CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

The atomic number of carbon is 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It requires, 4 electrons to achieve the inert gas electronic configuration. But
carbon cannot form an ionic bond, it forms covalent bond due to the following reasons

It could gain four electrons forming C4- cation. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons.

It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cations. But it requires a large amount of energy to remove four electrons.

Thus, carbon overcomes this problem by sharing of its valence electrons with other carbon atoms or with atoms of other elements.

Covalent Bond

The bond formed by mutual sharing of electron pairs between two atoms in a molecule is known as Covalent Bond.

Types of Covalent Bond:

 Single Covalent Bond: When a single pair of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule. For example; F 2, Cl2, H2 etc.
 Double Covalent Bond: When two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule. For example; O 2, CO2 etc.
 Triple Covalent Bond: When three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule. For example; N 2 etc.
Electron Dot Structure: The electron dot structures provides a picture of bonding in molecules in terms of the shared pairs of electrons and octet
rule.

Formation of Hydrogen Molecule

Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1

Formation of CH4 Molecule

Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1
Formation of CO2 Molecule
Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Oxygen = 8 [2, 6]
Number of valence electrons = 6

Formation of H2S Molecule

Atomic number of Sulphur = 16 [2, 8, 6]
Number of valence electrons = 6

Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy: The phenomenon in which the element exists in two or more different physical states with similar chemical properties are called
Allotropy.

Carbon has Three Main Allotropes

 Diamond: In this, carbon, an atom is bonded to four other atoms of carbon forming three-dimensional structures. It is the hardest
substance and an insulator. It is used for drilling rocks and cutting. It is also used for making jewellery.
 Graphite: In this, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. It is a good conductor of electricity and used as a lubricant.
 Buckminster Fullerene: It is an allotrope of the carbon-containing cluster of 60 carbon atoms joined together to form spherical
molecules. It is dark solid at room temperature.
 Versatile Nature of Carbon: The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is due to the following nature of carbon,
 Catenation
 Tetravalent nature.
(i) Catenation: The self linking property of an element mainly carbon atom through covalent bonds to form long straight, branched and rings of
different sizes are called Catenation.
This property is due to

 The small size of the carbon atom.

 The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple) with itself and with the atoms of other elements.
Straight Chain

Branched Chain
Rings

(ii) Tetravalent Nature: Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or some other heteroatoms with
single covalent bond as well as double or triple bond.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.

For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), Ethyne (C2H2) etc.
Saturated Hydrocarbon (Alkanes): General formula is CnH2n+2.
n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the carbon atoms are connected by only a single bond.
For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6) etc.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes: General formula is CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the two carbon atoms are connected by double bond.

Alkynes: General formula is CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms. In this, the two carbon atoms are connected by triple bond.

Electron Dot Structure of Hydrocarbons

Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formula and properties are known as Isomers and this
phenomenon is known as Isomerism.
Structural Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are called Structural isomers. Example: Isomers
of butane (C4H10)

Homologous Series: Series of organic compounds having the same functional group and chemical properties and successive members
differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass units are known as Homologous series.

Homologous series of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes

Characteristic of Homologous Series

 The successive members in homologous series differ by CH2 unit or 14 mass unit.
 Members of given homologous series have the same functional group.
 All the members of homologous series shows similar chemical properties.
Functional Group: An atom or group of atoms present in a molecule which largely determines its chemical properties are called Functional
Group.
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds: It is difficult to remember millions of compounds by their individual common name. Thus, to
systematize the nomenclature of organic compounds IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has given certain rule which is
as follows:
1. Identify the Number of Carbon Atoms in the Compound (WORD ROOT)

S. No Number of Carbon Atoms Word Root (-) (Suffix) Single bond

1. One carbon atoms (1-C) Meth + ane

2. Two carbon atoms (2-C) Eth + ane

3. Three carbon atoms (3-C) Prop + ane

4. Four carbon atoms (4-C) But + ane

5. Five carbon atoms (5-C) Pent + ane

6. Six carbon atoms (6-C) Hex + ane

2. Identify the functional group

S. No. Functional Group Prefix Suffix

1. Double bond (=) — ene

2. Triple bond (≡) — yne

3. Chlorine (—Cl) Chloro —

4. Bromine (—Br) Bromo —

5. Alcohol (-OH) — ol

6. Aldehyde (-CHO) — al

7. Ketone (-CO-) — one

8. Carboxylic acid (-COOH) — oic acid

3. Name the Compound = Prefix + Word Root + Suffix

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds: The important chemical properties are as follows:
1. Combustion: The complete combustion of carbon compounds in the air gives carbon dioxide water, heat and light.
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Heat and light

Carbon burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and heat and light.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat and light

Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame in the presence of a sufficient supply of air or oxygen.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat and light

In presence of limited supply of air, saturated hydrocarbon forms a sooty flame.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow smoky flame.

2. Oxidation: Oxidation of ethanol in presence of oxidizing agents gives ethanoic acid.

Oxidizing Agent: Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others, are known as Oxidising Agent.
Example: Alkaline KMnO4 (or KMnO4—KOH)
Acidified K2Cr2O7 (or K2Cr2O7—H2SO4)
KMnO4 – Potassium permanganate
K2Cr2O7 – Potassium dichromate

3. Addition Reaction: Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence of catalysts such as nickel or platinum or palladium
are known as Hydrogenation (addition) reaction.

Catalyst: Substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceeds to different rate without consuming in it are called a catalyst. For example; Ni, Pt,
Pd, etc.

Process of converting vegetable oil into solid fat (vegetable ghee) is called Hydrogenation of Oil.

Vegetable oil containing unsaturated fatty acids are good for health.

4. Substitution Reaction: Replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of an organic molecule by another atom or group of the atom is known as
Substitution Reaction.

Some Important Carbon Compounds :

Ethanol (CH3CH2—OH): Commonly known as Ethyl Alcohol.
Physical Properties

 It is colourless, inflammable liquid.

 It is miscible with water in all proportions.
 It has no effect on the litmus paper.
Chemical Properties

 Reaction with sodium

  Reaction with concentrated H2SO4 (Dehydration Reaction)

Dehydrating agent: Substances which removes water from ethanol (alcohols) is known as Dehydrating agent. For example; Cone. H 2SO4.
Uses: As solvent, as antiseptic (tincture iodine), as anti-freeze in automobiles.

Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH): Commonly known as Acetic acid. 5-8% of ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar. The melting point of pure
ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence, it often freezes in cold climate so named as glacial acetic acid.

Physical Properties

 It is a colourless, pungent-smelling liquid.

 Miscible with water in all proportions.
 Turns blue litmus to red.
Chemical Properties
(i) Esterification Reaction: Reaction of ethanoic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a few drops of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst gives a sweet-
smelling substance known as Esters, called Esterification reaction.

Esters are used in making perfumes and flavouring agents.

Saponification Reaction: Reaction of esters with sodium hydroxide, gives alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid (soap). This reaction is
known as Saponification Reaction.

(ii) Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonates and sodium hydrogen carbonates to
give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

 Used as vinegar.
 Used as raw material for the preparation of acetyl chloride and esters.
Soap: Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids is called Soap.
General formula: RCOO–Na+

Detergent: Ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids are called Detergent.
Example: CH3—(CH2)11—C6H4—SO3Na.
Hard and Soft Water: Water that does not produce lather with soap readily is called Hard water and which produces lather with soap is called
Soft Water.
Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphate salt of calcium and magnesium.

Difference between soaps and detergents

Soaps Detergents

(i) These are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. (i) These are ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids.

(ii) Ionic part of the soap is —COO–Na+ (ii) Ionic part of detergent is —OSO3-Na+.

(iii) Their efficiency decreases in hard water (iii) Their efficiency is unaffected in hard water.

(iv) Soaps are biodegradable. (iv) Detergents are non-biodegradable.

Advantage of Detergents: The main advantage of detergent over soaps is that soaps cannot be used in hard water for washing because hard
water reacts with soap to form curdy white precipitate called Scum.

Thus, in hard water, soap does not give lather while detergent does.

Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: Both soaps and detergents cantains two parts. A long hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water
repelling) in nature and a short ionic part which is hydrophillic (water attracting) in nature.
The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule links itself to the oily (dirt) drop and ionic end orients itself towards water and forms a spherical
structure called micelles. The soap micelles helps in dissolving the dirt in water and wash our clothes.
When the surface of the cloth is mechanically scrubbed or beaten on a stone or with a wooden paddle or agitated in a washing machine, the
loosened oily particle is removed from the dirty surface and the cloth is cleaned. Detergents lower the surface tension of water to a greater extent
than soap, therefore the cleansing action of detergent is much higher than those of soaps.

The cleansing action of detergent is considered to be more effective than a soap.

Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: The cleansing action of soaps and detergents follows the same principle.

When soap or detergent is dissolved in water, the molecules gather together as clusters, called micelles. The tails stick inwards and the heads
outwards.
In cleansing, the hydrocarbon tail attaches itself to oily dirt. When water is agitated, the oily dirt tends to lift off from the dirty surface and
dissociates into fragments. This gives an opportunity to other tails to stick to oil. The solution now contains small globules of oil surrounded by
detergent molecules. The negatively charged heads present in water prevent the small globules from coming together and form aggregates. Thus,
the oily dirt is removed from the object.

Scum: The insoluble precipitates formed by soap molecule when they react with calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water. Due to this,
a lot of soap gets wasted and cleansing action gets reduced to a larger extent.