle tends to precede the complement if the latter is long (end-weight principle) or if
the intention is that it should receive end-focus, e.g.: He called unexpectedly on Mr. Brown.

(c) The prepositional phrase can be isolated in other constructions; e.g. (optionally) in
1
responses, in coordinate constructions, or in comparative constructions:
Press home an/one's advantage: use well, exploit, an opportunity or advantage (cf. Spanish:
aprovecharse (todo lo posible) de una situación (ventajosa)), e.g.: She was rather more A: On whom did he call? or Who(m) did he call on?
concerned with her appearance than with the strong-room key, so he pressed home his B: (On) Mr. Brown.
advantage and took the key.

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 1) The adverbial particle of a phrasal verb can stand either before or after the determiner
Did he call on Mr. Brown or (on) Mr. Blake? phrase following the verb, but the preposition of the prepositional verb must precede the
He called on Mr. Brown. determiner phrase:

He calls on Mr. Brown more often than on Mr. Blake. Prepositional Verb Phrasal Verb
He called on Mr. Brown. They called up the dean.
The other alternative analysis is to consider the verb and the preposition as a unit and the *He called Mr. Brown on. They called the dean up.
determiner phrase as the complement/direct object:
2) When the determiner phrase following the verb is a personal pronoun, the pronoun
S precedes the adverbial particle in the case of a phrasal verb, but follows the preposition in the
Our representative called on Mr. Brown yesterday. case of a prepositional verb:
T Prep V C/ DO (NP) AAT (TN)
Prepositional Verb Phrasal Verb
This analysis highlights the resemblance between He called on Mr. Brown and He visited Mr. They called on him. They called him up.
Brown. The verb and the preposition form a "semantic unit", a "natural predicate", because *They called him on. *They called up him.
they can be paraphrased by a single verb. Another criterion favouring the SVO analysis is
that the prepositional complement can be turned into the subject of a passive sentence: 3) An adverb (functioning as adjunct) can often be inserted between verb and preposition in
the case of prepositional verbs, but not in the case of phrasal verbs:
Mr. Brown was called on yesterday.
Prepositional Verb Phrasal Verb
This construction, which leaves the preposition stranded or deferred in its post-verbal They called angrily on Mr. Brown. *They called angrily up the dean.
position, will be called the prepositional passive, e.g.:
4) The particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede a relative pronoun at the beginning of a
Nothing was agreed on by the committee. relative clause:
The information was asked for by the Dean.
He can be depended on for sound advice. Prepositional Verb Phrasal Verb
John was shouted at by his mother. the man on whom they called *the man up whom they called
He must be talked to by someone.
5) Similarly, the particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede the interrogative word at the
The word preposition comes from Latin (praepositio) and means "put before". A preposition beginning of a wh-question:
must always precede its complement so there is no possibility of placing it after the
determiner phrase: Prepositional Verb Phrasal Verb
On which man did they call? *Up which man did they call?
She called on Mr. Brown.
*She called Mr. Brown on.
6) The adverbial particle of a phrasal verb is normally stressed, and in final position normally
bears the nuclear tone, whereas the preposition of a prepositional verb is normally unstressed
She came by a fortune.
and has the "tail" of the nuclear tone which falls on the lexical verb:
*She came a fortune by.
Prepositional Verb Phrasal Verb
The stress normally occurs on the lexical verb:
Which man did they CALL on? Which man did they call UP?
He called on Mr. Brown.
Mr. Brown was called on. PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made up of a verb + an adverbial particle + a preposition:
Transitive Phrasal Verbs vs Prepositional Verbs
The question here is how to distinguish two superficially like constructions, that of a We are all looking forward to your party on Saturday.
prepositional verb like call on in He called on Mr. Brown, and that of a Type II or transitive He had to put up with a lot of teasing at school.
phrasal verb such as call up in He called up the dean. The differences are both syntactic and Why don't you look in on Mrs. Johnson on your way back?
phonological: He thinks he can get away with everything.

A common sign of idiomatic status here is the existence of a one-word paraphrase:

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put up with: "tolerate"
look in on: "visit"

The prepositional passive with such verbs is not too common, and is liable to sound
cumbersome. Examples such as the following, however, are normal and acceptable:

These tantrums could not be put up with any longer. ("tolerated")

The death penalty has been recently done away with. ("abolished")
Such problems must be squarely faced up to. ("confronted")
They were looked down on by their neighbours. ("despised")

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